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“Sarah sine, SiSKeane, G es
 7.
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Acknowledgements
Cover &p1 richcarey/iStock, pp 10-11 Caroline Vancoillie /Shutterstock, p 12 STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/Alamy, pp 16-17 Jubal Harshaw/
Shutterstock, p 18 TinyDevil/Shutterstock, p 19 Ed Reschke/Getty, p 20 Dimarion/Shutterstock, p 21 Melba Photo Agency/Alamy, p 24
Dr. Richard Kessel & Dr. Gene Shih/Getty Images, p 26 Dr. Stanley Flegler, Visuals Unlimited/Science Photo Library, p 27 Andrew Lambert
Photography/Science Photo Library, p 29 Picsfive/Shutterstock, p 31 David Cook/BlueShiftStudios/Alamy, p 33 PHOTOTAKE Inc./Alamy,
pp 36-37 LAGUNA DESIGN/Science Photo Library, p 40 Martin Shields/Alamy , p 41 ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/Science Photo Library,
p 41 MARTYN F. CHILLMAID/Science Photo Library, p 42 ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/Science Photo Library, pp 46-47 dinsor/
Shutterstock, p 48 mimaginephotography/Shutterstock, p 54 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, pp 58-59 Anest/Shutterstock, p 60
MarcelClemens/Shutterstock, p 63 SciencePhotos/Alamy, p 66 Triff/Shutterstock, p 67 Dr Keith Wheeler/Science Photo Library, p 69 Nigel
Cattlin /Alamy, p 69 Nigel Cattlin/Science Photo Library, pp 74-75 Angel Andrews/Shutterstock, p 76 FRANS LANTING, MINT IMAGES/Science
Photo Library, p 78 HLPhoto/Shutterstock, p 80 Cate Turton/Department for International Development, pp 94-95 Artens/Shutterstock, p 96
Stocktrek Images, Inc./Alamy, p 98 D. Kucharski K. Kucharska/Shutterstock, p 98 Zastolskiy Victor/Shutterstock, p 98 Biophoto Associates/
Science Photo Library, p 98 Dr Keith Wheeler/Science Photo Library, p 99 Nigel Cattlin/Alamy, p 100 Adam Hart-Davis/Science Photo Library,
p 100 Nigel Cattlin, Visuals Unlimited/Science Photo Library, p 104 Alain Pol, ISM/Science Photo Library, p 106 Yiargo/Shutterstock, p 107
LeventeGyori/Shutterstock, p 107 Beerkoff/Shutterstock, p 115 National Cancer Institute/Science Photo Library, p 119 You Touch Pix of EuToch/
Shutterstock, pp 122-123 Liya Graphics/Shutterstock, p 124 Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock, p 126 Science Photo Library / Alamy, p 132 Blend
Images/ER Productions Ltd/Getty Images, p 134 Nickolay Vinokurov/Shutterstock, p 138 Fdimeo/Shutterstock, pp 140-141 R. BICK, B.
POINDEXTER, UT MEDICAL SCHOOL/Science Photo Library, p 142 MARK CLARKE/Science Photo Library, p 144 Anest/Shutterstock, pp 150-151
Volodymyr Martyniuk/Shutterstock, p 152 Phototake Inc./Alamy, p 153 Nemeziya/Shutterstock, p 153 Oksix/Shutterstock, p 156 Glyn/
Shutterstock, p 156 Dr Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library, p 157 Piyato/Shutterstock, p 158 Wildlife GMBH/Alamy, p 159 Phototake Inc./
Alamy, p 159 Medical-on-Line/Alamy, p 159 Tim Gainey/Alamy, p 160 D. Virtser/Shutterstock, p 161 Pi-Lens/Shutterstock, p 162 Perry
Mastrovito/Getty Images, p 166 Fracis Leroy, Biocosmos/Science Photo Library, p 167 Nic Cleave Photography/Alamy, p 170 Galyna Andrushko/
Shutterstock, p 172-173 vovan/Shutterstock, p 174 Colin Pickett/Alamy, p 176 Anan Kaewkhammul/Shutterstock, p 179 David Hancock/
Shutterstock, p 180 Frans Lanting Studio/Alamy, p 185 Peter Gudella/Shutterstock, p 185 Master135/Shutterstock, pp 188-189 lvan_Sabo/
Shutterstock, p 190 Jacques Jangoux/Science Photo Library, p 191 Jame Mcllroy/Shutterstock, p 192 JPL/NASA, p 195 Earth Observations
Laboratory, Johnson Space Center/NASA, p 197 Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech, pp 202-203 Denis Vrublevski/Shutterstock, p 204 MIKE
HOLLINGSHEAD/Science Photo Library, p 204 Achim Baque/Shutterstock, p 208 cobalt88/Shutterstock, p 209 Lightspring/Shutterstock, p 213
Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library, p 214 haveseen/Shutterstock, p 215 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, p 216
Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, p 217 Eldar nurkovic/Shutterstock, p 222 FikMik/Shutterstock, p 226 MrJafari/Shutterstock, p 228 Ho
Philip/Shutterstock, p 229 David Parker & Julian Baum/Science Photo Library, p 234 Smit/Shutterstock, p 237 Blaz Kure/Shutterstock, p 238
jordache/Shutterstock, p 239 travis manley/Shutterstock, p 239 Marc Dietrich/Shutterstock, p 242 Voronin76/Shutterstock, p 250 Martyn F.
Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, p 255 ggw/Shutterstock, p 257 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, p 260 PHOTOTAKE Inc./
Alamy, pp 264-265 Galyna Andrushko/Shutterstock, p 266 Maximilian Stock Ltd/Science Photo Library, p 275 badahos/Shutterstock, p 283
lakov Kalinin/Shutterstock, p 283 john t. fowler/Alamy, p 286 Anna Baburkina/Shutterstock, p 296 dgmata/Shutterstock, p 296 Ken Brown/
iStockphoto, p 300 Cyril Hou/Shutterstock, p 303 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, p 307 Blaz Kure/Shutterstock, p 307 Andrew
Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, p 309 Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library, p 310 jcwait/Shutterstock, p 315 Johann
Helgason/Shutterstock, p 316 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, p 319 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo
Library, pp 324-325 Piotr Zajc/Shutterstock, p 326 Shebeko/Shutterstock, p 333 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, p 334
Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library, p 336 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, p 337 design56/Shutterstock, p 340
Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, p 348 Slaven/Shutterstock, p 353 Centrill Media/Shutterstock, p 355 Ehrman
Photographic/Shutterstock, p 356 Feraru Nicolae/Shutterstock, p 358 Lawrence Migdale/Science Photo Library, p 358 Richard treptow/Science
Photo Library, p 358 Julia Reschke/Shutterstock, p 362 kilukilu/Shutterstock, p 363 Fokin Oleg/Shutterstock, p 363 Parmna/Shutterstock, p 363
Holly Kuchera/Shutterstock, p 363 Danicek/Shutterstock, p 365 David_Monniaux/Wikimedia Commons, p 369 Romas_Photo/Shutterstock,
p 370 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, p 371 Jackiso/Shutterstock, p 373 Nando Machado/Shutterstock, p 375 muzsy/Shutterstock,
p 376 Prixel Creative/Shutterstock, pp 382-383 Photobank gallery/Shutterstock, p 384 Paul Rapson/Science Photo Library, p 384 BESTWEB/
Shutterstock, p 390 Dawid Zagorski/Shutterstock, p 394 Yvan/Shutterstock, p 395 speedpix/Alamy, p 396 ggw/Shutterstock, p 397 Joe Gough/
Shutterstock, p 400 Gwoeii/Shutterstock, p 403 JoLin/Shutterstock, pp 406-407 Camellia/Shutterstock, p 408 Rob kemp/Shutterstock, p 409
Hung Chung Chih/Shutterstock, p 413 wavebreakmedia Itd/Shutterstock, p 426 Dorling Kindersley/Getty, p 429 Andrea Danti/Shutterstock,
p 430 Michal Vitek/Shutterstock, p 433 Jerritt Clark/Springer/Getty Images, p 434 Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library, p 436 EcoPrint/
Shutterstock, p 438 National Geographic Creative / Alamy Stock Photo, p 439 Kirk Geisler/Shutterstock, p 441 Michael Wesemann/Shutterstock,
p 442 Martyn F, Chillmaid/Science Photo Library, p 451 Marcel Jancovic/Shutterstock, p 451 DenisNata/Shutterstock, pp 456-457 Hung Chung
Chih/Shutterstock, p 458 ZoranOrcik/Shutterstock, p 460 3Dsculptor/Shutterstock, p 462 clearlens/Shutterstock, p 462 Adrian Hughes/
Shutterstock ,p 463 chatchai/Shutterstock, p 463 sizov/Shutterstock, p 473 Petr Malyshev, p 477 SkyLynx, p 479 Zoia Kostina/Shutterstock,
p 480 Rido/Shutterstock, p 481 Peteri/Shutterstock, p 482 Ocean Power Delivery/Science Photo Library, pp 486-487 Katrina Leigh/Shutterstock,
p 488 jele/Shutterstock, p 489 Alan Freed/Shutterstock, p 489 Geoffrey Kuchera/Shutterstock ,p 491 Mike Blanchard/Shutterstock, p 497
Natursports/Shutterstock, p 497 jan kranendonk/Shutterstock, p 498 Dmitry Berkut/Shutterstock, p 504 Alexandra Lande/Shutterstock, p 507
Ulrich Mueller/Shutterstock, p 514 Vixit/Shutterstock, pp 518-519 Willyam Bradberry/Shutterstock, p 520 Jacob Wackerhausen, p 528 Aija
Lehtonen/Shutterstock, p 529 Payless Images/Shutterstock, p 534 Nagy-Bagoly Arpad/Shutterstock, p 538 All-stock-photos/Shutterstock, p 539
Fedorov Oleksiy/Shutterstock, p 539 Darren Pullman/Shutterstock, p 541 Dario Sabljak/Shutterstock, p 547 Igor Klimov/Shutterstock, p 548
Losevsky Photo and Video/Shutterstock, p 549 NYTECH Corp, 03/WikiMedia Commons, pp 556-557 littlesam/Shutterstock, p 558 Tomasz
Szymanski/Shutterstock, p 561 Nir Levy/Shutterstock, p 562 Andrew Howe/istockphoto, p 562 Jnaz Photography/Shutterstock, p 564 Flegere/
Shutterstock, p 569 ra2studio/Shutterstock, p 374 Richard Wareham Fotographie/Alamy, pp 578-579 Yevhen Tamavski/Shutterstock, p 580 Bart
Coenders/istockphoto, p 584 GIPhotoStock/Science Photo Library, p 585 Joshua Haviv/Shutterstock, p 592 Champiofoto/Shutterstock, p 597
Alex Kuzovlev/Shutterstock, p 598 Photoseeker/Shutterstock, p 609 Jose Luis Calvo/Shutterstock, p 657 Jim Lopes/Shutterstock, p 666
Ed Phillips/Shutterstock
 Contents

Getting the best from the DOOK......sssssssssssssesesen 06 ection 9

Coordination and response..........000 140
s a) Hormones 1 DUMGMNS ccceresarces ccccesseatcecarcecceet 142
Biology b) TrOpic reSPONSCSiacacesscstccrerst eareecere144
tencassecre

Section 1
Characteristics ofliving organisms......10 section 10
Characteristics of living OrganisMs -ssssssssseeseee 12 REPFOCUCTION soovre-cesstererseterrcecoresctartine 150
a) Asexual and sexual reproduction... 153
F b) Sexual reproduction in plants «0... esses 154

CellsRA ah, Rishi ee 16 ¢) Sexual reproduction in AUMANS -nncmnen 163

Za) CONS EU CLUS Co iccccscecccoveccuvonelecerneteceascosstacusestenepee
carte19
b) Movement in and out of CelIS..... ee seseeneenee
%6 Section 11
rane and thelr environmen tmnt

Saction 3 Organisms and their EnvirOnMenNt.....s.-ceeeeee 174

Biological MOLECUIES .......s.ssssesseseeseseeseeenes 36
Biological Molecules. cctecc.ccsssssseccessscsestcceecasuce 38
Human influences on ecosystems..... 188
ached Human influences ON ECOSYSTEMS ...eseceseceeeee 190

1744 is eee ee 46

é Chemistry
EINZ Nie Sieteeteersperiasbadetessacucoretecauserosyseevarecacaceees 48 .

: ene th ; Section 1
Plant nutrition...............6.. Shea epedustecvernnaeeaane 58 Principles of chemistry gt ON deyper ee 202

icine MULTEOM lnsscestseccecesnetuecesecdoncucececs

teessteeees 60 a) The particulate nature of Matter ccc 204
b) Experimental technique .......c.cccccsecsesecsesseseeees Pls
Section 6 c) Atoms, elements and compound..............0+ 222.
PWR) TRUE MION esses crextoncevesziesedantaesenstnerens 74 @) lons.and ionic bonds tenes ee 234
BIDIe tae tae te eee BM ie Ae rd 2 Te e) Molecules and covalent bond ........ceseeseeseeees 242
DAlIMentaly Caldl meee ne matt cae acc, 82 fEStOICINOMIGUY secencectecteete
eet eames 250
rol OTC
SS ate)«Pea NG WEL re he Nate ae Pe 85

Secon? Physical: chemistryvicencencaaus 264

belt Usrisrreserneeeisreetacerircceascseereritestorires 94 a) Electricity ANd CHEMISEIY ...cccccccscssssssssssssssseeeeeees 266
a) Teansportiin plants as meme cke atte aera 97 b) Chemical emergetics ecscniiccetsctecccs.tcrbssceecteant 275
DyMranisporcin MaminalS....ceet et ee 104 C) Rate Of eaetionees.teccccetccrme sn eee 286
Cl) REdOXGEACHONS cscescdccset stent ee 300
Cochans e) Acids, bases-and salts... oe 303
Gas exchange and respiration secs. 122 f) Identification of IONS ANd GASES... B15
a)
- AAS OX CN ANC Cites spe ease tse ee 125
z
uu
=
b) Respiration tsa cate eee 133
2
°
U
Section 3 Section 4
Inorganic ChemMistry...........ccccscsscessscesceesss 324 Properties of waves, including
ajinePeriodic lables ane 326 light ANd SOUNA............sscscsscescecseeseeseeeees 518
D) Group elements. 2.0 eee SO: 333 A) General WaVE Prope rtieS........cseeecseecssecsseeesseeees 520
C) Group Mitelementsae mes sere 340 2) SIPSLG ncn elerondc nee lr a oe a eR 528
d) Transition metals and noble gases .........00 348 C) Electromagnetic SP@CtrUM .....cceccseccseecseeeseeeee 538
SIV Cal Swe reetcr ts.c.yins eee 1558) CG) SOU nae we toeereree. 2 lt bes otrretiee, 547
TJEATIZAanClWAC se .cc-...c.a, 0 near men, 2369

Section 4 Electrical QUANTITIES wesssesnssenreenreenseees 556

Organic ChemMistry...........cssssecsscssensenceess 382 a)iBlectrignhargen.tit)....1 ied adt.ke.the. ame 558
EVI RUIG Denes ageecrenretctamns
oer aetna swee Rew 384 b) Current, potential difference and
DON KOMCSa ee ee oe Chee Te 394 electromotive force (C.F) ......ccccccccecesesseeseseeee 564
CWAIKCDCS rtp tone cont Retna tik an 400 c), Résistances Sees
ae ee ee See 569

Section 6
Physics BIE CHIC CHCUNS js cssereiscednaessertncttcainntier 578
a) GireultidiaCranismeesememeneen meee nae 580
Section 1 b) Series and parallel Circuits ou... esesseeseseeseeees 584
PMOL oeeecee atv esatsers treet seteunep Sones vlcesncesoeos 406 C) Electrical energy Sect ce ete 592
A MCCMGChica HCLUG eccentric ee Acrsctersscarce 408 d) Dangers Of ClectniCity 2 icccceccssccscesecaccsosctecessrseet poy,
DVL OU Ol rttrecrerccee yrs a eter ernccoitccs lone 413
GHIVIASS ANIC Wiel Obitmeetertecs
reece creteosten cette 426
Doing well in examination.................. 602
Ch) ELV SEY eee a recreate ese scbsec scenes est snscouncattanvotte 429
IMU OCUCTION tt cement ete en ee602
SEITOCLS Ol (ONCeS metre renee ances encase 436
OVERVICWie. fiction ee en ee ain. 602
TIRKESSUTCmmerene nee tee ccc tre nee ft names 451
Assessment objectives and weightings............ 602
Examination techniques.......... eeercereins 603
Section 2 AIS WEHIING GUCSUIOMS meee ccscctereterecccrestorece
aes 604
Work, energy and POowe........r.sseseeseee 456 EXAM St VIG UCSLIONS © ...0-...c
ce teen ee 606
ZB) NAO (acess ssennn remarry ieee ei ean ieee rd 458
DENETG yet seria. ree rere eee 462 Developing experimental skills.......... 665
CROW: ee ee ener: 473
IHC UGel O akeenetee resets
cers.sekad acess 665
G)-EMErGy TeSOUN CES a.20.-er eres teeter esernistnorties 477 Using and Organising Techniques,
Appatatulls amd Materials eccrcr-..c-.-nszcccrnecterceeeesies 665
Observing, Measuring and Recording.............. 667
Section 3
Handling Experimental Observations
TRIENNIAL PHYSICS .c..creccercescorestorsersesosnieovses 486 AUVs) allt see tater ree EE Soe cacs sacsennesoreccsees 670
a) Simple kinetic molecular model of matter......488 Planning and Evaluating Investigatione........... 673
b) Matter and thermal properties ..........eee 497
CHINE TIM alIDLO CESSES imeecrr sr ipcecresecstess-cncsssonnsectee 504
Periodic Table of element ..............-s-sssscssesereeenes 680
GOSS AT Yeeros vcseonneousaccosecevsons 681
PAINS WCU teecterer starrer ernest setetatnccttsrats ss<cesvocesaousnetesesbesases 693
NGS es Sereee sence eaten sc a ae OS 714

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 Getting the best from the book
Welcome to Collins Cambridge IGCSE Combined Science.

This textbook has been designed to help you understand all of the
requirements of the Cambridge [GCSE Combined Science course.

SAFETY IN THE SCIENCE LESSON

This book is a textbook, not a laboratory or practical manual. As such,
you should not interpret any information in this book that relates to
practical work as including comprehensive safety instructions. Your
teachers will provide full guidance for practical work and cover rules
that are specific to your school.

A brief introduction to the section to give

context to the science covered.

The section contents The world's tallest known living tree, which has been named
Hyperion, is a coast redwood tree growing in Northern California in
S hows t he sepa rate the US. When it was measured in 2006 it was found to be 115.61m
i tall (379.3 ft).Like allplants, from the smallest seedling to the tallest
to p Ics to be stu d ied redwood giant, Hyperion makes its own food from three simple
t h: h ingredients, sunlight, water and carbon dioxide. This process is
mM In {
known as photosynthesis and is one of
the features of plants that Pl
atc g t € distinguish them from animals.
ant nu ig on
syllabus order.
Plant nutrition

Lu
U
2
~
G
wn
aLu
“=
[es]
=
fe)
U
 * Excretion; This is the removal from the body of substances that are
Characteristics of toxic (poisonous) and may damage cells if they stay in the body |
Organisms also excrete substances that are in excess, where there is
living organisms more in the body than is needed
* Nutrition; This is the absorption of nutrients into the body, The
INTRODUCTION nutrients are the raw materials needed by the cells to release energy
Sometimes it is easy to tell when something and to make more cells for growth, development and repair
dies — an animal will stop moving around, a All these characteristics will be described in greater detail in later
plant may wilt and all the green parts Topics in this book,
Knowledge check collapse. But does a tee die in winter when
its leaves have dropped off? Are animals REMI CHEMICR ERE Croneinonicteinens
shows the ideas you ‘dead! when they hibernate underground for Z
should have already months? As technology gets increasingly
sophistica
ophisticated, andand wewe can
ean create mé
create machine oS
+ Respiration is an example of a chemical reaction
F
+ Aswith all chemical reactions, ideas about particles will make it easier
encountered in | AareFig.the1.1toughest
Tiny tardigrades (about 1mm long)
organisms known, They can
with ‘brains’ and new organisms from basic to understand what changes are taking place.
survive temperatures below -200°C, 10 days molecules, distinguishing between living and + Many processes in living things need particles to move about (for
previous work before | without
in the vacuum of space and over 10 years
water!
dead could get even more difficult. We need
a set of vules’ that work for most organisms,
example, the circulation of blood or osmosis in cells) so particle ideas
are helpful in describing or explaining how this works. |
starting the topic. most of the time
PHYSICS — PROPERTIES OF WAVES
~_ KNOWLEDGE CHECK 3 + In sensing their environment, many living things use the refraction of
¥ Living organisms show ayange ofcharacteristics that distinguish
hthem from dead or light through a lens to form an image.
non-living material,
¥ The life processes are supported by the cells tissues, organs and systems of the body. + The vibrations of sound waves are used for hearing. Different
frequencies and amplitudes of sound waves produce the variety
LEARNING OBJECTIVES of sounds living things can sense.
7 List and define the seven characteristics of living organisms
Learning objectives 7 Describe each of the characteristics of living organisms,
7 Explain that no al ving raarismsshow every characters al ofthe tie
cover what you need L- iraceach citieecentherace tickgive one Sanne for
to learn in this topic. | CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
‘There are seven life processes that most living organisms will show at
a) ahuman
= some time during their life b) an animal of your choice
26
© Movement: Animals may move their entire body so that it changes c) a plant
8 position or place
5 2. For each of the seven characteristics, explain why they are
* Respiration: This is a series of chemical re: ions inside living cells essential to a living organism.
5 that break down nutrient molecules and release energy.
* Sensitivity: Living organisms are able to de (or sense) and An easy Way to remember all seven processes is to take the first letter from
respond to changes in the environment around them, For example each process, This spells Mrs Gren. Alternatively you may wish to make up
we see, hear and respond to touch. a sentence in which each word begins with same letter as one of the
<= * Growth: This is the permanent increase in ze of an organism processes, for example: My Revision System Gets Really Entertaining Now.
< * Reproduction: This includes the pri s that result in making,
more individuals of that kind of organism, s uch as making gametes CHARACTERISTICS
ORGANISMS
LIVING
OF
and the fertilisation of those gametes

Science Link boxes help you to deepen your

understanding of the connections between the
different sciences. It is not necessary for you to learn ae
the content of these boxes as they do not form part of ens.
the syllabus. However, they will help you to spot and
understand the links between the different sciences
and develop your scientific thinking skills.

re aee x a Sis = ane = — aa - oe a = Soe eee j 3

magnesium + » cone oxide > napcnnae + copper “QUESTIONS ;
Mats) + —Cu0(s) + Culs) 2 ee = ie ae - | z
2 ee ete eS 1. Will copper react with| dilute Aydcoatlonte acidtoBrradtee i x :
i| This reaction is an exampleofF aredox reaction. ; The magnesium has been hydrogen?
Eee Explain your answer, 7 ’ i i aeees eh
| oxidised to magnesium oxide and the copper(I!) oxide has been reduced 2. EXTENDED Write a balanced equation for the reaction of | } a :
| to copper. Because the magnesium is responsible for the reduction of the potassium with water. | 4 pas ;
copper(I!) oxide, it is acting as a reducing agent. Similarly, the copper(I!) 3. Can carbon displace magnesium from magnesium oxide? Explain
oxide is responsible for the oxidation of the magnesium, so it is acting as your answer.
an oxidising agent. In a redox reaction, the reducing agent is al
4. EXTENDED Write the balanced equation for the reaction }
oxidised and the oxidising agent is always reduced. between magnesium and lead(I!) oxide. | i
What will happen if copper is heated with magnesium oxide? Nothing oe <= a i poe ere = |
happens, because copper is lower in the reactivity series than magnesium. : |
Developing investigative skills. Examples of
Using displacement reactions to establish
a reactivity series Astudentwas asked to.carry out some possible disptata ment reactich
(She, oe Sainplesoffour metals’A) B,C and. and 4 soluiich ol each of
investigations :
| Displacement reactions of metals and their compounds in aqueous sf fuibe reactions as summarised
solution can be used to work out the order in the reactivity series. are included with re
| In the same way that a more reactive clement can push a less reactive
element out of a compound, a more reactive metal ion in aqueous questions matched
solution can displace a less reactive one.
ample, if you add zinc to copper(I) sulfate solution, the zine to the investigative paar:
ices the copper because zinc is more reactive than copper. When
the experiment is carried out, the blue colour of the copper(II) ion will
fade as copper is produced and zine ions are made:
skills you will need
zinc + rut anannicien zinc sulfatesolution + copper
to learn. mes
depth ‘ofan of fie <ohinbei‘and Wen added a sniall piece of ans of the metals.
Zn(s)_ + Cura)+S0;eq) > _2n(aq)+S04) + Culs) She Jeft tie tubes for10 minutes and then examined:the solution ond the piece
sof metal to see ifany seactioniwes evident; She then
displacement reaction haditaker pla 4'3 Ho Whereino reaction
we
| To build up a whole reactivity series, a set of reactions can be tried to
see if metals can displace other metal ions. By following the general She'didn' have timeto record her results ferthe metal D nitrate solution: tubes:
1G, 14and 32, ; OOK
rule that a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal it is
possible to establish the reactivity series. Using and organising techniques, apparatus
andmaterials "||
ao
| For example, you may have seen the reaction of copper wire with silver O Why didn'tthe stodentset up the tubes represented by the white rectangles?
lu
| nitrate solution. As the reaction proceeds, a shiny grey precipitate @ Ever thoughthestudent didn't record her results forme nitrate Maal ; x=
| appears (this is silver) and the solution begins to turn blue as Cu( Il) ‘explain why.stie would stiltibe'able.to put is metals’ in de
| fons are Bonen from the copper.
ee ES a “Interpreting observations ané data a
3 copper + silvernitrate —> copper({i) nitrate + silver res fo.putthe (our metalsin orderofteactluty, Srartwith themost|
Oo.
ra
s Culs) + 2AGNO,(aq) > Cu(NO)\(aq) + 2Ag(s) reactive metal, h eigataaes
7 — ee ‘©Gomiplete the yesults you would expat forthethree reaction: Aland 12,
al a é @ Write ahalancedequation: forthe displacement reaction berWeen metalB
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 Getting the best from the book continued

The larger the alkane molecule, the more the energy ts released on
HOW COMMON ARE ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS?
combustion. This is because although more bonds must be broken
in the first stage of the reaction, more bonds are formedinthe
econd staype Almost all chemical reactions in which simple ee
Molar enthalpy compounds or elements react to make new
Alkane compounds are exothermic. One exception is the
of ¢ mbustion
(kJ/mol) formation of nitrogen oxide (NO) from nitrogen
and oxygen. Overall, energy is needed to create
“Methane a this compound, with less energy being released
Fthane cu on forming bonds than was needed to break the
Propane CH bonds of the reactants. Nitrogen oxide Is often
formed in lightning storms The lightning
Butane on) provides enough eneray to split the nitrogen and
Pentane cit oxygen molecules before the atoms combine to
Hexane Gi, form nitrogen oxide
4 Table 2.1Molar enthalpy of combustion
of alkane N.(g) + 0,(g) > 2NO(g) AHpositive Fig. 2.15 These plants avemaking food by
photosynthess, an endothermic reactron
Another exception is photosynthesis. Plants use
forming new bonds ts energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide
Iman exothermic reaction, the energy celes and water into glucose and oxygen:
greater than that needed to break the old bonds.
Remember boxes Tn an endotherm reaction, more energy ts needed to break the old
bonds than is released when new bonds are formed. The energy 6CO,(g) + 6,011) = C,H,,0,{aq) + 60,(g) AH positive
es in endothermic reactions are us ally relatively seal
provide tips and ‘Cold pi cks; which you can buy In some countri
can be used to help you keep cool. Usually you
guidance to help ORETERN : have to bend a pack to break a partition inside
and allow two substances to mix. The pack will
then stay cold for an hour or longer, However, it
you during your QUESTIONS
may not be an endothermic reaction that is
working in the cold pack. Dissalving chemicals
course and to TW hetioes na HanlonAy dleata toute ance? like urea or ammonium nitrate in water also
cause the temperatureofwater to fall, but
EXTENDED Is energy needed or released when bonds are broken? dissolving is a physical change, not a chemical
h el p yo U p re pa re 3, EXTENDED In an endothermic reaction is more or less energy change. Whether it is an endothermic reaction or
needed to break the ald bonds than |s recovered when new bonds not is the manufacturer's secret
for examination. are formed?

A Fig. 2.16 A coldpack

Science in context boxes put the ideas

you are learning into real-life context. It
is not necessary for you to learn the
content of these boxes as they do not
form part of the syllabus. However,
they do provide interesting examples of
scientific application that are designed
to enhance your understanding.

ERENSEN eee
During electrolysis electrical charge is transferred as follows: At the cathode (negative electrode), the lead ions accept electrons to
Clearly differentiated
# negative ions move to the anode and give up electrons
@ the electrons travel through the anode and round the circuit in the
form lead atoms
Extended material.
connecting wires to the cathode Pbi*(I) + 2e- — Phil)
the electrons reaching the cathode are taken up by positive ions

At the anode (positive electrode), the bromide ions give up electrons to

form bromine atoms, and then bromine molecules
2Br(\) > Br,(q) + 2e-
1, What is meant by the term electrolysis?
2. What is the name given to the positive electrode? — =
3. What two conditions must exist for a substance to be an
electrolyte and allow an electric current to pass through it?
E>)

PHYSICS - ELECTRIC CIRCUITS brown vapour (bromine) a [ — carbon electrodes

‘s i
+ The rules for electric circuits — there must be a complete circuit, o silvery solid (lead)
there must be an energy source, there must be mobile charge
carriers (‘charged particles’) - apply both to circuits involving heat
electrolysis and to circuits with bulbs and batteries.
* The charge carriers may be different -ions in molten materials or in
solutions, compared with electrons in wires =but the measurements 4 Fig. 2.4 Flectrolysis of molten lead(t bromide.
of electric current and potential difference are defined in exactly
the
same way. Note: the oo equations above are known as half-equations. Unlike
normal chemical equations, they do not show the whole chemical
ton formation through the gain or loss of electrons Is another idea change —just the change occurring at an electrode. In the half
that is Common to both areas. equations above, you will see that the numbersofelectrons accepted
and released are the same. The electric current is produced by this flow
of electrons around the external cireuit
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN LEAD(II) BROMIDE
When a 1 electric current passes through an electrolyte, new "END OF EXTENDED |
substances are formed. The xamples below show how you can work
out what products will form
ELECTROLYSIS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION
Lead(I)) bromide (PbBr,) is ionieally bonded and contains Pb** ions
and Br ions. When the solid is melted and a voltage is applied, the When concentrated sodium chloride solution is eleetrolysed, hydrogen
Wu
U ions are able to move. The positive lead ions move to the negative ions (from the water solvent) form hydrogen molecules at the cathode
and chloride ions form chlorine molecules at the anode

2
electrode (the cathode), and the negative bromide ions move to the
positive electrode (the anode). The electrodes are usually made of This experiment can be performed using a cell as shown in Fig, 2.2
Again, inert carbon electrodes are used
=
carbon, which is inert. This means they do not undergo any chemical
change during the electrolysis. The productsofthe electrolysis ai
own =
lead and bromine. Silvery depositsoflead form near the bottom
dish, and brown bromine vapour near the anode
ofthe

ai
=
a
= Questions to check
e) your understanding.
U
 End of topic questions allow
you to apply the knowledge
and understanding you have
learned in the topic to answer
the questions.

End of topic checklist End of topic questions

A full checklist of all
Key terms Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
the information you combustion, fossil fuel, global warming, greenhouse effect, greenhouse gas,
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given fo questions like these may
be different
need to cover the renewable energy, rusting, thermal decomposition, water cycle 1. This question is about the composition of a sample of clean air.

a) What is the proportion of oxygen? (7 mack)

complete syllabus During your study ofthis topic you should have learned: y RISE uo ay
4 f Shaw toldeceicenn Necereene rf ; b) What is the propartion of carbon dioxide? (1 mark)
jlescribe chemical tests for identifying the presence of water using
req U |re mM e nts or cobalt(!!) chloride and copper(ti) sulfate. 2. a) What could you use to detect the presence of water? {1 mark)

each to p (Ke, ) How to describe in outline the treatment of the water supply in terms of filtration b) What would you observe if water was present? (2 marks) }
and chlorination, 3. This question is about the greenhouse effect
) That clean air is approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen with the remainder a) What js the greenhouse effect? {2 marks)
made up of a mixture of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide.
b) Name two greenhouse gases, (2 marks)
‘) That the common pollutants in the air are sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.
c) Apart from an increase in greenhouse gases, what else could be causing
) About the adverse effects of the common pollutants on buildings and health. global warming? (mark)

) About the conditions required for the rusting of iron (presence of oxygen 4. Carbon dioxide can be prepared using the reaction between calcium carbonate
and water). and dilute hydrochloric acid.

) How to describe methods of rust protection, including using paint and other a) How can the gas be collected in this reaction? (1 mark)
coatings to exclude oxygel).
Write a balanced equation for the reaction. (2 marks)
) How to describe the formation of carbon dioxide from: 5. Carbon dioxide can be made by the thermal decomposition of copper(Il) carbonate.
the complete combustion of carbon-containing substances a) What does thermal decomposition mean? {2 marks)
thi 1c fr t Set
saree eh lita b) EXTENDED Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (2 marks}
the reactions between an acid and a carbonate
@ the thermal decomposition ofacarbonate.

) That carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases and may contribute to
climate change.

) EXTENDED How to explain how increased concentrations of greenhouse gases

cause an enhanced greenhouse effect, which may contribute to climate change.

HENSISTRY

INORGANIC WATER
AND
AWK

Exam-style questions to help you prepare

for your exam in a focused way and help
you get the best results.

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Sample student answers take care to read the carefully and answer each ‘ "
question carefully and 1 point required. The human body detects infrared radiation
P : re as heat.
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7 —— — the different ways to The second part of the Th signa franv thy remote: 4 not strong
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 w-de-we know if something isalive? Biology is the study of life
and biologists have identified around 1.74 million living species on
Earth, not including bacteria. Over 320 000 of these species are
- classified as plants, and around 1.36 million species are classified
as animals. In order to decide whether something is living or
non-living biologists have agreed on a number of traits, like
growth, reproduction and nutrition, that all living things must
share. Each new species identified demonstrate all of these traits.
This means that even a bacteria and a whale have these
characteristics in Common.

SECTION CONTENTS
Characteristics of living organisms
 = A Many sp ecies of differen
No sae pre
SRD
SS ae Se
 & Characteristics of
| living organisms
INTRODUCTION
Sometimes it is easy to tell when something
dies — an animal will stop moving around, a
plant may wilt and all the green parts
collapse. But does a tree die in winter when
its leaves have dropped off? Are animals
‘dead’ when they hibernate underground for
months? As technology gets increasingly
sophisticated, and we can create machines
with ‘brains’ and new organisms from basic
A Fig. 1.1 Tiny tardigrades (about 1mm long)
are the toughest organisms known. They can molecules, distinguishing between living and
survive temperatures below —200°C, 10 days “er
ce CeCe Pes Oe UNE dead could get even more difficult. We need
Uv alcl a set of ‘rules’ that work for most organisms,
most of the time.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
any, Living organisms show a range of characteristics that distinguish them from dead or
non-living material.
Vv The life processes are supported by the cells, tissues, organs and systems of the body.
—

LEARNING OBJECTIVES —
VY List and define the seven characteristics of living organisms.
VY Describe each of the characteristics of living organisms.
VY Explain that not all living organisms show every characteristic all of the time.
L Set Re = 2 ee at = =

Ww
=
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
wa
=
There are seven life processes that most living organisms will show at
<q
i) some time during their life.
co
oO ¢ Movement: Animals may move their entire body so that it changes
©
= position or place.
ra
weed ¢ Respiration: This is a series of chemical reactions inside living cells
ve
O that break down nutrient molecules and release energy.
a)
== ¢ Sensitivity: Living organisms are able to detect (or sense) and
“a respond to changes in the environment around them. For example,
oc
tuted)
- we see, hear and respond to touch.
¢ Growth: This is the permanent increase in size of an organism.
U
x
ce
<<
mie
¢ Reproduction: This includes the processes that result in making
UW
more individuals of that kind of organism, such as making gametes
and the fertilisation of those gametes.
e Excretion: This is the removal from the body of substances that are
toxic (poisonous) and may damage cells if they stay in the body.
Organisms also excrete substances that are in excess, where there is
more in the body than is needed.
¢ Nutrition: This is the absorption of nutrients into the body. The
nutrients are the raw materials needed by the cells to release energy
and to make more cells for growth, development and repair.
All these characteristics will be described in greater detail in later
‘Topics in this book.

SCIENCE
trae CHEMISTRY - CHEMICAL REACTIONS, PARTICLE IDEAS

Respiration is an example of achemical reaction.

As with all chemical reactions, ideas about particles will make it easier
to understand what changes are taking place.
Many processes in living things need particles to move about (for
example, the circulation of blood or osmosis in cells) so particle ideas
are helpful in describing or explaining how this works.

PHYSICS - PROPERTIES OF WAVES

* Insensing their environment, many living things use the refraction of
light through a lens to form an image.
« The vibrations of sound waves are used for hearing. Different
frequencies and amplitudes of sound waves produce the variety
of sounds living things can sense.

QUESTIONS
1. For each of the seven characteristics, give one example for:
a) a human
b) an animal of your choice
c) a plant.
2. For each of the seven characteristics, explain why they are
essential to a living organism.

An easy way to remember all seven processes is to take the first letter from
each process. This spells Mrs Gren. Alternatively you may wish to make up
a sentence in which each word begins with same letter as one of the
processes, for example: My Revision System Gets Really Entertaining Now.
ORGA
CHAR
LIVIN
OF
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
excess, growth, movement, nutrition, reproduction, respiration, sensitivity

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to describe the seven characteristics of life: movement, respiration,
sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition.

CHARACTERISTICS
OF
LIVING
ORGANISMS
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. Name and describe the seven processes of life. (7 marks)
2. Name two life processes necessary for an organism to release energy. — (2 marks)

3. Plants cannot move about, as animals can. Does that mean animals are
more alive than plants? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
4. During winter, an oak tree in the UK will lose its leaves and not grow. Is the
tree still living during this time? Explain your answer using all the
characteristics of life. (4 marks)

ORGA
LIVI
OF
CHAR
 -Multicellular organisms are made up of different cell types that
each have
oe about specific job to do. The human body is made up of
200 adifferent cell types, ranging from muscle and fat cells,
to blood, skin and nerve cells.
- All‘complex’ cells (those that contain a nucleus) in all animals,
plants and protoctista on Earth have the same basic structure.
Scientists say that this is because we have all evolved from a single
complex cell. This first complex cell evolved from a simple bacteria-
like cell (without a nucleus) more than 1600 million years ago. This.
is the origin ofall the millions of different species of plants, animals
and protoctista that live on Earth today.
All cells need to exchange molecules such as water, oxygen and
carbon dioxide with their environment. Cells need to transport
molecules into the cell for use in metabolic processes and need to
transport out the waste molecules they make. _
All living organisms need to be able to transport water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide and other molecules around their bodies.
For simple organisms such as bacteria, the distances travelled are
very small, but more complex animals and plants have evolved
highly specialised transport mechanisms to get vital substances
from one part of the organism to another. If all the blood vessels in
the human body - including arteries, veins and capillaries —- were
laid end to end, they would stretch for about 60000 miles. That's
nearly 100000 km! S

SECTION CONTENTS
a) Cell structure
b) Movement in and out of cells
A A microscopic view of the leaf
surface of the Tradescantia plant
showing stomata.
ay
 Cells
INTRODUCTION
Bringing together similar activities that have
the same purpose can make things much
more efficient. For example, bringing teachers
and students together in a school helps more
students to learn more quickly than if each
teacher travelled to each student's home for
lessons. The same is true in the body. Having
groups of similar cells in the same place as a
tissue, and grouping tissues into organs, helps
the body carry out all the life processes much
A Fig. 2.1 The human body is made up of several more efficiently and SO Stay alive.
systems of grouped organs, including the
digestive system, the nervous system, the muscle/
skeletal system and the respiratory system.
ee = = = = ————————————

KNOWLEDGE CHECK — os
Y State that organisms are formed from many cells.
Y Describe how cells may be specialised in different ways to carry out different functions.
/ Define the terms tissue, organ and organ system.
VY Describe how the organisation of the body systems contributes to the seven life processes.
Y State that a microscope can be used to magnify specimens so we can see more detail.
VY Cells need oxygen and glucose for respiration.
_& Cells need to get rid of waste substances, such as carbon dioxide from respiration.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ome

¥ Describe and compare the structures in, plant and animal cells as seen under a
light microscope.
Y¥ Describe the function of each type of cell structure seen under the light microscope.
/Y EXTENDED Relate structure to function in a range of specialised cells.
VY Describe how to calculate the magnification of biological specimens seen under a microscope.
V Calculate the magnification and size of biological specimens using millimetres
as units.
V Define the term diffusion.
¥Y EXTENDED Define the term osmosis.
V Investigate and describe the effects on plant tissues of immersing them in solutions
of different concentrations.

CELLS
CEEESTRUGIURE
The diagrams below show a typical animal cell and typical plant cells.
These cells all have a nucleus and cytoplasm.

Animal cell Plant cells

Both animal cells and Only plant cells have:

plant cells have:

cell membrane cell wall

cytoplasm

large vacuole

nucleus chloroplasts

mitochondria

A Fig. 2.2 The basic structures of an animal cell (for example, liver cell) and plant cells
(for example, palisade mesophyll cells).

All living organisms are made of cells. Some, such as bacteria, protoctista
and some fungi, are formed from a single cell; others, such as the
majority of plants and animals, are multicellular, with a body made of
many cells. All animal and plant cells have certain features in common:
e a cell membrane surrounds the cell
¢ cytoplasm inside the cell, in which all the other structures are found
e a large nucleus.
A typical animal cell is a human liver cell.

cytoplasm

cell membrane

nucleus

* Lud
> es Ne Sig
a
M rad ke Re a wih Sth =
=
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A Fig. 2.3 Structures in animal cells seen using a light microscope. Note these =)
cc
=
cells have been stained to make some structures easier to see. Ww
=l
=
ud
U
 Plant cells also have features that
are not found in animal cells,
such as: nucleus

e a cell wall surrounding the

cell membrane
e a large central vacuole cell wall
e oreen chloroplasts found in
some, but not all, plant cells. chloroplast
(green)
A typical plant cell is a palisade
cell in the upper part of a leaf.

Functions of cell structures

Each structure in a cell has a
particular role.
A A Fig. 2.4 Structures in plant cells seen using a light microscope.
ell he cell membrane holds'the'cell Siler that iheven membrane snd tackcie tartans distinguish
together and controls substances in this image. The chloroplasts are supported by the cytoplasm.
entering and leaving the cell.
The cytoplasm supports many
small cell structures and is where many different chemical processes
happen. It contains water, and many solutes are dissolved in it.
The nucleus contains genetic material in the chromosomes. These
control how a cell grows and works. The nucleus also controls
cell division.
The plant cell wall is made of cellulose, which gives the cell extra
support and defines its shape.
e The plant vacuole contains cell sap. The vacuole is used for storage
of some materials, and to support the shape of the cell. If there is not
enough cell sap in the vacuole, the whole plant may wilt.
¢ Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs
the light energy that plants need to make food in the process known
as photosynthesis.

SCIENCE

ARTIFICIAL CELLS

Scientists have discovered so much about how the structures of cells

are formed and work together that they are starting to create artificial
cells. This has great potential for medicine, because these cells could
be used, for example, to deliver drugs inside the body directly to the
cells that need them. They could also be used in biotechnology, for
example, to make fuels that could replace fossil fuels.

w
al
—
Las
WU
 _ QUESTIONS —
1. a) Using the juan incctas 2.3;Niner aRearetar drawing of
one of the cells using a sharpened pencil to make clear lines.
b) Label your drawing to show the three key structures of an
| animal cell.
| 2. List three cell structures that are found in plant cells but not in
animal cells.
3. Name the part of a plant cell that does the following:
a) carries out photosynthesis
b) contains cell sap
c) stops the cellswelling if ittakes i
ina lot of water.

EXTENDED

Cell specialisation for function

Different types of cells carry out different jobs. Cells have special
features that allow them to carry out their job. This is called
specialisation. Good examples of specialised cells are:
e ciliated cells, red blood cells and sperm and egg cells in humans
e root hair cells and palisade mesophyll cells in flowering plants.

STEM CELLS

Every tissue in the human body contains a small number of

undifferentiated cells. These are called stem cells, and their role is to
divide and produce new differentiated cells within the tissue for
growth and repair. Scientists are investigating how stem cells could
be given to people to mend tissue that the body cannot mend, such
as the spinal cord after an accident in which it is cut. This would make
it possible for a person who is paralysed following an accident to
move their whole body again.

Ciliated cells
Cilia are tiny hair-like projections that cover the surfaces of certain
types of cells. Cilia can move and the cell can coordinate this
movement to produce waves that pass over the cell. These waves of
moving cilia can move liquid in particular directions.
“
—
—
uu
U
Ciliated epithelial cells in the lining of the mucus with trapped
: é : dust particles |
respiratory tract move a liquid called mucus. ciliated call |
Tiny particles of dust or bacteria that are direction mucus-
: f :
trapped in the mucus are carried along in this: of mucus
movement secreting
cea
flow and pass up the tubes. They are then
emptied, along with the mucus, into the
oesophagus, where they are swallowed and pass
into the stomach. In this way, the ciliated
epithelium keeps the lungs clean. Smoking
reduces the effectiveness of these cilia, which
explains why smokers often have a cough — they
cannot clear away the dirty mucus that collects
in their lungs.

Palisade mesophyll cells A Fig. 2.6 Secreting cells produce mucus

: ; that traps particles in the lungs. Cilia
Palisade mesophyll cells are plant cells found in Bicep the piicus outeimne luncs and
the upper part of a leaf. They have all the into the throat, where it is swallowed.
features of a plant cell (see Fig. 2.4) but contain
a large number of chloroplasts. This is because most photosynthesis
carried out by a plant happens in these cells (see more in Topic 5).

Red blood cells

Red
;
blood cells in mammals are unusual the cellis fullof
haemoglobin, there is
in that they do not have a nucleus and so no room for a nucleus
cannot divide. The whole of the cell is
filled with a chemical called
haemoglobin, which can pick up oxygen
in the lungs and release it near the cells
that need it deep inside the body. The
shape of the cell means that the
innermost part of the red blood cell is
never far away from the outside, so
Fie.
diffusion of oxygen in. and out happens the eeout en b eee
allows oxygen and carbon
very rapidly. Red blood cells are made in dioxide to pass freely
bone marrow and last only 120 days A Fig. 2.7 Red blood cells are specialised for carrying
before they are destroyed in the spleen oxygen.
and liver.

Human sex cells

The human sex cells (gametes — Topic 10) are the sperm cell and the
egg cell. Sperm cells and egg cells have particular forms that are
adapted to their roles in reproduction.

STR
CELL
 Sperm cells are relatively small compared with an egg cell. They have
very little cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus, because they carry out
few functions other than travelling to the egg cell for fertilisation.
There is a small vesicle of enzymes, called the acrosome, at the front
tip of the cell. The enzymes in the acrosome digest a hole in the egg
cell membrane. This allows the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the
egg cell and fuse with its nucleus. The mid piece of the sperm cell
contains many mitochondria. The mitochondria provide energy to move
the tail, which moves the sperm towards the egg cell.
The human egg cell is a very large cell and is almost visible without a
microscope. It cannot move on its own. The large amount of cytoplasm
around the nucleus provides nutrients for when the cell is fertilised and
starts to divide.
= =
acrosome ————__a™
containing Ps
enzymes

Why ; \ /
Yo many \ y
JE mitochondria x /
y ZL ~

Vy ae 5 Se i

\ nucleus
[ flagellum
\ large amount of
eS. cytoplasm containing jelly coat
food (energy stores)

A Fig. 2.8 Diagrams of a human sperm cell (left) and human egg cell (right). Note these are not
drawn to scale. The volume of an egg cell is hundreds of times bigger than the volume of a
sperm cell.

Root hair cells

In many plants, water and minerals are absorbed
from the soil by root hairs, which penetrate the
spaces between soil particles. These hairs are very
fine extensions of the root hair cells on the root
surface, just behind the growing tip of a root. The
elongated shape of the cells increases the surface
area available for absorption of water and dissolved
mineral ions. As they age, root hairs develop a
waterproof layer and become non-functional. New
root hairs are constantly growing as the root pushes
through the soil.

A Fig. 2.9 The root hair cells greatly

increase the surface area for absorption
2)
= near the tips of roots.
wd
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QUESTIONS
1. Where would you find the following cells and what do they do?
a) ciliated cells
b) red blood cells
c) root hair cells
2. Describe how the structures of sperm and egg cells are adapted
to their functions in reproduction.

END OF EXTENDED

Size of specimens
Many of the structures that we study in biology are
eyepiece
too small to be seen just using our eyes. We can use
magnifying glasses and microscopes to examine
details of plant and animal cells, and to take
pictures and draw the diagrams you see in this book.
But often we want to know the actual size of the ocane
specimen we are looking at. If we know the
magnification we are using to look at a specimen
then we can work out the size of a structure.
When using a microscope, the magnification of a
specimen is calculated from the eyepiece and the
objective used to view it.
e The magnification of an eyepiece for a light
microscope may be x4, x5 or x10. A Fig. 2.10 A light microscope.
e The magnification of an objective for a light
microscope may be x5, x10, x20 or x40.
The magnification of the specimen is the magnification of the eyepiece
multiplied by the magnification of the objective.

aria PHYSICS - PROPERTIES OF WAVES

Light microscopes make use of lenses and mirrors, so ideas about
reflection and refraction are important.
The magnification of a microscope is related to the refracting power
of the lenses, which in turn depends on their shape and the
pee)
refractive index of the glass. in
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 WORKED EXAMPLES
4. If the microscope is set up with the x5 eyepiece and x20 objective,
the magnification of a specimen viewed will be:
De e300

We can work out the size of a structure from the image size seen under
the microscope and the magnification used to view it.
ACA SILC observed size
. —femeeemim ee
wae
magnification
The observed size is measured using a scale, such as a graticule,
viewed through the microscope.
2. If the diameter of a cell observed under a microscope is 6mm, and
the magnification is x400, the actual diameter of the cell is:
| ee 0.015 mm.
400

QUESTIONS fo eee ee
1. You are looking at an object that measures 0.5mm and the
image you see is 10mm long. Your friend is looking at an object
that is 0.1mm long using the same magnification. What size of
image does your friend see?
2. Imagine you are examining a specimen of blood under a
microscope to look at red blood cells. Why might it be important
to know the magnification of the lens you are using?
_ 3. The image you are looking at is 2.5mm long and you are using a
magnification of 100. Write down the calculation you would use
to work out the actual size of the object.

MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS

If you put a red blood cell into pure water, it will
eventually burst open. If you place the red blood cell
into a salty solution instead, it will shrink. Surrounding
every cell is the cell membrane. Imagine the cell
membrane as a leaky layer that is strong enough to hold
all the contents in the cell together, but that allows
small particles to move through it. The cell membrane
also has special ‘gates’ that allow certain, important
particles through. Different cells have different kinds of
‘gate’ in them. So cell membranes play an essential role
in controlling what goes in and out of cells, and
therefore control the way that the cell functions.

CELES A Fig. 2.11 A red blood cell that has

been placed in a salty solution loses
water and shrinks.
 SCIENCE
irae CHEMISTRY - PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

- Particle ideas, particularly the properties offluids, are important in

describing and explaining how substances are able to move into and
out of cells. |
The movement of water molecules is particularly important and
particle ideas help explain how they can move through a semi-
permeable membrane while other molecules do not.

Diffusion
Substances such as water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and food are made of
particles (atoms, ions and molecules).
In liquids and gases the particles are constantly moving around. This
means that they eventually spread out evenly. For example, if you
dissolve sugar in a cup of water, even if you do not stir it, the sugar
molecules eventually spread throughout the liquid. This is because all
the molecules are moving around, colliding with and bouncing off other
particles.

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The sugar molecules The sugar molecules are} |The sugar molecules
are concentrated spreading out because are now evenly
in one area. they are constantly spread out.
moving and colliding.

A Fig. 2.12 Diffusion of sugar molecules in a solution.

The sugar molecules have spread out from an area

of high concentration, when they were added to the
water, to an area of low concentration. Eventually, a

although all the particles are still moving, the sugar ia)
ol

molecules are evenly spread out and there is no

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area of lower concentration is there diffusion. a
_
A Fig. 2.13 Potassium permanganate(|l) diffuses
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Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a through a beaker of water as the solid crystal Lu
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region of their higher concentration to a region of dissolves. Lu
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their lower concentration. (2)
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 Diffusion can only occur when there is a difference in concentration
between two areas. Particles are said to move down their concentration
oradient. This happens because of the random movement of particles.

Diffusion in cells
Cells are surrounded by membranes. These membranes are leaky —
they let tiny particles pass through them. Large particles can't get
through, so cell membranes are said to be partially permeable.
Movement of particles across a cell membrane may happen more in one
direction than the other if there is a difference in concentration on either
side of the membrane (a concentration gradient). For example, in the
blood vessels in the lungs there is a low oxygen concentration inside the
red blood cells (because they have given up their oxygen to cells in other
parts of the body) and a high oxygen concentration in the alveoli of the
lungs. Therefore, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the red blood cells.
Other examples of diffusion include:
e carbon dioxide entering leaf cells
e digested food substances from the small intestine entering the blood.
Diffusion of some types of molecules and ions across the cell
membrane is a passive process. It needs no input of energy from
the cell.

air in and out

blood flow blood flow

red blood cells with

high oxygen
Ba concentration

} alveolus

high oxygen
) \ concentration

IN diffusion of

See
oxygen
red blood cells
with low oxygen
concentration Da x
i ye
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blood capillary

A Fig. 2.14 In blood vessels in the lungs, oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient from
the air in the lungs into red blood cells.

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 SCIENCE
IN
iz KIDNEY FAILURE AND HAEMODIALYSIS

The kidneys are organs that depend on filtration and diffusion to

produce urine and keep the concentration of many substances in the
blood at a fairly constant level. People who suffer from kidney failure
are unable to do this, and are very quickly at risk from the build-up of
waste products, such as urea, in the body as a result of cell processes.
In high concentrations these waste products can damage body cells
and lead to death.

<1 Fig. 2.15 A patient undergoing kidney

dialysis.

Haemodialysis is an artificial way of cleaning the blood by which

substances diffuse out of the blood into dialysis fluid in a machine
called a dialyser. The concentration of substances in the dialysis fluid
has to be correct, so that all the waste products are removed and
other substances are returned to the body at the right concentration.

“QUESTIONS
1. In your own words, define the terms net movement and
diffusion.
2. Explain why some particles can diffuse through cell membranes
but not others.
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Osmosis La
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Water molecules are small enough to diffuse through partially -
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permeable membranes, such as cell membranes. However, because (e)
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water molecules are so important to cells, and may be diffusing in a re
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different direction to other molecules, this kind of diffusion has a =
special name — osmosis. Like diffusion, osmosis is a passive process
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and is a result of the random movement of particles.

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 EXTENDED

| Water molecules diffuse from a place where there is a high

. .
|

| concentration of water molecules (such as a dilute sucrose sugar

solution) to where there is a low concentration of water molecules
| (such as a concentrated sucrose sugar solution).
Osmosis is the diffusion (net movement) of water molecules from a
region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower
concentration through a partially permeable membrane.

Concentrations in solutions
Many people confuse the concentration of the solution with the
concentration of the water. Remember, in osmosis it is the water
molecules that we are considering, so you must think of the
concentration of water molecules in the solution instead of the
~ concentration of solutes dissolved in it.
e A low concentration of dissolved solutes means a high concentration
of water molecules.
e A high concentration of dissolved solutes means a low concentration
of water molecules.
So, the water molecules are moving from a high concentration (of water
molecules) to a low concentration (of water molecules), even though this
is often described as water moving from a low-concentration solution to
a high-concentration solution.

| Water potential
The ability of a cell to draw water into itself is called its water
potential. Pure water has a water potential of zero. As solutes are
added to the water its water potential falls — it becomes more negative.
So, a concentrated sugar solution has a lower water potential (more
negative) than pure water.
When two regions of different water potential are separated by a
partially permeable membrane, water moves from the region of higher
water potential to lower water potential. Water molecules move down
the water potential gradient.

END OF EXTENDED

Osmosis in plant cells

If a cell is placed in a solution that has a higher concentration of solute
(and so a lower concentration of water molecules) than the cytoplasm
inside the cell, water will leave the cell by osmosis and the cytoplasm
| will shrink.
If a cell is placed in a solution that has a lower concentration of solute
(and so a higher concentration of water molecules) than the cytoplasm
CELLS
inside the cell, osmosis will result in water entering the cell.
Plant cells are surrounded by cell walls that are completely permeable.
This means water and solute molecules pass easily through them.

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water molecule 28 =o—> % sugar molecule |
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partially permeable membrane

A Fig. 2.16 Water molecules diffuse from an area of higher concentration (of water molecules) into
an area of lower concentration (of water molecules). This kind of diffusion is known as osmosis.

In a solution of high concentration of solute (low concentration of

water), water will leave a plant cell by osmosis. This can be seen in
plant cells as the cytoplasm shrinks inside the cell. However, the whole
cell doesn't shrink, because the plant cell wall controls the structure of
the cell. The plant as a whole will show wilting.
In a solution of low concentration of solute (high concentration of
water), water will enter the plant cell by osmosis. However, the plant
cell does not eventually burst. The strong cell wall provides strength |
when the cytoplasm is full of water, preventing the cell from expanding
any further and bursting. The pressure of water in the cytoplasm
against the cell wall also provides strength, making the plant stand |
upright with its leaves held out to catch the sunlight.

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enough to support the plant, and the plant collapses (wilts). When the cells are full of water, =>
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the plant stands upright.
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a sodium chloride solutions of different concentrations. After 10 minutes,
eo the strips looked as shown iin the diagram, (Note that the outer layer of a
_ dandelion stalk is‘waterproofed’ with a waxy layer to protect it from water
loss to the environment.) .

cut dandelion stalk

into sections and
then into strips

<1 Fig. 2.18 Investigating osmosis.

Devise and plan investigations

| @ Write a plan for an ana nalis0 ay out this investigation. Your plan
should include:
a) instructions on how to prepare the stem samples
b) instructions on how to keep the stem samples until the
experiment starts.

Make observations snd dieccurements

@ Using the diagram, describe the results of this investigation.

Analyse and interpret data

© Explain as fully as you can the results of this investigation.
@ Use the results to suggest the normal concentration of cell cytoplasm.
Explain your answer.
 SCIENCE
IN
ans STOMATA

Stomata (single: stoma) are the holes in the

surface of a leaf (usually the undersurface)
that allow air to move into and out ofthe leaf.
This provides the oxygen for respiring cells
and carbon dioxide for photosynthesising
cells, and allows water vapour that has
evaporated from cell surfaces inside the leaf
to diffuse out into the atmosphere.

Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells.

These control the opening and closing of the
stoma. Usually stomata are open during the
day and close at night. The stoma opens and
closes as the guard cells change shape.
During the day the guard cells gain water
from surrounding cells as a result of osmosis.
This makes the cells turgid and, because the
inner edge ofthe guard cell does not stretch, A Fig. 2.19 Each stoma is surrounded by two
the cells curve and create a space between guard cells.
them -— that is the stoma. During the night,
the guard cells lose water by osmosis. The cells lose their turgidity
and collapse a little, closing the stoma between them.

REMEMBER
You will need to explain diffusion and osmosis in terms of particles and
their concentration gradients. Be clear that, even when diffusion and
osmosis stop because there is no concentration gradient, the particles
in the solution continue to move — there is just no longer any net
movement.

QUESTIONS
1. EXTENDED In your own words, define the term osmosis.
2. Explain how osmosis is:
a) similar to diffusion
b) different from diffusion.
3. Describe the role of the plant cell wall in supporting a plant that
has been well watered.
CELLS
OUT
AND
IN
OF
MOVE
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
acrosome, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast, chromosome, cilia, ciliated cell,
concentration gradient, cytoplasm, diffusion, egg cell, magnification,
multicellular, net movement, nucleus, osmosis, partially permeable, passive,
photosynthesis, root hair cell, specialisation, sperm cell, vacuole, water potential
gradient

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to describe structures inside cells including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell
membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole.

(.) EXTENDED That the cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole
have specific roles in cells.

C) That plant and animal cells have some structures in common, but plants also have
cell walls, chloroplasts and large central vacuoles that animal cells do not have.

() How to calculate the magnification and size of biological specimens.

@ Themagnification of aspecimen seen under a microscope is the

magnification of the eyepiece multiplied by the magnification ofthe
objective used.

@ Thesize ofa structure seen under a microscope is the measured size divided
by the magnification.

() To define diffusion as the net movement of particles from a region of their higher
concentration to a region of their lower concentration, and as a passive process.

() That water diffuses through partially permeable membranes by osmosis.

(.) EXTENDED To define osmosis as the net movement of water molecules across
a partially permeable membrane from their higher concentration (a dilute
solution) to their lower concentration (a more concentrated solution), and is
a passive process.

) How to investigate and describe osmosis in plant tissues.

 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. Inthe examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. Describe the role of the following cell structures:
a) nucleus b) cell membrane c) cytoplasm. (3 marks)
2. Draw a table to compare the structures found in plant and animal cells. (12 marks)
3. Here are some examples of statements written by students. Each statement
contains an error. Identify the error and rewrite the statement so that it is correct.

a) Animal cells are surrounded by a cell wall that controls what enters and
leaves the cell. (1 mark)
b) All plant cells contain chloroplasts. (1 mark)
c) Both animal cells and plant cells contain a large central vacuole in the
middle of the cell. (1 mark)

4. Red blood cells are unusual because they contain no nucleus. When they are
damaged, they have to be replaced with new cells from the bone marrow.
Explain how this is different from other cells. (2 marks)

5. An old-fashioned way of killing slugs in the garden is to sprinkle salt on them.

This kills the slugs by drying them out. Explain why this works. (2 marks)
6. Copy and complete the table to compare diffusion and osmosis.
ae ee ae |
Diffusion Osmosis

Active or passive?
Which molecules
move? (4 marks)

7. Which of the following are examples of diffusion, osmosis or neither?

a) Carbon dioxide entering a leaf when it is photosynthesising. (1 mark)
b) Food entering your stomach when you swallow. (1 mark)
c) A dried-out piece of celery swelling up when placed in a bowl of water. (1 mark)

8. There are many membranes within a cell, separating off organelles that produce
substances such as hormones and enzymes, or where cell processes such as
photosynthesis and respiration occur. Explain fully the importance of these
membranes and why it is an advantage to the cell to have them. (3 marks)
 es Found 90, 10 differentproteins in the human body, and
000
thou ands more in other organisms. What is unique about proteins
is that each one may bea different shape. The different shapes |
make it possible for proteins to carry out different roles in the body.
All these many thousands of proteins are made up of chains of
smaller molecules, called amino acids, which join together in long
chains. All proteins are made up from different combinations of
just 20 amino acids. It is the order of these amino acids in the chain,
and the way that the chain folds up into its 3D shape, that gives
each protein its unique function.

SECTION CONTENTS
Biological molecules
A Molecular model of the enzyme
alpha-amylase from the human pancreas.
 calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, chlorine, sodium, iron, and so on 4%

ion
hydrogen 10%
Biological molecules
INTRODUCTION
Around 65% of your body mass is oxygen,
carbon 18% another 18% is carbon and 10% is hydrogen.
The remainder of your mass is made up of a
large range of other elements, including
nitrogen, sulfur, calcium and iron. ‘These
elements are combined in different ways to
form all the compounds in your body.
oxygen 65%

A Fig. 3.1 The proportions of elements in the

human body.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/ Most of the foods that we eat can be grouped into carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
/ Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are formed from smaller molecules.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
¥ Name the elements in carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Y Name the basic units from which carbohydrates, fats and proteins are made.
Y State that water is important as a solvent.
Vv Describe tests for starch, reducing sugars, protein, fats and oils.

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
Most of the molecules found in living organisms fall into three main
groups: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. (Lipids are commonly called
fats and oils.) All of these molecules contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. In addition, all proteins contain nitrogen and some also contain
sulfur.
Carbohydrate molecules are made up of small basic units called
simple sugars. These are formed from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms, sometimes arranged in a ring-shaped molecule. One example of
a simple sugar is glucose.
Simple sugar molecules can link together to form larger molecules.
They can join in pairs, for example, sucrose (the ‘sugar’ we use in
our food). They can also form much larger molecules called
MOLECULES
BIOLOGICAL
polysaccharides, for example, starch and glycogen, which are long
chains of glucose molecules.
Protein molecules are made up of long chains of amino acids linked
together. There are 20 different kinds of amino acid, in plant and
animal cells, and they can join in any order, in long chains, to make all
the different proteins within the plant or animal body. Examples
include the structural proteins in muscle, as well as enzymes that help
to control cell reactions.
A lipid is what we commonly call a fat or oil. At room temperature fats
are solid and oils are liquid, but they have a similar structure. Both fats
and oils are made from basic units called fatty acids and glycerol.
There are three fatty acids in each lipid, and the fatty acids vary in
different lipids. Lipids are important in forming cell membranes, and
many other molecules in the body, such as fats in storage cells.

starch (a large carbohydrate) is made up of lots of simple sugars (for example, glucose)

sucrose, maltose
(both short carbohydrates) are made up of two simple sugars

are made up of amino acids

are made up of | glycerol and fatty acids

A Fig. 3.2 Large biological molecules are formed from small sub units.

QUESTIONS
1. What are the basic units of:

a) lipids?
b) carbohydrates?
c) proteins?
2. Using the diagram of food molecules in Fig. 3.2, give two
differences between the structure of a protein and a
carbohydrate.

MOLE
BIOL
 Water
Water is a very good solvent, which makes it essential for living
organisms, as molecules such as glucose and small proteins can dissolve
in it. Some of the blood and the cytoplasm of cells is made of water,
meaning molecules that dissolve in water can be transported around the
body and reach cells.

QUESTION
1. Why is water essential for living organisms?

Tests for food molecules

We can use simple tests to indicate whether or not a food contains
particular food molecules, such as starch, glucose, proteins or lipids.

Test for starch

Starch is the storage molecule of plants and is found in many foods
that are made from plant tissue. When iodine/potassium iodide
solution is mixed with a solution of food containing starch, or dropped
onto food containing starch, it changes from brown to dark blue. This
happens when even small amounts of starch are present and can be
used as a simple test for the presence of starch. The colour change is
easiest to see if the test is examined against a white background, such
as on a white spotting tile.

<JFig. 3.3 The blue-black colour shows

there is starch in the biscuit.

Test for glucose

Glucose is a ‘reducing sugar’ that is important in respiration and
photosynthesis. So it is commonly found in plant and animal tissues,
and therefore in our food. Its presence can be detected using
Benedict’s reagent. The pale blue Benedict's solution is added to a
prepared sample that contains glucose and is heated to 95°C. If it
changes colour or forms a precipitate, this indicates the presence of
reducing sugars. A green colour means there is only a small amount of
glucose in the solution. A medium amount of glucose produces a
yellow
MOLECULES
BIOLOGICAL colour. A significant amount of glucose produces a precipitate
that is an orange-red colour.
 <JFig. 3.4 Benedict's reagent with a range of
concentrations of reducing sugars (very low
in the tube on the left, getting more
concentrated towards the right).

REMEMBER
The test using Benedict's reagent will produce an orange-red
precipitate for any reducing sugar, such as the simple sugars fructose
and galactose, and the disaccharides (made from two basic units:
di- means ‘two’ or ‘double’) lactose and maltose. So it is not exclusively
a test for glucose. But as glucose is the most common sugar, this is the
test usually used for it.

Test for protein

The biuret test is used to check for the presence of protein. A small
sample of the food under test is placed in a test tube.

<1 Fig. 3.5 A positive biuret test for protein.

An equal volume of biuret solution is carefully poured down the side of

the tube. If the sample contains protein, a blue ring forms at the
surface. If the sample is then shaken, the blue ring disappears and the
solution turns a light purple. wn
re
=
=
U
w
ind
Test for fat (2)
2
This test depends upon the fact that fats and oils do not dissolve in =i
<
water but do dissolve in ethanol. The test sample is mixed with —
0
ethanol. If fat is present, it will be dissolved in the ethanol to form a o}
=I
cloudy solution. The liquid formed is poured into a test tube of water, o[=]
 leaving behind any solid that has not dissolved.
If there is any fat dissolved in the ethanol, it
will form a cloudy white precipitate when mixed
with the water.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe what you would see if you tested
samples of the following with i) Benedict's
solution and then ii) iodine solution:
a) glucose syrup
b) a cake made with wheat flour, table sugar
(sucrose), fat and eggs.
Explain your answers.
2. Explain how you would test the seed from a
walnut tree to see if it contained stores of:
A Fig. 3.6 Fats have dissolved in the top layer
a) fat of ethanol, making it appear cloudy.

b) protein.

SCIENCE
trae CHEMISTRY - ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Biological molecules can be very complicated, but they are still

made from the same simple atoms as all other materials.
* Ideas about conservation of mass mean that only the atoms
available at the start of any change can be present at the end (but
they must all be there!)
* Carbohydrates, composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, are particularly important in this topic.
- Some ofthe larger molecules (such as starch) are made byjoining
smaller, simpler molecules together (glucose in the case of starch).
* Chemical tests, such as adding iodine, are used to identify a range of
different substances.

BIOLOGICAL
MOLECULES
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
amino acid, Benedict’s reagent, biuret test, carbohydrate, fat, fatty acid,
glycerol, lipid, oil, protein, simple sugar, starch, sucrose

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O That carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils all contain the elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
() That proteins also contain the element nitrogen and some may contain sulfur.
QO) That large carbohydrates, such as starch and glycogen, are made up of smaller
carbohydrates (reducing sugars) such as glucose.
C) Proteins are made of smaller molecules called amino acids.
C) To state that fats and oils are made of smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol.
C) To state that water is an essential solvent for living organisms, and forms the basis
of cell cytoplasm in which many metabolic reactions occur.
() To describe the use of the iodine test to identify the presence of starch.
() To describe the use of Benedict's reagent to test for the presence of simple
reducing sugars such as glucose.
() To describe the use of the biuret test to identify the presence of proteins.
() To describe the use of the ethanol emulsion to identify the presence of fats and oils.

MOLE
BIOL
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. a) Explain why carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are the most common elements
found in the human body. (1 mark)

b) Why does the body need other elements, in addition to those mentioned
in part a)? (1 mark)

2. Asample of bread was ground up. Some of the breadcrumbs were tested with
Benedict's reagent and some with iodine solution.The rest of the crumbs were
mixed with Substance A. After 20 minutes, some of the mixture was tested with
Benedict’s reagent and some with iodine solution.The results of the tests are
shown in the table.

Test with Benedict's Test with iodine

solution solution
Before adding no precipitate change to blue-black
Substance A colour
After 20 min with orange-red no colour change
Substance A _| precipitate

a) Describe what the results show. (2 marks)

b) What was Substance A? Explain your answer. (4 marks)

MOLECULES
BIOLOGICAL
 |enzymes:$c me from bacteria ahd other
3 ganisms are harnessed both in
2 try and iin thehome or uses as wide-ranging as washing
detergents, to baking leavened bread. Yeast is a single-celled
organism that produces enzymes that break down the sugars in
flour, and in the process tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide gas are
released, which cause the bread to rise.
The first enzyme used commercially iin washing products was
introduced in the 1960s. It was a protease that broke down
protein-based stains such as blood, and it was extracted from a
bacterium. Since then, a much wider range of enzymes has been
added to washing products, to pies fats, starches and other
molecules.

SECTION CONTENTS
Enzymes
 Enzymes
INTRODUCTION
Many of our staple foods, such as rice,
potato, pasta and bread, contain large
quantities of starch. Take a mouthful of
one of these, without anything else, and
you won't taste a lot to start with. But
continue chewing on it for a few minutes,
to mix it with saliva and reduce it to a
slush, and you will find it starts to taste
sweeter. This is because there are enzymes
: Ma) in saliva that start to break down the starch
A Fig. 4.1 Enzymes in the mouth, stomach and
into smaller sugar molecules that taste
much smaller molecules.
to break down the large molecules in our
food into molecules that are small enough for diffusion through the cells of
the gut wall and into our bodies.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Food is digested in the gut into smaller molecules.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Define the term catalyst.
Vv Describe enzymes as proteins that are biological catalysts.
/ EXTENDED Describe enzyme action.
V Describe the effect of temperature and pH on the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction.
V Investigate the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity.
/V EXTENDED State that enzymes catalyse reactions in which substrates are
converted to products.
¥Y EXTENDED Describe the importance of the shape of the active site.
/Y EXTENDED Explain the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity.
¥Y EXTENDED Explain the specificity of enzymes.

ENZYMES
A catalyst is a substance that changes the speed of a reaction, often
speeding it up. Catalysts are used in many industrial processes, for
example, making ammonia. Living cells also use catalysts to change the
rate of reactions that happen inside them. These are known as
metabolic reactions because they are the reactions of the metabolism
(all the processes that keep a living organism alive). This makes
ENZYMES
enzymes very important to all living organisms.
Catalysts that control metabolic reactions are enzymes, and, because
they work in living cells, they are called biological catalysts. Enzymes
are proteins. They help cells carry out all the life processes quickly.
Without them, most metabolic reactions would happen too slowly for
life to carry on.
Some enzymes help two or more small molecules join together, for
example, when the polysaccharides starch and glycogen are built from
glucose. Other enzymes help large molecules break down into smaller
ones, for example, when proteins are broken down into separate amino
acids.
A molecule that an enzyme joins with at the start of a reaction is called
a substrate, and the molecule that is formed by the end of the
reaction is called a product. So, during a reaction, substrate molecules
are changed to product molecules.

QUESTIONS
1. Define the term catalyst.
2. Explain what is meant by biological catalyst.
3. Explain why cells need enzymes.
4. Define the terms substrate and product.

EXTENDED

Enzyme action
Enzymes are proteins and, like all proteins, they have a three-
dimensional (3D) shape produced by the way the molecule folds up.
Enzymes have a space in the molecule with a particular 3D shape. This
space matches the shape of the substrate molecule. We say the shapes
are complementary, because the substrate fits neatly into the space
in the enzyme, like fitting two jigsaw pieces together.
substrate products of
the reaction

The enzyme and

substrate have
complementary shapes.

The shapes of the enzyme The substrate has split into

ening and substrate mean two product molecules that
The substrate fits into the they fit closely together. are released from the enzyme.
enzyme.

A Fig. 4.2 In this reaction, the enzyme helps a substrate molecule split into two product molecules. ENZ

Sad
“J
 The space in the enzyme shape into which the substrate fits is called
the enzyme’s active site. The substrate fits tightly into the active site,
forming an enzyme-substrate complex. This makes it easier for the
bonds inside the substrate to be rearranged to form the products.
Once the products are formed, they no longer fit the active site, so they
are released, leaving the active site free and the enzyme unchanged.
This means the enzyme molecule is able to bind with another
substrate molecule.

Explaining enzyme action

Enzymes are specific, which means that each enzyme only works with
one substrate or a group of similar-shaped substrates. For example:
¢ amylase is a type of carbohydrase enzyme produced in the mouth,
which starts the digestion of starch in food into simple sugars
@ proteases are digestive enzymes that break down proteins into
smaller units
e lipases are digestive enzymes that break down lipids in foods.
The complementary shapes of the enzyme and substrate helps to
explain the fact that enzymes are specific, because only a substrate
with the correct shape can fit into the active site and so be affected by
the enzyme.

END OF EXTENDED

eee
QUESTIONS
1. EXTENDED Describe how an enzyme causes a substrate molecule
to change into product molecules.
2. EXTENDED Explain what is meant by the active site of an enzyme.
3. EXTENDED Explain how the shape of the active site is related to
the specificity of an enzyme.

Enzymes and temperature

Enzymes work best at a particular temperature, called their optimum
temperature. For many enzymes in the human body, particularly those
that work in the organs in the core (centre) of the body, such as the heart,
liver, kidneys and lungs, the optimum temperature is around 37°C,
At lower temperatures, enzymes in the human body work more slowly. At
temperatures that are much higher than the optimum, the structure of
an enzyme will be changed so that it will not work. This is a permanent
change, and when it happens the enzyme is said to be denatured.

ENZYMES
 optimum temperature
(for many human
enzymes, 35-45°C)

reaction
rate

temperature

A Fig. 4.3 Many enzymes work best at an optimum temperature.

REMEMBER
Remember the relationship between enzyme activity, temperature and
pH, particularly when discussing excretion and homeostasis, as this
helps to explain why maintaining particular conditions in the body is so
important for health.

Investigating the effect of temperature on enzymes

The effect of temperature on an enzyme can be tested by measuring
the rate of reaction of the enzyme at different temperatures. One
method is shown in the Developing investigative skills box on page 52.
Alternatively, you could use the following method to investigate the
optimum temperature of amylase.
Starch is broken down to glucose by the enzyme amylase. Starch reacts
with iodine solution by turning it blue-black. Glucose does not react with
iodine solution, leaving it bright orange. If you mix starch solution with
amylase solution and place different tubes of the mixture in water baths
of different temperature and take a sample for testing with iodine solution
every minute or so, you can see at which temperature the amylase works
fastest. The sample that is the first to stop reacting with iodine solution
comes from the tube kept at the optimum temperature for amylase.

EXTENDED

The effect of temperature

Kinetic energy is the energy of moving particles. Particles that have a
greater kinetic energy move more or move faster. The kinetic energy of
molecules that are free to move will cause them to bump into
surrounding molecules. The kinetic energy of atoms held within larger
molecules by bonds will cause them to vibrate.
An enzyme molecule and substrate molecule can only form an
enzyme—substrate complex when they bump into each other with
sufficient energy, and the substrate fits into the active site.
e At a low temperature the enzyme and substrate molecules move ENZ
slowly, so they may take a long time to bump into each other with —
enough force to join and start the reaction. Lo
 e As the temperature increases, the molecules gain more energy and
move faster, so the chance of them bumping into each other and
joining together increases. The rate of reaction increases up to the
optimum temperature.
¢ Beyond the optimum temperature, the atoms in the enzyme molecule
are vibrating so much that they start to change the shape of the active
site. This means the substrate doesn't fit as well, so the chances of an
enzyme—substrate molecule forming decreases. The rate of reaction
decreases.
e If the temperature increases too much, the bonds between atoms in
the enzyme molecule start to break, changing the shape of the active
site permanently and denaturing the enzyme.

END OF EXTENDED

wn
rr
=
>
N
z
uu
Enzymes and pH
Enzymes also often work best at a particular pH, called their optimum
pH. Extremes of (very high or very low) pH can slow down the rate of
reaction of the enzyme and even denature it.
100%
Trypsin

15%

50%

Pepsin
maximum
activity
of
% 25%

0%

pH

A Fig. 4.4 Pepsin (an enzyme found in the stomach) and trypsin (an enzyme released into the
small intestine) have different optimum pHs.

Different enzymes have different optimum pHs, depending on where

they are normally found in the body. Pepsin digests proteins in the
stomach, which is a highly acidic environment. Trypsin digests proteins
in the small intestine, where conditions are more alkaline.

Investigating the effect of pH on enzymes

You can investigate the effect of pH on the enzyme amylase using a
similar method to the one above for temperature.

optimum pH
(different enzymes have a
different optimum pH)

reaction
rate

pH

A Fig. 4.5 Many enzymes work best at an optimum pH.

Set up one tube for each pH to be investigated and add buffer solution,
which will keep the contents at a particular pH. Add starch solution to
each tube, and then amylase solution. Take a sample from each tube
every minute or so and test for starch using iodine solution. The sample
that is the first to stop turning iodine solution blue-black comes from a)
uu
=>
the tube where digestion of starch to glucose was fastest, and therefore N
from the tube kept at the optimum pH for that enzyme. ea
uu
 Pepsin

A Fig. 4.6 The tubes show the results of an experiment on the digestion of meat. Pepsin is a
protease enzyme that is released in the stomach where it starts the digestion of proteins in food.
Acid is also secreted into the stomach contents, reducing the pH and providing the optimum pH
for pepsin. The left tube shows that acid has no effect on the meat. The middle tube shows that
pepsin on its own digests the meat slowly. Only when the pepsin is mixed with acid can the
enzyme work quickly to digest the protein.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the effect of temperature on the rate of an enzyme-
controlled reaction.
2. Compare the optimum pHs for pepsin and trypsin, shown in the
graph in Fig. 4.4, and explain the differences.

EXTENDED

The effect of pH
Proteins are made of amino acids, joined together in a chain. The
amino acids then interact with nearby amino acids, which causes the
chain to fold up into the 3D shape of the enzyme.
Some of the interactions between amino acids in the enzyme molecule
depend on the pH of the surrounding solvent. So, the shape of the
enzyme will depend on the surrounding pH. If the pH changes too
much from the optimum pH, the shape of the enzyme, and particularly
its active site, will change. So, the substrate will not fit as well and the
rate of reaction will decrease.

ENZYMES
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the effect of temperature on enzyme activity:
a) at temperatures below the optimum
b) at temperatures above the optimum.
2. Explain the effect of pH on pepsin (see graph in Fig. 4.4) in terms
of the active site of the enzyme.

END OF EXTENDED

SCIENCE
tives CHEMISTRY - CHEMICAL REACTIONS

- Catalysts are present in a range of chemical reactions that happen in

a biological context. Remember that they help the chemical
reaction to happen without being ‘used up’
As with any chemical reactions, the reactions involving enzymes are
affected by temperature, so, ideas about how the motion and
energy of particles vary at different temperatures are important.
Enzymes are affected by the acidity of their environment, which
links to ideas of pH, acids, bases and alkalis.

ENZY
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
active site, biological catalyst, catalyst, complementary, denature, enzyme,
kinetic energy, metabolism, optimum pH, optimum temperature, product,
specific, substrate

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to define the term catalyst.
() How to define enzymes as proteins that are biological catalysts, which control the
rate of metabolic reactions.

() How to describe that enzymes and substrates have complementary shapes so

that they fit closely together.

Q) How to investigate the optimum temperature of enzymes at which the rate of

reaction occurs most rapidly; the rate is slower at lower temperatures, and also at
higher temperatures when the enzyme molecule starts to denature.

C) That enzymes may have an optimum pH at which the rate of reaction happens
most rapidly.

() EXTENDED How to explain the active site as the space in the enzyme into which
the substrate fits neatly during a reaction.

() EXTENDED How to explain that a temperature lower than the optimum causes a
slower rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction because the molecules move
around more slowly and so don’t come into contact with each other as often.

() EXTENDED How to explain that a temperature higher than the optimum causes a
slower rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction because the vibration of atoms in
the enzyme slightly changes the shape ofthe active site so that the substrate
does not fit as easily into it.

() EXTENDED How to explain that a very high temperature denatures the enzyme
as interactions between amino acids break and change the shape of the active
site completely.

() EXTENDED How to explain that pH affects the interactions between amino

acids in the enzyme molecule and so the ability of the substrate to fit into the
active site.
() EXTENDED That enzymes catalyse reactions in which substrates are converted
to products.
() EXTENDED How to describe enzyme action with reference to the active site,
ENZYMES substrate and product.

56
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. Describe how you would investigate the optimum temperature for a

particular enzyme. (4 marks)
2. Sketch a graph to show the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction for
an enzyme from humans. Label the value of the optimum temperature on
your graph. (2 marks)
3. The body has many mechanisms for keeping internal conditions within limits. One
of the internal conditions that is controlled is the concentration of carbon dioxide
in the blood. Carbon dioxide gas is acidic and highly soluble.

a) Which process in cells produces carbon dioxide? (1 mark)

b) How is this gas removed from the body? (1 mark)

c) What would you expect to happen to the amount of carbon dioxide in the
body during exercise? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

d) What effect would this have on conditions inside cells if the carbon dioxide
was not removed? (1 mark)

e) What problem would this cause for enzymes and the cell processes that
they control? (2 marks)

4. EXTENDED Explain fully the shape of the graph you drew for Question 2. (5 marks)

ENZY
 owingin Northern California in
006 itwas found to be 115.61m

ight, water and carbon dioxide. This process is

osynthesis and is one of the features of plants that
yem from animals. :

_ SECTION CONTENTS
Plant nutrition
A Saplings growing toward a controlled light source.
i H
 Plant nutrition
INTRODUCTION
From space, we can see where plants do or
do not grow. We can distinguish different
environments by looking at where the land is
green, brown or white. The green areas are a
result of chlorophyll in photosynthesising
plants. We can also see where land use is
changing, by looking at how the green areas
of rainforests are slowly becoming brown as
a result of deforestation.

A Fig. 5.1 The green on this satellite image shows

plant growth on Earth.

st KNOWLEDGE CHECK 3232 eet Se ee

_ av Plants make their own food in their leaves using photosynthesis.
/ Plant structures, such as the leaf and root cells, are adapted for their functions
in nutrition.

_ LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY State the word equation for photosynthesis.
V Define the term photosynthesis.
V Investigate the need for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
Y EXTENDED Write the balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis.
Y EXTENDED Explain the importance of photosynthesis for plant nutrition.
¥ EXTENDED Investigate the effect of varying light intensity and temperature on the
rate of photosynthesis.
Y Identify structures in a leaf.
V EXTENDED Explain how a leaf is adapted for photosynthesis.
Vv Describe the importance of some mineral ions in plant growth.
¥ EXTENDED Explain the effect of the deficiency of some minerals on a plant.

NUTRITION
PLANT
PLANT NUTRITION flower — needed for
é reproduction, seeds |
Photosynthesis are formed here
; t leaf
— for
Plant tissue contains the same types of chemical photosynthesis
molecules (carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) as Deca |
animal tissue. However, whereas animals eat other
organisms to get the nutrients they need to make these
molecules, plants make these molecules from basic points on the os ANG AWD |
A ate E ‘ : .
building blocks, beginning with the process of
t
areflower Ge
‘
_ “ye
Cy VD»
|
photosynthesis. buds Tay [> ~v
= * Vas as
al Ge |
eee Dreeer ane Nd! SLICE Ey itn, Went eLOT! hae ii‘. stents fore
EXTENDED
NR es eee | le
also Ae : |
I f ae, i 5 rere eel contains “dy |
n photosynthesis, plants combine the raw materials transport |
carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (from the soil)
to form glucose, a simple sugar and also a
carbohydrate. This process transfers energy from light
(usually from sunlight) into chemical energy in the
bonds of the glucose. The light is absorbed by the |
; |
green pigment chlorophyll in plants. |
A Fig. 5.2 Anatomy of a plant.

END OF EXTENDED |
Photosynthesis is fundamental to almost all life on Earth, because most
organisms, other than plants, get their energy from the chemical energy
in the food that they eat, whether that is herbivores getting energy
directly from plants or carnivores consuming the herbivores.
Oxygen is also produced in photosynthesis. Although some is used
inside the plant for respiration (releasing energy from food), most is not
needed and is given out as a waste product.
The process of photosynthesis can be summarised in a word equation:
chlorophyll
carbon dioxide + water ———————» glucose + oxygen
light energy

EXTENDED
Photosynthesis can also be summarised as a balanced symbol equation:
chlorophyll
GO .eite 6H, Onenian oripnriss eargg:
light energy

END OF EXTENDED TION

“ec i

REMEMBER |
To write a really good answer you will need to know, and be able to
NUTRI
PLAN
balance, the chemical equation for photosynthesis.
 |
errr
EXTENDED
Much of the glucose formed by photosynthesis is converted into other
substances, acetate starch. Starch molecules are large carbohydrates
made of lots of glucose molecules joined together. Starch is insoluble
~ and so can be stored in cells without atienme water movement into
and out of the cells by osmosis. Some plants, for example, potato and
rice plants, store large amounts of starch in particular parts of the plant
(tubers or seeds). We use these parts as sources of starch in our food.
Some glucose is converted to sucrose (a type of sugar formed from two
glucose molecules joined together). This is still soluble, but not as
reactive as glucose, so can easily be carried around the plant in solution.
The energy needed to join simple sugars to make larger carbohydrates
comes from respiration.

END OF EXTENDED

| QUESTIONS
ee eee
1. Write the word Sone for sharecnuess
2. Explain the importance of light in photosynthesis.
3. a) EXTENDED Write the balanced symbol equation for
photosynthesis.
b) EXTENDED Annotate your equation to show where each of
the reactants come from, and each of the products go to.
4. EXTENDED Explain why the transfer of energy from light to
chemical energy iin plant ccells iiss essential for life onn Earth.

SCIENCE
ttram CHEMISTRY - STOICHIOMETRY

Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction, so this is an opportunity to

link in ideas of word equations and balanced symbol equations.

Remember that the formula for each compound is fixed, so to keep

in line with the law of conservation of mass we need to think about
the complete molecules when balancing an equation.

+ Photosynthesis is an example of an endothermic reaction.

z
2 PHYSICS - PROPERTIES OF WAVES
=
oc
é
a|
ies
- Photosynthesis requires the energy from light to work.
—
—
<=
> The colours in the light link to different wavelengths in the
—!
a. electromagnetic spectrum — some wavelengths are more useful in
photosynthesis than others.
EXTENDED

Investigating photosynthesis
We can use the iodine test to show that photosynthesising parts of a
plant produce starch. Before carrying out this test, though, we must
start by leaving the plant in a dark place for 24 hours. This will make |
sure that the plant uses up its stores of starch (this is known as :
destarching) and means that any starch identified by the test is the |
result of photosynthesis during the investigation.
¢ The production of starch after photosynthesis can be shown simply
by placing a destarched plant in light for an hour. Remove one leaf
and place it in boiling water for a few minutes to soften it. Then
place the leaf in boiling ethanol heated in a beaker of boiling water, |
not over a Bunsen because ethanol fumes are flammable. This
removes the chlorophyll in the leaf. When the leaf has lost its green, |
wash it in cold water before placing it in a dish and adding a few
drops of iodine solution. The leaf should turn blue—black, indicating
the presence of starch.

leaf in water

iodine/potassium iodide
solution

leaf in ethanol

A Fig. 5.3 Preparing and testing a leaf for starch. |

e The investigation above can be adjusted to

show the need for light by covering part of
the leaf before the destarched plant is
brought into the light. Only the part of the
leaf that received light should test positive
for the presence of starch, showing that
photosynthesis is linked to the production -
of starch. | 9
e This investigation can also be adjusted to | &
show the need for chlorophyll by using | | 2
variegated leaves. Variegated leaves are partly nee ae eke fr ee :
green (where the cells contain chlorophyll) RB soctronorisht onivahe Menape test =
and partly white (where there is no positive for starch.
chlorophyll). A variegated leaf after this
 investigation will show the presence of starch
before testing after testing
where there was chlorophyll but not in the parts
| of the leaf that had no chlorophyll.
e A simple test to show the need for carbon dioxide
can be carried out by setting up two bell jars on
glass sheets. Sodium or potassium hydroxide
reacts with carbon dioxide, removing it from the
air. So a dish of one of the hydroxides is placed in
one bell jar. Carbon dioxide is added to the other _A Fig. 5.5 Only the green parts of a variegated leaf
can photosynthesise, as shown by the leaf on the
bell jar by burning a candle in it, which also right, which has been tested for starch.
removes some of the oxygen. Similar destarched
plants are placed in each bell jar, and the base of the jar sealed to the
glass sheet, for example, with petroleum jelly. After a few hours in the
light, a leaf from each plant is tested for starch, which should show
that the plant with the least carbon dioxide produces little starch.

-
QUESTIONS ~
1. Describe a test that would show the need for chlorophyll in
photosynthesis.
2. What precautions should be taken when boiling ethanol to
remove chlorophyll in a leaf? Explain your answer.

Investigating the rate of photosynthesis

Measuring starch production is an indirect measurement of
photosynthesis, because starch is made from the glucose produced in
photosynthesis. You can investigate photosynthesis more directly by
measuring the amount of oxygen produced by a plant. The oxygen is
usually collected over water, and these investigations are most simply
done using aquatic plants (plants that grow in water), such as
pondweed, using the apparatus shown in the Developing investigative
skills box on the following page.
¢ To prove that photosynthesis produces oxygen, simply use the
glowing splint test on the gas collected. The splint should reignite,
showing that the gas is oxygen.
¢ The investigation can be adjusted to test for the effect of light
intensity on the rate of photosynthesis as described in the Developing
investigative skills box.
¢ The investigation can be adjusted to test for the effect of temperature by
placing the beaker of pondweed in water baths of different temperatures
and measuring the rate at which bubbles of oxygen are produced.
=
In each of these investigations, all other factors that may affect the rate
o
je
co
of photosynthesis must be controlled and kept constant as far as possible.
-
2)
=
-
2
o¢
=
a.
 :
ative skills—oe
Developing investig
You can investigate the effect of light on photosynthesis byshining:aight
are given | off25
en Sw so bubbles :
e 2
i SOa
e W) inu s 5.6.

Filament light bulb

(Caution: hot!)

Elodea canadensis se a le
(common pondweed) | ‘

A Fig.5.6Apparatus fortheinvestigation i
The results below weregathere

ee bubbles en.
7.
| in 5minutes _ 8

Analysead interpretda
(2) a) Use the data iinthe tab o draw
ce Describe and explainthe

taandmethod |
o Evaluahtteiisdanot affect hela
/ eLig the only’factor that can
fect o
a) Which other factor might have hadan: oe
could be chane NUTR
PLAN
b) Suggest how the method
 1. Describe how each of the following factors affects the rate
|
of photosynthesis:
a) light intensity
b) temperature.
2. Explain why the factors have the effects you described in
Question 1.

END OF EXTENDED

Leaf structure
Photosynthesis takes place mainly in the leaves, although it can occur
in any cells that contain green chlorophyll. Leaves are adapted to make
them very efficient as sites for photosynthesis, gas exchange, transport
and support.

<1 Fig. 5.7 The leaves of trees are often arranged

so that they do not overlap each other, which
makes It possible for the tree to capture as much
light energy as possible.

z
o
E
i
=)
es
oom

2
<Sra
cack
Figure 5.8 shows the arrangement of cells and tissues inside a leaf.
_- waxy cuticle
upper
epidermis palisade cell

palisade layer, the main cell wall

area for photosynthesis
cell membrane

cytoplasm

spongy chloroplast
mesophyll
layer
large vacuole

nucleus
lower
epidermis
carbon dioxide guard cell

stoma (plural: stomata) (there is one on

each side of a stoma)

A Fig. 5.8 Cells in a section of a leaf (left), and a palisade cell (right), which contains many
chloroplasts, for photosynthesis.

cuticle palisade mesophyll

upper epidermis

vascular
bundle

A Fig. 5.9 Photomicrograph of a section of a dicotyledonous plant leaf. Stomata are not easily
seen in this section.

EXTENDED

Adaptations for photosynthesis

Many structures in a leaf are adapted so that photosynthesis can be
carried out as efficiently as possible.
e The waxy cuticle that covers the leaf, particularly the upper surface,
NUTRI
PLANT
prevents the loss of water from epidermal cells and helps to stop the
plant from drying out too quickly.
 e The transparent upper epidermis allows as much light as possible to
reach the photosynthesising cells within the leaf.
e The palisade cells, where most photosynthesis takes place, are
tightly packed together in the uppermost half of the leaf so that as
many as possible can receive sunlight.
Chloroplasts, containing chlorophyll, are concentrated in the
palisade cells in the uppermost half of the leaf to absorb as much
sunlight as possible.
¢ The spongy mesophyll cells and air spaces in the lower part of the
leaf provide a large internal surface area to volume ratio to allow the
efficient exchange of the gases carbon dioxide and oxygen between
the cells and the air in the leaf.
e Many pores or stomata (singular: stoma) allow the movement of
gases into and out of the leaf, to allow efficient gas exchange between
the leaf and the air surrounding it.
¢ The vascular bundles form the veins in the stem and leaf. The thick
cell walls of the tissue in the bundles help to support the stem and leaf.
¢ Phloem tissue transports sucrose, formed from glucose in
photosynthesising cells, away from the leaf. Xylem tissue transports
water and minerals to the leaf from the roots. The leaf is broad and thin,
this is to maximise surface area for palisade cells to receive sunlight.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS |
1. Name four tissues in a leaf.

2. EXTENDED List as many adaptations of a plant leaf for

photosynthesis as you can.
3. EXTENDED Explain why a large surface area inside the leaf is
essential for photosynthesis.
4. EXTENDED Explain why a transparent epidermis is an adaptation
for photosynthesis.

Mineral requirements of plants

Photosynthesis produces carbohydrates, but plants contain many other
types of elements and compounds. Carbohydrates contain just the
elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the amino acids that make
up proteins also contain nitrogen. So plants need a source of nitrogen.
Other substances in plants contain different elements; for example,
_ chlorophyll molecules contain magnesium and nitrogen. Without a
source of magnesium and nitrogen, a plant cannot produce chlorophyll
~ and so cannot photosynthesise.
These additional elements are dissolved in water in the soil as mineral
ions. Plants absorb mineral ions through their roots, using active
transport because the concentration of the ions in the soil is lower than
NUTRITION
PLANT
in the plant cells.
EXTENDED |

Mineral deficiencies
Plants that are not absorbing enough mineral ions show particular
symptoms of deficiency. For example:
¢ a plant with a nitrate ion deficiency has stunted growth |
* a plant with magnesium ion deficiency has leaves that are yellow |
between the veins, particularly in older leaves as the magnesium is |
transported in the plant to the new leaves. |
|
|

A Fig. 5.10 A plant showing symptoms of A Fig. 5.11 A plant showing symptoms of
nitrate ion deficiency. magnesium ion deficiency.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS _ $$ ——— ——— — — See eee eeaeee ae ——

1. Explain why plants need a supply of rritnetal ions.

2. Explain what plants use the following mineral ions for:
a) nitrogen ions
b) magnesium ions.
3. EXTENDED Describe and explain the deficiency symptoms in a
plant for the following mineral ions:
a) nitrate ions
b) magnesium ions.

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 End of topic checklist

Key terms
chlorophyll, chloroplast, cuticle, epidermis, mineral ion, palisade cell, osmosis,
phloem, photosynthesis, spongy mesophyll cell, starch, stomata, sucrose,
vascular bundle, waste product, xylem

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to define photosynthesis as the process by which plants make carbohydrates
(glucose) from raw materials using light.

() How to investigate the necessity of chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, using appropriate controls.

() EXTENDED That photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts in plant cells, using

chlorophyll, and converts light energy into chemical energy.

(©) The word equation for photosynthesis:

chloroplast
carbon dioxide + water ———————-» glucose + oxygen
light energy

() EXTENDED The balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis:

chloroplast
6CO, + 6H,0 ————_—_—> as C.H,,0.
phe 5 + 60,
light energy

() EXTENDED How to outline the use and storage of the carbohydrates made
in photosynthesis.

() EXTENDED How to investigate the increase in rate of photosynthesis as light

intensity increases and as temperature increases up to an optimum temperature,
after which it decreases as enzymes denature.

() That chloroplasts are found mainly in cells in the upper part of a leaf.

() To identify the tissues that can be seen in leaves, including; cuticle, upper
epidermis, lower epidermis including stomata and guard cells, palisade
mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, phloem and xylem.

NUTRITION
PLANT
oO EXTENDED To explain how the leaf is adapted to maximise the rate of
photosynthesis by:

being broad and thin

the cells where most photosynthesis takes place are in the palisade mesophyll
near the upper surface of the leaf
the transparent upper epidermis lets lots of light through
the spongy mesophyll maximises the internal surface area of the leaf
for diffusion |
stomata allow gases to diffuse into and out of the leaf and are opened and
closed by guard cells
xylem transports water to the leaf
phloem transports sugars away from the leaf.
C) To describe how plants use mineral ions to convert the sugars from
photosynthesis into other essential substances, such as chlorophyll, which
contains magnesium, and amino acids, which contain nitrogen.

C) EXTENDED The deficiency of nitrate ions causes stunted growth with yellowing
leaves because the plant cannot make proteins for growth and chlorophyll.

CO) EXTENDED The deficiency of magnesium ions causes yellowing leaves as the plant
cannot make chlorophyll.

NUTRI
PLANT
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.

1. EXTENDED Explain why gardeners may add a liquid feed containing nitrogen and
magnesium ions to the water for the plants that they are growing. (2 marks)

. EXTENDED Using what you have learnt about the effect of concentration
gradient and surface area to volume ratio, explain the adaptations of a leaf
for photosynthesis. (4 marks)

. Itis commonly stated that ‘Plants produce oxygen during the day and
carbon dioxide at night’ Explain fully the limits of this statement. (5 marks)

. Photosynthesis is how plants make sugar. State the word equation for
photosynthesis. (3 marks)

NUTRITION
PLANT
 Sof the sevennchatacteristics of living organisms.
Nutrition iisone
cs 5~For humans and other animals, nutrition is the taking in of
nutrients (including ganic substances and minerals) that contain
the raw materials ne eded by the body to make essential molecules
such as proteins, which areused as the building blocks to maintain
e healthy growth and tissue repair.
~ We think of malnutritior as not having enough food, but many
be malnourished because they don't eat enough of
_ people may |
the kinds of foods that contain all the nutrients that their bodies
need, or they eat too much of the types of foods that will supply
_more sncey than the body needs, sO the excess is stored as fat.

SECTION CONTENTS
a) Diet
© Alimentary canal
~ Digestion —

ne pas
 Animal nutrition

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 Animal nutrition
INTRODUCTION
Human taste buds have evolved to give us
useful information about what we are putting
into our mouths. Sour or bitter tastes can
indicate food that is decaying or poisonous,
and so is dangerous to eat. Sweet (presence of
sugars), salty and savoury (presence of
proteins) tastes indicate nutrients that are
essential for healthy growth. These were
particularly important in our hunter-gatherer
past, when it could be difficult to find foods
Be he os er
nutritional requirements, which must be
containing: these nutrients. é They% are not
;
so
satisfied by diet. useful to us now because, for many of us,
foods containing large quantities of these are easily available. The urge to eat foods
containing high levels of sugars and salt has led to problems of obesity and disease,
particularly heart disease in people who have increasingly sedentary lifestyles.
ee OE ES ae Re a

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Animals eat other organisms to get the food they need for their life processes.
/ The organs, tissues and cells of the digestive system are adapted to digest and
absorb nutrients from food.
/ Different groups of people need different diets.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Describe what is meant by a balanced diet.
¥Y EXTENDED Explain how a balanced diet varies in different groups of people.
Y Describe the sources and functions of nutrients in human nutrition.
Y EXTENDED Describe the deficiency symptoms for some nutrients in the human diet.
/ EXTENDED Describe some effects of malnutrition in humans.
¥ Describe the structures and functions of organs in the human alimentary canal and
related organs of the digestive system.
¥ Describe the processes involved in human nutrition, including ingestion, digestion,
absorption and egestion.
Y Identify and describe the functions of the main regions of the alimentary canal.
/ EXTENDED State the functions of enzymes and hydrochloric acid in chemical digestion.
¥Y EXTENDED Outline the role of enzymes in digestion.
/ EXTENDED Describe the functions of hydrochloric acid in digestion.
V EXTENDED Describe the role of protease, lipase and amylase in the alimentary canal.

NUTRITION
ANIMAL
DIET
Essential nutrients
‘To keep healthy, humans need a diet that includes all the nutrients that
our cells and tissues use, such as:
¢ proteins — these are broken down to make amino acids. The amino
acids are used to form other proteins needed by cells, including
enzymes. Protein sources include eggs, milk and milk products
(cheese, yoghurt, and so on), meat, fish, legumes (peas and beans),
nuts and seeds.
¢ carbohydrates — which are broken down to simple sugars for use in
respiration. This releases energy in our cells and enables all the life
processes to take place. Good sources of carbohydrate include rice,
bread, potatoes, pasta and yams.
e fats — these are deposited in many parts of the body, including just
below the skin. Some fat helps to maintain body temperature. Fat is
also a store of energy to supply molecules for respiration if the diet
does not contain enough energy for daily needs. Fat is present in
meat and can also come in the form of oils, milk products (butter,
cheese), nuts, avocados and oily fish.
e vitamins and minerals — these substances are needed in tiny
amounts for the correct functioning of the body. Vitamins and
minerals cannot be produced by the body, and cooking food destroys
some vitamins. For example, vitamin C is best supplied by eating raw
fruit and vegetables.

Essential Job Good food EXTENDED |

vitamins and source Deficiency |
minerals disence |
vitamin D for strong bones and fish, eggs, liver, rickets (softening |
} = =
teeth = — — = = ai
cheese and milk =! =
of the bones) |
Pron needed to make red meats, liver anaemia (reduction ||
haemoglobin in red and kidneys, leafy | in number of red |
blood cells sreen vegetables, | blood cells, person |
for example, soon becomes tired |
spinach and short of breath) |
ee a [SR ee ee ee Pierce 2
eS as Ee poo |

A Table 6.1 Vitamins and minerals, their roles, sources and effects of deficiency.

e fibre (roughage) — which is made up of the cell walls of plants.

Good sources are leafy vegetables, such as cabbage, and unrefined
grains, such as brown rice and wholegrain wheat. It adds bulk to food
so that it can be easily moved along ie digestive system by
peristalsis. This is important in preventing constipation. Fibre is
thought to help prevent bowel cancer.

kK
“
a
 ® water — which is the major constituent of the body of living
organisms and is necessary for all life processes. Water is continually
being lost through excretion and sweating, and must be replaced
regularly through food and drink in order to maintain health. Most
foods contain some water, but most fruit and vegetables contain a lot
of water.

A Fig. 6.2 A healthy meal contains a good balance of the foods

your body needs and nothing in too large an amount.

QUESTIONS
1. Which three groups of food molecules do we need most of in a
healthy diet?
2. Give examples of foods that are good sources of each group of
food molecules.
3. Which other substances are needed in our diet?

4. Explain the role of each of these substances in our diet.

The right balance

A balanced diet contains all of these nutrients in the right proportions
to stay healthy because we need more of some nutrients than of others.
As most foods contain more than one kind of nutrient, trying to work
out what a balanced diet looks like can be difficult. Governments use
images like the ones in Figs. 6.3 and 6.4, of food on a plate, to guide
people on what proportion of different foods to eat.

ANIMAL
NUTRITION
 Mei 2 =——~*«Bre”ad rice,
ah ‘Fruitand i potatoes, pasta
vegetables : and other starchy foods —

*¢
a.

Meat, fish,
3 eggs, pears = iMicends
and other dairy fods _
A Fig. 6.3 Guidance from the USDA (United non-dairy sources tees a
States Department of Agriculture) on the CPO
proportions of different nutrients in a
balanced diet.

A Fig. 6.4 Guidance from the UK Government on the proportions of

different nutrients in a balanced diet.

EXTENDED
Different groups of people may have different needs for nutrients at
different times in their lives, so this balance can change. For example,
children need a higher proportion of protein than adults because they
are still growing rapidly. Also, some groups of people have a greater
need for a specific nutrient. During pregnancy, for example, a woman
needs more iron than usual, to supply what the growing baby needs for
making blood cells.
Even with the right proportions of nutrients in our foods, we can still
be eating an unhealthy diet. This is because many of our foods,
particularly carbohydrates but also fats and proteins, can contribute to
the energy our bodies need. If we eat food that supplies more energy
than we use, the extra will be deposited as energy stores of fat. This
can lead to obesity, which is related to many health problems, such as
heart disease and diabetes. Controlling the portion size at each meal,
keeping between-meal snacks to a minimum and increasing levels of
exercise can help to reduce the risk of becoming overweight.
Energy requirements depend on body size, stage of development and
level of exercise, as shown in Table 6.2.

Energy used in a day (kJ) |

Male | Female
6-year-old child 7500 7500
12 to 15-year-old teenager 12500 1 9700
adult manual worker 15000 S 12000 _
adult office worker 11000 _ 9800
pregnant woman poe 0000
__ breastfeeding woman avs | 11 000
A Table 6.2 Daily energy requirements for different people.
 Malnutrition
The term malnutrition literally means ‘bad nutrition’ and applies to
any diet that will lead to health problems. A diet that is too high in
energy content, and leads to obesity, is one form of malnutrition,
because obesity increases the risk of several diseases.
Malnutrition can occur if one or more nutrients is in too high a proportion
in the diet. For example, a high proportion of saturated fats in the diet can
lead to deposits of cholesterol forming on the inside of arteries, increasing
blood pressure and also increasing the risk of coronary heart disease.

A Fig. 6.5 Starvation is most commonly seen in places where crops

have failed due to drought (famine) or when people have been
displaced as a result of war. However, it can also happen in people
who choose to starve themselves, for example, by crash dieting or as
a result of conditions such as anorexia.

Malnutrition also occurs if any of the substances needed for a healthy

body are in too low a proportion in the diet. For example, a lack of a
vitamin or a mineral can cause deficiency diseases, as shown in
Table 6.1. Too little fibre in the diet can lead to constipation, in
which food moves too slowly through the alimentary canal,
increasing the risk of diseases such as diverticulitis and bowel cancer.

> |

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 Developing investigative skills =
_ Combustion (burning)offood releases heat energy. The word
equation for combustion is: _ .. | thermometer

food + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water (+ heat energy) oo

This reaction is similar to respiration inside cells, so we canusea
combustion experiment to mode the energy
l that is released from |
foods during respiration. — | a
A crisp/potato chip and aplant leaf were tested in an investigation
to see which released the most energy
by combustion.
Here are _
the results. : L
water intest | 400
tube

temperature of water before

burningin °C :
burning food |
energy released b
injoules | :
A Fig. be hemes for: |
- oo burning food. :
Demonstrate anddescribe techniques _ oo oo o
@ a) Look at the diagram and describe what happens during the :
experiment, . |
b) Identify any areasof safety that should have been consideredand
suggesthowriskscouldbecontrolied. .—=«._—s«s rs

Analyse and interpret data , ; oo

@ a) Use the results to calculate the energy released
pergramof
-eachsample. a... llrr—~—<“‘COCOCOCC
b)Explainwhyyouneedtodoths. =
@ Which part ofthe sample released the mostenergypergram? |
@ A plant seed contains
asimilar amount of energy asacrisp.Suggestwhy =
some animals that eat the leaves of plantsformostoftheyearchange =—s_—> 8
toeatingseeds(nuts)whentheyateavailable = cr

‘Evaluatedataandmethods
@Theapparatus shown does not give accurate resu
ener gy in the burning material. Explain whan
yd, lts
sugg«fo
_ would increase the accuracy oftheresults.
 Starvation occurs when there is too little energy provided by the diet.
In this state, the body will start to break down its energy stores. Initially
this uses the fat stores but, when those have run out, the body will start
to break down muscle tissue to produce substances that can be used in
respiration. This can damage the muscle tissue of the heart, and also
the immune system, increasing the risk of many diseases.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain why different groups of people need different amounts
of nutrients. Give examples in your answer.
2. Explain why someone following a healthy diet needs to consider
energy as well as nutrients.
3. Explain why the following are considered to be a result of
malnutrition:

a) obesity
b) starvation
c) constipation.

END OF EXTENDED

ALIMENTARY CANAL
Eating food involves several different processes:
¢ ingestion — taking food and drink into the body (through the mouth
in humans)
¢ digestion — breaking down of large food molecules into smaller
water-soluble molecules using both chemical and mechanical
methods
¢ absorption of digested food molecules from the intestine into the
blood and lymph vessels
* egestion — removal of substances through the anus that were
ingested but not absorbed by the body (faeces).
All these different processes take place in different parts of the
alimentary canal.
The alimentary canal is a continuous tube through the body, from the
mouth where food is ingested, through the oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine and large intestine, to the anus where faeces is egested.
You could say that materials in the alimentary canal aren't truly in the
body. Not until food molecules are absorbed, do they cross cell
membranes into body tissue. Then waste products can be excreted
through other organs.
The digestive system includes the alimentary canal and the other
organs that contribute to digestion, for example, the liver, pancreas and
NUTRITION
ANIMAL
gall bladder. Table 6.3 describes the functions of each of the organs in
the digestive system.

Part of digestive What happens there

system
Seana |
Ercan nee eee

mouth teeth and tongue break down food into

smaller pieces
salivary glands produce liquid saliva, which moistens food so it
is easily swallowed and contains the enzyme
amylase to begin breakdown of starch
oesophagus each lump of swallowed and chewed food,
called a bolus, is moved from the mouth to
the stomach by waves of muscle contraction
called peristalsis
stomach acid and protease enzymes are secreted to
start protein digestion; movements of the
muscular wall churn up food into a liquid
liver cells in the liver make bile; amino acids not
used for making proteins are broken down to
form urea, which passes to the kidneys for
excretion; excess glucose is removed from the
blood and stored as glycogen in liver cells
gall bladder stores bile from the liver; the bile is passed
along the bile duct into the small intestine,
where it neutralises the stomach acid in
the chyme
pancreas secretes digestive enzymes in an alkaline fluid
into the duodenum
small intestine secretions from the gall bladder and pancreas
(duodenum and enter the first part of the small intestine
ileum) (duodenum) to complete the process of
digestion; digested food molecules and water
are absorbed in the ileum
large intestine water is absorbed from the remaining
(colon) material
rectum the remaining, unabsorbed, material
(faeces), plus dead cells from the lining of
the alimentary canal and bacteria, are
| compacted and stored
=
anus faeces is egested through a sphincter <
Z
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A Table 6.3 The functions of parts of the human digestive system. U
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 The distance from mouth to
anus is about eight metres.

mouth

oesophagus — pushes food

down to stomach
liver

stomach
gall bladder

pancreas

large intestine
small intestine

anus rectum

Approximate time spent in each area

be 10 seconds ee 1-5 hours we 5 hours ee 14-24 hours

A Fig. 6.7 The human digestive system.

Food moves along the alimentary canal because of the contractions of

the muscles in the walls of the alimentary canal. This is called
peristalsis. Fibre in the food keeps the bolus bulky and soft, making
peristalsis easier.
Peristalsis moves food along the digestive system.

circular muscle contracting

iy|i longitudinal muscle contracting
circular muscle relaxing
longitudinal muscle relaxing
muscular wall of
movement ii alimentary canal
of food

food bolus i i
circular muscle contracting
longitudinal muscle relaxing

z2
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= A Fig. 6.8 Peristalsis moves food along the digestive system.
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QUESTIONS
ees
1. Sketch the diagram of the digestive system shown in Fig. 6.7.
Label the organs, and add notes to each organ to explain its
function in the system.
2. Explain the difference between egestion and excretion.
3. Explain how the muscles of the alimentary canal wall move food.

arta CHEMISTRY - PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER, ACIDS |

- Breaking down food into molecules small enough to be absorbed |
into the bloodstream involves a number of different chemical
reactions, making use of enzymes and other chemicals, such as acid
in the stomach.

PHYSICS - FORCES AND PRESSURE

- An early stage in breaking down food is the mechanical process of
biting and chewing the food into smaller pieces.
Different teeth have different shapes to help the process in particular
ways — the different types of teeth vary the pressure on the food and
help with different actions such as cutting, gripping and grinding.

DIGESTION
Different types of digestion
If food is to be of any use to us, the food molecules must enter the
blood so that they can travel to every part of the body. Many of the
foods we eat are made up of large, insoluble molecules that cannot
cross the wall of the alimentary canal and the cell membranes of cells
lining the blood vessels. This means the food molecules have to be
broken down into small, soluble molecules that can easily cross cell
membranes and enter the blood. Breaking down the molecules is called
digestion, both mechanical and chemical methods are used.

EXTENDED

Mechanical and chemical digestion

¢ Mechanical and physical digestion occurs mainly in the mouth,
where food is broken down physically into smaller pieces by the =

biting and chewing action of the teeth. It also happens in the small o=
“
intestine, where bile helps to emulsify fats, whieh means breaking ee

9
them into small droplets. a

¢ Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large food molecules into

smaller ones using chemicals such as enzymes.
 Some molecules, for example, glucose, vitamins, minerals and water,
are already small enough to pass through the alimentary canal wall
and do not need to be digested.

QUESTION
1. Explain the difference between chemical and mechanical/
physical digestion.

ce END OF EXTENDED
eee eeeee———————————=EE———__ Eo

Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion in the alimentary canal is the result of enzymes.
Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that are produced in the
cells lining parts of the digestive system and are secreted (produced)
into the alimentary canal to mix with the food.
The digestive enzymes include:
~ @ carbohydrases that break down carbohydrates, one example of which
| is amylase
¢ proteases
e lipases.

REMEMBER
The -ase at the end of the name means that it is an enzyme, and the
first part usually names the substrate that the enzyme works on.

Each of the food groups (carbohydrates, proteins and fats) contains

many different molecules. As each enzyme is specific to its substrate,
this means that in each group of digestive enzymes there are many
different enzymes.

EXTENDED

Different enzymes are made in different parts of the digestive system,

as shown in Table 6.4.

Enzyme Where produced Substrate Final products*

amylase salivary glands (mouth) | starch glucose
pancreas
protease (many stomach wall | proteins “ibamino acids
types) pancreas
lipase (many types) | pancreas fats and oils fatty acids and
(lipids) glycerol
A Table 6.4 Digestive enzymes.
NUTRITION
ANIMAL
*These are the soluble substances produced at the end of digestion. The substances in food and
drink may go through many stages of digestion by different enzymes as they pass through the
alimentary canal.
 SCIENCE

LACTOSE

Lactose (from /actis, meaning milk) is the disaccharide sugar in milk,

which is broken down in the alimentary canal by the enzyme lactase
to the simple sugars glucose and galactose.

Like all young mammals, human babies produce lactase, which helps
them to digest the lactose in breast milk. In most mammals the
production of lactase decreases as the young mature, because the
adult diet does not include milk. This also happens in adults from
many human cultures in which adults generally do not drink milk,
such as in South-East Asia. However, there are human cultures in
Europe, India and parts of East Africa, where mammals such as sheep,
goats or cattle are kept to supply meat and milk for food. In these
human groups the adults continue to produce lactase and are able to
digest the lactose in milk. Adults who cannot do this are lactose
intolerant. In these people bacteria in the alimentary canal break
down the lactose, producing gas, which causes great discomfort.

Details of digestion
Amylase only partly digests starch, to the disaccharide (two simple
sugars) maltose. Digestion to the monosaccharide glucose is completed
by the enzyme maltase, which is attached to the epithelial cell
membranes of the small intestine.
Similarly, there are several proteases involved in the breakdown of
proteins to amino acids. Different proteases are produced in different
parts of the digestive system. Protein digestion starts in the stomach,
when the first protease is produced and is continued in the small
intestine where are other proteases are produced.

The right conditions

Remember that different enzymes work better in different conditions.
Those enzymes that digest food in the stomach work best in acid
conditions. Special cells in the lining of the stomach secrete
hydrochloric acid into the stomach to create the right conditions for
the enzymes. The acid is also helpful in killing microorganisms taken in
with the food.
This happens because the low pH denatures enzymes in the
microorganisms so that they cannot function properly.

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Q
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w
g
a
 QUESTIONS
1. Explain why enzymes are needed in the digestive system.
2. a) Which enzyme has starch as its substrate?
b) Which product is formed by the digestion of starch by
this enzyme?
3. Describe the role of stomach acid

END OF EXTENDED

ANIMAL
NUTRITION
 End of topic checklist
Key terms
alimentary canal, amylase, balanced diet, carbohydrate, chemical digestion,
constipation, digestion, digestive enzyme, egestion, famine, faeces, fat, fibre,
ingestion, insoluble, lipase, malnutrition, mechanical digestion, mineral,
obesity, peristalsis, physical digestion, protease, protein, secretion, soluble,
starvation, vitamin, waste product

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O) How to describe the roles of the main components of a healthy human diet, these
being: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins (for example, A, C and D), minerals
(for example, calcium and iron), water and dietary fibre.
O That a balanced diet includes all the components needed for health in the
right proportions.

©) EXTENDED How to describe the effects of malnutrition.

©) EXTENDED How to explain the causes and effects of malnutrition.

© EXTENDED That diet provides energy as well as nutrients and different groups of
people have different requirements.
QO) That the human alimentary canal is made up of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine and large intestine.
O) That ingestion takes place in the mouth, digestion is the breakdown of large food
molecules into smaller ones by mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption is
the taking of nutrients from the small intestine, and egestion is the removal of
waste food from the body.
QO) That chemical digestion breaks down large food molecules into small molecules
that can be absorbed.
C) To state the functions of digestive enzymes including amylase (digest starch to
simpler sugars), lipases (digest fats to fatty acids and glycerol) and proteases
(digest proteins to amino acids).

C) EXTENDED How to describe the digestion of starch, and the role of pepsin and
trypsin in the alimentary canal.
QO EXTENDED That amylase is secreted in the mouth, stomach and by the pancreas;
lipases are secreted by the pancreas; proteases are secreted in the stomach and
by the pancreas: enzymes secreted by the pancreas pass into the small intestine.

() EXTENDED How to explain that hydrochloric acid in the stomach denatures

harmful microorganisms and provides the right pH for gastric enzymes.
NUTRI
ANIMA
() To state that digested food molecules are absorbed in the small intestine.
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. Describe the importance of the following in a healthy diet:

a) vitamins C and D (2 marks)

b) the minerals calcium and iron (2 marks)

c) water (1 mark)

d) dietary fibre. (2 marks)

. Identify the organs of the digestive system involved, and their role, in each of the
following processes:
a) ingestion (2 marks)
b) digestion (5 marks)
c) absorption. (2 marks)

ANIMAL
NUTRITION
3. This is the diet schedule for a male Olympic athlete training for a competition, not
including drinks during training.

breakfast large bowl of cereal, such as porridge or muesli

half pint semi-skimmed milk plus chopped banana
1-2 thick slices wholegrain bread with olive oil or sunflower
spread and honey orjam
glass of fruit juice + 1 litre fruit squash
post-training portion of scrambled eggs
2nd breakfast portion of baked beans
1-2 pieces of grilled tofu
portion ofgrilled mushrooms or tomatoes
2 thick slices wholegrain bread with olive oil spread
1 litre fruit squash
i pasta with bolognese or chicken and mushroom sauce
mixed side salad
fruit
1 litre fruit squash
post-training 4 slices toast with olive oil or sunflower spread and jam
snack large glass of semi-skimmed milk
fruit
500 ml water
evening meal grilled lean meat or fish
6-7 boiled new potatoes, large sweet potato or boiled rice
large portion of vegetables, for example, broccoli, carrots,
corn or peas
1 bagel
1 low-fat yoghurt and 1 banana or other fruit
750ml water and squash
bedtime low-fat hot chocolate with 1 cereal bar
snack

NUTR
ANIM
 End of topic questions continued
a) Identify the foods that contribute to each of these food types:
i) carbohydrates (5 marks)

ii) proteins (3 marks)

iii) lipids (2 marks)

| iv) vitamins and minerals (2 marks)

v) dietary fibre. (1 mark)

b) Which food type is most represented in this diet? (1 mark)

c) Explain why this food type is so important in this diet. (1 mark)

d) Which food group would you expect to be more represented in an

athlete's diet in the early stages of training? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

e) Explain why this diet is not suitable for everyone. (2 marks)

NUTRITION
ANIMAL
2 eset is conta ‘esplants and animals. Plants live in many
_ different environments a Earth, from the hot, humid rainforests,

adapt which they live to enable them to

tions in
. - survive. Indeserts, forexample, water is usually very limited, and
the air temperature may range from above 40°C during the day to
below zero at night. Most plants would not be able to survive in
these conditions, but those that do live in the desert have
: developed some very special adaptations that allow them to store
water, reduce the loss of water from their leaves, and even help to
- insulate them against the very cold desert nights. :
An average--sized human adult carries about 4.5-5.0 litres of blood.
Blood is pumped around the bodies of mammals by the heart to
carry oxygen, nutrients and water to every organ, tissue and cell,
and transport waste products away from cells. The human heart is
about the size of an adult fist, located just about in the centre of
the chest. It beats over 100000 times a day, and the characteristic ~
double sound of a beat corresponds to the two sets of heart valves. -
opening and closing in order.

SECTION CONTENTS.
=) Transport in plants
2) Transport in mammals
 \ Sees 4
A The roots of this tree have grown away from the trunk in order to access the
 Transport
INTRODUCTION
In one day, hundreds of litres of water will
be absorbed from the soil and transpired
through a fully grown tree in the Amazonian
rainforest. This has a major impact on the
environment in the rainforests. It reduces
the amount of water in the soil. It also cools
the air around the trees as the water
evaporates into the air. The increase in water
vapour in the air also affects where rainfall
occurs. So the trees are effectively
A Fig. 7.1 These fine clouds over the Amazon controlling the climate.
rainforest are formed from water transpired by
trees earlier in the day.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Cells in a plant leaf make glucose by photosynthesis, which is converted to sucrose
and transported to other parts of the plant in phloem cells.
/ Xylem vessels transport water and mineral ions from the roots of a plant through the
stem to the leaves.
/ The heart and blood vessels form the human circulatory system.
Y Cells need a continuous supply of oxygen and glucose for respiration, which are
supplied by the blood in a human body.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY State the functions of xylem tissue and identify xylem in sections of plant structures.
V State the functions of phloem tissue and identify phloem in sections of plant structures.
VY |dentify root hair cells and state their functions.
Vv Describe and investigate the pathway taken by water through a plant.
/Y EXTENDED Explain the importance of the large surface area of root hairs.
Y Define the term transpiration.
¥ Describe and investigate the effect of temperature and humidity on transpiration rate.
¥Y EXTENDED Explain the effects of variation of temperature and humidity on
transpiration rate.
V Describe the circulatory system as a system of continuous blood vessels, with a
pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood.
¥Y EXTENDED Describe the double circulatory system of mammals and explain
its advantages.
VY Describe the structure of the heart and how its activity can be monitored.
¥ EXTENDED Explain how the structure of the heart is linked to its function.
V Investigate the effect of exercise on heart rate.
¥ EXTENDED Describe coronary heart disease and how it is linked to diet, stress,
TRANSPORT
smoking, genetic factors, age and gender.
v Describe the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries and identify some of the main
arteries and veins in the human body.
¥Y EXTENDED Explain how the structure of different blood vessels is related to their
different roles in transporting blood.
V List the main components of human blood and describe their functions.
Y Identity red and white blood cells in diagrams and photomicrographs.

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
In plants, water and dissolved substances are transported throughout
the plant in a series of tubes or vessels. There are two types of
transport vessel in plants, called xylem and phloem.
¢ Xylem tissue contains long, hollow xylem cells that form long tubes
through the plant. The tubes are the hollow remains of dead cells.
The thick strong cell walls help to support the plant. Xylem tubes are
important for carrying water and dissolved mineral ions, which have
entered the plant through the roots to all the parts of the plant that
need them. They are particularly important for supplying the water
that the leaf cells need for photosynthesis.
e Phloem cells are living cells that are linked together to form
continuous phloem tissue. Dissolved food materials, particularly
sucrose and amino acids that have been formed in the leaf, are
transported all over the plant from the leaves. For example, sucrose
will be carried to any cell that needs glucose for respiration. Sucrose
is less reactive than glucose and, therefore, is easier to transport
without causing problems for other cells. Sucrose may also be carried
to parts of the plant where it will be stored, often as another
carbohydrate, such as starch which is stored in seeds and root tubers.
This transport of sucrose and other materials is called translocation.
In roots the xylem and phloem vessels are usually grouped separately,
but in the stem and leaves they are found together as vascular
bundles or veins.
Root cross-section Stem cross-section
packing cells hollow pith
:
dead, fibrous
cells give the
plant support
- vascular bundle (vein)

phloem: carries
epidermis products of
photosynthesis
around the plant
xylem: carries
water and mineral
ions from roots to
upper epidermis
the rest of the plant
strengthening cells
vein (xylem) — transports
water and mineral salts

SU i= ae vein (phloem) — transports

food

lower epidermis
PLAN
IN
TRAN
A Fig. 7.2 The positions of xylem and phloem tissue in a root, stem and leaf.
 A Fig. 7.3 Photomicrographs of (left) a cross-section of the middle of a buttercup
root, (middle) a cross-section of part of a pumpkin stem, (right) a cross-section of
a vein in a meadow-beauty leaf.

SCIENCE

TREE RINGS

The wood of a tree is mostly xylem tissue.

Every year, new xylem cells are produced
from a ring of cells just inside the bark of the
tree. When the tree is growing rapidly, the
new xylem cells are large. In temperate
regions, such as the UK, the rate of growth
and the size of new cells decrease as autumn
approaches, and growth stops during
winter. The difference in size of cells
produced over one year gives the tree its
‘rings’ and makes it possible to estimate the
age of the tree.

A Fig. 7.4 Growth rings occur in temperate climates

when new xylem cells alternately grow (in spring and
summer) and stop growing (in winter).

QUESTIONS
1. Where would you find xylem and phloem tissue in a plant?
2. Describe the structure and function of xylem tissue.
3. Describe the structure and function of phloem tissue.

TRANSPORT
Water uptake
Plants absorb water and dissolved mineral
ions from the soil through root hair cells.
Root hair cells are found in a short region
just behind the growing tip of every root.
They are very delicate, and easily damaged.
As the root grows, the hairs of the cells are
lost, and new root hair cells are produced
near the tip of the root.
A Fig. 7.5 The root of this germinating seed has many fine
root hair cells that greatly increase its surface area.

EXTENDED
Root hair cells are specially adapted for absorption of substances,
because they have a fine extension that sticks out into the soil. This
greatly increases their surface area for absorption.
Soil water contains minute amounts of dissolved mineral ions. So
dissolved mineral ions are usually in higher concentration inside root
cells than in the soil water. This means that essential mineral ions
cannot usually enter the root by diffusion, because that would be
against their concentration gradient. Instead, the cell membranes of
root hair cells are adapted to take in mineral ions such as nitrates and
magnesium ions by active transport.

END OF EXTENDED

Water enters the root hair cells, then passes across the root from cortex cell
to cortex cell by osmosis. It then enters the xylem tissue in the root and
can move from there to all other parts of the plant, including the leaves.
xylem vessel epidermal cell — soil particle

passage cell cortex film of soil water root hair

A Fig. 7.6 The passage of water across a root.

In the leaves, water moves out of the xylem cells in the vascular
bundle, into the cells of the spongy mesophyll by osmosis.
PLAN
IN
TRA
 Investigating water movement through a plant
The movement of water through the above-ground parts of a plant can
be investigated by adding food colouring to the water given to the plant.
Food colouring is soluble and is carried aroueh the nat with the
water in the xylem. After a day or two in coloured water, the veins of
the leaves and flowers of a plant will show the colour.

A Fig. 7.7 A section across a celery stalk that A Fig. 7.8 A carnation flower that has been
has been standing in coloured water fora day — standing in coloured water shows the colour
will show colour mainly within the veins in its petals.
(vascular bundles) of the stalk.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the route that water takes as it moves through a plant.
2. How could you investigate the above-ground route that water
takes as it moves through a plant? Explain your answer.

Transpiration
Water is a small molecule that easily crosses cell membranes. Inside
the leaf, water molecules cross the cell membranes of the spongy
mesophyll cells into the air spaces. This process is called evaporation
because the liquid water in the cells becomes water vapour in the air
spaces. Whenever the stomata in a leaf are open, water molecules
diffuse from the air spaces out into the air (where there are usually
fewer water molecules). So, in addition to using water in the process of
photosynthesis, plants lose water by evaporation from the leaf. This
loss of water from the leaves is called transpiration.
TRANSPORT
very little water lost -
through waxy cuticle Cla

water passes from hn . palisade

xylem cells to other cells aearecenmcen| layer
by osmosis

water evaporates from be Se. Gad)

cell surfaces into air
spaces of the spongy
mesophyll layer o
water diffuses out of
the leaf, through the
stomata “«
guard cell

water in xylem
from the roots

A Fig. 7.9 How water leaves a plant.

Factors that affect the rate of transpiration

Several factors affect the rate of transpiration.
EXTENDED
The rate of transpiration from a leaf will be affected by anything that
changes the concentration gradient of water molecules between the
leaf and the air. The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the
rate of transpiration.
END OF EXTENDED
Transpiration is faster when:
e the temperature is higher
the air is dry (low humidity).
e Temperature — Increased temperature means particles have more
energy, which results in faster movement of the particles. The faster
particles move, the easier it is for them to evaporate from cell
surfaces into the air spaces, diffuse out of the leaf and move away.
So, increased temperature increases the rate of transpiration.
¢ Humidity — This is a measure of the concentration of water vapour
in the air. When the air is very humid, it feels damp because there is
a high concentration of water vapour in the air. When the air feels
dry, the humidity is low. The concentration of water molecules inside
the air spaces in the leaf is high. The higher the humidity of the air,
the lower the concentration gradient between the air outside and
inside the leaf, and so the lower the rate of transpiration.
PLAN
IN
TRA
 leafy twig

Petroleum jelly
to prevent air
leaks

rubber tubing

water column

bubble of air

capillary tubing

(‘=
c
fe)
a
nw
z
zt
c
E
ee
QUESTIONS

1. Define the word transpiration.

2. Copy the diagram of the plant and leaf section in Fig. 7.9 and
add your own annotations to explain how water moves through
the plant. Include the following words in your labels:
evaporation, osmosis, diffusion, transpiration.
3. Explain the advantage to plants of closing their stomata at night
in terms of water loss.
4. Explain, in terms of the movement of water molecules, why
transpiration rate is faster when:
a) the temperature is higher
b) the humidity of the air is lower.

PLAN
IN
TRA

103
 TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS
Almost no cell in your body is more than 20 1m
(0.02 mm) from a blood vessel. This is because the
blood delivers a constant supply of oxygen and
glucose, for respiration, without which the cells will
septal die. So it’s not surprising that, no matter
where you cut yourself, you will bleed. Many of the
blood vessels that penetrate the tissues are
extremely narrow — about 5 tol 0pm wide, which is
about the width of one red blood cell. It has been
calculated that if you placed the blood vessels of an
adult in a line it would wrap four times around the
equator of the Earth.
Transport in mammals usually takes place inside a
circulatory system. A circulatory system is formed
from a system of continuous tubes (blood vessels)
A Fig. 7.11 This photograph shows the larger that carry blood around the body. The tubes are
blood vessels that are found in a lung. The connected to a pump, the heart, which forces the
ae ao els blood through the circulation. Valves in the heart
and in some of the blood vessels make sure that
blood circulates in only one direction.

EXTENDED

Different circulatory systems

Fish have a single circulatory system, which means that blood passes
all parts of the body in one circuit before returning to the heart. The
mammalian circulatory system (as in humans) is more complex than
that of a fish. It is described as a double circulation because the
blood passes through the heart twice for each time that it passes
through the body tissues. This is because when blood leaves the left
side of the heart it passes through the tissues of the lungs before
returning to the heart for pumping around the rest of the body.
Separating the circulation to the lungs from the circulation to the body
means that the blood in the two circulations can be at different pressures.
¢ Blood leaving the left side of the heart is normally below 4kPa. Blood
diesen far to the lung tissue, so there is little loss of pressure
before it reaches the apne. surrounding the alveoli. This lower
pressure prevents damage to the delicate capillaries that pass through
lung tissue.
¢ Blood leaving the right side of the heart has to travel all round the
body and back to the heart. So it needs to start at a much higher
pressure, at about 16kPa as it leaves the heart. By the time it reaches
the capillaries within body tissues, the pressure has dropped to below
3kPa and so will not damage them.

END
TRANSPORT OF EXTENDED
QUESTIONS
1. What is the role of the heart in the circulatory system?
2. What prevents blood flowing the wrong way round through the
circulatory system?
3. EXTENDED Explain what is meant by a double circulatory system.

Heart
The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood by expanding in size
as it fills with blood, and then contracting, forcing the blood on its way
through the blood vessels. Blood is pumped away from the heart in
arteries and returns to the heart through veins.

EXTENDED
The heart is two pumps in one. The right side and left side are
separated by a layer of tissue called the septum. The right side pumps
blood to the lungs to collect oxygen. The left side then pumps the
oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. The deoxygenated
(without oxygen) blood then returns to the right side, to be sent to the
lungs again.

END OF EXTENDED

vena Cava —
from upper body aorta — to all of body

pulmonary artery — to lungs

pulmonary veins —
from lungs

left atrium
semilunar valve semilunar valve
right atrium
atrioventricular atrioventricular
valve valve

right ventricle
left ventricle

vena cava —
from lower body

A Fig. 7.12 Structure of the human heart. Oxygenated blood is shown in red and deoxygenated
blood is shown blue. (Knowledge of the names of heart valves is not required.)

REMEMBER
We always draw diagrams of the circulatory system and heart as if looking
in a mirror, or at another person. So in the diagram the ‘left’ side of the
heart/circulation in a body is drawn on the right side of the diagram. MAM
IN
TRAN

LO
©
=
 The heart consists of four chambers: two atria
(single: atrium) and two ventricles. The walls of
the chambers are formed from thick muscle. Blood
that flows towards the heart passes through blood
vessels called veins. Blood that leaves the heart
passes through blood vessels called arteries. To
make sure that blood only flows in one direction
through the heart, there are valves at the points
where blood vessels enter and leave the heart,
and between the atria and ventricles. These close
when the heart contracts, to prevent backflow
of blood.
The heart has its own separate blood supply, to
provide the muscle tissue with oxygen and glucose
for respiration so that it can contract. These blood
vessels are called the coronary arteries and coronary
veins. You can see some of these on the outside of
a whole heart. A Fig. 7.13 Whole human heart.

EXTENDED
Blood flow through the heart
Blood passes through the chambers of the heart in a particular
sequence as the walls of the chambers contract. First the atria contract
at the same time, then the ventricles both contract at the same time, to
move the blood through the heart.
¢ Blood from the body arrives at the heart via the vena cava, and enters
the right atrium.
¢ Contraction of the right atrium passes blood through the tricuspid
valve to the right ventricle.
¢ Contraction of the right ventricle forces blood out through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs. The tricuspid valve closes to prevent
backflow of blood into the right atrium, and the semilunar valve then
closes to prevent backflow of blood into the ventricle.
¢ Blood enters the left atrium from the lungs through the
pulmonary vein.
¢ Contraction of the left atrium passes blood to the left ventricle
through the bicuspid valve.
¢ Contraction of the left ventricle forces blood out through the aorta
towards the rest of the body. The bicuspid valve closes to prevent
backflow of blood into the left atrium, and then the semilunar valve
closes to prevent backflow of blood into the ventricle.
END OF EXTENDED
-
4
2)
a.
va)
=
<
cc
=
‘QUESTIONS —
1. Name the four chambers of the mammalian heart.

2. Distinguish between arteries and veins.

3. EXTENDED Starting in the vena cava, list the chambers and blood
vessels in the order that blood passes through them until it
reaches the aorta.

Heart rate
Heart rate is the measure of how frequently
the heart beats, generally given as beats per
minute. We can take measurements of heart
rate by feeling for a pulse point, where the
blood flows through an artery near to the skin,
such as in the wrist or at the temple.
Taking the pulse rate is actually measuring the
expansion and relaxation of the artery wall as
the blood passes through it. However, as each
pulse of blood is created by one contraction of A Fig. 7.14 Taking the pulse at the wrist.

the ventricles, we say that we are measuring

heart beats.
Heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart. The ‘lub,
dup’ sounds of one complete contraction are the sounds of the valves
inside the heart as they open and shut.
Resting heart rate is the rate at which the
heart beats when the person is at rest. On
average it is between 60 and 80 beats per
minute for an adult human, but this range
is very variable. Resting heart rate may vary
as a result of:
¢ age — children usually have a faster
average than adults
e fitness — a trained athlete may have a
resting rate as low as 40 beats per minute
A Fig. 7.15 During an operation, a doctor continually
because their heart contains more muscle checks the patients ECG trace to make sure all is well.
and can pump out more blood with each
contraction
e illness — infection can raise resting heart rate, but some diseases of
the circulatory system can slow resting heart rate.

Changing heart rate

Heart rate increases during activity. The harder you exercise, the faster
the heart beats.

MAMM
IN
TRAN

a
©
=
 EXTENDED
The increase in heart rate increases the amount of blood that is pumped
around the body, and the speed with which it reaches body tissues. This
supplies oxygen and glucose more rapidly to respiring cells, particularly
in the muscles, and removes waste products more rapidly.
180 - pe

160 +-

= £ (=) IE

S [o)
ho

Speed/mph
Heart
rate/bpm

60 + r = 1
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00
Time/min

— heart rate — speed

A Fig. 7.16 How heart rate changes with exercise.

END OF EXTENDED

TRANSPORT
QUESTIONS
1. EXTENDED Explain why resting heart rate in an adult is given as a
range of values and not a single value.
2. Describe the effect of activity on heart rate.
3. EXTENDED Explain the effect of activity on heart rate.

EXTENDED

Coronary heart disease

The muscle of the heart has its own blood supply to provide the oxygen
and sugars it needs for respiration. The heart cannot get these materials
from the blood that flows through it, so there are coronary arteries and
veins that pass through heart muscle. If the blood flow through these
coronary blood vessels is reduced, it can reduce the amount of oxygen
and sugars getting to the muscle cells, and so reduce the amount of
energy that they can release through respiration.
Blockage of the coronary arteries can occur when layers of cholesterol
are deposited on the inner lining of the blood vessel. This causes
coronary heart disease. Even partial blockage can cause a health
problem, such as angina (heart pains) or high blood pressure. A full
blockage will cause a heart attack, which may result in death.
Wn

<x
a

=
=
x
=
<
=
oc
(eo)
a
7)
re
§
clean smooth narrowed artery =
inner surface due to cholesterol

A Fig. 7.17 Deposits of cholesterol inside arteries makes it more difficult for blood
to flow through freely, increasing the risk of diseases of the circulatory system.
 Some factors can increase the risk of a blockage of the coronary arteries:
@ diet: high levels of saturated fats in the diet (particularly from red
meats) may cause increased deposits of cholesterol
¢ smoking: chemicals in tobacco smoke that pass into the blood can
lemma. the delicate lining of arteries, which increases the chance
that lenosiis of cholesterol are laid down at these points.
Stress is not a direct cause of coronary heart disease, but response to
stress, such as smoking, drinking alcohol or eating for comfort,
particularly over a long time, can increase the riskof heart ihigse:
Genes can give some people a tendency towards developing coronary heart
disease. As “INE tendency can be inherited, the disease may appear more
commonly in some families than in others, and more frequently in some
particular ethnic groups than others. For example, African-Americans are at
greater risk of developing coronary heart disease than white Americans.
Preventing coronary heart disease
Medical advice for preventing coronary heart disease includes changing
the diet and amount of exercise taken.
Many studies of the relationship between saturated fat and heart
disease have concluded that reducing the amount of saturated fat in
the diet should reduce the risk of heart disease. However, it is difficult
to prove this relationship because people don’t just change their diet
when they are advised to live more healthily. For eee Ne they may
also change how much they exercise.
The amount of exercise taken each day does seem to affect the risk of
heart disease. Someone who has a sedentary lifestyle (mainly sitting)
can significantly reduce their risk of an early death by just a little
exercise every day. This exercise seems to strengthen the heart muscle
and make it able to cope with sudden increases in heart rate more
easily, such as when you run.

5
| Least fit
456
fad

CHS)S|
3-

risk
Relative
death
of
afit

Relative levels of exercise

A Fig. 7.18 The relationship between risk of death and level of exercise. ‘Relative level of
exercise’ is a Comparative measure of fitness comparing how much the energy the body uses
compared to a person at rest (group 1).Those in group 5 use 5 times as much energy being
active as those in group 1. Relative risk of death is a comparative measure of the risk of death
compared against the fittest group, who have a relative risk of 1. Those who are the least fit
have a 4.5 times bigger risk of death than those who are the most fit.
TRANSPORT

i=) END OF EXTENDED

=
=
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why the heart needs its own blood supply.
2. Identify four possible risk factors for coronary heart disease.
3. EXTENDED Explain how a person can reduce their risk of
coronary heart disease.

Blood vessels
Figure 7.19 shows a simplified layout of the human circulatory system,
including the major blood vessels. The name of a major blood vessel is
often related to the organ it supplies: coronary for heart (from the
Latin corona for ‘crown’ because the blood vessels surround the top of
the heart like a crown), renal for kidneys (from the Latin renes
meaning ‘the kidneys’), pulmonary for lungs (from the Latin pulmonis
meaning lungs’). Learn the names of the blood vessels that are
associated with the heart, the lungs and kidneys.

} head
hort coronary arteri ies
eal muscles
jugular yee carotid
vein artery

deoxygenated oxygenated
blood blood

pulmonary
pulmonary wel
artery

hepatic hepatic
vein artery

liver

aorta

hepatic mesenteric
portal vein artery

gut

renal renal
vein artery

kidneys

legs
and
body

A Fig. 7.19 Plan of the human circulatory system.

The largest vein and the largest artery in the body have special names.
The vena cava is the vein that carries blood to the heart, and the MAM
IN
TRAN

aorta is the artery that receives blood from the heart. eS

Ee
eS
 REMEMBER
Remember, a for arteries that travel away from the heart. Veins carry
blood into the heart and contain valves.

The blood vessels are grouped into three different types: arteries,
capillaries and veins.

vein:
thin-walled, carrying
blood at low
pressure

artery:
thick-walled, carrying
blood at high
pressure
capillary:
very small; the walls
may be just one
cell thick

A Fig. 7.20 Veins vary in diameter from about ' —

5 to 15mm. Capillaries are very small, with a A Fig. 7.21 Arteries vary in diameter
diameter of around 0.01 mm. from about 10 to 25mm.

¢ Arteries are large blood vessels that carry blood that is flowing away
from the heart. Arteries have thick muscular and elastic walls, with a
narrow central space (lumen) through which the blood flows.
¢ Capillaries are the tiny blood vessels that form a network throughout
every tissue and connect arteries to veins. Capillaries have very thin
walls. All the exchange of substances between the blood and tissues
happens in the capillaries.
¢ Veins are large blood vessels that carry blood that is flowing back
towards the heart. Veins have a large lumen through which blood
flows. Valves in the veins prevent backflow.

EXTENDED

Structure related to function

TRANSPORT
The structure of different blood vessels enables them to carry out their
function most efficiently.
 Blood carried in the arteries is at higher pressure than in the other
vessels. The highest pressure is in the aorta, the blood vessel that
leaves the left ventricle. The thick walls of arteries help to protect
them from bursting when the pressure increases as the pulse of blood
enters them. The recoil of the elastic wall after the pulse of blood has
passed through helps to maintain the blood pressure and even out
the pulses. By the time the blood enters the fine capillaries, the
change in pressure during and after a pulse has been greatly reduced.

Blood vessels | Blood pressure (kPa)

aorta TSE |
| arteries ] wpe)S. ive |
capillaries 3.3-1.6 a
veins lt
vena Cava 0.3

A Table 7.2 Blood pressure in different blood vessels.

The thin walls of capillaries helps to increase the rate of diffusion of

substances by keeping the distance for diffusion between the blood
and cell cytoplasm to a minimum.
By the time blood leaves the capillaries and enters the veins, there is
no pulse and the blood pressure is very low. The large lumen (centre)
of the veins allows blood to flow easily back to the heart. ‘The
contraction of body muscles, such as in the legs, helps to push the
blood back toward the heart against the force of gravity. The valves
make sure that blood can flow only in the right direction, back
towards the heart.
normal blood flow veins have valves to stop
the blood flowing backwards

open closed

A Fig. 7.22 Valves in the veins make sure that blood can only move in one
direction, toward the heart.

END OF EXTENDED
MAM
IN
TRAN
 QUESTIONS
1. Name the following blood vessels:
a) the vessels that carry blood to the kidneys
b) the vessel that carries blood from the heart toward the body
c) the vessels that carry blood from the lungs back toward
the heart.
2. Describe the differences in structure of arteries, capillaries and veins.
3. EXTENDED Explain how the structure of arteries helps to reduce
and even out the blood pulses from the heart.

arta
LINK CHEMISTRY - PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER
In liquids, such as the blood, the particles are able to move over
each other, which allows this flow to happen.
Substances need to move into and out of the blood stream, so ideas
about the relative size of the different particles become important.

PHYSICS - SIMPLE KINETIC THEORY, FORCES

- The pressure of the blood, being forced around the body by the
heart, also links to the properties offluids.
« As the blood is pumped along, the pressure in the fluid is
transmitted in all directions, so the sides of the blood vessels
have to be strong enough to cope with the forces involved.

Blood
The human circulatory system carries substances around the body. Table 7.3
shows some of the important substances transported around the human
body. These substances are carried within the blood, in different forms.

Carried from Carried to

T
__Substance |
molecules absorbed from || small intestine
|

|
| all parts of the body
digested food, for example, | |

glucose, amino acids, fatty | |

| Yacids |
Oleg ae yas |_intestines- __all parts of the body |
oxygen lungs 13 46 bo all parts of the body
| carbon dioxide __|_alll parts of the body lungs
Be |urea (waste) | liver _ _kidneys
i= | hormones glands all parts of the body

_
(different hormones
wT
Ls
|
affect different parts) |
=

A Table 7.3 Substances carried by the blood around the body.

 red blood cells

plasma white blood cells

A Fig. 7.23 Blood is mostly water, containing cells and many dissolved substances.

Blood contains plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
Each of these has a particular function in the body.

Plasma
Plasma is the straw-coloured, liquid part of blood. It mainly consists of
water, which makes it a good solvent for many substances. Digested
food molecules, such as glucose and amino acids, easily dissolve in
plasma. Urea, which is formed by the liver from excess amino acids, is
also soluble in plasma. Many hormones are also soluble and are carried
around the body dissolved in plasma. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water
to form carbonic acid (H,CO,), and most carbon dioxide is carried in
the blood in this form. =

Red blood cells

Red blood cells are the most numerous cell
type in blood. Their main function is to carry
oxygen around the body. The oxygen is attached
to molecules of haemoglobin inside the cells,
which give red blood cells their colour.

White blood cells

There are several different types of white
blood cell, but they all play an important role
in defending the body against disease. They
are part of the immune system that responds
to infection by trying to kill the pathogen
(the disease-causing organism). Some kinds of
white blood cell kill pathogens by engulfing A Fig. 7.24 Red blood cells (shown in red), MAMM
IN
TRAN
(flowing around the pathogen until it is white blood cells (yellow) and platelets (pink).
 completely enclosed), which is known as phagocytosis. Other
kinds of white blood cell produce chemicals called antibodies that
attack pathogens.

Platelets
Platelets are small fragments of much larger cells that are also
important in protecting us from infection by causing blood to clot
where there is damage to a blood vessel.

BLOOD TESTS

Doctors often send blood off to be tested when a patient is unwell.

These tests not only check the concentrations of different substances
in the blood, for example, glucose, they also count the number of
different kinds of cells. Taking a blood sample can be quick and easy
for a doctor to do, and the tests can help in diagnosing what is wrong
with the patient.
¢ An abnormal concentration of glucose may indicate diabetes.
¢ Too few white blood cells may indicate liver or bone marrow disease.
¢ Too few red blood cells can make the blood look paler than normal.
Low numbers of red blood cells cause anaemia, which usually
results in the patient feeling more tired than usual.
Any abnormal results are followed up with other tests to confirm diagnosis.

QUESTIONS

1. Draw up a table to show the components of blood and the roles

that they play in the body.
2. EXTENDED Using all of your knowledge, explain how the structure
of a red blood cell is adapted to its function.

TRANSPORT
 End of topic checklist
Key words
active transport, aorta, artery, atrium, capillary, circulatory system, coronary
heart disease, deoxygenated, diffusion, double circulation, evaporation,
haemoglobin, heart, heart rate, humidity, immune system, oxygenated,
pathogen, phagocytosis, phloem, platelet, root hair cell, stomata, translocation,
transpiration, valve, vascular bundle, vein, vena cava, ventricle, xylem

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O) That xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from plant roots to other
parts of the plant.

O) That phloem tissue carries sucrose and amino acids from where they are made in
the leaves to other parts of the plant.

QO) That root hair cells are the site of absorption of water and mineral ions into a plant.

O) EXTENDED How to explain the importance of the large surface area of root hair cells.

CO) To explain how water is absorbed from the soil through root hair cells and crosses
the root cells to the xylem. It then passes up the stem in the xylem to the leaf and
moves through the spongy mesophyll cells to the air spaces.

CQ) To explain that transpiration is the evaporation of water from the surfaces of a
plant, mostly through the stomata.

CQ) To explain that the rate of transpiration increases with increased temperature,
and decreased humidity.

C) To describe a circulatory system as consisting of tubes that carry blood around

the body, where the blood is pushed by a pump called the heart.

C) EXTENDED To describe the double circulatory system of humans in which blood

from the right side of the heart is pumped through the lungs, then back to the left
side of the heart and to the rest of the body.

O The heart pumps blood through arteries, then through capillaries, and finally
through the veins back to the heart.

YQ) The heart is formed from four chambers, two atria and two ventricles, which have
~ muscular walls to push blood through the heart. Valves prevent backflow of blood
so that it only flows in one direction.

TRAN
 End of topic checklist continued

() EXTENDED The heart pumps blood by the contraction of the atria followed by the
ventricles, with one-way valves preventing the backflow of blood. The septum
separates oxygenated from deoxygenated blood.

() Heart rate increases during exercise.

() EXTENDED Increase in heart rate during exercise supplies oxygen and glucose
more rapidly to active muscle cells and removes carbon dioxide more rapidly.

(.) EXTENDED To describe coronary heart disease as caused by the blockage of a

coronary artery.

() Diet, smoking, stress and genetic tendency are all risk factors for coronary
heart disease.

() To describe the structure ofarteries including the thick muscular walls and thin
central lumen.

() EXTENDED The muscular walls of arteries resist the pressure of blood as it enters
and even out the change in pressure as blood flows through.
() How to describe the structure of veins and capillaries.

() EXTENDED The thin capillary walls make it easier for substances such as carbon
dioxide, oxygen and glucose to be exchanged with cells.
() EXTENDED The large lumen in veins helps blood to flow easily through them, and
the valves prevent the blood flowing in the wrong direction.
() Human blood is formed from liquid plasma that carries red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets around the body.
() Plasma is mostly water in which many substances dissolve, such as glucose, urea
and hormones.
() Red blood cells have a disc shape, contain large amounts of haemoglobin, and
are small and flexible so that they can carry oxygen efficiently to all the cells
in the body.
©) White blood cells protect aginst infection, by the phagocytosis of pathogens and
by producing antibodies.
() EXTENDED White blood cells include phagocytes that engulf pathogens, and
lymphocytes which produce antibodies specific to a pathogen.

TRANSPORT

118
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.

1. Look at the photos in Fig. 7.3 of sections through a plant leaf, stem and root.

a) Using a sharp pencil, make careful diagrams that show the positions ofall the
main tissues in the sections. (Only draw a few cells in each tissue, to show
their form. It will take too long to draw all the cells.) (3 marks)

b) Use the labelled diagrams in Fig. 7.2 to help you to clearly label your
drawings to show the position of the xylem vessels. (3 marks)

c) Clearly label the position of the phloem vessels in each of

your drawings. (3 marks)
2. Flower sellers sometimes take white flowers and produce flowers of unusual
colours for sale. Explain how they may do this, and why it is possible. (4 marks)

3. EXTENDED Cactus plants have many adaptations to help them survive

in a dry desert. One of these adaptations is that they close their stomata
during the day and open them at night. Explain fully the advantage of
this adaptation. (4 marks)

TRAN
 End of topic questions continued
4. People who suffer from anaemia often have a low red blood cell count
(fewer blood cells per mm? blood). One of the symptoms of anaemia
is becoming tired more easily than usual. Explain why this symptom
occurs. (4 marks)

. Doctors look for risk factors in a person’s lifestyle to help advise their patients
on how to live more healthily.
a) Describe four risk factors for coronary heart disease. (4 marks)

b) EXTENDED For each of your answers to part a), explain what the patient
can or cannot do about them. (4 marks)

. EXTENDED The blood pressure of blood leaving the right ventricle of the human
heart is 3 kPa, and from the left ventricle is around 16 kPa. Explain how the
heart can produce these different pressures, and why this difference is important
for the body. (4 marks)

TRANSPORT
 End of topic questions continued
7. EXTENDED The graph below shows the death rate from coronary heart disease
(CHD) in some European countries compared with the proportion of the energy in
the average diet in those countries that is provided by saturated fat.
300 16
ae F15.5 & Death rate
200 15 CHD per 100000 of the

150
: 145 population per year

pie ¢@ Saturated fat as a

Death
rate 3:5 percentage of calorie
fat
Saturated
[13 intake

ir les

A Fig. 7.20 Death rates and saturated fat intake for some European countries.

a) Saturated fat consumption is a risk factor for coronary heart disease. Explain
what we mean by a risk factor. (1 mark)

b) Explain why saturated fat consumption is a risk factor for coronary

heart disease. (1 mark)

c) Analyse the shape of the graph. (3 marks)

d) Some people think this graph indicates that there is no correlation between
saturated fat consumption and CHD. Evaluate this idea. (4 marks)

TRAN
Our lungs are the organs that allow the body to take in oxygen
from the air and expel carbon dioxide that is produced in cells.
We breathe in and out about 500ml of air during every breath.
Oxygen from this air passes into tiny air sacs in the lungs, which
are called alveoli, and diffuses into the capillaries that lie just
underneath them. From here, the oxygen-rich blood is passed to
the heart, where it is pumped around the rest of the body,
delivering oxygen and nutrients from the digestive system to cells.
Cells use the nutrients and oxygen to carry out cell respiration. The
blood is then passed back to the lungs to offload carbon dioxide
and pick up a fresh supply of oxygen. When we talk about
respiration we often think of the process of breathing, but cellular
respiration is a series of chemical reactions that take place in cells
to generate the energy that they need to carry out their specific
functions.

SECTION CONTENTS
a) Gas exchange
9) Respiration
A Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli, located in the lungs.
 Gas exchange
and respiration
INTRODUCTION
Respiration uses substances that are gases in
air and produces gases that need to be
returned to the environment. These gases
must get into and out of the body fast
enough to support the rate at which body
processes work. For single-celled organisms
this isn’t a problem. They have a large
surface area to volume ratio, and diffusion
hee ects the cell membrane can supply and
in humans. remove the gases at a fast enough rate.
Larger organisms cannot do this. Not only do they have a much smaller
surface area to volume ratio, which slows the rate of diffusion, many of them
also live on land, where the delicate surface required for gas exchange would
dry out. Different groups of organisms have different solutions to these
problems. Plants exchange gases inside the leaf; insects have internal tubes
(a tracheal system) inside the body where they exchange gases; fish have gills;
and many vertebrates, including humans, have lungs.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Animals breathe in oxygen from the air and breathe out carbon dioxide.
¥ Humans use lungs for breathing.
Y Organisms need energy for all the life processes that keep them alive.
VY Plants get this energy from the sugars they make in photosynthesis.
¥ Animals get this energy from their food.
VY Plants take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide as a result of photosynthesis.

L LEARNING OBJECTIVES
=
2)
= VY EXTENDED Describe how the gas exchange surfaces of the lung are adapted
<
oe for diffusion.
V Identify on a diagram the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and
Qu.
Ww)
Liu
oc associated capillaries.
a)
Zz ¥ Describe the differences in composition of gases in inspired air and expired air.
<{
tu
i)
¥ EXTENDED Explain the differences in composition of gases in inspired air and expired air.
= V¥ Describe how you would investigate the effect of physical activity on the rate and
<t
a
oS) depth of breathing.
x
Lut
vw)
¥Y EXTENDED Explain why the rate and depth of breathing increase with
x increasing activity.
wy)
¥ EXTENDED Explain the role of mucus and cilia in the lungs in protecting against
damage and infection.
"A EXTENDED State that tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, lung cancer and coronary heart disease.
/ EXTENDED Describe the effects of tobacco smoke on the gas exchange system.
Y State that respiration releases energy in living organisms, and involves the action of
enzymes in cells.
V Give examples of how energy released from respiration is used in the human body.
¥ EXTENDED Describe aerobic respiration as the release of energy from glucose
using oxygen from the air.
V Give the word equation for aerobic respiration as:
glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water
/ EXTENDED Give the balanced symbol equation for aerobic respiration as:
OO.
Coi2an6
007 6COe- 60
V Investigate the uptake of oxygen by respiring organisms.

GAS EXCHANGE
Animals need to exchange gases with the environment, to supply
oxygen for respiration in cells and to remove the waste product of
respiration — carbon dioxide. These gases are exchanged at surfaces by
diffusion. So, gas exchange surfaces, such as in the human lungs, need
adaptations to maximise the rate at which diffusion occurs.

EXTENDED
An effective gas exchange surface has:
e a large surface area
e a short distance over which substances have to diffuse, so cells across
which diffusion occurs are usually thin
e a good blood supply
e vood ventilation to deliver more oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
from the body rapidly.

END OF EXTENDED

The human respiratory system

Breathing is the way that oxygen is taken into our bodies and carbon
dioxide is removed. When we breathe, air is moved into and out of our
lungs. This involves different parts of the respiratory system within the
thorax (the chest cavity).
When we breathe in, air enters though the nose and mouth. In the
nose the air is moistened and warmed. The air passes over the larynx,
where it may be used to make sounds, for example, when we talk. The
air travels down the trachea (windpipe) to the lungs. The air enters
the lungs through the bronchi (singular: bronchus), which branch and
divide to form a network of bronchioles.

EXTENDED
Cells called goblet cells in the lining of the trachea, bronchi and EXCH
GAS

bronchioles secrete mucus, which is a slimy liquid. This traps

microorganisms, which might be pathogens, and dust particles that are
 breathed in. The lining of the trachea and bronchi are covered in tiny
hairs called cilia, which are found on the surface of ciliated cells. The
cilia sweep in a coordinated motion to move the mucus up from the
lungs, up the trachea to the back of the mouth, where it can be
swallowed. The combined action of mucus and cilia helps to prevent dirt
and microorganisms entering the lungs and causing damage and infection.
By

cilia

goblet cells

A Fig. 8.2 Section through the tracheal epithelium, showing goblet cells, which
secrete mucus, and cilia, which sweep the mucus along the epithelial surface.

END OF EXTENDED

At the end of the bronchioles are air sacs. The bulges on an air sac are
called alveoli (singular: alveolus). The alveoli are covered in tiny blood
capillaries. This is where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged
between the blood and the air in the lungs. This is called gas exchange.
The movement of air across the alveolar surface is called ventilation.

air sacs
and their blood supply

larynx
bronchiole (Adam's apple)
(air in and out)
trachea
(windpipe)
blood away
from air sac

lung
alveolus

bronchus

intercostal muscle

bronchiole heart

GAS
AND
EXCHANGE
RESPIRATION air sac with alveoli é
rib
diaphragm

A Fig. 8.3 The human respiratory system.

The alveoli are where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse into and out of
the blood. For this reason, the alveoli are described as the site of gas
exchange, or the respiratory surface.

EXTENDED

The alveoli are adapted for efficiency in exchanging gases by diffusion.

They have:
e thin permeable walls, which keep the distance over which diffusion
of gases takes place between the air and blood to a minimum
e a moist lining, in which the gases dissolve before they diffuse across
the cell membranes
e a large surface area — there are hundreds of millions of alveoli in a
human lung, giving a surface area of around 70 m? for diffusion
e high concentration gradients for the gases, because the blood is
continually flowing past the air sacs, delivering excess carbon dioxide
and taking on additional oxygen, and because of ventilation of the
lungs, which refreshes the air in the air sacs.

blood entering j air in and out

(low O, concentration,
high CO, concentration yee
alveolar wall

moist mucus lining

capillary

blood leaving
(high O, concentration,
low CO, concentration)

A Fig. 8.4 Gas exchange in an air-filled alveolus.

REMEMBER
To write a really good answer, be careful how you describe the process
of gas exchange between the air in the lungs and the blood. Remember
that diffusion is a passive process, so that it only occurs while there is a
concentration gradient. Avoid answering in simple terms, which imply
that the movement of oxygen is only from the air to the blood, and that
the movement of carbon dioxide is only from the blood to the air.

uu
oO
END OF EXTENDED =
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ele
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Lid
a)
{
1)
 QUESTIONS
1. EXTENDED Explain, as fully as you can, why the lungs show
adaptations for a rapid rate of diffusion.
2. List the structures of the human respiratory system and, for each
structure, explain its role in breathing.
3. EXTENDED Sketch a diagram of an alveolus and annotate it
to show how it is adapted for efficient gas exchange.
(Hint: remember to refer to diffusion.)
4. EXTENDED What is the role of the cilia and mucus in the human
respiratory system?

Inspired air and expired air

The air we breathe in and out contains many gases. Oxygen is taken into
the blood from the air we breathe in. Carbon dioxide and water vapour
are added to the air we breathe out. The other gases in the air we
breathe in are breathed out almost unchanged, except for being warmer.

In inspired air | In expired air

carbon dioxide 0.04%

variable
A Table 8.1 Differences in composition of inspired and expired air.

We can compare the carbon dioxide in inspired air and expired air
using the apparatus shown in Fig. 8.5. Limewater reacts with carbon
dioxide and turns cloudy, so this is a test for carbon dioxide.
breathe in and out
through this tube

air from the atmosphere === air from the body can
can only be inspired only be expired
through this tube through this tube

A Fig. 8.5 Limewater in the tubes shows that expired air contains much more carbon dioxide
than inspired air. Note: one-way valves must be used when setting up this apparatus.

GAS
RESPIRATION
AND
EXCHANGE
 |
|
|
|
aS eee
_EXTENDED
The composition of inspired and expired air changes because:
@ oxygen is removed from the blood by respiring cells and used for
cellular respiration, so blood returning to the lungs has a lower
concentration of oxygen than blood leaving the lungs
e carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses into the blood
from respiring cells; the blood transports the carbon dioxide to the
lungs, where it diffuses into the alveoli
e water vapour concentration increases because water evaporates from
the moist linings of the alveoli into the expired air as a result of the
warmth of the body.
Other gases remain unaffected because they are not used or produced
by the body.

END OF EXTENDED

Investigating the effect of exercise on breathing

There are two aspects of breathing that can change during exercise — the
rate of breathing and the volume of breath.
e Rate of breathing is usually counted as the number of breaths
per minute.
e The volume of a breath can be measured in dm? using a spirometer.
A simple spirometer can be made using a 2-litre plastic bottle that
has been marked down the side with volumes of water. (This can be
done by adding 500 cm’ of water at a time, and marking the volume
on the side of the bottle with a waterproof marker.) When the bottle
is full of water, turn it upside-down into a water trough without
allowing any air into the bottle. Insert a flexible plastic tube into the
neck of the bottle and secure the bottle and tube in position. Clean
the other end of the tubing with antiseptic solution. (Alternatively,
add a mouthpiece to the end of the tubing that can easily be removed
and sterilised after each test.) To measure the volume of a breath, ask
the person to wear a noseclip and then to breathe out a normal
breath into the tube. The scale on the bottle can be used to measure
the volume of air breathed out.
(Safety note: this apparatus must only be used for measuring one
breath. The bottle must be set up again before measuring another
breath. This is because carbon dioxide build-up in the air in the
bottle over several breaths can be dangerous.)

Lu
©
zZ
<
=
VU
~
Lu
WwW
<{
oO
 The results of an investigation like the one in the Developing
investigative skills box above, should show that both the rate of
breathing and depth of breathing increase with the level of activity.
However, a trained athlete will show a smaller change in rate and
depth of breathing than an untrained person.

EXTENDED
asus 7einen cs Unneaiy
The rate and depth of breathing increase with level of activity because
as the muscles contract faster they respire faster and so make carbon
dioxide more quickly. Carbon dioxide is an acidic gas that dissolves
easily in water-based solutions, such as the cytoplasm of a cell and
blood plasma. The more carbon dioxide there is in solution the more
acidic the solution. A change in pH can affect the activity of many cell
enzymes, so it is important that carbon dioxide is removed from the
cells and the body as quickly as possible.
The increase in carbon dioxide concentration as a result of increased
physical activity is detected as the blood flows past receptors in part of
the brain. The receptors send impulses to the lungs, causing an
RESPIRATION
AND
EXCHANGE
GAS
increase in the rate and depth of breathing, which helps to remove the
extra carbon dioxide as quickly as possible.
 SCIENCE

aie HOW BREATHING RATE IS CONTROLLED

Rate of breathing is controlled by the part of the brain that measures
not the oxygen concentration of the blood but the carbon dioxide
concentration. This is because a small increase in carbon dioxide
concentration in body fluids could have a much more damaging
effect on the body than a small decrease in oxygen concentration.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the differences in composition between inspired air and
expired air.
2. Describe the effects of exercise on the rate and depth of breathing.
3. EXTENDED Explain the differences in composition between
inspired air and expired air.
4. EXTENDED Explain what would happen to cells if rate and depth
of breathing did not change during exercise.

EXTENDED

The effects of smoking

When a person smokes tobacco, the chemicals in the smoke are taken
into the lungs. Those chemicals that are small enough molecules can
then diffuse into the blood and be carried around the body. Many of
the chemicals in tobacco smoke have damaging effects, not only on the
respiratory system, but also on other systems in the body.
Smoking tobacco can cause chronic pulmonary obstructive diseases
(COPD), such as bronchitis and emphysema.
e The tar in tobacco smoke is a mixture of chemicals that form a black
sticky substance in the lungs. This sticky layer can coat the tiny
hair-like cilia lining the tubes of the lungs, making it more difficult
for them to clear out dust and microorganisms. This can result in
many lung infections and a thick cough as the smoker tries to clear
sticky mucus from the lungs. The irritation and infection can cause a
disease called bronchitis.
e Continued coughing, in order to clear tar and smoke particles from
lungs, over a long time damages the alveoli, breaking down the
divisions between them and so reducing their surface area. This
causes a disease called emphysema, in which the patient has
difficulty getting enough oxygen into their blood for any kind of
EXCH
AGAS
 activity. They may have to breathe pure oxygen to make sure their
damaged lungs can absorb enough oxygen into their body.
large surface area

pe alveolus I Bex

ae <] Fig. 8.6 Repeated coughing over a

surface area = long period breaks down the surface of
Air sac of a Air sac of a each alveolus, reducing the surface area
healthy person person suffering for exchange of gases. This condition Is
from emphysema called emphysema.

<I Fig. 8.7 People with emphysema may have to breathe air
containing a high concentration of oxygen, to make sure
that their damaged lungs can absorb enough oxygen into
their bodies. Breathing masks such as the one shown
attached to oxygen tanks can provide this for patients.

Many other gases in tobacco smoke are carcinogenic, meaning they cause
cells to become cancerous and take over tissue. Smoking is the greatest
cause of lung cancer. Smoking is also linked to many other kinds of cancer
in the body, and to heart disease. People who smoke are more likely to
suffer a heart attack or heart pains (angina) than people who do not smoke.
Tobacco smoke also contains carbon monoxide, which is a toxic gas. It
combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells and so prevents the cells
from carrying oxygen. This reduces the amount of oxygen that gets to
tissues, which in extreme cases can lead to cell death. In lower amounts
carbon monoxide can result in breathlessness, when the body cannot get
sufficient oxygen to cells for activity. During pregnancy, smoking passes
through the placenta to the developing fetus. This can reduce the rate of
growth of the fetus, resulting in a low birth weight, which can cause
complications during the birth and health problems through life.
Nicotine in tobacco smoke alters people’s moods — smokers often say
they feel more relaxed but alert after smoking. Nicotine is also highly
addictive, which makes it difficult for smokers to give up.

QUESTIONS
1. Give two examples of COPD, and describe the symptoms of each.
2. Describe the effects of carbon monoxide and nicotine on the body.
AND
EXCHANGE
GAS
RESPIRATION

END OF EXTENDED
RESPIRATION
When we talk about respiration generally, we usually mean breathing
(or ventilation), when gases are exchanged across a respiratory surface.
Here we are focusing specifically on cellular respiration, which is
the release of energy from the chemical bonds in food molecules such
as glucose. This only takes place inside cells, and every living cell
carries out cellular respiration.

REMEMBER
Be clear in your answers that you are using the term respiration to mean
cellular respiration, and to use ventilation not respiration when talking
about breathing.

Every cell in a living organism requires energy, and this energy comes
from respiration, which is the breakdown of chemical bonds in food
molecules such as glucose to release energy in a form that can be used
in cells.
In human cells, this energy is used:
e to produce the contraction of muscle cells
e to produce new chemical bonds during the synthesis (formation) of
new protein molecules
e to produce new chemicals needed for cell division and for the growth
of cells
e for the active transport of molecules across cell membranes
e to produce the movement of nerve impulses along nerve cells
e for the maintenance of a constant core body temperature.
Note that we usually refer to glucose as the nutrient molecule or food
molecule that is broken down in respiration. This is because it is the
molecule most commonly used in this reaction in the body. If glucose is
in short supply, then other molecules may be used instead from the
breakdown of fats or proteins.
Respiration is a series of reactions and, like other reactions in cells,
these are controlled by enzymes. So any change in a cell that affects
enzymes (such as a change in temperature or pH) will affect the rate of
respiration,

Aerobic respiration
Most plant and animal cells use oxygen during cellular respiration.
Respiration that uses oxygen to release energy from glucose is called
aerobic respiration. Water and carbon dioxide are produced as waste
products. This is very similar to burning fuel except that in our bodies
enzymes control the process.

RESP

@
©
=
 Aerobic respiration can be summarised by a word equation:

glucose + oxygen — water + carbon dioxide (+ energy)

EXTENDED
It can also be written as a symbol equation:

C.H,.O
6.512.6
+ 60, — 6H,0 + 6CO, (+ energy)

END OF EXTENDED

oxygen
carbon dioxide

glucose <1 Fig. 8.8 Aerobic

respiration in a cell.

The oxygen needed for respiration comes from the air (except for a small
proportion in photosynthesising plants, which comes from photosynthesis).
The carbon dioxide from cellular respiration is released to the air, and the
water is either used in the body or excreted through the kidneys.

SCIENCE
IN
fanaa” WATER FROM RESPIRATION

A camel can survive for many days without drinking liquid

water, which means it survives well in desert conditions.
The camel's hump is not a store of water, but a store of fat.
Over a long period without food, the fat is broken down to
release substances for aerobic respiration. As water is one
of the products of aerobic respiration, this also helps the
camel to survive longer without drinking water.

A complete lack of food and drinking water are A Fig. 8.9 Wild camels live in dry areas
and so must go many days without
conditions that would kill a human in a few days, because dunone wees
we don’t metabolise fat as well as the camel does, or
retain water as well. So, before setting out into the desert for a long trip, make sure
your camel has a large hump (and you have plenty of food and water).

During aerobic respiration, many of the chemical bonds in the glucose

molecule are broken down. This releases a lot of energy: around
GAS
AND 2900kJ of energy is released for each mole of glucose molecules used
EXCHANGE
RESPIRATION

in aerobic respiration.
 SCIENCE
atrage CHEMISTRY - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES,
STOICHIOMETRY

- Respiration is a chemical change releasing energy. The energy

changes occur as a result of bond-breaking and bond-making.

Using word equations and balanced symbol equations to describe

chemical changes helps us to understand the particle interactions
that are taking place.

PHYSICS - ENERGY
Energy is released during respiration and this links to several key
ideas about energy.
Ideas about conservation of energy indicate how much glucose is
required to maintain a healthy organism and how that might
change depending on age and lifestyle.
Energy transfers are not always useful and this links to processes for
maintaining body temperature as non-useful energy often transfers
as heat.

QUESTIONS
1. a) Write out the word equation for aerobic respiration.
b) Annotate your equation to show where the reactants
come from.
c) Annotate your equation to show what happens to the
products of the reaction in a human.
d) Describe how your answer to part c) might differ for a camel
on a long journey without water, and explain your answer.
2. Where does respiration take place in the body?
3. Give three examples of the use of energy from respiration in the
human body.
4. EXTENDED Write the balanced symbol equation for aerobic
respiration.

RESP
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
ogenic,
aerobic respiration, alveoli, bronchiole, bronchitis, bronchus, carcin
larynx, lungs,
cellular respiration, cilia, COPD, emphysema, gas exchange,
mucus, synthesis, trachea, ventilation

During your study ofthis topic you should have learned:

QO EXTENDED That humans exchange gases with the environment by diffusion, so
the lungs need a large surface area, a short distance for diffusion to the blood,
and continual ventilation ofthe inside ofthe lungs.
Q To describe ventilation as the breathing in and out of air to the lungs, through the
larynx, where sound may be produced, down the trachea to the two bronchi, and
through the bronchioles to the alveoli, where the gases are exchanged with the
many capillaries that lie next to the alveoli.
() That expired air contains more carbon dioxide, less oxygen and more water
vapour than inspired air.
O EXTENDED The differences in gas concentration in inspired air and expired air are
the result of respiration in cells using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide, and
the evaporation of water vapour from surfaces inside the lungs.
QO) That an increased level of activity increases the rate and depth of breathing.
© EXTENDED
The increased rate and depth of breathing during activity removes the
increased amount of carbon dioxide produced by respiration and so stops the pH
of body tissues and blood falling.
O) That goblet cells in the linings of the lungs secrete mucus that traps pathogens
and particles. The mucus is swept out of the lungs by cilia, which protect the
lungs from damage and infection.
SS
O) EXTENDED Tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
lung cancer and coronary heart disease.
O EXTENDED The effects of tobacco smoke on the gas exchange system.
() To define respiration as the process in which energy is released from nutrient
molecules in the cells of living organisms, and is controlled by enzymes.
©) How to define aerobic respiration.
O) That in aerobic respiration, glucose is broken down using oxygen from the air:
glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
EXTENDED C,H,0, + 60, > 6CO,+ 6H,O (+ energy)
CQ) That in humans, energy from respiration is used in muscle contraction, protein
GAS
EXCHANGE
AND
RESPIRATION synthesis, cell division, active transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses
and the maintenance of a constant body temperature.
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. Inthe examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. a) Define the terms diffusion and gas exchange. (2 marks)

b) Describe the role of diffusion in gas exchange in humans. (2 marks)
c) EXTENDED Explain how the tissues and organs of the lungs are adapted
to maximise the rate of gas exchange. (4 marks)

. EXTENDED Fig. 8.10 shows a few cells of

the epithelium lining the trachea.
a) State where the trachea is found and
explain its role in the body. (2 marks)
b) Name the type of cell shown by cell A
and describe its function. (2 marks)

c) Name the type of cell shown by cell B

and describe its function. (2 marks)
d) Explain the role of these cells in
protecting the body. (3 marks)
. a)List the body systems ina human that A Fig. 8.10. Cells of the trachea epithelium

are involved in supplying the reactants

of cellular respiration. (3 marks)

b) List the body systems in a human that are involved in removing the
products of cellular respiration. (3 marks)

. Draw up a table to summarise the similarities and differences between

aerobic and anaerobic respiration. (8 marks)

. Students were studying the results of respiration in some woodlice. They set up
two identical sets of apparatus: a boiling tube fitted with a bung and linked toa
tube of limewater through a delivery tube. They placed some woodlice in one
boiling tube, and no woodlice in the other tube. The boiling tubes were fitted with
their bungs so that no additional air could enter the apparatus and then were left
overnight.

a) What was the role of the second set of apparatus? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

b) Suggest what happened to the limewater in the two sets of apparatus. (2 marks)

c) Explain as fully as you can your answer to part b). (3 marks)

RESPI
AND
EXCH
GAS

137
 End of topic questions continued
6. A whale takes a deep breath ofair and then dives for half an hour. Suggest how
energy would be generated in the whale’s muscles over the period of the dive.
(4 marks)

. In bread-making, the yeast is first mixed with a solution

containing sugar and kept in a warm place until a froth
forms on the surface. The yeast mixture is then added to
flour and any additional constituents, and mixed
thoroughly. The dough is placed in a warm place for a
while, until it has doubled in size. It is then baked
as a loaf.

a) Explain why a sugar solution is added to the yeast at

the start. (2 marks)

b) ‘A warm place’ means around 25-30°C.

i) Explain what would happen if the temperature was
lower than this. (3 marks)

ii) Explain what would happen if the temperature was higher than this.
(3 marks)

GAS
EXCHANGE
AND
RESPIRATION
 ndto.a changing environment.

help organisms respond. Hormones

ed or scared we feel, to how tall
are maleor female.

in plant : SE esponses arecalled tropisms, and it is how plants |

Le respons Geattyae light.

:- SecTION CONTENTS _
a Hormones iinhumans
b)Tropic responses
 Coordination and
response
INTRODUCTION
Has a spider every made you jump?

Adrenaline is part of the flight or flight

response. When something makes us scared,
such as seeing a spider, adrenaline is the
hormone that gets us ready to run away or
fight. Our heart rate increases, we breathe
faster and our pupils widen.

A Fig. 9.1 Adrenaline is released as part of a fight

or flight response.

RNOWLEDGE CHECK™ SS
Y Plants and animals detect the environment with specialised sense organs.
Y Animals respond to changes in the environment using nervous and
hormonal systems.
/ Plants respond to changes in the environment, for example, by growth.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES _
|
Y Describe a hormone as a chemical substance produced by a gland that changes the
activity of one or more target organs.
/ Describe some of the effects of adrenaline, which is produced at times of increased
action or stress.
V Describe investigations of gravitropism and phototropism.
/Y EXTENDED Discuss the role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical control
of metabolic activity including increasing the blood glucose concentration and
pulse rate.
Y EXTENDED Explain phototropism and gravitropism as a result of the plant
hormone auxin.

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HORMONES IN HUMANS
©
a Hormones are chemical messengers used in the hormonal system.
They are produced in endocrine glands. Endocrine glands do not
VI
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have ducts (tubes) to carry away the hormones they make: the
<x
hormones are secreted directly into the blood to be carried around
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the body dissolved in the blood plasma. Hormones change the activity
<I
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of other specific parts of the body, called the target organs. Most _
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hormones affect several target organs; others may only affect one
1) target organ.
@)
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 pituitary gland

thyroid gland

adrenal glands
secrete adrenaline

pancreas
ovaries (female) secretes insulin
secrete oestrogen

testes (male)
secrete testosterone

A Fig. 9.2 The position of some endocrine glands in the human body and the
hormones they secrete.

Adrenaline
Adrenaline is a hormone that is produced in the adrenal glands just
above the kidneys. This hormone is released in the crucial moments
when an animal must instantly decide whether to attack or run for
its life,
Some of the effects of adrenaline are:
¢ increased pulse (heart) rate to circulate blood more rapidly around
the body and deliver glucose and oxygen to muscle cells to allow
more rapid contraction
¢ increased depth of breathing and breathing rate to take more oxygen
into the body and remove carbon dioxide more rapidly from the body
e dilated pupils for better vision.
All these changes prepare the body for action.

EXTENDED
Adrenaline also causes liver and muscle cells to release glucose, which
increases blood glucose concentration. This means that there is more
glucose available for increased muscle cell respiration, which will
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END OF EXTENDED
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 Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ability to recognise and respond to changes in external
and internal conditions, and is one of the characteristics of living
organisms.
A change in conditions is called a stimulus. For a coordinated
response to occur to that stimulus there must be a receptor organ,
which recognises the stimulus, and an effector, w hich is a mechanism
to carry out the response.
There are two systems involved in coordination and response in humans.
© One is the nervous system, which includes the brain, the spinal cord,
the peripheral nerves and specialist sense organs such as the eye and
the ear.
¢ The other is the hormonal (or endocrine) system, which uses chemical
communication by means of hormones.

QUEST IONS
1. Explain the meaning of the falloninetterms:
a) hormone
b) endocrine gland
c) target organ.
2. In what conditions might adrenaline be released in the body?
3. Explain the advantages of adrenaline in preparing the body
for action.

TROPIC RESPONSES
Plants generally respond to changes in the environment by a change in
the way that they are growing. aor example, a shoot will grow tow ards
light and in the opposite direction to the force of gravity, whereas a root
vill grow away from light but towards moisture and in the direction of
the fe of gravity. These growth responses to a stimulus in plants are
called tropisms. They help the plant to produce leaves where there is
the most light, and roots that can supply the water that the plant needs.
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A Fig. 9.3 Growing towards light helps a plant get more light for photosynthesis.
¢ Growth in response to the direction of light is called phototropism.
If the growth is towards light, it is called positive phototropism, as
occurs in shoots. If the growth is away from light, it is called negative
phototropism, as occurs in roots.
¢ Growth in response to gravity is called gravitropism (sometimes also
called geotropism). Plant shoots show negative gravitropism and plant
roots show positive gravitropism.

window to allow light in

Petri dish with damp

paper towel and seeds

RESP
TROP
 Ee
EXTENDED .

Control of tropic responses

Tropisms are controlled by plant hormones called auxins. Auxin is
made in the tips of shoots and roots. It dissolves in water in the cells
and diffuses away from the tip. Further back along a shoot, auxin
stimulates cells to elongate so that the shoot or root grows longer.

SCIENCE
IN
faniisay GARDENER’STIP

One effect of auxin is to inhibit the growth of side shoots. This is why
a gardener who wants a plant to stop growing taller and encourage it
to become more bushy will take off the shoot tip, so removing a
source ofauxin.

| The growth of shoots toward light can be explained by the response of

auxin to light.
¢ When all sides of a shoot receive the same amount of light, equal
amounts of auxin diffuse down all sides of the shoot. So cells all
around the shoot are stimulated equally to grow longer. This means
the shoot will grow straight up.
¢ When the light on the shoot comes mainly from the side, auxin on
that side of the shoot appears to move across the shoot to the shaded
side. The cells on the shaded side of the shoot will receive more
auxin, and so grow longer, than those on the bright side. This causes
the shoot to curve as it grows, so that it grows toward the light.

light light
hormone
produced
at tip

light light
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shoot grows
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from tip more cell
elongation
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ce much the cells elongate.
12)
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vy) ¢ When roots are pointing straight downward, all sides of the
root receive the same amount of auxin, so all cells elongate by
the same amount.
¢ When the root is growing at an angle to the force of gravity, gravity
causes the auxin to collect on the lower side. This reduces the amount
of elongation of cells on the lower side of the root, so that the root
starts to curve as it grows until it is in line with the force of gravity.

hormone concentrated
on lower side of root

|
root curves
downward

less cell
elongation

A Fig. 9.6 The effect of gravity on the growth of roots.

REMEMBER
e A full understanding of the phototropic responses in stems is needed.
e Auxin causes curvature in shoots by the elongation of existing cells,
not by the production of more cells.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. Define the term tropism in your own words.
2. Give one example of:
a) positive phototropism
b) positive gravitropism.
3. EXTENDED Describe the action of auxin in a shoot growing in
one-sided light.

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 End of topic checklist

Key terms
auxin, effector, endocrine gland, gravitropism, hormonal system, hormone,
nerve, phototropism, receptor organ, stimulus, target organ, tropism

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() A coordinated response requires a stimulus that is sensed by receptor cells, which
results in a change in the organism brought about by an effector (usually muscles
or glands in an animal).

©) A hormone is a chemical that is made in an endocrine gland, secreted into the

blood so that it can move around the body, and controls the activity of cells in
one or more target organs.

() Adrenaline is the hormone that prepares the body for action or flight at times of
stress, by increasing pulse rate and breathing and dilating the pupils.

() EXTENDED Adrenaline also causes muscle and liver cells to release glucose, and so
increase blood glucose concentration.

() Plants respond to stimuli often by growth responses called tropisms.

() Plant shoots show positive phototropism when they grow toward light, and
negative gravitropism as they grow away from gravity.

©) Plant roots show positive gravitropism when they grow toward the force of
gravity, and negative phototropism when they grow away from light.

©) EXTENDED Auxins are plant growth hormones that control the responses of
shoots and roots to light and gravity.

COORDINATION
RESPONSE
AND
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. Explain the survival advantage to plants of having:

a) shoots that are positively phototropic (2 marks)

b) roots that are positively gravitropic. (2 marks)

2. Adrenaline is a hormone.

a) Define the word hormone, including where they are produced, and
how they are carried. (3 marks)

b) Describe two examples in which adrenaline secretion would increase. (2 marks)

EXTE =D Discuss the role of adrenaline in the chemical control of

pulse rate. (2 marks)

RESP
AND
COOR
 en lifeon Earth for over
yet what triggered non-living
{into living things that can
ientists have found traces of bacteria-
re esen test forms of life, in very
the earli

uct
~ Reprodleads different combinations of characteristics
toion
anding
_ in offspr ,on produces new characteristics.
mutati
The environment in which early organisms lived determined which
-_ of these combinations of characteristics would be the most
successful, and so which individuals were likely to survive and pass
on those characteristics to their offspring through reproduction.
This process led to the evolution of new species and eventually to
the millions of species that are alive on Earth today.

SECTION CONTENTS
2) Asexual and sexual reproduction
bb) Sexual reproduction in plants
c) Sexual reproduction in humans
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 Mw Reproduction
INTRODUCTION
Most multicellular organisms reproduce
sexually, requiring the transfer of gametes
from the male to the female for
fertilisation. Some flowering plants and a
very few animals can reproduce asexually,
where there is no transfer of gametes and
females produce new individuals (more
females) without fertilisation. Until
recently, it was thought that asexual
reproduction in animals was something
A Fig. 10.1 Scientists think that this species of rotifer that only happened in addition to sexual
has not reproduced sexually for over 40 million years. reproduction. However, DNAtevidence

suggests that some species of stick insect

have not reproduced sexually for over 1 million years. Males of these species
dont exist.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
V The flower is the reproductive structure in flowering plants.
/ The human reproductive system consists of organs, tissues and cells that are
specially adapted for their role in reproduction.
Y Sexual reproduction is the production of new individuals as a result of fertilisation;
asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals without fertilisation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
V Describe the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction.
VY Identify asexual reproduction in a range of organisms.
Vv Describe fertilisation as the fusion of gamete (sex cell) nuclei in sexual reproduction
to produce a zygote.
/Y EXTENDED (Identify the structures in wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers
and describe how they are adapted to their functions in reproduction.
VY Define pollination of a flower as the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma.
V State that fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule.
V Investigate the conditions required for germination.
V Identify the organs, tissues and cells in the male and female human reproductive
systems and describe their functions in reproduction.
Y¥ Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the ovaries and the lining
of the uterus.
/ EXTENDED Relate the size, structure, motility and number of sperm and egg cells
to their role in reproduction.
¥ Describe how the embryo implants into the uterus wall and how structures in the
REPRODUCTION
uterus and the placenta support the developing embryo.
/ EXTENDED Describe the functions of the placenta and umbilical cord.
V State that HIV is the virus that causes AIDS.
V Describe how HIV is transmitted.
V Explain how the spread of sexually transmitted diseases is controlled.

ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction
Some organisms increase in number by asexual reproduction. For
this type of reproduction it is not necessary to have two parents. During
asexual reproduction, cells from an adult organism divide to produce
the offspring. This means that offspring produced by asexual
reproduction are genetically identical to their parent and to each other.
Asexual reproduction is used by many different organisms. Bacteria
reproduce asexually using binary fission. When they are large enough
their genetic material copies itself exactly and then the cell splits in
half. The process then begins all over again. This can occur very rapidly
to produce large numbers of identical bacteria.

A Fig. 10.2 The toadstools we see growing are specialised

spore-producing bodies of fungi.

Almost all fungi can reproduce asexually. Different types

of fungi use different means of asexual reproduction but
by far the most important type is that of spore
formation. This can be seen in Mucor, the common pin
mould, which often grows on bread. When this fungus
has a plentiful supply of nutrients a hypha grows up
vertically and the tip swells with cytoplasm containing (
many nuclei. This tip releases many spores into the
atmosphere. If they find the right conditions for growth,
each spore can develop into a new mycelium.
Another form of asexual reproduction is seen in plants,
;
such as potatoes, that produce tubers. Tube rs | form from aE ES eee een |
the end of stems that grow underneath the soil surface. formed by this plant could produce a new REPR
SEXU
AND
ASEX

The stems swell into storage organs filled with starch. plant in the next growing season.
 When the leaves and stems of the plant die back at the end of the
srowing season the tubers stay dormant until the next season. Each ,
tuber then produces several potato plants from the buds on the side of
the tuber. Each potato plant gives rise to several tubers and each tuber
produces a number of plants, so several new plants are formed from
one parent.

QUESTIONS
1. Define the term asexual reproduction in your own words.
2. Explain why binary fission of bacteria is an example of asexual
reproduction.

Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the most common method of reproduction for
the majority of larger organisms, including almost all animals and
plants. It occurs when there is fertilisation, which is when the
nucleus of a male gamete (sex cell) fuses with the nucleus of a female
gamete to form a zygote. The zygote will contain some of the genetic
information of each of its parents. So it will be genetically different
from each of the parents. It will also be genetically different from all
other offspring produced by those parents (unless it has an identical
twin).

QUESTION
1. Define the following terms in your own words:
a) fertilisation
b) sexual reproduction.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

The most successful group of plants is the flowering plants. These are
the only plants to have true flowers and produce seeds with a tough
protective coat. During sexual reproduction, flowering plants:
* produce male and female gametes — some species may produce male
and female gametes in the same flowers; other species may have male-
only flowers and female-only flowers on the same plant; and in other
species male flowers and female flowers are produced on different plants
¢ male pollen is transferred to the female part of the flower so that
pollination can take place
* the male gamete and female gamete fuse during fertilisation to form
a zygote
* the zygote develops to form an embryo within a seed, which protects
REPRODUCTION
the embryo and provides food during germination of the seed
° seeds are dispersed, so that they germinate and grow away from
the parent.

Structure of flowers
All flowers have a similar basic arrangement. They have structures
stacked one on top of each other along a short stem, arranged either in
a spiral or in separate rings.

The centre of the flower contains the

female parts, which consist of the
carpels, containing the ovules inside
which are the female gametes.

The stamens,
which contain
anthers, are the
male parts of the
flower. The anthers
contain cells that
produce the male
gametes (inside the
pollen grains) as
the flowers mature.

The sepals are the green The petals are modified

leaf-like structures that leaves. Large, colourful
protect the flower in the petals attract insects for
bud. They are the lowest pollination. Some petals
ring of structures. are shaped to guide
insects to particular
parts of the flower.

A Fig. 10.4 Structure of an insect-pollinated flower.

The male part of a flower is the ring of stamens. There may be up

to 100 stamens, or fewer than a dozen. Each stamen consists of two
parts — the anther at the top and a stalk called the filament. Pollen
grains develop inside the anthers. Inside each pollen grain is a male
gamete. As a grain matures, it develops a thick outer wall to protect the
delicate male gamete inside. When all the pollen grains in the anther
are mature, the anther splits open to release them.
The female part of the flower is the carpel. A flower can contain
more than one carpel, each with its own style and stigma. The a]
_
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stigma is the part of the carpel where the pollen lands during <
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pollination. The ovary at the base of the carpel protects the female
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A Fig. 10.5 Alder catkins contain flowers that A Fig. 10.6 The carpel.
shed pollen into the air to be transported to
other flowers.

<1] Fig. 10.7 Even complex flowers like daisies, which

contain thousands of male and female parts, have
carpels surrounded by stamens.

QUESTIONS
I. Name the female parts of a flower, and describe the function of
each part.
2. Name the male parts of a flower, and describe the function of
each part.

Pollination
Before fertilisation can take place, the male gametes have to reach the
female gametes. This involves transferring the pollen to the stigma, ina
process known as pollination. In many plants this means transferring
the pollen from one flower to another. Some plants use the wind to
transfer their pollen between flowers; others use animals, especially
insects, to carry the pollen. Flowers have different features depending
REPRODUCTION
on whether they are pollinated by wind or by insects.
 Wind-pollinated plants Insect-pollinated plants
small petals, which do not large petals for insects to land on
obstruct pollen dispersal
green or inconspicuous petals | brightly coloured petals to attract
insects
no scent often scented to attract insects
no nectaries nectaries present at the base of
the flower produce a sugary liquid
to attract insects, for example,
| bees and butterflies
| many anthers, which are often | a few small anthers, usually held
large and hang outside the inside the flower
flower so that pollen is easily
dispersed
pollen grains have smooth pollen grains have sticky or spiky
outer walls outer walls
stigmas are large and feathery, | stigmas are small and held inside
often hanging outside the the flower
flower to trap pollen
produce large amounts of produce smaller amounts of pollen
pollen
pollen is lightweight pollen is heavier
A Table 10.1 Comparison of wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers.

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LINK
PHYSICS - PROPERTIES OF WAVES
- Insects that transfer pollen often have eyes that are sensitive to
different wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum in
comparison to humans. The colours of flowers are adapted to match
this — flowers can appear very differently when viewed as the insects
would view them.

PHYSICS - FORCES
« Several of the adaptations of pollen from wind-pollinated plants
relate to forces and motion — shapes that reduce drag, masses that
are easy to accelerate on the wind - and there are links to the
motion of parachutes, for example.

EXTENDED

anther

filament

stigma

A Fig. 10.9 These grass plants have anthers that hang outside the flowers and release large
amounts of pollen to the wind. The stigmas also hang outside the flower to collect pollen from
other grass plants.

REPRODUCTION
 ae)

A Fig. 10.10 Pollen grains. Left: from a wind-pollinated plant (birch) with a simple smooth outer wall. Right: from an
insect-pollinated flower (daisy), with a spiky coat that helps the grains stick to the hairs on an insect’s body.

END OF EXTENDED

SCIENCE

FLOWERS AND POLLINATORS

Different features of animal-pollinated flowers

attract different pollinators. Tube-shaped flowers
attract insects with a long tongue, such as
butterflies, or birds with a long bill, such as
hummingbirds. Blue and violet flowers are more
attractive to bees, whereas butterflies often
prefer red. Plants pollinated by moths or bats
tend to open at night and may not be brightly
coloured but instead produce a strong sweet
scent. Plants that rely on flies to pollinate them
often smell like rotting flesh.

One of the most bizarre partnerships between

flowers and insects occurs between a particular
species of orchid and a wasp. Male wasps are
attracted to the flowers to mate with what they
think are female wasps. During the ‘mating’ the
flowers deposit pollen on the insect, which then Fig. 10.11 A male wasp receiving pollen
carries it to the next flower that it is attracted to. while ‘mating’ with an orchid flower.

REMEMBER
Be very careful not to confuse pollination with fertilisation.
 SCIENCE
THE PROBLEM WITH BEES

About a third ofall plants that we use for food or

other uses depend on bees for pollination. This
includes plants such as oilseed rape, cotton,
coffee, apples and pears. If there are few bees, the
crop harvest can be reduced by up to 75%. During
the flowering season of crop plants, farmers and
growers may place bee hives close to the crop to
encourage successful pollination of most flowers.
This helps to ensure a good harvest. A Fig. 10.12 By encouraging bees to build
their hives in portable boxes, the farmer can
move the hives to where the flowers of a
Recently, people have become concerned about a crop are ready for pollination.
large decrease in bee populations. There are many
possible reasons for this. In some places, it has been suggested that
the lack of arange of food plants, including weeds, has been the
cause. An increase in the use of pesticides that also kill bees may be
another cause ofthe fall in their numbers.

Without bees, food production will be greatly affected. So, there are
many studies being done to identify why bee numbers are decreasing
and to work out how to improve the environment for bees.

QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between pollination and fertilisation in a plant.
2. Describe three differences in structure between wind-pollinated
and insect-pollinated flowers.
3. EXTENDED a) Explain the advantage to a flower of having
adaptations for attracting insects rather than relying on wind for
pollination.
b) Describe one disadvantage for an insect-pollinated plant that
relies on one or just a small number of insect species for
pollination.

Germination
Germination is when the seed coat breaks open and the embryo starts
to grow and develop into a new plant.
There are three environmental conditions that need to be right for
seeds to germinate:
® temperature
® moisture
REPRODUCTION
® oxygen.
 first true leaves
0

cotyledons = '

radicle

A Fig. 10.13 Germination of a bean seed.

The presence of light is not usually needed for germination. This is

because most seeds germinate below ground, so they cannot get their
food from photosynthesis.

Temperature
A seed will not start to germinate until the conditions around it reach a
suitable temperature. Many seeds lie dormant for long a time during
cold periods, such as winter, and start to grow as the earth warms.
However, if the temperature becomes too hot, the seed may be killed.
This is why it is very important to store seeds in the correct conditions
and to control the temperature in glasshouses carefully, for example,
through the use of ventilation and shading.

SCIENCE

CONDITIONS FOR GERMINATION

Different plants are suited to different climates.

Those that are adapted to colder climates will
germinate at lower temperatures. They may also
need a very cold period followed by an increase wn
Ee
=
in temperature before they will germinate. <=
Ps
a.
Other seeds will not germinate until they have =
been exposed to very high temperatures, such =
9=
as the heat from a forest fire. The extreme heat U
=)
weakens the seed coat so that water can enter a
io)
ce
the seed and germination can begin. A Fig. 10.14 Fire clears the ground of competing o.
uu
. F ‘ plants, and stimulates these seeds to germinate co
Germinating after a fire means that there is me deal onciions I
<
likely to be less competition with other species =
x<
that usually cover the ground. Also, the ash left from
dw
wm

the burning acts as a natural fertiliser for the new plants.

 Water
Water is required to swell the seed and burst the
seed coat. All seeds contain some moisture, but
during germination metabolic reactions are being
carried out rapidly. More water is needed for:
@ activation of hormones and enzymes
¢ hydrolysis of storage compounds, for example,
conversion of starch to glucose
® transport of materials to be used for respiration
and growth
¢ metabolic reactions and enzyme actions that
occur in solution.

Oxygen
Active living cells respire and the most useful form
of respiration, aerobic respiration, requires oxygen.
Seeds can use anaerobic respiration for a short
while, but the rate at which energy is released is
very slow (not useful in an actively growing
organism) and the by-products are toxic. That is
A Fig. 10.15 Waterlogged soil excludes oxygen,
why most seeds will only germinate successfully if making it difficult for these seeds to germinate
there is plenty of oxygen in the soil. and grow.

petri dish lined with

damp paper towel

=
o
j=
U
|
(a)
Oo
a
oO
us
cc
1. What is germination?
2. What effect do the following conditions have on the
germination of a seed? Explain why they have these effects.
a) oxygen
b) moisture
c) warmth

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Male reproductive system
A human male has two testes (singular: testis) in eee
which sperm are produced. The testes are supported seminal vesicle
outside the body in the scrotum to keep them cooler, sperm duct
because at higher temperatures fewer sperm are prostate gland
produced. urethra
penis
Sperm ducts carry the sperm from the testes to the ue
penis, through the prostate gland and seminal vesicles. scrotum RO
The prostate gland and seminal vesicles together REP
mh
produce the liquid in which the sperm are able to Attig. 10.17 The mele reproductive a
*-
>

; S “OAR at f I digiaae system. (Note that the bladder is not Sh

swim. Semen is the mixture of sperm cells and fluids. part of the reproductive system.) a
wn
Semen passes along the sperm duct to the urethra to
outside the body. The urethra also carries urine from the
 bladder to outside the body. When the man is sexually excited, large
spaces in the penis fill with blood. This causes the penis to become
larger and stiffer causing an erection. At the same time a muscle ring
(sphincter) at the top of the urethra contracts, preventing urine entering
the urethra from the bladder.
The erection makes it possible for the man to insert his penis into the
vagina of the woman for sexual intercourse. Rapid contractions of
muscles in the penis during ejaculation send the sperm shooting out
into the vagina.
Female reproductive system
The two ovaries are the organs in human females that produce the
eggs. They are positioned within the abdominal cavity, either side of the
uterus and joined to it by the oviducts.
Every month from puberty until menopause, when a
woman is around 50 years old, one ovary usually oviduct
releases one egg, which travels down the oviduct to —-°v@"v
the uterus (womb). If it is not fertilised, the egg will uterus (womb)
cervix
be flushed from the uterus during the monthly bladder

period (bleed). At the lower end of the uterus is the vagina

vulva
cervix. This canal produces mucus which changes
during the menstrual cycle, allowing sperm to pass
through at some
;
times and not
;
others. It also ay keeps
oD
ae Heer ucts ecclissi SGun
ote that the bladder is not part of the
the developing baby secure in the uterus until birth. reproductive system.)
The cervix leads into the vagina. The vagina is an
elastic muscular tube where sperm are received from the penis during
sexual intercourse.
Human gametes
The human gametes are specialised for their roles in reproduction.
The adaptive features of the sperm include the flagellum and the
presence of enzymes. The adaptive features of the egg cells include the
jelly coating, which changes after fertilisation, and the energy stores.
Figure 10.19 shows the main adaptive features of the human sperm
cell and egg cell.
acrosome ————___zy a Or
containing em =
enzymes is

2
°=
Vv
P|
(a) nucleus
° flagellum
cc g large amount of
a
Lu
c
cytoplasm containing jelly coat
food (energy stores)

A Fig. 10.19 Left: human sperm. Right: human egg. (Not to scale: the volume of an egg cell is
20 hundreds of times bigger than the volume a single sperm cell.)
EXTENDED
Sperm are among the smallest cells in the human body, at about
45 micrometres long. Over 100 million sperm cells are produced each
day. There are many mitochondria in the part of the sperm between the
head and the flagellum (tail). The mitochondria provide energy from
respiration that allows the flagellum to beat back and forth to move the
sperm cell.
Most of the cell is made up of the flagellum, which propels the sperm
through the female uterus to the egg for fertilisation. At the front tip of
the sperm is a small sac of enzymes called the acrosome. When a sperm
reaches an egg cell, the acrosome bursts open to release the enzymes.
The enzymes digest through the jelly coat and cell membrane of the egg
cell, allowing the male nucleus to enter the egg cell.
The egg cell is one of the largest human cells, at about 0.2 mm in diameter.
It cannot move on its own, but is wafted along the oviduct by cilia on the
inside of the tube. An ovary may contain thousands of egg cells, but only
one is usually released from one ovary at ovulation each month. Within
the egg cell is the nucleus and a large amount of cytoplasm. The cytoplasm
provides nutrients for the dividing zygote after fertilisation. Surrounding
the cell membrane is a jelly coat that protects the cell. Immediately after
fertilisation by one sperm, the jelly coat changes to an impenetrable barrier.
This prevents other sperm nuclei entering the egg cell.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. a) Sketch a diagram of the human male reproductive system.
b) Add labels to your sketch to name the main parts of
the system.
c) Describe the role of each of the main parts of the system in
human reproduction.
2. a) Sketch a diagram of the human female reproductive system.
b) Add labels to your sketch to name the main parts of
the system.
c) Describe the role of each of the main parts of the system in
human reproduction. '
3. EXTENDED Draw a table to compare the size, numbers and
mobility of human egg and sperm cells.

The menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is a sequence of changes that occur in a
woman’s body every month. The average cycle is 28 days long, but it is HUMA
IN
REPR
SEXU
normal for it to vary in different women.
 [he cycle begins with the monthly period, or bleeding, which is
produced from the breakdown of the thickened lining ofthe uterus.
After this, the uterus lining starts to thicken again. Ovulation occurs
about halfway through the cycle, when an egg is released from one of
the ovaries. The egg travels along the ov iduct to the uterus.
If the egg is fertilised during this time, the egg will implant in the }
uterus lining and the lining will continue to develop for pregnancy. If
the egg is not fertilised, the cell and the uterus lining are shed during
the monthly period at the start of the next cycle.

Fertilisation and development of the fetus

During sexual intercourse, sperm deposited near the cervix swim up
into the uterus, and then along the oviduct to the egg. Many sperm fail
to make the journey, but some will reach the oy fducreettne top end of
the uterus.
The egg travels along the oviduct while the sperm swim up from the
uterus. Fertilisation takes place in the oviduct. The nucleus of one
sperm cell fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell, forming a fertilised
ego, or zygote.
After fertilisation in the oviduct, the fertilised egg
(zygote) travels on towards the uterus. The journey
takes about three days, during which time the zygote
will divide several times to form a ball of 64 cells,
which is now eallea an embryo.
In the uterus, the embryo embeds in the thickened
lining (implantation) and cell division and growth
continue. For the first three months, the embryo gets
nutrients from the mother by diffusion through the
uterus lining.
3y the end of three months, the placenta has
A Fig. 10.20 The moment just before
developed, and the embryo has become a fertilisation: sperm approaching an egg.
fetus in which all the main organs of the body
can be identified.
Over the next 28 weeks the fetus will increase its mass roughly
8 million times. At no other point in an individual's lifetime will growth
occur at such a high rate. This period of development in the uterus is
known as gestation, and it lasts about 40 weeks in humans, measured
from the time of the woman’s last period. The rapid growth during
gestation depends on a good supply of food and oxygen, provided by
the mother.
Zz The fetus develops inside a bag of fluid called amniotic fluid. This
== fluid is produced from the amniotic membrane that forms the outer
U
~ layer of the bag (amniotic sac). The fluid protects the fetus from
a)
°
[oa
mechanical damage, for Senile if the mother moves suddenly. It also
a
tu
oc
reduces the effect of large temperature variations that would affect the
rate of development of the fetus. One of the signs that birth will
happen soon is when this bag bursts shortly before labour. Once the
placenta has formed, until birth, it is the only way that the developing
fetus exchanges materials with the outside world. Birth usually occurs
when all the organs of the fetus are fully developed and ready to carry
out the life processes on their own.
The placenta is an organ that is produced by the growing fetus. The
placenta allows a constant exchange of materials between the mother
and fetus. The fetus is joined to the placenta by the umbilical cord,
which carries the blood vessels of the fetus.
|
| amniotic sac

uterus

( vagina

11 weeks: 23 weeks: 40 weeks:

e fetus about 4cm long e fetus about 29cm long e fetus is about 51cm long |
¢ most of the main body and weighs about 500¢ and weighs about 3.4kg
structures have formed e fetus hears sound from e all organs fully developed |
outside, and moves ready for birth

A Fig. 10.21 The fetus in the uterus at three time points during gestation.

SCIENCE

ULTRASOUND SCANS

Ultrasound is very high frequency sound, far

above the frequency that can be heard. It is used
in medical imaging for showing soft tissues
inside the body. It is particularly useful for looking
at the developing fetus in the uterus, because it
does not harm either the fetus or the mother.
w
=
<
An ultrasound scan is commonly done about =
=)
halfway through gestation, to make sure that the <=

fetus is developing normally. At about this stage, =

=
if the fetus is lying at the right angle, it may even ==
be possible to tell if it is a male fetus because the J
=)
testes can be distinguished at this age. (a)
2)
oe
a.
wW
co
Ultrasound scans may be done at other times a
A Fig. 10.22 This ultrasound scan was taken in <
during gestation if there is any concern about the the 20th week of gestation and shows that the =)
x<
development of the fetus. fetus is developing normally. (hy
Ww
 komen
EXTENDED
The placenta and the uterus wall have a large number of blood vessels
that run very close to each other, but do not touch. So maternal and
fetal bloods do not mix. If they did, the higher blood pressure in the
mother could damage the fetus. The structure of the placenta also
helps to prevent many pathogens and some chemicals getting into the
blood of the fetus.
Dissolved food molecules, oxygen and other nutrients that the fetus
needs for growth diffuse from the mother’s blood into the blood of the
fetus. Waste products from metabolism, such as carbon dioxide and
urea, in the fetus’s blood diffuse across into the mother’s blood.

END OF EXTENDED

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

Sexual intercourse is a method by which infection can spread, because
of the exchange of body fluids, which may contain pathogens. There
are many sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV, which
usually leads to acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS).

AIDS
AIDS is a disease of the immune system caused by a virus called HIV.
The virus in an infected person is present in sexual fluids such as semen
and vaginal fluids, and so can be transmitted during sexual intercourse.
It may also be passed to another person in blood, either through a
scratch, or through the sharing of needles for intravenous injection of
drugs such as heroin. Infection can also pass from a mother to her fetus,
through the placenta, or to her baby through breast-feeding after birth.
There is no cure for AIDS, so prevention of infection is essential. The
methods are the same for all STIs. This is most easily done by
abstinence from sex, or by limiting sexual partners to those who do not
carry the virus. As a person may have no obvious symptoms early in
infection, barrier methods such as the condom or femidom are most
effective in reducing the risk of infection during intercourse.

QUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms in your own words:
a) zygote, b) embryo, c) fetus.
2. Where in the human body does fertilisation of the egg cell occur?
3. Briefly describe how the fetus develops up to the point of birth.
4. EXTENDED Describe the role of the placenta during the
development of a fetus.
REPRODUCTION
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
acrosome, amniotic fluid, amniotic sac, anther, asexual reproduction, carpel,
embryo, fertilisation, fetus, gamete, germination, hypha, implantation, menstrual
cycle, mycelium, ovary, oviduct, ovulation, ovule, placenta, pollination, seed,
sexual reproduction, sperm, stamen, stigma, style, testis, uterus, vagina, zygote

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to define asexual reproduction as the production of new individuals without
fertilisation. It is the division of the body cells of one parent. It produces offspring
that are genetically identical to the parent and to each other.
() How to define sexual reproduction as the production of new individuals from the
fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete during fertilisation. It requires two
parents, and produces offspring that are genetically different to their parents and
to each other.
() That fertilisation of a male gamete and female gamete produces a zygote that
develops into an embryo by cell division.
() How to identify the male and female parts of a flower.
() An insect-pollinated flower has features such as coloured petals, scent and
nectaries to attract insects to feed at the flower. The insects pick up pollen, which
they transfer to other flowers that they move on to.
() A wind-pollinated flower is usually small, without colour, scent or nectaries. It
produces a large amount of lightweight pollen, which is scattered over a large
distance in the wind.
() Seeds need moisture, oxygen and warmth for successful germination.
() How to identify and name the human male reproductive system, including the
testes where sperm are made; the sperm ducts, which carry the sperm to the
urethra; the prostate gland and seminal vesicles, which produce liquid in which
the sperm swim; the penis, which when erect delivers sperm into the vagina of
the woman; and the urethra, which carries the sperm from the sperm ducts to the
outside of the body.
() How to identify and name the human female reproductive system, including the
ovaries, where the egg cells are made; the oviducts, which carry the eggs to the
uterus and where fertilisation takes place with sperm cells; the uterus, where the
embryo embeds and develops into a fetus; the cervix, where sperm are deposited
at the base of the uterus; and the vagina, where the penis is inserted during
sexual intercourse.
REP
 End of topic checklist continued
Q The menstrual cycle and egg is released from the ovary, and the uterus lining
thickens. If fertilisation does not take place, the uterus lining and egg are shed at
the start of the next cycle.
Q Once the embryo has embedded in the uterus wall, it develops the placenta. This
is where nutrients and waste materials are exchanged between the blood of the
mother and of the fetus.
Q) During development, the embryo (and later the fetus) is protected from
mechanical damage and temperature fluctuations by amniotic fluid that
surrounds it in the amniotic sac.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. The photograph in Fig. 10.23 shows a catkin on a goat willow tree. A catkin is
formed from a group offlowers.

a) What is the purpose of the flowers on a

goat willow tree? (1 mark)

b) Name the yellow parts of the flowers

shown in this photograph. (1 mark)

c) Describe their purpose in a flower. (1 mark)

d) Are goat willow flowers pollinated by the
wind or by insects? Explain your answer
using clues from the photograph. (3 marks) 4 Fig. 10.23 A goat willow catkin.
. a) Explain the advantage to a flower of having adaptations for attracting insects
rather than relying on wind for pollination. (1 mark)
b) Describe one disadvantage for an insect-pollinated plant of relying on
one orjust a small number of insect species for pollination. (1 marks)
- EXTENDED In many flowers that have stamens and stigmas, the stamens mature
and shed their pollen before the stigma matures and accepts pollen.

a) Describe and explain one advantage for the plant of doing this. (2 marks)
b) Describe and explain one disadvantage for the plant of doing this. (2 marks)

REPRODUCTION
 End of topic questions continued
4. A gardener has some packets of seeds for planting.
The packets explain how to
plant the seeds to get the best germination.

a) What is meant by germination? (1 mark)

lb) All the packets say that the seeds need to be planted in moist compost
and kept warm. Explain why the seeds need these conditions. (2 marks)
c) Explain why the seeds will not germinate successfully in waterlogged soil.
(2 marks)

d) The larger seeds need to be planted deeper in the compost, and

the tiniest seeds need to be scattered on the surface of the compost.
Explain why different seeds need to be planted at different depths.
(Hint: think about food reserves.) (3 marks)

e) Some seeds that come from plants in high-latitude regions (for example,
Canada or Russia) need to be placed in the freezer for a few weeks before
they will germinate. This makes them respond as if they had been through
a cold winter. Explain the survival advantage of this adaptation. (2 marks)

. a) Where are sperm cells made in the human body? (1 mark)

b) Where are egg cells made in the human body? (1 mark)

c) Where is an egg cell fertilised by a sperm cell? (1 mark)

d) Starting from the point of their formation, explain how a sperm cell
reaches the egg cell at fertilisation. (4 marks)

. a) What is the placenta? (1 mark)

b) What role does the placenta play in supporting the fetus? (1 mark)

c) EXTENDED How are substances exchanged across the placenta? (2 marks)

d) EXTENDED What is the advantage of keeping the mother’s blood separated
from the blood of the fetus? (1 mark)

REP
 huge impact on food chains and food
nan activity car havethea extincti on of whole species. The
webs, and even lead to
ntroduction ofjust 24 wild rabbits into Australia in 1859 resulted in
~_ arapidly spreading population that has decimated huge areas of
diverse environments, causing havoc to native animal and plant
~ species. Various attempts to keep the rabbit population in Australia
in check have beenattempted, for example, by introducing the
rabbit disease myxomatosis. Even so, scientists estimate that
rabbits still cost Australian farmers more than $200 million annually
in lost production, in addition to the ongoing damage that they
wreak on the natural environment.

SECTION CONTENTS
Organisms and their environment
 Organ isms
and their
environmen t
 Organisms and
their environment
INTRODUCTION
All animals need to eat, to provide the fuel
for respiration. Some animals such as the
common shrew need to consume two or
three times their body weight of insects,
slugs and worms every day in order to
survive. They live life quickly, being on the
hunt for food for most of the time,
especially at night. By contrast, alligators
A Fig. 11.1 Alligators can survive for months without only need to feed about once a week, and
food, although they are always on the lookout fora
can live for months without food. They live
good meal. aT
life much more slowly than shrews, waiting
in ambush for prey to get close before attacking. Most animals eat on average
somewhere between these extremes, although adult mayflies have no
mouthparts and never eat. They live their brief lives of a few days using energy
stored from earlier stages in their life cycle, as their only purpose is to
reproduce, after which they die.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
VY Respiration is the release of energy from food molecules.
¥ During photosynthesis, light energy is transferred by plants to sugars as
chemical energy.
Vv Energy released by respiration is used for a range of purposes, including making new
body tissue.
¥ Organisms that feed on one another can be displayed in a food chain that shows
who eats what.
V Food chains within a habitat can be combined to produce a food web.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Identify the principal source of energy input to biological systems.
VY Define the terms food chain, food web, producer, consumer, decomposer, herbivore
and carnivore.
VY Interpret food chains and food webs, and use them to describe the effect of humans
on habitats.
Vv Draw, describe and interpret pyramids of numbers.
/ EXTENDED Describe how energy is transferred between trophic levels.
/ EXTENDED Explain why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels.
¥ EXTENDED Define the terms trophic level and ecosystem.
ORGANISMS
ENVIRONMENT
THEIR
AND
ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Energy flow
Plants make their food (sugars) from carbon dioxide and water using
light energy from the Sun. In systems terminology, sunlight is the
energy input for plants.
Most food chains on the surface of the Earth begin with
photosynthesising plants. This means that the Sun is the main input of
energy into biological systems, such as food chains and food webs.

ENERGY INPUT FROM THE SUN

As a result of the curvature ofthe Earth, the amount of light energy from
the Sun that falls on every square metre is greatest at the equator, and
decreases as you move towards the poles. The tilt of Earth's axis in relation
to the Sun causes variation in the amount of sunlight energy received by
high latitude regions at different times of the year, causing seasons.

These differences in energy received have major effects on the

ecosystems in each region. Parts of the world near the equator that
receive sufficient rainfall, such as tropical rainforests, have a greater
productivity of plants in a year than other regions. This greater
productivity supplies more food for animals, leading to a greater
productivity of animals — some ofthese areas are the most biodiverse
on the planet.

The seasonal effects in high latitude regions result in rapid plant Ser ea

growth in summer months and virtually no growth during the winter,

although some of this effect is the result of lack of heat energy from
the Sun as much as lack of light energy.

Food chains
You should be familiar with food chains from your earlier work. A food oo
chain shows ‘who eats what’ in a habitat. For example, in Fig.11.2, owls
eat shrews, shrews eat grasshoppers, grasshoppers eat grass. (Remember,
the arrows in a food chain show the direction of energy flow.)

grass grasshoppers shrews

A Fig. 11.2 An example of a food chain.

AND
ORG
=
THEI
 Each level in a food chain shows a separate level at which that species
is feeding.
® Grass — this is the producer level, because grass is a plant and
produces its own food (organic nutrients) using light energy during
photosynthesis. All food chains start with a producer level.
e Grasshoppers — these are the primary consumers, ‘consumer
because they eat the grass and ‘primary’ because they are the first
eaters of other organisms in the food chain. This level may also be
called herbivores, because they eat plant material.
e Shrews — these are consumers too, but they are specifically secondary
consumers because they eat the primary consumers. They are also
called carnivores, because they eat meat.
@ Owls — these are also consumers, but they are specifically tertiary
consumers because they eat the secondary consumers. They are also
carnivores.
If anything ate owls, they would be quaternary consumers, but food
chains often don't reach that level. Animals at the highest trophic level
in a food chain may also be called the top consumers, or top predators.
All animals are consumers, because they eat other organisms to get
their food, in contrast to plants, which are producers.

EXTENDED

Each feeding level of a food chain is called a

trophic level. So producers are one trophic
level, primary consumers (or herbivores)
are the trophic level that feeds on producers,
and so on.
What isn't shown in a food chain is what
happens to all the dead plant and animal material
that isn't scavenged. This material decays as a
result of the action of decomposers, such as
fungi and bacteria. Fungi digest their food by
secreting enzymes putide fen hyphae; they
then absorb the dissolved food materials. Many
bacteria also do this. However, only some of the
digested food materials are absorbed — the rest
are released into the environment. Decomposers
play an essential role in ecosystems, as you will
see later in the nitrogen cycle.

END OF EXTENDED
A Fig. 11.3 The hyphae of this fungus are
growing through the dead tree and secreting
enzymes that cause the wood to break down
into simpler chemicals.

ORGANISMS
AND
THEIR
ENVIRONMENT
 SCIENCE
IN
<a OTHER PRODUCERS

Not all producers are plants, and not all producers use light energy.
There are species, mainly bacteria, which produce their own food
without the presence of light energy from the Sun. Instead they get
the energy they need for the formation of sugars from chemical
reactions.

These bacteria are the source of food for food chains and webs
that exist where there is no sunlight, such as deep in oceans and in
underground caves. Be careful to avoid the statement that all life on
Earth depends on the Sun; as this is an oversimplification and not
totally accurate.

Energy in food chains

We can look at food chains in terms of energy. Plants use energy from
light to build new substances. These substances act as stores of energy.
A herbivore gains this store of energy, by ingestion, when it eats the plant.
Some of that energy becomes stored in the substances in the animal’s
body, and so can be ingested by any animal that eats it. So, we can define
a food chain also as the transfer of energy between organisms by ingestion.

Food webs
If we look more closely at food chains, it is rare to find an organism that is
eaten by just one other species, or a predator that feeds on just one type
of prey. It may also be the case that a predator may feed on different kinds
of organisms — an omnivore, for example, is a primary consumer when
feeding on plants, but a secondary or tertiary consumer when eating other
animals. So food chains within a habitat are linked together to form a
food web. A food web is a better description of the feeding relationships
in a habitat and shows how living organisms are interconnected.
Food webs still usually group the organisms according to their feeding ee

level. For example, in the simplified food web shown in Fig. 11.4, the 2
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insects and so reduce the amount of food available to all the animals
that feed on them.

EXTENDED

Trophic levels describe the feeding level of organisms in a food chain or

food web, starting with the producers which are trophic level one.
Energy is lost between each trophic level, very little energy is passed
from one trophic level to the next and so food chains and food webs
usually have fewer than five trophic levels.
END OF EXTENDED

Interpreting human impact on food chains and food webs

We can use food chains and food webs to help us understand the wider
impact on habitats that we have when we affect particular organisms.
For example, along the Atlantic coast of the USA there has been
overfishing of large shark species. These species are predators of
smaller fish, such as skate and rays. These smaller fish feed on
shellfish, including scallops.
plankton scallops skates large
(producer) (shellfish) and rays sharks

A Fig. 11.5 A marine food chain.

ORGANISMS
ENVIRONMENT
THEIR
AND

68
&
=
As the numbers of large sharks have decreased, there has been less
predation of the smaller fish. So, the numbers of skates and rays have
greatly increased. This has had a major impact on the shellfish, with
scallops becoming nearly extinct in several areas.
Many of the fish that we eat are predators higher up food chains, and
so this effect of changing the population sizes of organisms lower in the
food chain is being seen in many parts of the ocean.
We also affect food chains and webs when we introduce species from
one area to another. This may happen intentionally, such as:
* to provide more food (for example, goats provide meat and milk)
* to control a pest species, for example, introducing cane toads to
Australia to control beetles that are pests of sugarcane plantations
e because the species is a pet (for example, cats and dogs).
Sometimes the introduction is accidental, for example, the introduction
of rats to some places because they were onboard the ships that
transported humans to those places.
Goats have become a pest in many places, particularly on islands,
because they eat much of the vegetation. This prevents new trees
growing, and many of the local plants that are not adapted to being
browsed like this die out. Changing the plants that grow in the area
will also change the animals that can live there.
Cats and rats have also become pests on islands because they eat many
birds and their eggs. In New Zealand, many species of ground-nesting
birds have become extinct because of these introductions.
Cane toads were introduced to Australia to control beetles that were
attacking the sugarcane plantations in the northern regions.
Unfortunately the toads didn’t stay in the plantations, because they
needed more shelter. So they moved out, and started eating small
animals in other areas. This left less food for the predators of the local
food web, including many species of small lizards. Population sizes of
these lizards have decreased and some are at risk of extinction. The
toad is now considered a pest in these areas.

<J Fig. 11.6 Cane toads have glands

in their skin that produce chemicals
that are toxic to many animals. So,
there are few predators in Australia
that can eat them.

ENV
THEI
AND
ORG
 EXTINCTION IN HAWAII

A deep hole on one ofthe Hawaiian islands provides a

10.000 year record of the effects of humans on the plants
and animals that lived there. Before humans arrived, the
only organisms must have arrived by chance on the wind
or water. Only a limited number of species could travel
the thousands of miles from the mainland to the islands.
Since the time that they arrived, they evolved into a
range of new species that were found nowhere else. The
birds, in particular, evolved into a wide range of forms,
including some that were too large to fly and behaved
more like pigs and goats, grazing the plants.

About 900 years ago the first bones of a rat appear in the
deep hole. It arrived with people on a boat. More rat
bones were found in the hole since that time. Since 900
years ago, many island species have disappeared from
hae ech M : Roden th A Fig. 11.7 The Laysan albatross is
the bone collection. Many species of birds, including the jow protected when it nests on
large species, became extinct. Only birds that nest onthe Midway Island in Hawaii, although
islands and then leave for the rest of the year are still cals ote Stl rea oto,
found in Hawaii. All the species of land snails, which were
an important food for predators on the islands, became extinct, and
this affected other species in the island food web.

The rats, and other species that humans brought to the island,
including cats and goats, changed the island food web forever.

QUESTIONS
1. Use your own words to define the following terms: producer,
consumer, herbivore, carnivore.

2. EXTENDED Use your own words to define the following terms:

decomposer, trophic level.
3. Name the principal source of energy to an ecosystem. Explain
your answer.
4. Distinguish between a food chain and food web.
5. Describe how food webs can be a) useful and b) difficult to draw.

EXTENDED
An ecosystem includes the interactions between the living and the
non-living
ORGANISMS
ENVIRONMENT
THEIR
AND factors in an area. Many of the interactions involve energy
transfers.
Energy transfers in biological systems
Plants transfer the energy from light into stored energy inside them.
This energy is transferred to animals when they digest and assimilate
plant food to make new substances in their body tissue.
The energy that a plant receives from light, or that an animal gets in its
food, is always greater than the amount of energy it stores in the
substances in its tissues. This is because some of the energy that it
takes in is transferred to the environment in various forms. The energy
losses from plants and animals differ in some ways.

Energy losses from plants

The amount of energy from sunlight that falls on the Earth’s surface
varies at different times of the day and year, and varies in different
parts of the world (with places near the equator receiving more light
energy than places nearer the poles). On average, tropical areas receive
between 3 and 5 kWh/m*? per day (which is about the same energy as a
one-bar electric heater left on for 3—5 hours).
Plants use only a tiny proportion of this for many reasons, as shown in
Fig.11.8. It has been estimated that most plants only transfer about 1%
to 2% of the energy in the light that falls on them into chemical energy
in their tissues (biomass). This is the energy available to a herbivore
that eats the plant.
energy in light reflected
back to the
energy reaching
environment
leaf in light

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The energy stored in the food molecules may stay in the body, stored
in body tissue, it may be transferred to the environment, or stored in
waste chemicals, such as urine. When food molecules are broken
down during respiration and other reactions, some of the energy
released oe the molecules is transferred to the environment by
heating, through the processes of conduction, convection and radiation.
Sie. ale seca proportion of the energy stored in the animal's food is
converted into energy stored in its body tissues as an increase in the
animal's biomass.

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REMEMBER
Energy transfer efficiency is the amount of energy stored in the body
tissue at a particular trophic level compared with the amount in the
previous level. Calculating the energy transfer efficiency between
trophic levels involves the estimation of many values. This means that
the transfer efficiencies you may find in textbooks and on the internet
are only best estimates and must not be taken as exact.
In addition, many sources quote a value of 10% as the efficiency of
energy transfer between any trophic level and the one above.
Calculations of efficiency vary from about 0.2% to around 20% for
different organisms in different ecosystems. This gives an average of
10%, but over such a large range this is not very reliable. It is better to
prepare to explain how energy is gained and lost between trophic levels,
in order to explain the shape of pyramids of energy and lengths of food
chains, than to quote specific values for energy transfer efficiency.

¥4a
sk:
ENVIRONMENT
THEIR
AND
ORGANISMS
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a flowchart to show the energy gains by and losses from
a plant leaf.
2. Draw a flowchart to show the energy gains by and losses from
a herbivore.
3. Explain why the amount of energy stored in an organism's
tissues is always less than the amount of energy that it gained.

END OF EXTENDED

SCIENCE
tray PHYSICS -ENERGY TRANSFER

- Food chains and webs describe which organisms consume others,

but a key feature is that they show how energy is transferred from
each trophic level to the next and this links to the law of
conservation of energy.

Energy ideas can be used to explain why the number of organisms

in a predator level are much lower than the number of organisms in
the level below — energy transfers are never 100% efficient and not
all energy is stored and available for the next level up.

Energy ideas also indicate why food chains have a limited length —
the useful energy is reduced to a point where an additional level
could not be supported.

o
ENVI
=THEI
AND
ORG
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
biomass, carnivore, consumer, decomposer, food chain, food web, herbivore,
omnivore, producer, trophic level

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() Producers are organisms that make their own organic nutrients (food), such as
plants that use sunlight to produce sugars through photosynthesis.

©) Consumers are organisms that gain energy by feeding on other organisms. There
are different levels of consumer, depending on their position in a food chain.

C) A herbivore is an animal that eats plants, and a carnivore is an animal that eats
other animals.

©) A food chain shows the transfer of energy between organisms as a result of

feeding, starting with a producer.

©) A food web is an interconnection of food chains that share some organisms.

©) How to define decomposer as an organism that gets its energy from dead or
waste organic material.

©) EXTENDED A trophic level is a feeding level within a food chain, food web or
pyramid of numbers or biomass.

() EXTENDED Energy is gained at each trophic level as it is transferred from light in

plants or from food in animals to make new body tissue.

C) EXTENDED Energy is transferred to the environment at each trophic level as heat

energy from respiration, and also as chemical energy from animals in the form of
faeces and urine.

() EXTENDED That a food chain is rarely more than five trophic levels in length
because the top trophic level within the chain contains too little energy to
support another trophic level.

ORGANISMS
THEIR
AND
ENVIRONMENT
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. The photograph in Fig.11.10 shows lions eating a dead wildebeest. Before the
lions killed the wildebeest, it had been feeding on grass.

A Fig. 11.10 Lions eating their kill.

a) Is the lion a carnivore or herbivore? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

b) At which level of a food chain does the wildebeest feed? (1 mark)

c) Draw a food chain for the organisms shown in the photograph. (2 marks)
d) Lions also feed on the herbivores, gazelle and zebra. Use all these
organisms to draw a food web for the African grassland. (3 marks)

2. EXTENDED In a tropical forest, the layer of dead leaves (called the leaf litter) on the
forest floor is usually very thin at all times of the year. In temperate woodlands
(where there are seasons of summer and winter), many trees drop their leaves in
the autumn and grow new ones in the spring.

a) Tropical trees drop a few leaves at a time, at any time of year. What happens to
the leaves on the ground? Explain your
answer as fully as possible. (2 marks)

b) The leaf litter in a temperate woodland is

deep all through winter, when it may be
cold enough for snow, until it gets warm
again in spring. Then the leaf litter
disappears. Explain these observations as
fully as you can. (3 marks)

A Fig. 11.11 A temperate woodland in winter.

ENV
THEI
AND
ORG

185
 End of topic questions continued
3. Use the food web in Fig.11.4 to predict what would happen to the following species
if all the herbivorous insects were killed by insecticide. Explain your answers.

a) predatory insects (2 marks)

b) insectivorous birds (2 marks)

c) mice (2 marks)

d) snakes (2 marks)

. EXTENDED Explain as fully as you can why a food chain is unlikely to include
more than five trophic levels. (6 marks)

. EXTENDED Food chains in northern regions on Earth may be much shorter

than food chains in tropical rainforests. Thinking only in terms of energy,
try to explain this difference. (4 marks)

ORGANISMS
AND
THEIR
ENVIRONMENT
 ch Ne ae the bate

SECTION CONTE
‘Human influe ces on ecosystems
A Deforestation destroys the habitats of many
and animals that depend on the trees.
 Human influences
on ecosystems
INTRODUCTION
The Earth has many natural cycles; one of
these is the carbon cycle. Processes such as
photosynthesis and respiration move carbon
around the Earth.

Humans are changing the balance of these

processes and this is having major impacts
on ecosystems.

A Fig. 12.1 Humans have destroyed parts of the

Deforestation, to make room for agriculture,
Amazon rainforest to make room for cattle farming.
% ;
is one of the ways humans are changing
ecosystems. Removing trees leads to habitat destruction and possible extinction
of the animals and plants that live there. The removal of tree roots leads to loss
of soil, which makes it difficult for new plants to grow. With fewer trees there is
less photosynthesis and so more carbon dioxide is left in the atmosphere.
el ei
eu KNOWLEDGE:
a
CHECK (fos ea SR ae
| Y Water is essential for many life processes.
av Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids all contain carbon.
VY Proteins also contain nitrogen.
V Plants lose water to the environment through their leaves, in transpiration.
Y Decomposers digest dead organic material releasing some of the products of
digestion into the environment.
Y Earth's atmosphere is affected by human activity such as deforestation and
combustion of fuels.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES i= a oe 2 Sa
Vv Describe stages in the carbon cycle, including respiration, photosynthesis,
decomposition and combustion.
/ EXTENDED Discuss the effects of the combustion of fossil fuels and the cutting
down of forests on the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere.
V List the undesirable effects of deforestation as an example of habitat destruction.
/¥ EXTENDED Explain the process of eutrophication of water.

INFLUENCES
HUMAN
ECOSYSTEMS
ON
HUMAN INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS
Nutrient cycles
Unlike energy, which is transferred through organisms and eventually
to the environment in a way that is not useful to the organisms,
nutrients continually transfer between the environment and organisms
and back again, in what are described as nutrient cycles. One
example is the carbon cycle.

The carbon cycle

Carbon is continually cycled through the living and
non-living parts of ecosystems, in different forms
at different stages of the carbon cycle. Carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere is converted to
complex carbon compounds in plants during
photosynthesis. This is often called the ‘fixing’ of
carbon by plants. Respiration in plants returns
some of this fixed carbon back to the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide. Carbon in the form of complex
carbon compounds passes along the food chain.
At each stage, some of this carbon is released as
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as a result
of respiration.
When organisms die, their bodies decay as they are
digested by decomposers. Some of the complex
carbon compounds are taken into the bodies of the
decomposers, where some may be converted to
carbon dioxide during respiration. Carbon dioxide Fig. 12.2 Water excludes air from the
may also be released directly into the atmosphere ground, which prevents decaying organisms
during decay. from respiring. So, dead plant material in
waterlogged ground builds up over time,
forming peat. Peat can be burnt as a fuel,
although this is being discouraged so that
Combustion peat bog habitats can be protected.
If dead organic material is buried by sediment or
water too quickly for decomposers to cause decay,
and if it remains buried, then it may be converted to other complex w

carbon compounds. Peat is formed when mosses and other plants are =
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buried in swampy ground for hundreds of years. Over many millions of
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pressure over many millions of years also produces oil from the ©
decaying bodies of tiny marine organisms that were buried in sediment
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release the carbon from the complex carbon compounds in fossil fuels
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A Fig. 12.3 A summary of the carbon cycle.

REMEMBER
Make sure you are certain what form carbon is in (carbon dioxide or
complex carbon compounds such as carbohydrates) at each stage of the
carbon cycle.

The effects of large-scale deforestation and combustion

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of large areas
of forests and woodlands. It usually happens in areas that
provide quality wood for furniture, such as the tropical
hardwood forests of Malaysia, or to create farming or
grazing land (all over the world).
Deforestation can result in many kinds of damage to the
environment and the organisms that live there, including:
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Forests act as a major carbon store because carbon dioxide is
= taken up from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and A Fig. 12.4 Radar image of the island of
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ns used to produce the chemical compounds that make up trees. Sumatra showing the extent of deforesta
When forests are cleared, and the trees are either burnt or Native forest appears iN Gieenanai aad
represent deforestation.
left to rot, this carbon is released quickly into the air as carbon dioxide. |
This rapidly increases the proportion of carbon dioxide compared with |
oxygen in the air surrounding the forest. In addition, the amount of |
oxygen removed from the local atmosphere by plants for photosynthesis |
may also drop, changing the balance between carbon dioxide and oxygen |
in the atmosphere locally.
On the scale of deforestation in the Amazon Basin, the amount of
carbon dioxide released is so great that it cannot be brought back into
balance as a result of photosynthesis. This additional carbon dioxide
remains in the atmosphere.
Over the past 10000 years or so, as a result of photosynthesis and
respiration and other physical processes, the exchange of carbon between
organisms and the atmosphere resulted in little change in the amount of
Eon dioxide in the atmosphere. On average, over one year about |
120 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide are removed from the atmosphere
by photosynthesis, and a similar amount is returned by respiration. |
During the past 250 years, however, deforestation and the combustion of
fossil fuels as a result of human activity has added increasing amounts of
CO, to the atmosphere. Today about 5.5 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide are added to the
atmosphere every year through human
activity, particularly through combustion
of fossil fuels.
Compared with 120 billion tonnes
through natural processes, this may not
seem a lot, but there is no process that
balances this addition. So, the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is increasing. It is this
additional carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere that most people believe is
causing global warming and climate A Fig. 12.5 Atmospheric carbon dioxide |
change. concentration from 1000 ce to recent times.

END OF EXTENDED
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2. In what form is carbon when it is in the following stages of the | eeU

carbon cycle? |5 Lid

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3. EXTENDED Describe the effect of large-scale deforestation on the Ea
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oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations of the atmosphere. |

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 mitra
LINK
CHEMISTRY - CHEMICAL REACTIONS
The carbon cycle connects together a number of chemical reactions,
each of these can be described in terms of particles and using word
equations and symbol equations.
Combustion (reacting with oxygen) leads to a number of processes,
for example, acid rain or the production of carbon dioxide, that
impact on the environment and the organisms that can survive in
a particular habitat.
Since many aspects of an ecosystem are interconnected, human
activity in one situation (such as producing fertilisers or burning
fuels to provide energy) can have an impact in a much wider range
of situations and contexts.

EXTENDED
Deforestation also has an effect on the water cycle. Trees draw ground
water up through their roots and release it into the atmosphere by
transpiration. As forest trees are removed, the amount of water that can
be held in an area decreases, which in turn can cause either increasing
or decreasing rainfall in the area.
Removing the protective cover of vegetation from the soil can also
result in soil erosion. This is where the soil is washed away by rain.
The top layers of soil are the ones that contain the most nutrients, from
the decay of dead vegetation, so soil erosion removes essential nutrients
from the land. Soil nutrients are also lost by leaching, which is the
soaking away of soluble nutrients in soil water because there are few
plant roots in the soil to absorb the nutrients and lock them away in
plant tissue. This loss of nutrients from the soil is permanent, and
makes it very difficult for forest trees to regrow in the area, even if the
land is not cultivated.
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estuary in Madagascar shows large
amounts of soil in the water (orange). This
is a result of deforestation near the river.

Loss of plant species due to deforestation will result in a loss of animal

species in the same community, because of their feeding relationships
in the food web. Many tropical rainforests are areas of high
biodiversity, where many organisms live. They also contain many
species found nowhere else because they have evolved together in an
energy-rich and relatively unchanging environment. Destruction of
tropical rainforests, such as in the Amazon Basin, is causing a high rate
of extinction of species.

END OF EXTENDED

Fertilisers and eutrophication

Fertilisers are chemicals that farmers use on fields to add nutrients, for
example nitrates, that help the crops to grow better and so produce
greater yields. However, if a farmer adds more fertiliser to a field than
the crop plants can absorb, the remaining nutrients will soak away in
ground water into nearby streams and rivers. Also, if there is heavy
rainfall soon after the fertiliser has been spread on a field, the nutrients
will dissolve in the rainwater and run off the surface of the field into
streams and rivers.
This adding of nutrients to water is called eutrophication. The
nutrients in the water will have the same effect on plants and algae in
the water as they have on plants that grow on land, and will encourage
them to grow faster. As they grow faster, they respire more rapidly,
taking oxygen from the water. This leaves less oxygen in the water for
other organisms, such as fish, and those organisms may die.

EXTENDED

The effects of eutrophication on an aquatic ecosystem can be explained

in the following way.
e Eutrophication increases the rate of growth of photosynthesising
organisms (producers) in the water, in particular algae and plants that ECOS
ON
INFL
HUM
grow at the surface of the water.
 e If the plants and algae at the surface grow so much that they block
light to plants that grow deeper in the water, the deep-water plants
will die because they cannot photosynthesise.
e This will provide more food for decomposers, such as bacteria, which
| will increase in numbers rapidly.
¢ The bacteria respire more rapidly in order to make new materials for
erowth and reproduction. Respiration takes dissolved oxygen from the
water, reducing the oxygen concentration of the water.
¢ Other aquatic (water-living) organisms find it increasingly difficult to
get the oxygen they need from the water for respiration.
¢ If the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water falls too low, many
organisms, particularly active animals such as fish, will die.
e The decay of dead organisms in the water provides more nutrients, so
more bacteria grow, respire and take more oxygen from the water.
¢ Eventually, most of the large aquatic plants and animals in the water
may die.

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A Fig. 12.7 Eutrophication can lead to the death of water organisms.

Ww | REMEMBER
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- Eutrophication is often wrongly defined as the pollution of water and
| death of aquatic organisms. This is incorrect — eutrophication is simply
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_ the adding of nutrients. It comes from the Greek word eutrophia, meaning
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P|
ide
A Fig. 12.8 Large-scale algal growth can be seen in satellite photos. This algal bloom occurred in |
the Baltic Sea in 2010 as a result of fertilisers being washed off the surrounding land.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS —
1. EXTENDED Explain how deforestation may affect: |
a) the water cycle |
b) soil fertility
c) atmospheric carbon dioxide.
2. Explain what we mean by eutrophication. |
3. Give two reasons why the use of artificial fertiliser on a field
could cause eutrophication of a nearby stream.
4. Describe how eutrophication can lead to the death of fish
in astream.
5. EXTENDED Draw a flow diagram to explain how sewage can
cause eutrophication and water pollution.

ECOS
Ni

O
INFL
HUMA
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
biodiversity, carbon cycle, combustion, community, deforestation,
eutrophication, fossil fuel, leaching, nutrient cycle, soil erosion

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() The carbon cycle can be represented as a diagram that shows how
photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition and combustion contribute to the
transfer of carbon between organisms and the environment.

() EXTENDED Combustion and deforestation can rapidly increase the carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere.

() Deforestation can damage the environment by causing species to become

extinct, increasing loss of soil and the risk of flooding, and by resulting in more
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

©) Why deforestation has undesirable effects on the environment.

©) EXTENDED Eutrophication caused by the addition of nutrients to water sources, is

the increase in nutrients in water from fertilisers or untreated sewage, which may
lead to the death of organisms, such as fish, due to lack of oxygen in the water.

(©) EXTENDED Eutrophication caused by the addition of nutrients to water sources,

increases the rate of growth of surface plants and algae that block light to plants
lower in the water. Lower plants die and are decayed by bacteria that remove
oxygen from the water for respiration. This leaves little oxygen in the water for
other organisms such as fish.

HUMAN
INFLUENCES
ECOSYSTEMS
ON
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. The graph in Fig.12.9 shows the change in carbon dioxide concentration above a
forest over 2 days, and the light intensity just above the top of the trees.

net :
carbon dioxide _}y
release

oe)

net a
carbon dioxide
uptake

light
| intensity

OQ
eaaeeedtececace

midnight midday midnight midday midnight 0

A Fig. 12.9 Changes in light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration above a forest.

a) Explain the changes in light intensity shown in the graph. (2 marks)

lb) Explain the changes in carbon dioxide concentration shown in the graph.
(Remember there are more organisms than just the trees in the forest.) (4 marks)

2. EXTENDED If rainforest is cleared on a large scale and then left to recover,

it is rare that the same species of plants and animals return to the area, even
after many years. Explain why this happens, referring to soil fertility, climate
and biodiversity in your answer. (4 marks)

3. Rivers and lakes that are used for water supplies may be monitored to make sure
that the water in them is safe for use. One way of monitoring is to measure the
amount of oxygen that is used by the water (the oxygen demand) over a period of
5 days.
a) Why might concentration of oxygen decrease in the water?
Explain your answer. (2 marks)

ECOS
ON
INFL
HUMA
 End of topic questions continued
b) In this test would polluted water use more oxygen than unpolluted
water? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

Another way of monitoring the water is to sample the small organisms

that live in it. Some species, such as worms, are better adapted for living
in water that has a low oxygen concentration. Other species, such as mayfly
larvae, need a high concentration of oxygen in the water.

c) Which of the two species above would be more common in polluted

water? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

d) What does adapted mean? (1 mark)

e) Why might sampling the organisms be a better measure of the long-term

health of the water than measuring the oxygen demand of the water? (2 marks)

HUMAN
INFLUENCES
ON
ECOSYSTEMS
= This section prcvides the basic ideas that the rest of your course is
built on. You may have covered some aspects in your previous
work, but it is important to understand the key principles
thoroughly before seeing how these can be applied across all the
_other sections. The section covers some of the experimental
techniques you will meet in your course.
First you will look at the existing evidence for the particulate nature
of matter. Next, you will consider the structure ofanatom and why
the atoms ofdifferent elements have different properties. You will
look at the different ways that atoms of elements join together
when they form compounds, and how the method of combination
will determine the properties of the compound formed. You will
develop your skills in writing word and symbol equations; and also
use an equation to work out the products of a reaction.

STARTING POINTS
1. What is an atom?
2.Name some of the particles that are found in an atom.
3.What name is given to a particle formed when two atoms
combine together?
4.You will be learning about the states of matter. Do you know
what these states are?
5.One type of chemical bonding you will ae is called ionic
bonding. Find out what an ion is.

SECTION CONTENTS
a) The particulate nature of matter
b) Experimental techniques
c) Atoms, elements and compounds
dl) lons and ionic bonds
e) Molecules and covalent bonds
f) Stoichiometry
mond and graphite are both forms of carbon
 The particulate
nature of matter
INTRODUCTION
Nearly all substances may be classified as
solid, liquid or gas — the states of matter. In
science these states are often shown in
shorthand as (s), (1) and (g) after the formula
or symbol (these are called state symbols).
The kinetic particle theory is based on the
idea that all substances are made up of
extremely tiny particles. The particles in
A Fig. 1.1 Water in all its states of matter.
these three states are arranged differently
and have different types of movement and
different energies. In many cases, matter changes into different states quite
easily. The names of many of these processes are in everyday use, such as
melting and condensing. Using simple models of the particles in solids, liquids
and gases can help to explain what happens when a substance changes state.
KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Be able to classify substances as solid, liquid or gas.
Y Be familiar with some of the simple properties of solids, liquids and gases.
Y Know that all substances are made up of particles.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
V Be able to state the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases.
Y Be able to describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms
of particle separation, arrangement and types of motion.
Vv Be able to describe the changes of state in terms of melting, boiling,
evaporation, freezing and condensation.
Vv Be able to describe qualitatively the pressure and temperature of a
gas in terms of the motion of its particles.
Vv Be able to show an understanding of the terms atom, molecule and ion. ==
/Y EXTENDED Be able to explain changes of state in terms of A Fig. 1.2 Water covers nearly four-fifths
particle theory. . of the Earth's surface. In this photo you
>
co can see that all three states of matter
-
ws can exist together: solid water (the ice) is
= floating in liquid water (the ocean), and
Ld
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U
HOW DO SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES DIFFER? the surrounding air contains water
vapour (clouds).
LL.
ie) The three states of matter each have different properties,
wn
Wu
Ea
depending on how strongly the particles are held together.
a
U ¢ Solids have a fixed volume and shape.
=
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oa
¢ Liquids have a fixed volume but no definite shape.
They take up the shape of the container in which
they are held.
¢ Gases have no fixed volume or shape. They spread out to fill
whatever container or space they are in.
Substances don’t always exist in the same state; depending on the
physical conditions, they change from one state to another
(interconvert).
Some substances can exist in all three states in the natural world.
A good example of this is water.

QUESTIONS
1. What is the state symbol for a liquid?
2. Which is the only state of matter that has a fixed shape?
3. In what ways does fine sand behave like a liquid?

Why do solids, liquids and gases behave differently?

The behaviour of solids, liquids and gases can be explained if we think of
all matter as being made up of very small particles that are in constant
motion. This idea has been summarised in the particle theory of matter.
In solids, the particles are held tightly together in a fixed position, so
solids have a definite shape. However, the particles are vibrating about
their fixed positions because they have energy.
In liquids, the particles are held tightly together but have enough
energy to move around. Liquids have no definite shape and will take on
the shape of the container they are in.
In gases, the particles are further apart with enough energy to move
apart from each other and are constantly moving. Gas particles can
spread apart to fill the container they are in.

9090909909 |, °
95703 $00.0 9°. ee
A Fig. 1.3 Particles in a solid. } A Fig. 1.4 Particles in a liquid. A Fig. 1.5 Particles in a gas.

MAT
OF
NAT
PAR
THE
 EXTENDED

Above its boiling point 1 N

steam there is no liquid left. The (@) F) | Q
particles in the gaseous
phase are moving
completely randomly and
are the least orderly in y ne
|their arrangement. a e) 7 ,

|Liquid boiling — the forces ©?) e O

of attraction between the )
particles are completely -
broken and the particles Q i) e
escape as a gas. t
water boiling 7)

Liquid evaporating — a
few particles gain enough
energy to escape as a gas.

In a liquid, bonds are

constantly being broken
and formed, leading to
less orderly particles than
in the solid phase.

liquid water

Temperature

At its melting point, the

strong forces of attraction
holding the particles
together are broken.

ice melting t

Solid — as the temperature

rises, the particles begin
to vibrate more.

Solid — particles packed 0-@-O-@

closely, vibrating slightly. ) ) ) )
> A very orderly 0-O0-0-@
co arrangement held
= ) ) ) )
2 together by the forces 0-@-@-@
= between the particles. ) ) ) )
tad
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Lid
noel
= END OF EXTENDED
U
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4
o.
HOW DO SUBSTANCES CHANGE FROM ONE STATE
TO ANOTHER?
To change solids into liquids and then into gases, heat energy must be
put in. The heat provides the particles with enough energy to overcome
the forces holding them together.
To change gases into liquids and then into solids involves cooling, so
removing heat energy. This makes the particles come closer together as
the substance changes from gas to liquid and the particles bond
together as the liquid becomes a solid.
The temperatures at which one state changes to another have
specific names:
Name of temperature | Change of state
Melting point Solid to liquid
Boiling point Liquid to gas j
Freezing point | _ Liquid to
solid |
Condensation point Gas to liquid oat
A Table 1.1 Changes of state.

The particles in a liquid can move around. They have different

energies, so some are moving faster than others. The faster particles
have enough energy to escape from the surface of the liquid and it
changes into the gas state (also called vapour particles). This process
is evaporation. The rate of evaporation increases with increasing
temperature because heat gives more particles the energy to be able to
escape from the surface.
Fig. 1.7 summarises the changes in states of matter. Note that melting
and freezing happen at the same temperature — as do boiling and
condensing.

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A Fig. 1.7 Changes of state. Note that melting and freezing happen at the same temperature — as
do boiling and condensing.
 THE STATES OF MATTER

There are three states of matter

— or are there? To complicate this
simple idea, some substances
show the properties of two
different states of matter. Some
examples are given below.

Liquid crystals

Liquid crystals are commonly

used in displays in computers
and televisions. Within particular
temperature ranges the particles
of the liquid crystal can flow like
a liquid, but remain arranged ina
pattern in which the particles
cannot rotate. A Fig. 1.8 An LCD (liquid crystal display) television.

Superfluids

When some liquids are cooled to very low temperatures they form a
second liquid state, described as a superfluid state. Liquid helium at
just above absolute zero has infinite fluidity and will ‘climb out’ of its
container when left undisturbed — at this temperature the liquid has
zero viscosity. (You may like to look up ‘fluidity’ and ‘viscosity’)

Plasma

Plasmas, or ionised gases, can exist at temperatures of several

thousand degrees Celsius. An example of a plasma is the charged air
produced by lightning. Stars like our Sun also produce plasma. Like a
gas, a plasma does not have a definite shape or volume but the
strong forces between its particles give it unusual properties, such as
conducting electricity. Because of this combination of properties,
plasma is sometimes called the fourth state of matter.

>
coc
|
cool
The pressure exerted by a gas is caused by the gas particles bombarding
et
=
the sides of the container the gas is in. If a gas is compressed into a
ud
2 smaller volume, the number of gas particles hitting the sides of the
U
Les container every second will increase (there is less space for them to move
Oo
— in). The increase in the number of collisions per second causes the
Lal
|
a increase in pressure. If the temperature of a gas is increased, the gas
YU
=
particles have more energy and will move faster. Again there will be more
4
a.
collisions with the sides of the container each second and so the gas will
exert a greater pressure.
QUESTIONS
1. What type of movement do the particles in a solid have?
2. In which state are the particles held together more strongly:
in solid water, liquid water or water vapour?
3. What is the name of the process that occurs when the faster-
moving particles in a liquid escape from its surface?
4. What name is given to the temperature at which a solid changes
into a liquid?

SCIENCE
iva PARTICLES

Particles make up the structure of all living things in Biology and

everything in the Universe that we study in Physics.
Biological processes in cells happen through the movement of particles.
Larger-scale processes such as digestion, respiration and photosynthesis
are driven by the interactions of particles.
In Physics, ideas about particles help explain the structure of buildings,
how heat energy is transferred, how electrical circuits work, what
happens to cause the weather, and so on.
Particle ideas — the different sizes, how particles join together, how
particles are arranged and how they move - are ideas that return again
and again.

ELEMENTS, ATOMS AND MOLECULES

All matter is made from elements. A Periodic Table of elements is
shown on page 327 of this book and you will recognise the names of
some of the more common elements that you know about, for example,
carbon (C), oxygen (O), aluminium (Al) and iron (Fe). Elements are
substances that cannot be broken down into anything simpler, as they
are made up of one kind of the same small particle. These small ne
Lu

particles are called atoms. =

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=
Almost always, the atoms in an element combine with other atoms to bh
1°)
form molecules. For example, two atoms of hydrogen combine with one Lu
ce
atom of oxygen to form a molecule of water. So the formula of water is =)
| sl

HO. One atom of carbon combines with two atoms of oxygen to form <
ma
carbon dioxide — the chemical formula is CO,. Water and carbon NegU TON oseore Lu
=
=e
dioxide are molecules. There are also particles called ions. Unlike water molecule. =J
=}

atoms and molecules these particles are not neutral, they are charged. =-
oe
(see page 234). <<
ou.
ut
<
=
 QUSTIONS
1. What is the name of the particle that is found in all elements?
2. The molecule methane has the chemical formula CH,. Which
atoms does it contain and how many of each?
3. Glucose is a molecule with the chemical formula of CHszOm
Explain how this molecule is made up.
4. What is the key difference between an ion and an atom?

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 End of topic checklist
Key terms
atom, boiling, boiling point, condensation, element, evaporation, freezing,
freezing point, gas, liquid, melting, melting point, particle theory, pressure,
solid, state symbols, vapour

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) About the different properties of solids, liquids and gases.

©) How to describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle
separation, arrangement and types of motion.

CO) How to describe changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporation,

freezing and condensation.

() How to describe the pressure and temperature of a gas in terms of the motion
of its particles.

() About atoms, molecules and ions.

Q EXTENDED How to explain changes of state in terms of the particle theory.

MATT
OF
NATU
PART
THE
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1k In which of the three states of matter are the particles moving fastest? —_ (1 mark)
2 . Describe the arrangement and movement of the particles in a liquid. (2 marks)
oh In which state of matter do the particles just vibrate about a fixed point? (1 mark)
4. Sodium (melting point 98°C) and aluminium (melting point 660°C) are both
solids at room temperature. From their melting points, what can you conclude
about the forces of attraction between the particles in the two metals? —_(1 mark)
- What is the name of the process involved in each of the following changes of state:
a)Fe(s) — Feil)? (1 mark)
b)H,O(!) — H,O(g)? (1 mark)
c)H,0(g) — H,O(l)? (1 mark)
d) H,O(!) — H,O(s)? (1 mark)
. Ethanol liquid turns into ethanol vapour at 78°C. What is the name of this
temperature? (1 mark)
~- A student wrote in her exercise book, ‘The particle arrangement in a liquid
is more like the arrangement in a solid than in a gas’ Do you agree with this
statement? Explain your reasoning. (2 marks)

PRINCIPLES
OF
CHEMISTRY
Experimental
techniques
INTRODUCTION
Practical work is a very important part of
studying chemistry. In your practical work
you will need to develop your skills so that
you can safely, correctly and methodically
use and organise techniques, apparatus and
materials. This involves being able to use ee
SRA
(Ab
ERR
OES
=

appropriate apparatus for measurement to

give readings to the required degree of
accuracy. It is important to be able to use A Fig 110 Usha thereat eacommetied
techniques that will determine the purity of fora titration.
a substance and, if necessary, techniques that
can be used to purify mixtures of substances.
KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Be familiar with some simple equipment for measuring time, temperature, mass
and volume.
Y Know that some substances are mixtures of a number of different components.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
V Be able to name appropriate apparatus for accurate measurement of time,
temperature, mass and volume.
/ Be able to interpret simple chromatograms.
/ EXTENDED Be able to use R, values in interpreting simple chromatograms.
Y Be able to describe methods of separation and purification by the use of: a suitable
solvent; filtration; crystallisation; distillation; fractional distillation; paper
chromatography.
/ Be able to suggest suitable purification techniques, given information about the
substances involved.

TEC
EXP
 MEASUREMENT
In your study of chemistry you will carry
out practical work. It is essential to use
the right apparatus for the task.
Time is measured with clocks, such as a
wall clock. The clock should be accurate
to about | second. You may be able to use
your own wristwatch or a stopclock.
Temperature is measured using a
thermometer. The range of the
thermometer is commonly —10°C to
+110°C with intervals of 1°C.
Mass is measured with a balance or a set
of scales.
Volume of liquids can be measured
with burettes, pipettes and j .
é . A Fig. 1.11 Measuring equipment.
measuring cylinders.

CRITERIA OF PURITY
Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography is a way of separating solutions or liquids that
are mixed together.
Black ink is a mixture of different coloured inks. The diagrams
in Fig. 1.12 show how paper chromatography is used to find the
colours that make up a black ink.

area wales

@—— blue

paper aloes red

¢-—+— purple
black ink Sé

water

A Fig. 1.12 Paper chromatography being used to separate a solution to find the colours in black
> ink. The left part of the diagram shows the paper before the inks have been separated, and the
a
e right part shows the paper after the inks have been separated.
2
=
Lud
oa
A spot of ink is placed on the x mark and the paper is suspended in
w)
i
water. As the water rises up the paper, the different dyes travel different
@)
VW
distances and so are separated on the chromatogram.
Paper chromatography can be used to identify what an unknown liquid
Lu
—_
&
w) is made of. This involves interpreting a chromatogram.
eS
a
a
anuiearas a aS ZN
L a A €

A Fig. 1.13 A chromatogram.

The unknown liquid Z is compared with known liquids — in this case

to.
Z must be made of B and C because the pattern of their dots matches
the pattern shown by Z.

A Fig. 1.14 A piece of filter paper is A Fig. 1.15 After a few minutes the chromatogram has been
marked with black ink and dipped created by the action of the water on the ink.
into water in a beaker.

TEC
EXP
 EXTENDED

Retention factors sesesssuscorseapesssenesssegnssegntensneassatsansssscavensnscnensrenssnens

solvent front:
height reached
Substances can also be identified using by solvent

chromatography by measuring their retention factor

on the filter paper. The retention factor (h,) for a
particular substance compares the distance the
substance has travelled up the filter paper with the
distance travelled by the solvent. The retention
factor can be calculated using the following formula:
Distance moved by a substance from the baseline
' ~~ Distance moved by the solvent from the baseline eee
: : E131 £142 £133 E102 Food
As the solvent will always travel further than the
substance, R, values will always be less than I. AFig. 1416 The Rivalueorine foneleciave
EICZ IS O17.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. The start line, or baseline, in chromatography should be drawn
in pencil. Explain why.
2. In a chromatography experiment, why must the solvent level in
the beaker be below the baseline?
3. In a chromatography experiment to compare the dyes in two
different inks, one of the inks does not move at all from the
baseline. Suggest a reason for this.
4. EXTENDED Look at the diagram in Fig. 1.16. Explain why the
I retention factor for the food additive E102 is 0.17.

METHODS OF SEPARATION AND PURIFICATION

Many substances exist in mixtures with other
substances. To obtain the pure substance it is first
necessary to separate the mixture into its components
and then purify the components. Techniques for
separating and purifying solids and liquids rely on
> finding different properties of the substances that make
ce
= up ie impure mixture.
2
=
uu There are some important terms you will need to be
ae
U familiar with:
Le
12)
Ww A solution is formed when a solute (a solid) dissolves
uu
ol in a solvent (a liquid). The more solute that dissolves,
ps
U
=
the more concentrated the solution will become.
oc
a

A Fig. 1.17 Filtration of copper(II) hydroxide.

Purifying impure solids
The method is:
1. Add a solvent that the required solid is soluble in, and dissolve it.
2. Filter the mixture to remove the insoluble impurity.
3. Heat the solution to remove some solvent and leave it to crystallise.
4. Filter off the crystals, wash with a small amount of cold solvent and
dry them — this is the pure solid.
An example of using this technique would be separating salt from ‘rock
salt (the impure form of sodium chloride). Water is added to dissolve
the salt but leave the other solids undissolved. Filter off the insoluble
impurities, warm the salt solution and leave it to crystallise to form
salt crystals.

filter off
excess solid

filter \ ]
[= 3]

Nene A
evaporate to
(amen)
transfer hot
| Py
crystals form after
solution to dish _ leaving to cool and
mixture of salt evaporating
solution and solid dish reduce volume when solution is
impurities of solution saturated

A Fig. 1.18 Separating impurities in rock salt.

Purifying impure liquids

There are two methods:
1. Liquids contaminated with soluble solids
dissolved in them.
The method is distillation.
The solution is heated, the solvent boils and turns
into a vapour. It is condensed back to the pure
liquid and collected.
This is the technique used in desalination
plants, which produce pure drinking water from A Fig.1.19 Distillation apparatus.
sea water. The solids are left behind after boiling
off the water.

TEC
EXP
 i, cold water out
roa ; > 4

condenser

salt solution

cold water A

pure water ———

A Fig. 1.20 Distillation of salt water.

2. Liquids contaminated with other liquids.

In this case the technique is fractional distillation, which uses the
difference in boiling points of the different liquids mixed together.

thermometer

_ water out

condenser

fractionating water in ‘
column
containing
glass beads

>
Oc almost pure ethanol
e
2
=
Ww
<=
U ethanol + water
LL
ie)
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—
=
UO
=
oe
a.
A Fig. 1.21 Apparatus for fractional distillation of an alcohol-water mixture.
The mixture is boiled, and the liquid with the lowest boiling point turns
to a vapour first, rises up the fractionating column and is condensed
back to liquid in the condenser. The next lowest boiling point liquid
comes off, and so on until all the liquids have been separated. You can
identify the fraction you want to collect by the temperature reading on
the thermometer. The fractionating column increases the purity of the
distilled product by reducing the amount of other substances in the
vapour when it condenses.
Fractional distillation is the method used in the separation of crude oil
and collecting ethanol from the fermentation mixture.

QUESTIONS
1. What is a so/vent?
2. What does the term so/uble mean?
3. What method would you use to separate a pure liquid from a
solution of a solid and the liquid?
4. Complete this sentence selecting the correct term below.
To separate two liquids by fractional distillation they must
have different ...
a) melting points
b) boiling points
c) colours
d) viscosities

TEC
EXP
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
chromatogram, desalination, distillation, fractional distillation,
chromatography, retention factor, soluble, solute, solution, solvent

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() About the appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature,
mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes and measuring cylinders.

() How to define the terms solvent, solute, solution and concentration.

©) About the technique of paper chromatography.

() How to interpret simple chromatograms.

(2) EXTENDED How to interpret simple chromatograms, including the use

of R, values.

©) How to describe methods of purification by the use of:

a suitable solvent - to separate a soluble solid from an insoluble solid
filtration — to separate a solid from a liquid
crystallisation — to separate a solid from its solution
distillation —- to separate a solid and a liquid from a solution
fractional distillation — to separate liquids with different boiling points.
©) How to suggest suitable purification techniques given information about the
substances involved.

OF
PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. You are provided with four samples of black water-soluble inks. Two of the ink
samples are identical. Describe how you would use paper chromatography to
identify which two ink samples are the same. (3 marks)

2. You are trying to separate the dyes in a sample of ink using paper chromatography.
You set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 1.14. After 20 minutes the black spot is
unchanged and the water has risen nearly to the top ofthe filter paper.

a) Suggest a reason why the black spot has remained unchanged. (1 mark)
b) What could you change that might lead to a successful separation
of the dyes? (1 mark)
3. In the fractional distillation of ethanol and water, why does the ethanol
vapour condense in the condenser? (1 mark)

4. Describe how you would produce crystals of sodium chloride from a sodium
chloride solution. (2 marks)
5. What process could be used to separate the following mixtures:
a) sand from a sand-water mixture? (1 mark)
b) petrol from a petrol—diesel mixture? (1 mark)

c) pure water from salt solution? (1 mark)

6. EXTENDED Look at the chromatogram solvent front

produced when testing four food colouring
compounds A, B, C and D.

a) Which compound has the largest

retention factor (R,)? (1 mark)

b) Which compound has the smallest R,?

(1 mark)

c) Estimate the R, for compound C. Explain

how you made the estimate. (2 marks) baseline

d) Why are all R, values less than 1.0? (1 mark)

A Fig. 1.22

TECH
EXPE
 Atoms, elements
-and compounds
INTRODUCTION
This topic is about the structure, or the
makeup, of all substances. Some substances
exist in nature as elements, others as
compounds that are formed when elements
combine chemically. The topic starts by
considering the structure of the atoms that
make up elements. It shows how the
im a2 E , arrangement of elements in the Periodic
Pe, Rotem inrece aencs Table is determined by the structure of their
atoms. The properties of metals and non-
metals are explained and an introduction to the combination of atoms forming
compounds is provided. The following topics look in more detail at how atoms
combine together to form ions and molecules, and the structure of metals.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Know the three states of matter and how to use the particle theory to explain the
conversion of one state into another.
/ Understand how diffusion experiments provide evidence for the existence of particles.
Y Know that compounds are formed when elements combine together chemically.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
/ Be able to identify physical change and chemical change and understand the
differences between them.
Y Be able to describe the differences between elements, mixtures and compounds, and
between metals and non-metals.
Y Be able to use the terms solvent, solute, solution and concentration.
Vv Be able to describe the structure of an atom in terms of a central nucleus, containing
protons and neutrons, and ‘shells’ of electrons.
V Be able to describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ around the nucleus and understand
the significance of the noble gas electronic structures and of the outer shell electrons.
V Be able to state the relative charges and approximate relative masses of protons,
neutrons and electrons.
VY Be able to define proton number (atomic number) as the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom and nucleon number (mass number) as the total number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to
explain the basis of the Periodic Table, with special reference to the elements with
proton numbers 1 to 20.

PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF
|
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
A chemical change, or chemical reaction, is quite different from
physical changes that occur, for example, when sugar dissolves in water.
In a chemical change, one or more new substances are produced. In
many cases-an observable change is apparent, for example, the colour
changes or a gas is produced.
An apparent change in mass can occur. This change is often quite
small and difficult to detect unless accurate balances are used. Mass is
conserved in all chemical reactions — the apparent change in mass
usually occurs because one of the reactants or products is a gas (whose
mass may not have been measured).
An energy change is almost always involved. In most cases energy is
released and the surroundings become warmer. In some cases energy is
absorbed from the surroundings, and so the surroundings become
colder. Note: Some physical changes, such as evaporation, also have
energy changes.

THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

All matter can be classified into the three categories of elements,
mixtures and compounds. As you have seen, the elements can be
ordered in the Periodic Table. You will be learning how elements
combine together to form compounds in the next two topics.
A mixture contains more than one substance (elements or
compounds). In a mixture, the individual substances can be separated
by simple means. This is because the substances in a mixture have not
combined chemically.
Most elements can be classified as either metals or non-metals. In
the Periodic Table, the metals are arranged on the left and in the
middle, and the non-metals are on the right.
Metals and non-metals have quite different physical and
chemical properties.

Wi
=)
=
=)
‘s)
a
2
2)
U
=)
=
<
nn
=
=
Lu
=
Lid
a
Lu

wi
A Fig. 1.24 Non-metals: from left: silicon, chlorine, sulfur. =
2)
|
coal
<x
 High melting points Good conductors of heat
Good conductors of electricity

Typical properties of metals eho

Sonorous
ring when struck
Malleable Ductile
| can be hammered can be drawn
+ into shape Va into a wire
\ ade
—NG&

a 4
Exceptions:
* The alkali metals have low melting points and are not sonorous.
* Mercury has a low melting point.

A Fig. 1.25 Typical properties of metals.

Poor conductors of electricity Low melting points Poor conductors of heat

si i
saa ees A
“4

Typical properties of non-metals

Soo Brittle
Dull
Exceptions
* Carbon in the form of graphite is a good
conductor of electricity.
* Carbon and silicon have high melting points.

A Fig.1.26 Typical properties of non-metals.

QUESTION
1. What is the difference between a mixture and a compound?

SCIENCE
tram BIOLOGY - BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

The behaviour ofthe different types of particles —- atoms, molecules and

ions — is important in describing how the different life processes happen.
The combination of atoms of different elements into molecules
leads to the chemicals required for life to exist.
Although some of the molecules required for life processes are very
complicated, they arise through the same rules of combination that
apply to the simplest compounds.
PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF Particular elements must be present for living things to survive
successfully, for example, plants need particular ‘nutrients’
a number of which are simply chemical elements.
ATOMIC THEORY
In 1808, the British chemist John Dalton published a book outlining
his theory of atoms. These were the main points of his theory:
e All matter is made of small, indivisible spheres called atoms.
¢ All the atoms of a given element are identical and have the same mass.
e The atoms of different elements have different masses.
¢ Chemical compounds are formed when different atoms join together.
All the molecules of a chemical compound have the same type and
number of atoms.
An element is the smallest part of a substance that can exist on its own.
When two or more elements combine together a compound is formed.
Since 1808, atomic theory has developed considerably and yet many of
Dalton’s ideas are still correct. Modern theory is built on an understanding
of the particles that make up atoms — the so-called sub-atomic particles.

Sub-atomic particles
The smallest amount of an element that still behaves like that element
is an atom. Each element has its own unique type of atom. Atoms are
made up of smaller, sub-atomic particles. The three main sub-atomic
particles are protons, neutrons and electrons.
These particles are very small and have very little mass. However, it is
possible to compare their masses using a relative scale. Their charges
may also be compared in a similar way. The proton and neutron have the
same mass, and the proton and electron have equal but opposite charges.
—

Sub-atomic _ Relative mass Relative charge

particle payee |
Proton ] +] |
| Neutron | leyen®)
+ =a

Electron Anat == |
2000

A Table 1.2 Relative masses and charges of sub-atomic particles.

Protons and neutrons are found in the centre of the atom in a cluster called 7)
Q
the nucleus. The electrons form a series of ‘shells’ around the nucleus. a
=
O
a
=
O
UY
Q
=
<{
un
re

2
Nucleus Electrons wi
this is very small. are negatively =
rr
It contains positively charged particles =
i
charged particles that form a
series of ‘shells’
w
called protons and 2
particles with no around the nucleus oO
e
charge at all <
called neutrons

A Fig. 1.27 Structure of an atom.

 A Fig. 1.28 Diagrams are another way of representing the structure of an atom.

ARRANGEMENTS OF ELECTRONS IN THE ATOM

An atom’s electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus. These
do not all contain the same number of electrons — the shell nearest to
the nucleus can take only two electrons, whereas the next one out from
the nucleus can take eight.
iitoneean | Maximum number of electrons
SS er ee Le i ee aT
|
| ae)a
3 | 8
. | 8 (initially, with up to 18 after element 20)
£
A Table 1.3 Maximum number of electrons in a shell.

Oxygen has a proton number of 8, so it has 8 electrons. Of these, two

are in the first shell and six are in the second shell. This arrangement is
written 2,6. A phosphorus atom with a proton number of 15 has 15
electrons, arranged 2,8,5. The electrons in the outer electron shell that
are involved in chemical bonding are known as the valency electrons.

Atom diagrams
The atomic structure of an atom can be shown simply in a diagram.

>
oc
ool

0
=
wu
is
UW
Le
(e)
vA)
ud
=
= 12 32
WY
6 C ae.
=
ce
oO.
A Fig. 1.29 Atom diagrams for carbon and sulfur showing the numbers of
protons and neutrons and the electron arrangements.
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called its electronic
configuration.

Periodicity and electronic configuration

In the Periodic Table lithium, sodium and potassium are placed on the
left, and neon and argon are placed on the right. The proton number
increases from lithium to neon, moving through a section, or period,
of the Periodic Table. The number of electrons in the outer shell
increases. This is called periodicity.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Elements that have similar electronic configurations have similar
chemical properties.
Lithium (2,1), sodium (2,8,1) and potassium (2,8,8,1) all have one
electron in their outer shell. These are all highly reactive metals. They
are called Group I elements.
electron in the furthest shell out is most easily lost

number of shells filled with electrons increases

lithium sodium pee

x) y_-@e~
o- eo eo
o~ — : o
\ @ ee, rz
o }) (8% © 98) oo, 9 (00)
° > @
eo eo

A Fig. 1.30 Electronic configurations of lithium, sodium and potassium.

Fluorine (2,7), chlorine (2,8,7), bromine (2,8,18,7) and iodine

(2,8,18,18,7) all have seven electrons in their outer shell. These
elements are all highly reactive non-metals. They are called Group VII
elements, or halogens.

fluorine chlorine
_@@
@@ -@@
@ _@
fo \@ |]98/ o \ge w
ra)
oO z
@ @ 5
@@ @@ (e)
~@@ a.
=
{e)
A Fig. 1.31 Electronic configuration of fluorine and chlorine. rw)
a
z
Similarly, all the elements in Group III of the Periodic Table have three §
Ww

electrons in their outer electron shell. =

ma
Lu

The elements helium (2), neon (2,8), argon (2,8,8), krypton (2,8,18,8) =
Lu

and xenon (2,8,18,18,8) either have a full outer shell or have eight
|
Lud

w
electrons in their outer shell and therefore the atoms do not lose or gain =
electrons easily. This means that these gases are unreactive. They are
(e)
oa
a
called noble gases and are in Group VIII or 0 in the Periodic ‘Table.
 hydrogen helium

ne)
2 ° @ 200
o
a

lithium neon

nl fee)
xo) FURS
xe) ° @ ‘ 3 Fairwood
= @ 0 0e $e 0 06
o
fefe)

sodium argon
(Je)
2 eo ee
D ) e)
2 yy
5 eX)
& 3 3° | $3 Xe)
@ )
ee er)
ee

A Fig. 1.32 Electronic configurations of

helium, neon and argon. A Fig. 1.33 Neon lighting in Hong Kong.

Proton number and nucleon number

In order to describe the numbers of protons, neutrons and eee
. : : (the number of symbol for
electrons in an atom, scientists use two numbers. These are protons eTeurons) rity setae
called the proton number (or atomic number) and the SY
nucleon number (or mass number). The proton number, vA
: . A
as you might expect, describes the number of protons in . xX
the atom. The nucleon number describes the number of we
particles in the nucleus of the atom — that is, the total
number of protons and neutrons. tambdie some
Proton numbers are used to arrange the elements in yaa eae erated
the Periodic Table. The atomic structures of the first ten
elements in the Periodic Table are shown in Table 1.4. A Fig: 0.34 Chemical symbol showing
nucleon number and proton number.
Hydrogen is the only atom that has no neutrons.
Element Proton _ Number of | Number of | Numberof |
number | protons neutrons electrons

slit aie 2 2 | 2 |
pBeritim| 94 | 5 4

| Garben | 6 ac ea Oe a eo ne
| Nitrogen. Ie ; 7 7 14 mien saat ree on ii 2 Hiecee-
_ Oxygen | Sale wake» Re is * g i Me on eat
__ Fluorine _ | re | | 1900 toed | locum 1025 shoNtos
CHEMISTRY
OF
PRINCIPLES
| Neon | 10 iran i 20 a oe P| Olas 10 i 9p 10 ? >
A Table 1.4 Atomic structures of the first ten elements. } Se = ae = e
QUESTIONS
I. Which sub-atomic particle has the smallest relative mass?
2. Why do atoms have the same number of protons as electrons?
3. An aluminium atom can be represented as “AL.
a) What is aluminium’s nucleon number?
b) How many neutrons does this atom of aluminium have?

SCIENCE

A Fig. 1.35 The Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland.

Protons, neutrons and electrons are the particles from which atoms are
made. However, in the past 20 years or so scientists have discovered
a number of other sub-atomic particles: quarks, leptons, muons,
neutrinos, bosons and gluons. The properties of some of these particles
have become well known, but there is still much to learn about the
others. Finding out about these, and possibly other sub-atomic
particles, is one of the challenges of the twenty-first century.

To study the smallest known particles, a particle accelerator has been

built underground at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. This giant
instrument, called the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), has a
circumference of 27 km. It attempts to recreate the conditions that
existed just after the ‘Big Bang’ by colliding beams of particles at very
high speed — only about 5 m/s slower than the speed of light. It
promises to revolutionise scientific understanding of the nature of
atoms. Who knows - school science in 10 or 20 years’ time may be
very different from your lessons today!
ELEM
ATOM
COM
AND
 EXTENDED ; Pe:

Electronic configuration: The first 20 elements of the

Periodic Table
There are over 100 different elements. They are arranged in the
Periodic Table according to their chemical and physical properties.
The chemical properties of elements depend on the arrangement of
electrons in their atoms. The electronic structure of the first 20
elements is shown in Table 1.5.
Element | Symbol Proton | Electron Electronic
number number configuration
Behsho eee eat }
Helium i aiie on ee 2 |
Lithium | Li 3 3 Dal
Beryllium Be oS 4 pe
Boron | B 5 m 5 253
Carbon g 6 6 | 2,4
Nitrogen N Z 7 Deo |
Oxygen, O 8 “8 2,6
Fluorine F 9 9 2,f
Neon Ne 10 10 2,8
Sodium Na Ib a: 1] 25841 |
Magnesium} Me Ie I? oe
Aluminium | Al 13 13 Ao 3
Silicon | Si 14 [14 2.8.4
Phosphorus | P 15 15 Zeon
Sulfur S ko | 16 2,8,6
Chlorine | Cl 17 mene ah ry
Argon | Ar 18 18 poe
Potassium K 19 24 19 2 orSal
Calcium Ce 20 | 20 2818.2
A Table 1.5 Electronic structure of first 20 elements.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS

1. a) How many electrons does magnesium have in its outer

electron shell?
b) In which group of the Periodic Table is magnesium?
2. Draw atom diagrams for:
a) aluminium
CHEMISTRY b)
PRINCIPLES
OF calcium.
3. Why are noble gases (Group VIII or 0) unreactive?
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
compound, electron, electronic configuration, metal, mixture, neutron, noble
gases, non-metal, nucleon number (mass number), nucleus, period, Periodic
Table, periodicity, proton, proton number (atomic number), shell, valency
electrons

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to identify physical and chemical changes and understand the differences
between them.

©) About the differences between elements, mixtures and compounds, and between
metals and non-metals.

(©) How to define the terms solvent, solute, solution and concentration.

O) To describe the structure of an atom in terms of a central nucleus, containing

protons and neutrons, and ‘shells’ of electrons.

C) To describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and understand the significance of

the noble gas electronic structures and of valency or outer electrons.
©) About the relative charges and approximate relative masses of protons, neutrons
and electrons.

() How to define proton number (atomic number) and nucleon number

(mass number).
|AoE aN aE |

() EXTENDED How to use proton numbers and the simple structure of atoms to
.

explain the basis of the Periodic Table, with special reference to the elements with
proton numbers 1 to 20.

COM
AND
ELEM
ATOM
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. What is the relative mass ofa proton? (1 mark)

2. Explain the meaning of:

a) proton number (atomic number) (1 mark)

b) nucleon number (mass number). (1 mark)

3. Copy and complete the table. (4 marks)

Number of Number of Number of Electron

protons neutrons electrons arrangement

8
12
6
10
8
11 ae
a) In each of questions i) to iv), choose one of the six particles A-F. Each letter may
be used once, more than once or not at all.
Choose a particle that:

i) has a nucleon number of 12 (1 mark)

ii) has the highest nucleon number (1 mark)
iii) has no overall charge (1 mark)
iv) has an overall positive charge. (1 mark)
PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF
b) Draw an atom diagram for particle E. (2 marks)
5. Draw an atom diagram for:

a) oxygen (2 marks)

b) potassium. (2 marks)
6. EXTENDED For each of parts a) to d) say whether the statement is TRUE or FALSE.
There is a relationship between the group number ofthe first 20 elements
in the Periodic Table and:
a) the number of protons in an atom of the element (1 mark)
b) the number of neutrons in an atom of the element (1 mark)

c) the number of electrons in an atom of the element (1 mark)

d) the number of electrons in the outer electron shell of the element. (1 mark)

COM
AND
ELEM
ATOM
 ay - .
Mm lons andionic
* bonds
* INTRODUCTION
When the atoms of elements react and join
together, they form compounds. When one
of the reacting atoms is a metal, the
compound formed is called an ionic
compound. They do not contain molecules;
instead they are made of particles called
| a ions. lonic compounds have similar
A Fig. 1.36 Sodium chloride is an example of an : ; ;
ionic compound. physical properties, many of which are
quite different from the properties of
substances made up of atoms or molecules.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Understand that compounds are formed when the atoms of two or more elements
combine together.
Y Know that protons have a positive charge and are found in the nucleus of the atom.
/ Know that electrons have a negative charge and are found in shells around the nucleus.
Y Know that the number of outer electrons in an atom depends on its group in the
Periodic Table.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
/ Be able to describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain.
/ Be able to use dot-and-cross diagrams to describe the formation of ionic bonds
between elements from Groups | and VII.
Y/Y EXTENDED Be able to describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and \
non-metallic elements.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a
regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions.

THE FORMATION OF IONS

Atoms bond with other atoms in a chemical reaction to make a
compound. For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to make sodium
chloride. lonic compounds contain a metal combined with one or
more non-metals. They are not made up of molecules — they are made
up of ions.
ons are formed from atoms by the gain or loss of electrons. Both
metals and non-metals try to achieve complete (filled) outer electron
shells or the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.
CHEMISTRY
OF
PRINCIPLES
Metals lose electrons from their outer shells and form positive ions.
Non-metals gain electrons in their outer shells and form negative ions.
The bonding process can be represented in dot-and-cross diagrams.
Look at the reaction between sodium and chlorine as an example.
Sodium is a metal. It hag a | foniomne.is a non-CA
ae number of 1] andso has | proton number of 17 and so has
It aoa
||
11 electrons, arranged 2,8,1. Its | 17 electrons, arranged 2,8,7. Its
| atom diacram looks like this: __atom diagram looks like this:
Be

A Fig. 1.37 Dot-and-cross diagrams for sodium and chlorine.

Sodium has one electron in its Gihlorine has<seven clectronsun. |

outer shell. It can achieve a full its outer shell. It can achieve a
outer shell by losing this _ full outer shell by gaining an |
electron. The sodium atom extra electron. The chlorine |
_ transfers its outermost electron atom accepts an electron from
to the chlorine atom. the sodium.

A Fig. 1.38 Dot-and-cross diagram for sodium chloride, NaCl.

The sodium is no longer an The chlorine is no longer an

atom; it is now an ion. It does atom; it is now an ion. It does
not have equal numbers of not have equal numbers of
protons and electrons, so it is no | protons and electrons, so it is no |
longer neutral. It has one more longer neutral. It has one more
proton than it has electrons, so electron than it has protons, so it
it is a positive ion with a charge is a negative ion with a charge of
of 1+. The ion is written as Na*. | 1-. The ion is written as CI.

EXTENDED

METALS CAN TRANSFER MORE THAN ONE ELECTRON TO

A NON-METAL
Magnesium combines with oxygen to form magnesium oxide. The
magnesium (electron mcrae 2,8,2) transfers two electrons to IONS
IONIC
AND
BOND

the oxygen (electron arrangement2,6). Magnesium therefore forms an

Mg** ion and oxygen forms an O* ion.
 A Fig. 1.39 Dot-and-cross diagram for magnesium oxide, MgO.

Aluminium has an electron arrangement 2,8,3. When it combines with

fluorine with an electron arrangement 2,7, three fluorine atoms are
needed for each aluminium atom. The formula of aluminium fluoride is
therefore AIF 5+
25)

ae
Ale
aad

A Fig. 1.40 Dot-and-cross diagram for aluminium fluoride, AIF,.

REMEMBER
It is important to remember the difference between oxidation and
reduction. In ionic bonding the atom that loses electrons is said to be
oxidised. The atom that gains the electrons is said to be reduced. So,
aluminium is oxidised and fluorine is reduced when aluminium fluoride
is made.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. Draw a dot-and-cross diagram to show how lithium and fluorine
atoms combine to form lithium fluoride. You must show the
starting atoms and the finishing ions. (Proton numbers: Li 3; F 9)
2. EXTENDED Draw a dot-and-cross diagram to show how calcium
and sulfur atoms combine to form calcium sulfide. You must
show the starting atoms and finishing ions. (Proton numbers:
Ca 20; S 16)
3. EXTENDED How do you know that phosphorus oxide is not an
CHEMISTRY ionic
OF
PRINCIPLES compound?
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND IONIC CHARGE
When atoms form ions, they are trying to achieve the electronic
configuration of their nearest noble gas (Group VIII or 0). Some
common ions and their electronic configurations are shown in Table 1.6.
Ion -| Electronic
aol Se configuration
ee he el
ig p, |
Nat D3
Mg** 2S |

Ee 2,8
“
(Gir 2,8,8
Os EAS
A Table 1.6 Electronic configurations of some ions.

EXTENDED

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds have high melting points and high boiling
points because of strong electrostatic forces between the ions.
The strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions is called an ionic bond.
Ionic compounds form giant lattice structures. For example,
when sodium chloride is formed by ionic bonding, the ions
do not pair up. Each sodium ion is surrounded by six
chloride ions, and each chloride ion is surrounded by six
sodium ions. Q chloride ion © sodium ion
The electrostatic attractions between the ions are very eeial!
t aa fi ei Binric 5 mlamed A Fig. 1.41 In solid sodium chloride,
strong. The properties of sodium chloride can be explain Re one ae Held Henini oes
using this model of its structure. All ionic compounds have giant ionic
lattice structures like this.

BOND
IONS
IONIC
AND

A Fig. 1.42 Crystals of sodium chloride.

 | Properties of sodium Explanation in terms of
| |
| chloride structure oi ae
| Hard crystals Strong forces of attraction between
| the oppositely charged ions
| High melting point (801°C) | Strong forces of attraction between
the oppositely charged ions
Dissolves in water The water is also able to nani strong
electrostatic attractions with the
ions — the ions are ‘plucked’ off the
|_ lattice structure

|
Does not conduct electricity | Strong forces between theions
| when solid prevent them from moving
| Conducts electricity | The strong forces between the ions
/ | when molten or dissolved | have been broken down and so the
in water _| ions are able to move
A Table 1.7 a of sodium chloride.

Magnesium oxide is another ionic compound. Its ionic formula is

Mg?*O?
MgO has a much higher melting point and boiling point than NaCl
because of the increased charges on the ions. The forces holding the
ions together are stronger in MgO than in NaCl.

END OF EXTENDED

SCIENCE
IN
usa MAGNESIUM OXIDE

Magnesium oxide is a very versatile

compound. It is used extensively in the
construction industry, both in making
cement and in making fire-proof
construction materials. The fact that it has a
melting point of over 2800°C makes it ideal
for this use.
> Fig. 1.43 The heat resistance
of magnesium oxide means
that It is used to line furnaces.

PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF
 SCIENCE
isa IONIC CRYSTALS

A Fig. 1.44 Gemstones are examples of ionic crystals.

All ionic compounds form giant structures, and all have relatively high
melting and boiling points. The charges on the ions determine the
strength of the electrostatic attraction between the ions, and hence
the melting and boiling points of the compound compared to others.

Another factor that affects the strength of the electrostatic attraction

is the relative sizes of the positive and negative ions and how well
they are able to pack together. The overall arrangement of the ions is
determined by attractive forces between oppositely charged ions
and repulsive forces between similarly charged ions. In sodium
chloride, for example, six chloride ions fit around one sodium ion
without the chloride ions getting too close together and repelling
one another. Similarly, six sodium ions can fit around one chloride
ion. This structure is sometimes called a 6:6 lattice (see Fig. 1.41 fora
diagram ofthis structure).

Caesium is a metal in the same group ofthe Periodic Table as sodium,

but caesium ions are much bigger than sodium ions. In the structure
of caesium chloride, eight chloride ions can fit around each caesium
ion. So, although sodium and caesium are in the same group, their
chlorides have different structures.

Some of the most valuable gemstones are ionic compounds. Rubies

and sapphires, for example, are both aluminium oxide. The different
colours of the gemstones are due to traces of other metals such as
iron, titanium and chromium.

QUESTIONS
1. EXTENDED Why does an ionic compound such as magnesium
oxide not conduct electricity when it is solid?
2. EXTENDED Suggest a reason why magnesium oxide has a higher IONIC
AND
IONS
BOND
*

melting point than sodium chloride.

 End of topic checklist

Key terms
chemical reaction, ion, ionic bond, ionic compound

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain.

() How to describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from

Groups | and VII.

E) IDED How to describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and
non-metallic elements.

©) EXTENDED How to describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular

arrangement ofalternating positive and negative ions.

PRINCIPLES
OF
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the answers.
In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be different.
1. For each of the following reactions, say whether the compound formed
is ionic or not:
a) hydrogen and chlorine (1 mark)
b) carbon and hydrogen (1 mark)
c) sodium and oxygen (1 mark)
d) chlorine and oxygen (1 mark)
e) calcium and bromine. (1 mark)

- Write down the formulae of the ions formed by the following elements:
a) potassium (1 mark)
b) aluminium (1 mark)
c) sulfur (1 mark)
d) fluorine. (1 mark)

. The table below shows the electronic arrangement of three atoms, X, Y and Z.
Copy and complete the table to show the electronic arrangements and charges
of the ions these atoms will form. (3 marks)

Atom Electronic | Electronic Charge on

arrangement arrangement theion
of the atom of the ion

4. EXTENDED Draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show how the following atoms

combine to form ionic compounds. (You must show the electronic arrangements
of the starting atoms and the finishing ions.)
a) potassium and oxygen (proton numbers: K 19; O 8) (2 marks)
b) magnesium and chlorine (proton numbers: Mg 12; Cl 17) (2 marks)

. EXTENDED Explain why an ionic substance such as potassium chloride:

a) has a high melting point (2 marks)
b) can conduct electricity. (2 marks)

: EXTENDED Explain why magnesium oxide has a higher melting point and
BOND
IONIC
AND
IONS
boiling point than sodium chloride. (2 marks)

(261
 _Molecules and
covalent bonds
INTRODUCTION
Unlike ionic compounds, covalent
substances are formed when atoms of
non-metals combine. Although covalent
substances all contain the same type of
bond, their properties can be quite
different — some are gases, others are very
hard solids with high melting points. Plastics
are a common type of covalent substance.
ae z a Pi suar
ee Wey Tpieeraerinmente es Because chemists now understand how ; the
molecules form and link together, they can
produce plastics with almost the perfect properties for a particular use, from
soft and flexible (as in contact lenses) to hard and rigid (as in electrical sockets).

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Understand that molecules are made up of two or more atoms combined together.
¥Y Know what is meant by proton number.
Y Know that electrons are found in shells around the nucleus of an atom.
Y Know that an element's group in the Periodic Table is governed by the number of
electrons in the outer shell of the atom.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to describe the formation of single covalent bonds in Neer ChetsOsGi:
and HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration.
Vv Be able to describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity
between ionic and covalent compounds.
¥Y EXTENDED Be able to use and draw dot-and-cross diagrams to represent the
bonding in more complex covalent molecules such as N., C5H,, CH,OH and CO...
¥Y EXTENDED Be able to explain the differences in melting point and boiling point of
ionic and covalent compounds in terms of intermolecular forces.

HOW COVALENT BONDS ARE FORMED

Covalent bonding involves electron sharing and occurs between atoms
of non-metals. It results in the formation of a molecule.
The non-metal atoms try to achieve complete outer electron shells or
the electron arrangement of the nearest noble gas by sharing electrons.

CHEMISTRY
OF
PRINCIPLES
A single covalent bond is formed when two atoms each contribute
one electron to a shared pair of electrons. For example, hydrogen gas
exists as H, molecules. Each hydrogen atom needs to fill its electron
shell. They can do this by sharing electrons.

represented as
Tee Et

A Fig. 1.46 The dot-and-cross diagram and displayed formula of H.,.

A covalent bond is the result of attraction between the bonding pair of

electrons (negative charges) and the nuclei (positive charges) of the
atoms involved in the bond. A single covalent bond can be represented
by a single line. The formula of a hydrogen molecule can be written as
a displayed formula, H—H. The hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms in
water are also held together by single covalent bonds.

A Fig. 1.47 Water contains single covalent bonds.

The hydrogen and carbon atoms in methane are held together by single
covalent bonds.

<7
on
Ww
(=)
=a
(2)
[oa]
i
=
A Fig. 1.48 Methane contains four A Fig. 1.49 The displayed ua
—
single covalent bonds. formula for methane. <
>
ie)
U
a
z
<=
Ww
Lid
=
=)
2)
Lu
al
ie)
=
 The hydrogen chloride molecule, HCl, is also held together by a single
covalent bond.

A Fig. 1.50 Hydrogen chloride has a single covalent bond.

Ethane has a slightly more complex electron arrangement.

A Fig. 1.52 Displayed

formula for ethane.

A Fig. 1.51 Covalent bonds in ethane.

EXTENDED
The alcohol methanol is covalently bonded as shown in Fig. 1.53.
Methanol CH, OH

A Fig. 1.53 Covalent bonds in methanol.

Some molecules contain double covalent bonds. In carbon dioxide, the

carbon atom has an electron arrangement of 2,4 and needs an
additional four electrons to complete its outer electron shell. It needs
to share its four electrons with four electrons from oxygen atoms
PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF
(electron arrangement 2,6). So two oxygen atoms are needed, each
sharing two electrons with the carbon atom.
A Fig. 1.55 Ethene contains a double bond.

Some molecules contain triple covalent bonds. In the nitrogen

molecule, each nitrogen atom has an electron arrangement of 2,5 and
needs an additional three electrons to complete its outer electron shell.
It needs to share three of its outer electrons with another nitrogen
atom. This forms a triple bond, which is shown as N=N.

<J Fig. 1.56 A nitrogen molecule contains

a triple bond.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. Draw a dot-and-cross diagram and displayed formula to show
how the covalent bonds are formed in chlorine gas (Cl,). The
proton number of chlorine is 17.
2. EXTENDED Draw a dot-and-cross diagram and displayed formula
to show how the covalent bonds are formed in the gas ammonia
(NH,). The proton number of hydrogen is 1; the proton number
of nitrogen is 7.
3. EXTENDED Draw a dot-and-cross diagram and displayed formula
to show the double bond in an oxygen molecule (O,). The proton
number of oxygen is 8.
4. EXTENDED Draw a dot-and-cross diagram and displayed formula
to show the covalent bonds in ethene (C,H,). The proton number
of hydrogen is 1; the proton number of carbon is 6.
MOLE
BOND
COVA
AND
5. EXTENDED Draw a dot-and-cross diagram and displayed formula
to show the covalent bonds in hydrazine (N,H,). The proton
number of hydrogen is 1; the proton number of nitrogen is 7.
 HOW MANY COVALENT BONDS CAN AN ELEMENT FORM?
The number of covalent bonds a non-metal atom can form is linked to
its position in the Periodic Table. Metals (Groups I, II, II) do not form
covalent bonds. The noble gases in Group 0, for example, helium, neon

Group
|
inthe | DT ve VILL
__Periodic Table _
Covalent | ee ee (oe = |
__bonds formed | Pe
A Table 1.8 Group number and number of covalent bonds formed.

MOLECULAR CRYSTALS
Covalent compounds can form simple molecular crystals. Many
covalent crystals exist only in the solid form at low temperatures. Some
simple molecular crystals are ice, solid carbon dioxide and iodine.
Be ee ee
EXTENDED
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Substances with molecular structures are usually gases, liquids or
solids with low melting points and boiling points.
Covalent bonds are strong bonds. They are intramolecular
bonds — formed within each molecule. Much weaker intermolecular
forces attract the individual molecules to each other.
The properties of covalent compounds can be explained using a simple
model involving these two types of bond or forces.
_ Explanation in terms of structure |
Hydrogen is a gas with a The intermolecular forces of
|
very low melting point attraction between the molecules
(-259°C). are weak.
Hydrogen does not There are no ions or free electrons
conduct electricity. present. The covalent bond
(intramolecular bond) is a strong |
bond and the electrons cannot be |
removed from it easily.
A Table 1.9 Properties of hydrogen.

covalent
bond
Dies
= intermolecular
= force

H—H
A Fig. 1.57 Force in and between hydrogen molecules.

PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF
END OF EXTENDED
COMPARING THE PROPERTIES OF COVALENT AND IONIC
COMPOUNDS
Simple covalent compounds typically have very different properties to ionic
compounds. A comparison can be seen in Table 1.10. The volatility of a
compound is a measure of how easily it forms a vapour. Compounds with
low melting and boiling points are often described as being volatile.
Property Ionic compounds Simple covalent.
compounds
| Volatility i “Non-volatile (high ~ Volatile (low melting and
melting and boiling boiling points)
points)
| Solubility Often soluble in Mostly insoluble in water
water
Electrical Conduct electricity Low electrical
conductivity only when dissolved conductivity — are non-
in water or molten electrolytes (do not
(the ions separate contain ions and so cannot
and are free to carry an electrical current;
move, carrying their however, some covalent
electric charge) | compounds do form ions
when dissolved in water)
A Table 1.10 Comparison of simple covalent compounds with ionic compounds.

EXTENDED

Type of compound Intermolecular force | Property

lonic Strong High melting and
ae . boiling points
Simple covalent Weak Low melting and
boiling points

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS Ww
ra
2
ie}
1. EXTENDED Why does a covalently bonded compound such as
fa]
j=

z
carbon dioxide have a relatively low melting point? Lu
al
<
>
2. Would you expect a covalently bonded compound such as (2)
)
ethanol to conduct electricity? Explain your answer. Qa
2
<
wn
Ld
—l
>
U
1d
—
(fe)
=
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
covalent bond, molecule, intermolecular force, intramolecular bond, volatile

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

(©) How to describe the formation of single covalent bonds in NH,, H.,, Cl, H,O, CH,
and HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration.

() How to describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity

between ionic and covalent compounds.

©) EXTENDED How to describe the electron arrangements in more complex covalent

molecules such as N., C|H,,
2A!
CH,OH and CO...

©) EXTENDED How to explain the difference in melting point and boiling point of
ionic and covalent compounds in terms of intermolecular forces.

PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different. -
ils Draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show the bonding in the following compounds:

a) hydrogen fluoride, HF (2 marks)

b) carbon disulfide, CS, (2 marks)
c) ethanol, C,H.OH. (2 marks)
. Candle wax is a covalently bonded compound. Explain why candle wax has a
relatively low melting point. (2 marks)

- Ozone (O,) is a gas found in the Earth's atmosphere. How do you know
that ozone is covalently bonded and not ionically bonded? (2 marks)
XTENDED Explain why methane (CH,), which has strong covalent bonds
between the carbon atom and the hydrogen atoms, is a gas at room
temperature and pressure, and has a very low melting point. (2 marks)
ESR Si
XTENDED Substance X has a simple molecular structure.
a) In which state(s) of matter might you expect it to exist in at room
temperature and pressure? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

b) How would you expect the boiling point of X to compare with the boiling point
of an ionic compound such as sodium chloride? Explain your answer. — (2 marks)

BONDS
COVAL
AND
MOLEC
 | Stoichiometry
: INTRODUCTION
Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry
| concerned with the relative quantities of
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction. A study of stoichiometry depends
on balanced chemical equations which, in
turn, depend on knowledge of the chemical
symbols for the elements and the formulae
of chemical compounds. This topic starts by
considering how simple chemical formulae
are written and then looks in detail at
A Fig. 1.58 When this reaction is described as chemical equations. The topic then focuses
+ O,(g) + SO,(g), it is understood by
EhS(s)site clEeeGena on how chemical equations can be used to
work out how much reactant is needed to
make a certain amount of product.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Know that elements are made up of atoms.
Y Know that compounds are formed when atoms combine together.
Y Know that molecules are formed in covalent bonding and that ions are formed in
ionic bonding.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES —
VY Be able to use the symbols ofthe elements and write the formulae of
simple compounds.
VY Be able to deduce the formula of a simple compound from the relative number of
atoms present.
Y Be able to deduce the formula of a simple compound from a model or a
diagrammatic representation.
V Be able to construct word equations.
Y Be able to interpret and balance simple symbol equations.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to determine the formula of an ionic compound from the
charges on the ions present.
¥Y EXTENDED Be able to construct and use symbol equations with state symbols Uy

including ionic equations.

HOW ARE CHEMICAL FORMULAE WRITTEN?

When elements chemically combine, they form compounds.
A compound can be represented by a chemical formula.
CHEMISTRY
OF
PRINCIPLES
All substances are made up from simple building blocks called
elements. Each element has a unique chemical symbol, containing
one or two letters. Elements discovered a long time ago often have
symbols that don’t seem to match their name. For example, silver has
a a symbol Ag. This is derived from argentum, the Latin name
or silver.

‘COMBINING POWERS’OF ELEMENTS

There are a number of ways of working out chemical formulae. In this
topic you will start with the idea of a ‘combining power for each
element and then look at how the charges on ions can be used for ionic
compounds. Later in the course you will be introduced to oxidation
states and how these can be used to work out chemical formulae.
There is a simple relationship between an element's group number in
the Periodic Table and its combining power. Groups are the vertical
columns in the Periodic Table. The combining power is linked to the
number of electrons in the outer shell of atoms of the element.

Group mM alba Vol

vy Vit Vil] Vil
De ee oe eee
Gombinnemipes
fig 20 5) te AN TBE ie ea RPG
power — | | | | | 7 nat I + ae
A Table 1.11 Combining powers of elements.

Groups I-IV: combining power = group number

Groups V—VII: combining power = 8 — (group number)
If an element is not in one of the main groups, its combining power is
included in the name of the compound containing it. For example,
copper is a transition metal and is in the middle block of the Periodic
Table. In copper(II) oxide, copper has a combining power of 2.
Sometimes an element does not have the combining power you would
predict from its position in the Periodic Table. The combining power of
these elements is also included in the name of the compound
containing it. For example, phosphorus is in Group V, so you would
expect it to have a combining power of 3, but in phosphorus(V) oxide
its combining power is 5.
The only exception is hydrogen. Hydrogen is not included in a group,
nor is its combining power given in the name of compounds containing
hydrogen. It has a combining power of 1.

>
ce
SIMPLE COMPOUNDS a
Lu
=
Many compounds contain just two elements. For example, when o
magnesium burns in oxygen, a white ash of magnesium oxide is formed. cat
=
To work out the chemical formula of magnesium oxide: O
ke
vw
 P magnesium oxide
.
1. Write down the name of the compound.
; Mg Oo
2. Write down the chemical symbols for the elements in ; :
the compound. /
3. Use the Periodic Table to find the ‘combining power of Ma,
each element. Write the combining power of each
element under its symbol.
4. If the numbers can be cancelled down, do so.
5. Swap the combining powers. Write them after the symbol,
slightly below the line (as a ‘subscript’).
; : calcium chloride
6. If any of the numbers are 1, you do not need to es -
write them. :
Magnesium oxide has the chemical formula you would have (They don’t cancel)
probably guessed: MgO. Ca, ce
CaClo
The chemical formula of a compound is not always
immediately obvious, but if you follow these rules you will
have no problems.

Compounds containing more than two elements

Some elements exist bonded together in what is called a
A Fig. 1.59 Working out the chemical
radical. For example, in copper(II) sulfate, the sulfate part formulae for magnesium oxide and
of the compound is a radical. calcium chloride.
There are a number of common radicals, each having its own
combining power. You cannot work out these combining powers easily
from the Periodic Table — you have to learn them. Notice that all the
radicals exist as ions.
Combining Combining Combining
power = | power = 2 power = 3
Hydroxide OH™ Carbonate Coz Phosphate PO}
Hydrogencarbonate Sulfate OF
HCO;

Nitrate KOs
Ammonium NH;

A Table 1.12 Combining compounds for common radicals.

>
[a
The same rules for working out formulae apply to radicals as to
=
4 elements. For example:
=
Lu
ae Copper(II) sulfate | Potassium nitrate
U
iv
ie) Cu SO, K NO,
n
rm 2 ce | |
=)
Pe
U CuSO, KNO,
=
oc
a. A Table 1.13 Combining elements and radicals.
If the formula contains more than one radical unit,
the radical must be put in brackets. For example:
_ Calcium hydroxide —
| Ga OH
2 |
' MOEN: A Fig. 1.60 Working out the chemical
formula for calcium hydroxide.

The brackets are used just as they are used in mathematics: the
number outside a bracket multiplies everything inside it. Be careful
how you use the brackets, for example, do not be tempted to write
calcium hydroxide as CaOH, rather than Ca(OH),. This is wrong.
CaOH, contains one Ca, one O, two H x
Ca(OH), contains one Ca, two O, two H¥ |

EXTENDED
The formula of an ionic compound can be worked out from the ions
present. For example, sodium chloride is an ionic compound.
Sodium is in Group | and forms an ion with a charge of 1+, Na’.
Chlorine is in Group VII and forms an ion with a charge of 1-, CI.
When these ions combine, the charges must cancel each other out:
NaCl (the 1+ and I— charges cancel)
What is the formula of lead(II]) bromide, which contains Pb** and Br ions?
To cancel the 2+ charge, two 1— charges are needed, so the formula is
bbb

END OF EXTENDED _ .

QUESTIONS
1. Work out the chemical formulae of the following compounds:
a) potassium bromide
b) calcium oxide
c) aluminium chloride
d) carbon hydride (methane).
2. Work out the chemical formulae of the following compounds:
| a) copper(II) nitrate
b) aluminium hydroxide
c) ammonium sulfate
STOI
d) iron(IIl) carbonate.
 3. EXTENDED Work out the chemical formulae of the following
compounds:
a) a compound containing Zn** ions and CI ions
b) a compound containing Cr? ions and O* ions

[sericea
ee c) a compound containing Fe** and OH" ions.

WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

In a chemical equation the starting chemicals are called the reactants
and the finishing chemicals are called the products.
Follow these rules to write a chemical equation.
1. Write down the word equation.
2. EXTENDED Write down the symbols (for elements) State | State symbol -
and formulae (for compounds). _ Solid i (Ss)
3. Balance the equation, to make sure there are the Liquid (I)
same number of each type of atom on each side of | Gas | (g) |
4
the equation.
Solution | (aq) — |

4. EXTENDED Include the state symbols solid (s);

A Table 1.14 States and their symbols.
liquid (1); gas (g); solution in water (aq).
Remember that some elements are diatomic. They exist as molecules
containing two atoms.
Cc

Element. | Formula

_ Hydrogen | ial, |
Oxygen OF
Nitrogen | N, |
Chlorine Gil
| Bromine lev
lodine 1:
A Table 1.15 Some diatomic elements.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. When a lighted splint is put into a test tube of hydrogen, the
hydrogen burns with a ‘pop’. In fact the hydrogen reacts with oxygen
in the air (the reactants) to form water (the product). Write the
chemical equation for this reaction.
Word equation: hydrogen + oxygen — water

EXTENDED

CHEMISTRY
OF
PRINCIPLES
Symbols and formulae:

END OF EXTENDED
 |
Balance the equation: OH 5 tp AO > Ee2 |
|
|

For every two molecules of hydrogen that react, one molecule of |

oxygen is needed and two molecules of water are formed. |
oo i ee sk Se ne gs Sa a, PO = See eS Se A SS
EXTENDED
8 i a ee eee
Add the state symbols: 2H_,(g) + on 21)

END OF EXTENDED
]

2. What is the equation when sulfur burns in air?

Word equation: sulfur + oxygen —- sulfur dioxide

EXTENDED

Symbols and formulae: S + O, -> SO;

END OF EXTENDED
Balance the equation: Set 0, > SO,

EXTENDED

Add the state symbols: S(s) + O,(g) 25 SO,(g)

END OF EXTENDED

>

o
=
ww
Ss
2)
x=
Lo)

(@)
ee

<J Fig. 1.61 Methane is burning in the oxygen in the air vp)

to form carbon dioxide and water.

 BALANCING EQUATIONS
Balancing equations can be quite tricky. It is essentially done by trial
and error. However, the golden rule is that balancing numbers can only
be put infront ofthe formulae.
For example, to balance the equation for the reaction between methane
and oxygen:
Reactants Products
Start with the unbalanced Gishe: Oy. (COr + H,O
equation
Count the number of atoms on l\O/4hee® (C/o hes ©
each side of the equation
There is a need to increase the CH, = oy CO, + rAC nO:
number of H atoms on the
products side of the equation.
Put a‘2’in front of the HO
Count the number of atoms on IMG AAS SAG) LC. / 4/4 ©)
each side of the equation again
There is a need to increase the Chie 2203 COl eo
number of O atoms on the
reactant side of the equation.
Put a ‘2’ in front of the OF
Count the atoms on each side [OC /24rr/ as (OY 4 ye va
of the equation again
A Table 1.16 Steps in balancing the equation for the reaction between methane and oxygen.

No atoms have been created or destroyed in the reaction. The equation

is balanced.

CH,(g) + 20,(g) — CO,(g) + 2H,O(I)

fo
+ OS > C0o+ BR
A Fig. 1.62 The number of each type of atom is the same on the
left and right sides of the equation.

In balancing equations involving radicals such as sulfate, hydroxide and

>
oc
-
nitrate, you can use the same procedure. For example, when lead (II)
4 nitrate solution is mixed with potassium iodide solution, lead(I1) iodide
=
Lu
oa
and potassium nitrate are produced (Fig. 1.63).
U
we 1. Words:
Le)
iva)
iit
—!
= lead(Il) + potassium = leadil) + potassium
U
= nitrate iodide iodide nitrate
cc
a.
2. Symbols: |

Pb(NO,), ae K\ = Pbl 2 + KNO 3

3. Balance the nitrates:

POINO2 KI i Pol 2

4. Balance the iodides:

Pb(NO.,). (aq) + 2KI(aq) — PbI,(s) + 2KNO,(aq)

A Fig. 1.63 This reaction occurs simply on mixing the solutions of lead(Il) nitrate and
potassium iodide. Lead iodide is an insoluble yellow solid.

QUESTIONS
1. Balance the following chemical equations:
a) Ca(s) + O,(g) > CaO(s)
b) H,S(g) + O,(g) > SO,(g) + H,O(!)
c) Pb(NO,),(s) > PbO(s) + NO,(g) + O,(g)
2. EXTENDED Write balanced equations for the following word
equations:
a) sulfur + oxygen — sulfur dioxide
b) magnesium + oxygen > magnesium oxide
c) copper(II) oxide + hydrogen — copper + water

STOI
 IO ed
EXTENDED
As mentioned earlier, the general method for balancing equations is by
trial and error, but it helps if you are systematic — always start on the
left-hand side with the reactants. Sometimes you can balance an
equation using fractions. In more advanced study, such balanced
equations are perfectly acceptable. Getting rid of the fractions is not
difficult though. Look at this example:

| WORKED EXAMPLE,
EXAMPLE
Ethane (C,H,) is a hydrocarbon fuel and burns in air to form carbon
dioxide and water.

Unbalanced equation: C,H,(g) + O,(g) — CO,(g) + HOU)

Balancing the carbon and hydrogen atoms gives:

C.H_(g) + 0,(g) = 2C0,(g) + 3H,0(I)

The equation can then be balanced by putting 3% in front of the O.,.

By doubling every balancing number, the equation is then balanced
using whole numbers.

2C,H,(g) + 70,(g) = 4C0,(g) + 6H,O(I)

SCIENCE
tra BIOLOGY - BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES,
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

* Being able to describe chemical changes using balanced equations

allows us to check that all the starting chemicals (the reactants) have
been accounted for after the change (forming the products) — this
applies to all the chemical reactions in living things, such as
respiration and photosynthesis.

The energy transfer through a series of chemical changes can also

be tracked.

PHYSICS - CONSERVATION LAWS

The idea of balancing equations - that all the ‘starting’ particles must
be accounted for — is an example of a conservation law.

CHEMISTRY
OF
PRINCIPLES
During your course you will become familiar with balancing equations
and become much quicker at doing it. Try balancing the equations
below. The third is the chemical reaction often used for making
chlorine gas in the laboratory. |

Sea ca. ©
Ses ooece 3333eee
e
A Fig. 1.64 Balancing the equation for burning ethane in air.

QUESTION
1. Balance the following equations:

a) C.H,,(9) + O,(g) > CO,(g) + H,O(1)

b) Fe,O,(s) + CO(g) > Fe(s) + CO,(g)
c) KMnO,(s) + HCl(aq) > KCl(aq) + MnCl,(aq) + H,O(|) + Cl(g)

lonic equations
Ionic equations show reactions involving ions (atoms or radicals that
have lost or gained electrons). The size of the charge on an ion is the
same as its combining power — whether it is positive or negative
depends on which part of the Periodic Table the element is placed in.
In many ionic reactions some of the ions play no part in the reaction.
These ions are called spectator ions. A simplified ionic equation can
then be written, using only the important, reacting ions. In these
equations, state symbols are often used and appear in brackets.
The equation must balance in terms of chemical symbols and charges.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. In the reaction to produce lead(II) iodide, the potassium ions and
nitrate ions are spectators — the important ions are the lead(II) ions
and the iodide ions.
The simplified ionic equation is:

Bbe ages 2) (aq) —> PbLis)

STOIC
 Reactants | Products
Pb?*(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbL (s) .
Symbols LP bv le IPbv¥, 21a
Charges 2+ and 2-=0v pene

The equation shows that any solution containing lead(II) ions will
react with any solution containing iodide ions to form lead(II) iodide.

2. Any solution containing copper(II) ions and any solution containing

hydroxide ions can be used to make copper(II) hydroxide, which
appears as a solid:
Cu**(aq) + 20H (aq) > Cu(OH),(s)

| Reactants =——S~Products—
| Cu**(aq) + 20H (aq) | Cu(OH),(s) :
Symbols RCA ew ee | Lei /one Gsaac eae
a Charges 22sec es, V/s ae a

>
a A Fig. 1.65 Copper(Il) hydroxide.
be
4
=
uy
25 a a ee ie less
U
L END OF
hh EXTENDED
Se ac ee eta TE DOE EE Ge EES Ee RT |
oO
Ww
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ec
ao
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
chemical formula, chemical symbol, diatomic, ionic equation, product, radical,
reactant, spectator ions, state symbols

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O) How to use the symbols of the elements to write the formulae of
simple compounds.
©) How to deduce the formula of a simple compound from the numbers of
atoms present.

©) How to deduce the formula of a simple compound from a model or a

diagrammatic representation.
©) How to construct and use word equations.
betes
How to interpret and balance simple symbol equations.
ED How to determine the formula of an ionic compound from the charges
on the iions present.
QO EXTENDED How to construct and use symbol equations with state symbols,
mauaing ionic equations.

STOI
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
ils Work out the chemical formulae of the following compounds:
a) sodium chloride (1 mark)

b) magnesium fluoride (1 mark)

c) aluminium nitride (1 mark)

d) lithium oxide (1 mark)

e) carbon(IV) oxide (carbon dioxide). (1 mark)

. Work out the chemical formulae of the following compounds:

a) iron(IIl) oxide (1 mark)

b) phosphorus(V) chloride (1 mark)

c) chromiumiIl) bromide (1 mark)

d) sulfur(VI) oxide (sulfur trioxide) (1 mark)

e) sulfur(IV) oxide (sulfur dioxide). (1 mark)

- Work out the chemical formulae ofthe following compounds:

a) potassium carbonate (1 mark)
b) ammonium chloride (1 mark)
c) sulfuric acid (1 mark)
d) magnesium hydroxide (1 mark)
e) ammonium sulfate. (1 mark)

. EXTENDED Write symbol equations from the following word equations:

a) carbon + oxygen — carbon dioxide (1 mark)

b) iron + oxygen = ironiIll) oxide (1 mark)

C) iron(IIl) oxide + carbon > iron + carbon dioxide (1 mark)

d) calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid > calcium chloride +

carbon dioxide + water. (1 mark)

PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY
OF
 End of topic questions continued
ED Write ionic equations for the following reactions:
a) calcium ions and carbonate ions form calcium carbonate (2 marks)

b) iron(Ill) ions and hydroxide ions form iron(IIl) hydroxide (2 marks)

c) silver(I) ions and bromide ions form silver(l) bromide (2 marks)

STOI
“Modern physical chemistry originated in the nineteenth century. It
is not as clearly defined a category as organic chemistry, but it is
still a useful description of this branch of science. Physical
chemistry focuses on chemical processes at the ‘macro level’ (where
properties can be observed) more than at the ‘micro level’ (too
small to see) of individual atoms, molecules and ions. However,
observed physical properties can still be explained in terms of what
the atoms, molecules or ions are doing.
In this section you will explore the chemical reactions that can be
caused by using electricity, a process known as electrolysis. You will
then investigate some chemical reactions that produce significant
amounts of heat energy, as well as some strange ones that seem to
absorb energy and make everything cooler. The speed or rate of
chemical reactions will also be explored, together with chemists’
strategies to try to control them. You will learn about redox
reactions, which are reactions involving reduction and oxidation, as
well as learning about acids, bases and salts. Finally, you will look at
some of the simple analytical techniques that can be used to
identify ions and gases.

STARTING POINTS
1. How many non-renewable fuels can you name? What products
do they form when they burn?
2.Give an example of a very rapid, almost instantaneous, chemical
reaction. Now give an example of a very slow one.
3.Explain how you can easily distinguish between an acid and
an alkali. .
4.What is a catalyst? Name two examples where catalysts are used
in everyday life.
5.Acids react with alkalis in neutralisation reactions. What is meant
by neutralisation?

SECTION CONTENTS
a) Electricity and chemistry e) Acids, bases and salts
bb)Chemical energetics f) Identification of ions and
c) Rate of reaction [She
cl)Redox reactions
a
16)
we YiVie
VYof
Va
 Electricity and
| chemistry
INTRODUCTION
Most elements in nature are found
combined with other elements as
compounds. These compounds must be
broken down to obtain the elements that
they contain. One of the most efficient and
economical ways to break down some
compounds is by using electricity in a
process called electrolysis. Simple
eee atiita| cecropiating torn electrolysis experiments can be performed in
of electrolysis. the laboratory, and electrolysis is also used
in large-scale industrial processes to produce important chemicals such as
aluminium and chlorine.
This topic deals with the underlying principles of electrolysis as well as some of
the experiments that can be performed in the laboratory.
ee oes. ses sane:
KNOWLEDGE CHECK= Sane See es
im Y Know the different arrangements of the particles in solids, liquids and gases.
| ¥ Understand the terms ‘conductor’ and ‘insulator’.
/ Understand the differences between ionic and covalent bonding.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to define electrolysis as the breaking down of an ionic compound, either
molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of electricity.
Y Be able to use the terms /nert electrode, electrolyte, anode and cathode.
V Be able to describe the electrode products and the observations made in the
electrolysis of:
— molten lead(Il) bromide
— concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
— dilute sulfuric acid
between inert electrodes (platinum or carbon).
¥Y EXTENDED Be able to describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and the
reactions at the electrodes, in terms of gain of electrons by cations and loss of
electrons by anions to form atoms.
¥ EXTENDED Be able to predict the products of the electrolysis of a binary
(two-element) compound in the molten state.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and
reactions at the electrodes in specific examples.
PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
ELECTROLYTES AND NON-ELECTROLYTES
Compounds that can conduct electricity are called electrolytes — they
undergo a reaction called electrolysis. Experiments can be carried out
using a simple electrical cell, as shown in Fig. 2.2.
Battery or power pack — the longer
A variable resistor, or rheostat, line is the positive terminal, the
keeps the current low and ee shorter one the negative terminal.
constant.

The anode is the positive es ;

electrode. Negative ions, A bulb is used to show the
anions, are attracted to it. current is flowing.
The liquid that the current is
passed through is called the
electrolyte. It may be an The negative electrode is known
aqueous solution or melted as the cathode. It attracts positive
(‘fused’). ions, called cations.

A Fig. 2.2 A simple electrolysis cell.

When the solution in the beaker is an electrolyte, a complete circuit

will form and the bulb will light. The electric current that flows is
caused by electrons moving in the electrodes and wires of the circuit,
and by ions moving in the solution..If a current does not flow, then
the beaker must contain a non-electrolyte. Because of this, a simple
circuit like this can be used to distinguish between electrolytes and
non-electrolytes.

CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROLYSIS

The substance being electrolysed (the electrolyte) must contain ions,
and these ions must be free to move. In other words, the substance
must either be molten or dissolved in water. In electrolysis an inert
electrode is used. The word ‘inert’ means ‘unreactive’ so the electrode
will not react with the electrolyte.
A direct current (d.c.) voltage must be used. The electrode connected to
the positive terminal of the power supply is known as the anode. The
electrode connected to the negative terminal is known as the cathode.
The electrical circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig. 2.3.
+ =

>
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=
2
electrodes =
Lu
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U
a
=
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>
electrolyte E
ss
cc
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A Fig. 2.3 A typical electrical circuit used in electrolysis. Lu
=r
Lu
 |

]
e
ne

EXTENDED .

During electrolysis electrical charge is transferred as follows:

e negative ions move to the anode and give up electrons
e the electrons travel through the anode and round the circuit in the
| connecting wires to the cathode
eo the electrons reaching the cathode are taken up by positive ions.

END OF EXTENDED

2. What is the name given to the positive electrode?

3. What two conditions must exist for a substance to be an
electrolyte and allow an electric current to pass through it?

SCIENCE
tram PHYSICS - ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

The rules for electric circuits - there must be a complete circuit,

there must be an energy source, there must be mobile charge
carriers (‘charged particles’) —- apply both to circuits involving
electrolysis and to circuits with bulbs and batteries.
The charge carriers may be different — ions in molten materials or in
solutions, compared with electrons in wires — but the measurements
of electric current and potential difference are defined in exactly the
same way.
lon formation through the gain or loss of electrons is another idea
that is common to both areas.

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN LEAD(II) BROMIDE

When an electric current passes through an electrolyte, new
substances are formed. The examples below show how you can work
out what products will form.
Lead(I1) bromide (PbBr,) is ionically bonded and contains Pb?* ions
and Br ions. When the solid is melted and a voltage is applied, the
>
cx
a
|
ions are able to move. The positive lead ions move to the negative
i)
=
electrode (the cathode), and the negative bromide ions move to the
VW)
a positive electrode (the anode). The electrodes are usually made of
UW
ad carbon, which is inert. This means they do not undergo any chemical
<{
= change during the electrolysis. The products of the electrolysis are
a)
> lead and bromine. Silvery deposits of lead form near the bottom of the
ae
a.
dish, and brown bromine vapour near the anode.
EXTENDED
At the cathode (negative electrode), the lead ions accept electrons to
form lead atoms:

Pb?*(I) + 2e- — Phi)

At the anode (positive electrode), the bromide ions give up electrons to

form bromine atoms, and then bromine molecules:

2Br-(I) — Br,(g) + 2e-

brown vapour (bromine) carbon electrodes

silvery solid (lead)

A Fig. 2.4 Electrolysis of molten lead(Il) bromide.

Note: the two equations above are known as half-equations. Unlike

normal chemical equations, they do not show the whole chemical
change — just the change occurring at an electrode. In the half-
equations above, you will see that the numbers of electrons accepted
and released are the same. The electric current is produced by this flow
of electrons around the external circuit.

END OF EXTENDED

ELECTROLYSIS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION

When concentrated sodium chloride solution is electrolysed, hydrogen
ions (from the water solvent) form hydrogen molecules at the cathode
and chloride ions form chlorine molecules at the anode.
This experiment can be performed using a cell as shown in Fig, 2.2.
Again, inert carbon electrodes are used.

ELECTR
CHEMI
AND
 EE
_ EXTENDED
When the ionic compound sodium chloride dissolves in water, the
|

| sodium and chloride ions separate and are free to move independently.
In addition, the water provides a small quantity of hydrogen (H*) and
hydroxide (OH) ions:

NaCl(aq) — Na*(aq) + Cl-(aq)

H,O(1) — H*(aq) + OH-(aq)

This process is known as dissociation. The water breaks up

and forms ions. In fact, the ions also combine to form water — anode cathode
the reaction goes both ways: it is a reversible reaction. +)
Although there are very few ions present, if they are removed
they will be immediately replaced. Therefore, whenever you
consider the electrolysis of an aqueous solution you must
always include the H* and OH ions.
_ @ At the cathode (negative electrode):
two ions, Na* and H*, move to the cathode but only H* ions
_ are discharged. The sodium ions remain as ions, but the
solution turns alkaline because the loss of hydrogen ions
leaves a surplus of hydroxide ions.

2H*(aq) + 2e° > H,(g)

brine
~~ A Fig. 2.5 The electrolysis of
sodium chloride solution (brine).
The hydrogen ions accept electrons and form hydrogen
molecules.
_ @ At the anode (positive electrode):
two ions, Cl and OH, move to the anode. Either ion could be
discharged depending on the concentration of the solution. If the
_ solution is very dilute, OH” ions are discharged; if the solution is
concentrated, Cl- ions are discharged.

2CI-(aq) — Cl,(g) + 2e°

The chloride ions give up electrons and form chlorine molecules.

>
Bubbling or effervescence is seen at each of the two electrodes, and the
c
-— products of the electrolysis are hydrogen and oxygen and/or chlorine.
A
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END OF EXTENDED
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REMEMBER A
When the sodium chloride solution is concentrated, the main product |
at theanode is chlorine, which forms as a pale green gas.
When the sodium chloride solution is dilute, the main product at the |
anode is oxygen, which forms as a colourless gas. |
Whatever the concentration of the sodium chloride solution, hydrogen
forms as a colourless gas at the cathode.
When dilute sodium chloride solution is electrolysed, the solution
becomes increasingly alkaline as sodium hydroxide is formed.

d.c. supply
+ —

700 B® OW , |
o@ -, OG 3 3
sodium chloride & water sodium hydrogen — chlorine
(brine) hydroxide gas gas
|
A Fig. 2.6 Electrolysing molten sodium chloride. A Fig. 2.7 Electrolysing brine. At which electrode is hydrogen formed? |

ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SULFURIC ACID

If a d.c. electric current is passed through a solution of dilute sulfuric
acid, effervescence will be observed at each inert electrode. The
colourless gas oxygen will form at the anode and the colourless gas |
hydrogen will form at the cathode.

EXTENDED
The ions present in dilute sulfuric acid are Ht, OH” and SO;
At the cathode, the H* ions will be discharged and hydrogen gas
will form.
2 = Je =H 2 >
oe

At the anode, two ions will be attracted to the anode, SO;> and OH”
b=

pels
ions. The OH- ions will be discharged and oxygen gas will be formed. =
rf
=
AOte =O One 4c U
a)
a
a <x
END OF EXTENDED
——————————— ee nese Oe
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EXENDD—
f

PREDICTING THE PRODUCTS OF ELECTROLYSIS

Predicting the products of the electrolysis of simple molten ionic
| compounds is relatively straightforward. The metal forms at the
| cathode and the non-metal forms at the anode. For example, the
electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide forms aluminium (at the
cathode) and oxygen (at the anode).

REMEMBER
In electrolysis, negative ions give up electrons and usually form
molecules (such as Cl,, Br,). Positive ions accept electrons and usually
form metallic atoms (such as Cu, Al) or hydrogen gas.

END OF EXTENDED

as
QUESTIONS
1. a) What is an inert electrode?
b) Give an example of a substance that is often used as an
inert electrode.
2. What products are formed when the following molten solids
are electrolysed?
a) lead(Il) chloride
b) magnesium oxide
c) aluminium oxide.

PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
anode, cathode, chemical change, dissociation, electrode, electrolysis,
electrolyte, reversible reaction
During your study of this topic you should have learned:
©) That electrolysis is the breaking down of an ionic compound, molten or in
aqueous solution, by the passage of electricity.
©) How to use the terms inert electrode, electrolyte, anode and cathode.
©) How to describe the electrode products and the observations made in the
electrolysis, using inert electrodes of platinum or carbon, of:
@ molten leadi(Il) bromide
@ concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
@ dilute sulfuric acid.
-XTENDED How to describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions
at the electrodes, in terms of gain of electrons by cations and loss of electrons by
anions to form atoms, in the above examples.
©) How to predict the product of the electrolysis of a binary (two-element)
compound in the molten state.

CHEM
AND
ELECT
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
1. Explain the following terms:

a) electrolysis (1 mark)

b) electrolyte (1 mark)

c) electrode (1 mark)

d) anode (1 mark)

e) cathode. (1 mark)

2. Zinc bromide, ZnBr,, is an ionic solid. Why does the solid not
conduct electricity? (2 marks)

3. Copy and complete the following table, which shows the products
formed when molten electrolytes undergo electrolysis. (4 marks)

Electrolyte Product at the Product at the

anode cathode
Silver bromide

Lead(ichloride |S
Aluminiumoxide fT
4. Sodium chloride, NaCl, is ionic. What are the products at the anode and
cathode in the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride (2 marks)

PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
Chemical energetics
INTRODUCTION
When chemicals react together, the reactions
cause energy changes. This is obvious when a
fuel is burned and heat energy is released into
the surroundings. Heat changes in other
reactions may be less dramatic but they still
take place. A knowledge of chemical bonding
can really help to understand how these energy
changes
Cc
OCGUIF

A Fig. 2.8 Fireworks are carefully controlled

chemical reactions.

SO ECG BCE Chee ee se e ee eae |

¥ Know that atoms in molecules are held together by covalent bonds. |
V Be able to write and interpret balanced chemical equations. |
|

HUTS CHU)
3 A Sa ee ent Pe age Bees ee |
V Be able to describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions. |
/Y EXTENDED Be able io describe bond breaking as endothermic, and bond forming |
as exothermic. |
/Y EXTENDED Be able to draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and
endothermic reactions using data provided. |
/ EXTENDED Be able to interpret energy level diagrams showing exothermic and
endothermic reactions and the activation energy of a reaction.

ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

In most reactions, energy is transferred to the surroundings and the
temperature goes up. These reactions are exothermic. Some examples
of exothermic reactions are combustion, respiration and neutralisation.
In a minority of cases, energy is absorbed from the surroundings as a
reaction takes place and the temperature goes down. These reactions
are endothermic. Some examples of endothermic reactions are |
photosynthesis and thermal decomposition. |
For example, when magnesium ribbon is added to dilute hydrochloric |
acid, the temperature of the acid increases — the reaction is exothermic.
In contrast, when sodium hydrogencarbonate is added to hydrochloric
acid, the temperature of the acid decreases — the reaction is endothermic.
 temperature goes up temperature goes down
EXOTHERMIC ENDOTHERMIC

al
== ay — ‘|
magnesium | S ict eee sodium hydrogen-
ribbon at | carbonate

hydrochloric ————
acid a XN

A Fig. 2.9 Measuring energy changes in reactions.

Energy changes in reactions like these can be measured using a

polystyrene cup (an insulator) as a calorimeter. If a lid is added to the
cup, very little energy is transferred to the air and reasonably accurate
results can be obtained.

QUESTIONS
—_
1. What is an exothermic reaction?

2. What is an endothermic reaction?

3. Why do polystyrene cups make good calorimeters for measuring

energy changes in some chemical reactions?

All reactions involving the combustion of fuels are exothermic.

The energy transferred when a fuel burns can be measured using
calorimetry, as shown in the diagram.

400g of
water

metal can

draught
excluder

paraffin
>
co
burner <J Fig. 2.10. Measuring the energy produced
fj
a by burning a liquid fuel.
=
uu
et
U
=d
<<

WW
>

2
a.
The rise in temperature of the water is a measure of the energy
transferred to the water. This technique will not give a very accurate
answer because much of the energy will be transferred to the
surrounding air. Nevertheless, it can be used to compare the energy
released by burning the same amounts of different fuels.

ENTHALPY CHANGE
The heat energy in chemical reactions is called enthalpy. An enthalpy
change is given the symbol AH. The enthalpy change for a particular
reaction is shown at the end of the balanced equation. The units are kJ/mol.

QUESTIONS
I. Measuring energy changes when burning fuels in a liquid burner
does not give very accurate results. Why do you think this is?
2. A group of students was comparing the energy released on
burning different liquid fuels in spirit burners using apparatus
similar to that shown in Fig. 2.10. The results obtained are
shown here:

Name of fuel | Amount of Rise in temperature | Temperature

fuel burned (g)| of 200cm? of water | rise of the water
in a metal can (°C) per g of fuel
a
burned (° C/g)
Ethanol led 32,
Paraffin 0.9
Pentane 1.5 UOCOWS
|

Octane abe 20 ;

a) How do you think the students worked out how much fuel
was burned in each experiment?
b) Complete the last column of the table by working out the
temperature rise in each experiment per gram of fuel burned.
(Give your answers to the nearest whole number)
i) Which fuel produced the greatest temperature rise per
gram burned?
ii) If the octane experiment were repeated using 400 cm? of
water in the metal can, approximately what temperature rise
would you expect? Explain how you worked out your answer.

3. Another group of students used a glass beaker rather than a

metal can in their experiments. Which group of students would
you expect to get more accurate results? Explain your answer. 2
Wee
«a
a
ENERG
CHEM
 Bi
ENERGY PROFILES AND AH
Energy level diagrams show the enthalpy difference between the
reactants and the products.
_ | Inan exothermic reaction, | In an endothermic reaction,
the energy content of the | the energy content of the
reactants is greater than | products is greater than the
the energy content of the | energy content of the
| products. Energy is being reactants. Energy is being
_ lost to the surroundings. | absorbed from the
| AH is negative. surroundings. AH is positive.

All AH values should have a + or — sign in front of them to show if they

are endothermic or exothermic.
Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required for a
reaction to occur. Fig. 2.11 shows the activation energy of a reaction.
reactants
products

>
5 AH = -
5 (loss of energy) ASE
(energy put in)
energy

products
SSS
SSS

reactants
course of reaction
course of reaction

A Fig. 2.11 Energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions.

The energy profile can now be completed as shown. The reaction for
this profile is exothermic, with AH negative.

activation
energy (Eq)

reactants

Energy
>
oc
~— (energy lost)
=
=
lu
=
U products
—
<=
=
Ww Course of reaction <J Fig. 2.12 Energy profile.
>
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[3
END OF EXTENDED
 SCIENCE
iva BIOLOGY - CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
ORGANISMS

The key chemical reactions in living things, photosynthesis and

respiration, have energy transfer as their central purpose.
In photosynthesis, the energy transfer is to allow the energy to
be stored.
In respiration, energy is released so that it can be used to power
further changes.
The effects of energy transfers (often unwanted) from, for example,
combustion, can also have important effects on ecosystems.

PHYSICS - ENERGY RESOURCES

- The storage and transfer of energy play a key part in many physical |
processes, for example, releasing energy from petrol in order for a
car to gain kinetic energy.

Energy resources on a global scale, for the generating of heat and

electricity, is a key feature of modern life.

QUESTIONS
— _ —_ — — —_ _ —— ——— ——— |

1. The enthalpy change for a particular reaction is positive. Is the

reaction endothermic or exothermic?
2. On an energy profile, what is the name given to the minimum
amount of energy required for a reaction to occur?
3. EXTENDED Methane burns in excess oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water. When 1 mole of methane is burnt 882 kJ of
energy is released. Draw an energy level diagram for this reaction.
4. EXTENDED Draw and label energy level diagrams for each of the
reactions shown in the table below:

Reaction | Activation energy (kJ/mol) Enthalpy change (kJ/mol)

A 120 =D nn
=
Bae 80 | +10 | l=
lu
O
[9
Lu
ras
Lu
=
<<
UW

=
=
Lui
2
U
 Final oe — Temperature
ine ote of ohange CC)
oe c ©)

was taken?

Observing, measuring 3 ad
{recording
© What would you expect to observe when) magnesium ribbon is added to
dilute hydrochloric acid?

Interpreting aie = data —

e @ Work out the temperature change
in each reaction.
© Work out the temperature change per gram of solid in each reaction.
@ In each case is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
@ Draw a simple energy level diagram to represent the reaction between
ee ae ec oe acid.

7 inate: methods
= @ Energy is often
CHEMISTRY
ICAL
Cc > lostfom the polystyrene cup, making the temperature
S hange |lower thanitshould be.
ee one neethis error could
PH
a a

EXTENDED
eee ee eae CTR acu Rn eA A ERR ARs Ee Ae

WHERE DOES THE ENERGY COME FROM?

The reaction that occurs when a fuel is burning can be considered to
take place in two stages. In the first stage the covalent bonds between
the atoms in the fuel molecules and in the oxygen molecules are
broken. In the second stage the atoms combine and new covalent
bonds are formed. For example, in the combustion of propane:

propane + oxygen > carbon dioxide + water

C,H,(g) Ff 50,(g) a 3C0.(g) + 4H,0(()

Stage 1
energy energy
‘~*) GO needed released
fa®) to break when bonds
bonds are formed

overall
energy
change

A Fig. 2.13 Energy changes in an exothermic reaction.

Stage 1: Energy is needed (absorbed from the surroundings) to break

the bonds. This process is endothermic.
Stage 2: Energy is released (transferred to the surroundings) as the new
bonds form. This process is exothermic.
The overall reaction is exothermic because forming the new bonds
releases more energy than is needed initially to break the old bonds.
Fig. 2.14 is a simplified energy level diagram showing the exothermic
nature of the reaction.
C3Hg + 50>

AH
Energy
3CO, + 4H,O <] Fig. 2.14 A simplified energy level
diagram for the reaction. ENER
CHEM
 | The larger the alkane molecule, the more the energy is released on
combustion. This is because although more bonds must be broken
in the first stage of the reaction, more bonds are formed in the

Nieae 9 ‘ oan cae Molar enthalpy

| | | of combustion
| | (kJ/mol)
| Methane ae CL } ‘vomre —882

|Ethane | CH | =1542
| Propane pe ar —2202 | ;
“ine eee ee er eoaze
“sae Cho aes
| Hexane Cash —414]
A Table 2.1 Molar enthalpy of combustion of alkanes.

REMEMBER
In an exothermic reaction, the energy released on forming new bonds is
greater than that needed to break the old bonds.
In an endothermic reaction, more energy is needed to break the old
bonds than is released when new bonds are formed. The energy
changes in endothermic reactions are usually relatively small.

ee END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. What does the sign of AH indicate about a reaction?
2. EXTENDED Is energy needed or released when bonds are broken?
3. EXTENDED In an endothermic reaction is more or less energy
needed to break the old bonds than is recovered when new bonds
are formed?

>
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2
=
Lu
2c
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—
~s
4
Ww
>
a2
a
SCIENCE
IN
<nizey HOW COMMON ARE ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS?

Almost all chemical reactions in which simple

compounds or elements react to make new
compounds are exothermic. One exception is the
formation of nitrogen oxide (NO) from nitrogen
and oxygen. Overall, energy is needed to create
this compound, with less energy being released
on forming bonds than was needed to break the
bonds ofthe reactants. Nitrogen oxide is often
formed in lightning storms. The lightning
provides enough energy to split the nitrogen and
oxygen molecules before the atoms combine to
form nitrogen oxide:

A Fig. 2.15 These plants are making food by

N.(g) + O,(g) — 2NO(g) AH positive
photosynthesis, an endothermic reaction.

Another exception is photosynthesis. Plants use

energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide
and water into glucose and oxygen:

6CO,(g) + 6H,O(!) > C,H_.O,(aq) + 60,(g) AH positive

‘Cold packs’ which you can buy in some countries,

can be used to help you keep cool. Usually you
have to bend a pack to break a partition inside
and allow two substances to mix. The pack will
then stay cold for an hour or longer. However, it
may not be an endothermic reaction that is
working in the cold pack. Dissolving chemicals
like urea or ammonium nitrate in water also
cause the temperature of water to fall, but
dissolving is a physical change, not a chemical
change. Whether it is an endothermic reaction or oe
not is the manufacturer's secret. eo
-esnoei)

Ww
==
Lad
O
in
A Fig. 2.16 A cold pack. Lid
=
Lid
wal
<<
Se
=
iu
ae
YU
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
activation energy, burning, calorimetry, combustion, endothermic, enthalpy
change, exothermic, photosynthesis, physical change

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions.

() EXTENDED How to describe bond breaking as endothermic and bond forming

as exothermic.

(.) EXTENDED Be able to draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and
endothermic reactions using data provided.

() EXTENDED How to interpret energy level diagrams showing exothermic and

endothermic reactions and the activation energy of a reaction.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. Explain each of the following:

a) A polystyrene cup is used when measuring energy changes in simple

reactions, such as adding magnesium ribbon to an acid. (2 marks)
b) When sodium hydrogencarbonate is added to a solution of an acid the
temperature of the acid falls. (1 mark)
2. An estimate of the energy produced when a fuel burns can be made by burning
the fuel under a container holding water and measuring the temperature rise of
the water.

a) What type of material should the container be made of? Explain your answer.
(2 marks)

b) Why does this method give an estimate rather than an accurate value? (2 marks)
c) How can the accuracy of this method be improved? (2 marks)

CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL
 DED Calcium oxide reacts with water as shown in the equation:
(s) + H,O(l) > Ca(Oh),(s)

An energy level diagram for this reaction is shown below.

CaO + HO

energy change = -65kJ

Ca(OH) 5

a) What does the energy level diagram tell us about the type of energy
change that takes place in this reaction? (1 mark)

b) What does the energy level diagram indicate about the amounts
of energy required to break original bonds and form new bonds
in this reaction? (1 mark)
EXTENDED Chlorine (Cl,) and hydrogen (H,) react together to make hydrogen
enone (HCI). The equation can be written as:

H-H + Cl-Cl — H-Cl + H-Cl

When this reaction occurs, energy is transferred to the surroundings. Explain

this in terms of the energy transfer processes taking place when bonds are
broken and when bonds are made. (2 marks)

ENERG
CHEM
 Rate of reaction
INTRODUCTION
Some chemical reactions take place extremely
quickly. For example, when petrol is ignited it
combines with oxygen almost instantaneously.
Reactions like these have a high rate. Other
reactions are much slower, for example, when
an iron bar rusts in the air; reactions like these
have a low rate. Chemical reactions can be
controlled and made to be quicker or slower.
This can be very important in food production,
either by slowing down or increasing the rate
A Fig. 2.17 Petrol igniting. at which food ripens, or in the chemical
industry where the rate of a reaction can be
adjusted to an optimum level.

___KNOWLEDGE CHECK oS ss
Y Know the arrangement, movement and energy of the particles in the three states of
matter: solid, liquid and gas.
VY Understand how the course of a reaction can be shown in an energy level diagram.
Y Be able to write and interpret balanced chemical equations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES a >

Y Be able to describe a practical method for investigating the rate of a reaction
involving the evolution of a gas.
V Be able to interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate of reaction.
V Be able to describe the effects of concentration, particle size, catalysts and
temperature on the rates of reactions.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to suggest apparatus, given information, for experiments,
including collection of gases and measurement of rates of reaction.
¥Y EXTENDED Be able to describe and explain the effect of changing concentration
in terms of collisions between reacting particles.
¥Y EXTENDED Be able to explain that an increase in temperature causes an increase
in collision rate and more of the colliding particles have sufficient energy (activation
>
ce
energy) to react, whereas an increase in concentration only causes an increase in
be

=
collision rate.
=
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Y
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=
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EXTENDED
a
eeea _
COLLISION THEORY
For a chemical reaction to occur, the reacting particles (atoms,
molecules or ions) must collide. The energy involved in the collision
must be enough to break the chemical bonds in the reacting
particles — or the particles will just bounce off one another.
A collision that has enough energy to result in a chemical reaction is an
effective collision.

(( @ ©)
° O O O ©) @ O Q))) “7
QO Q *)

©) x
Q QO QO

QO Oo O O
e %@ ) oO So oO
unsuccessful successful |

A Fig. 2.18 Particles must collide with sufficient energy to make an effective collision.

Some chemical reactions occur extremely quickly

(for example, the explosive reaction between petrol and activation
oxygen in a car engine) and some more slowly (for energy (Eq)
example, iron rusts over days or weeks). This
is because they have different activation energies.
Activation energy acts as a barrier to a reaction. It 5
is the minimum amount of energy required in a collision —&
for a reaction to occur. As a general rule, the bigger the (energy lost)
activation energy, the slower the reaction will be at a
particular temperature.
products

|
|
Course of reaction }
|
A Fig. 2.19 Reaction profile.

REMEMBER |
The ‘barrier’ preventing a reaction from occurring is called the
activation energy. If the activation energy of a reaction is low, more of
the collisions will be effective and the reaction will proceed quickly. If
the activation energy is high, a smaller proportion of collisions will be
effective and the reaction will be slow.

REACT
OF
RATE
#
END OF EXTENDED
 RATE OF A REACTION
| A quick reaction takes place in a short time. It has a high rate of
| reaction. As the time taken for a reaction to be completed increases,
the rate of the reaction decreases. In other words:
| Speed ____ Rate | Completion time |
|Quick or fc a | High ; | Short -
| Slow_ d | _ Low “ Wee ae r |
A Table 2.2 Speed, rate and time.

chemical change?
2. In a chemical change there is often an apparent change in mass
even though mass cannot be created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction. What is a possible cause of this apparent change in mass?
3. EXTENDED In the collision theory, what two things must happen
for two particles to react?
4. EXTENDED What is an effective collision?
5. EXTENDED Describe, using a diagram, what is meant by the term
L activation energy.

MONITORING THE RATE OF A REACTION

The rate of a reaction changes as the reaction proceeds. There are
some easy ways of monitoring this change.
When marble (calcium carbonate) reacts with hydrochloric acid, the
following reaction starts straight away:

calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid — calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water

CaCO, (s) + 2HClI(aq) — CaCl,(aq) + CO,(g) + H,O(1)

The reaction can be monitored as it proceeds either by measuring the

volume of gas being formed or by measuring the change in mass of the
reaction flask.
The volume of gas produced in this reaction can be measured using the
apparatus shown in Fig. 2.20. The hydrochloric acid is put into the
conical flask, the marble chips are added, the bung is quickly fixed into
the neck of the flask and the stopclock is started.

CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL

8
bs]
N
 dilute hydrochloric acid

calcium carbonate (marble chips)

<J Fig. 2.20 Monitoring the rate of a reaction.

The reaction will start immediately, effervescence (bubbling) will occur

in the flask as the carbon dioxide gas is produced and the plunger on the
syringe will start to move. Measuring the volume of gas in the syringe
every 10 seconds will indicate how the total amount of gas produced
changes as the reaction proceeds. The change in the rate of the reaction
with time can be shown on a graph of the results (see Fig. 2.22).

EXTENDED
To measure the change in mass in the same reaction, the apparatus
shown in Fig. 2.21 can be used. The hydrochloric acid is put into the
conical flask, the marble chips are added, the cotton wool plug is put in
the neck of the flask and the stopclock is started. The mass of the flask
and contents is measured as soon as the plug is inserted and then every
10 seconds as the reaction occurs. The mass will decrease as carbon
dioxide gas escapes from the flask.
loose cotton wool plug
to stop spray escaping

dilute
hydrochloric stopclock
acid

marble chips

balance ; ; ;
[balance | <] Fig. 2.21 Measuring the change in mass.

As before, drawing a graph of the results shows the change in the rate
of the reaction over time.
Graphs of the results from both experiments have almost identical
shapes. The rate of the reaction decreases as the reaction proceeds. REAC
OF
RATE
 g =)
tS ae
ey =
©?
Se
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in
/Loss
mass
|

|
| OECLOn©
CeO
—
=]
oF
2
ooND
Or
Com
OC)
NOs
{ai} |
| 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
| Time / seconds Time / seconds

A Fig. 2.22 Volume of carbon dioxide produced or loss in mass.

Loss in mass during the reaction

The rate of the reaction at any point can be calculated from the gradient
of the curve. The shapes of the graphs can be divided into three regions.
1. At this point, the curve is the steepest (has the highest gradient) and
the reaction has its highest rate. The maximum number of reacting
particles are present and the number of effective collisions per
second is at its greatest.
2. The curve is not as steep (has a lower gradient) at this point and the
rate of the reaction is lower. Fewer reacting particles are present and
so the number of effective collisions per second is lower.
3. The curve is horizontal (gradient is zero) and the reaction is
complete. At least one of the reactants has been completely used up
and so no further collisions can occur between the two reactants.

END OF EXTENDED

REMEMBER
In experiments like these it is helpful to have a good understanding of
the types of variables involved. The factor you are investigating is
called the independent variable — when investigating how the
reaction between marble and hydrochloric acid changes over time, time
is the independent variable. A dependent variable is changed by the
independent variable — in the marble and hydrochloric acid reaction,
the volume of carbon dioxide produced is the dependent variable.
Other variables involved are control variables and are not allowed to
change to ensure a ‘fair test’. So, temperature could be a control
MISTRY variable in the reaction between marble and hydrochloric acid.
rcF Cc

In chemical reactions it is very rare that exact (as predicted by the

equation) quantities of reactants are used. In the marble and
_ hydrochloric acid reaction all the marble may be used up (it is called
CH the limiting reactant) but not all the hydrochloric acid; some is left
PHYSICAL

when the reaction has stopped (it is in excess).

QUESTIONS
1. What piece of apparatus can accurately measure the volume of
gas produced in a reaction?
2. EXTENDED On a volume versus time graph, what does a
horizontal line show?
3. EXTENDED When comparing two reactions, will the slower or
quicker reaction have a steeper volume/time gradient at the
beginning?

WHAT CAN CHANGE THE RATE OF A REACTION?

There are four key factors that can change the rate of a reaction:
® conceniration (of a solution)
© temperature
@ particle size (of a solid)
@ a catalyst.

EXTENDED
A simple collision theory can be used to explain how these factors
affect the rate of a reaction. Two important parts of the theory are: |
|
e The reacting particles must collide with each other. |
e There must be sufficient energy in the collision to overcome the
eG
activation energy. |

END OF EXTENDED

Concentration
Increasing the concentration of a reactant will increase the rate of
reaction. When a piece of magnesium ribbon is added to a solution of
hydrochloric acid, the following reaction occurs:

magnesium + hydrochloric
acid — magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) — MgCl,(aq) + —H,(g)

As the magnesium and acid come into contact, there is effervescence

(‘bubbling’) and hydrogen gas is given off. Two experiments were
performed using the same length of magnesium ribbon, but different z

concentrations of acid. In experiment | the hydrochloric acid used was 2=

2.0 mol/dm’, in experiment 2 the acid was 0.5 mol/dm’. The graph in
U
<
ui

Fig. 2.23 shows the results of the two experiments. «

uh
1@)
hud
-
<
[oad
 Experiment 1 Experiment 2
finishes here finishes here

100

lee)=)

D (2)

SboO

=
pe)

crn?
hydrogen
of
Volume
/gas

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time / seconds

A Fig. 2.23 Volume of hydrogen produced in the reaction between magnesium and
hydrochloric acid.

In experiment | the curve is steeper (has a higher gradient) than in

experiment 2. In experiment | the reaction is complete after
20 seconds, whereas in experiment 2 it takes 60 seconds. The initial
rate of the reaction is higher with 2.0 mol/dm* hydrochloric acid than
with 0.5 mol/dm?’ hydrochloric acid.

EXTENDED
In the 2.0mol/dm* hydrochloric acid solution there are more hydrogen
ions in a given volume, a higher concentration of hydrogen ions, and so
there will be a lot more effective collisions per second with the surface
of the magnesium ribbon than in the 0.5 mol/dm? hydrochloric acid.

dilute solution concentrated solution

0.5mol/dm? 2.0mol/dms
hydrochloric hydrochloric
acid

magnesium magnesium
ribbon ribbon

CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL
A Fig. 2.24 Using dilute and concentrated solutions in a reaction.
Aw

RATE
REACT
OF
END OF EXTENDED

TEMPERATURE
Increasing the temperature of the reactants will increase the rate
of a reaction.

EXTENDED
Warming a substance transfers kinetic energy to its particles. More
kinetic energy means that the particles move faster. Because they are
moving faster there will be more collisions each second. The increased
energy of the collisions also means that the proportion of collisions that
are effective will increase. A reaction was carried out at two different
temperatures — first at 20°C and then at 30°C.

O On
e ° ©

O OQ © Q)

O 9
20 °C 30 °C

A Fig. 2.26 Effect of increasing temperature on particles.

Increasing the temperature of the reaction between some marble chips

and hydrochloric acid will not increase the final amount of carbon
dioxide produced. The same amount of gas will be produced in a
shorter time. The rates of the two reactions are different but the final
loss in mass is the same.
 0.5

o ns

2w

2 nm

lost/g
dioxide
carbon
of
Mass

Time/min

A Fig. 2.27 Tne effect of temperature on the reaction between hydrochloric acid
and marble chips.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. What units are used to measure the concentration of solutions?

2. EXTENDED In terms of particles colliding, why does increasing the

concentration of a solution increase the rate of reaction?

3. EXTENDED Give two reasons why increasing temperature

increases the rate of reaction.

PARTICLE SIZE
Decreasing the particle size (or increasing the surface area) of a solid
reactant will increase the rate of a reaction.

EXTENDED
A reaction can only take place if the reacting particles collide. This
means that the reaction takes place at the surface of a solid. The
particles within the solid cannot react until those on the surface have
reacted and moved away.

END OF EXTENDED
Powdered calcium carbonate has a smaller particle size (or much larger
surface area) than the same mass of marble chips. A lump of coal will a
e=
burn slowly in the air, whereas coal dust can react explosively. This is a VU
hazard in coal mines where coal dust can react explosively with air. In <
Lu
«
addition, as well as the danger of explosive mixtures of coal dust and Lh.
12)
air, the build-up of methane gas can also form an explosive mixture is
f=
with the air. <
oe
 A Fig. 2.28 Powdered carbon has a much larger surface area than the same mass in larger lumps.

CATALYSTS
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction and
is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. An enzyme is a
biological catalyst, for example, amylase, which is found in saliva.
Note: Enzymes are involved in the fermentation of glucose. Enzymes are
present in yeast and these increase the rate at maid glucose is converted
into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The reaction rate increases as the yeast
multiplies — but as the concentration of ethanol increases, the rate
decreases because the ethanol begins to kill or denature the enzymes.

QUESTION
1. What i
isa catalyst?

SCIENCE
tram BIOLOGY - ENZYMES

- The factors that affect how quickly a chemical reaction happens link
directly to the role of enzymes in the maintenance of body processes.

Describing how the energy ofthe particles changes at higher

temperatures also allows us to explain. why an enzyme will not work
above a certain temperature.

PHYSICS — SIMPLE KINETIC MODEL

- Explaining why the different factors affect the rate of a chemical
>
cc
reaction uses the same particle model that gives us the simple
structure of solids, liquids and gases.
ke

2
= |
Lu
25 * Thinking about the forces between the particles and the energy
U
mal involved in the interactions between particles leads to a common
<
2ve) explanation in terms of particle speed and kinetic energy.
>
nS
a.
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
catalyst, collision theory, control variable, dependent variable, effective
collision, enzyme, independent variable, rate of reaction, surface area, variable

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to describe a practical method for investigating the rate of a reaction
involving the evolution of a gas.

©) How to interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate

of reaction.

©) How to describe the effect of concentration, particle size, catalysts and

temperature on the rate of reactions.

EXTENDED The suitable apparatus, given information, for experiments, including

collection of gases and measurement of rates of reaction.

EXTENDED of the colliding particles have sufficient energy (the activation energy)
to feact.

REAC
OF
RATE
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. This question is about the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid.
a) Draw and label a diagram of the apparatus that could be used to monitor the
rate of the reaction by measuring the volume of hydrogen produced. (2 marks)

b) How will the following changes affect the rate of the reaction?
i) Using powdered magnesium rather than magnesium ribbon. (1 mark)
ii) Using a less concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid. (1 mark)
ii) Lowering the temperature of the hydrochloric acid. (1 mark)

2. EXTENDED For a chemical reaction to occur, the reacting particles must

collide. Why don't all collisions between the particles of the reactants lead
to a chemical reaction? (2 marks)

3. The diagrams below show the activation energies of two different reactions,
AandB.

a) What is the activation energy of a reaction? (1 mark)

b) Which reaction is likely to have the higher rate of reaction at a particular

temperature? Explain your answer. (2 marks)

Reaction A Reaction B

activation
activation energy
energy
reactants reactants

Course of reaction Course of reaction

PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions continued
4. EXTENDED Look at the table of results obtained when dilute hydrochloric acid is
added to marble chips.

Time (seconds) 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 |
Volume
of gas(cm?) | 0 | 20 | 36 | 49 | 58 | 65 | 69 | 70 | 70 70_|
a) What is the name of the gas produced in this reaction? (1 mark)
b) Write a balanced equation, including state symbols, for the reaction. (2 marks)
c) Draw a graph of volume of gas (y-axis) against time (x-axis).

Label it ‘Graph 1° (3 marks)

d) Use the results to calculate the volume of gas produced:

i) in the first 10 seconds (1 mark)

ii) between 10 and 20 seconds (1 mark)
iii) between 20 and 30 seconds (1 mark)
iv) between 80 and 90 seconds. (1 mark)
e) Explain why the rate of the reaction changes as the reaction takes place.
(2 marks)

f) Use the collision theory to explain the change in the rate of reaction.
(2 marks)

g) The reaction was repeated using the same volume and concentration of
hydrochloric acid with the same mass of marble, but as a powder instead
of chips. Draw another curve on your graph paper, using the same axes as
before (label as ‘Graph 2’), to show how the original results will change. (3 marks)

h) The reaction was repeated, but this time using the original mass
of new marble chips and the same volume of hydrochloric acid, but with
the acid only half as concentrated as originally. Draw another curve on
your graph paper, using the same axes as before (label as ‘Graph 3’),
to show how the original results will change. (3 marks)

REAC
OF
RATE
 Redox reactions
INTRODUCTION
Oxidation reactions are very familiar in
everyday life — with examples such as the
rusting of iron and bleaching, which is
effective because bleach is a powerful
oxidising agent. Whenever anything burns,
an oxidation reaction takes place between
the fuel and oxygen in the air. Reduction
reactions may seem less familiar, but
oxidation and reduction go hand in hand —
if an element or compound in a chemical
reaction is oxidised, then another element or

A Fig. 2.29 Oxidation and reduction are both compound in the same reaction must be
taking place in this bonfire. reduced. So even when a bonfire is burning
| furiously and using oxygen from the air,
reduction is taking place at the same time!

rrr 3 Se Sa aka

__ KNOWLEDGE CHECK |
Y Know about ions and ion charges.
Y Be able to interpret chemical equations and associated state symbols.
|=

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ee eee oes ee ne Creer eee

¥ Know the definitions of oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen loss or gain.
¥ Know that oxidation states are used to name ions, for example, iron(II), iron(IIl),
copper(II), manganate(VIl).
/Y EXTENDED Know that an oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises another
substance during a redox reaction.
Y EXTENDED Know that a reducing agent is a substance that reduces another
substance during a redox reaction.
La — —————— ————$ aa . el

OXIDATION, REDUCTION AND REDOX

When oxygen is added to an element or a compound, the process is
called oxidation:

2Cu(s) + 0,(g) > 2Cu0(s)

| The
PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY copper has been oxidised.
Removing oxygen from a compound is called reduction:

CuO(s) + Zn(s) — ZnO(s) + Cu(s)

The copper(II) oxide has been reduced.

If we look more carefully at this last reaction, we see the zinc has
changed to zine oxide: that is, it has been oxidised at the same time as
the copper(II) oxide has been reduced.
This is one example of reduction and oxidation taking place at the same
time, in the same reaction. These are called redox reactions.

EXTENDED
In the equation above showing the reaction between copper(II) oxide and
zinc, the copper(II) oxide has been reduced by the zinc. Zinc is therefore
acting as a reducing agent. The zinc itself has been oxidised by the
copper(II) oxide, so the copper(II) oxide is acting as an oxidising agent.

END OF EXTENDED

OXIDATION STATES
When you learned to write chemical formulae, you were introduced to
the use of Roman numerals for metals that had more than one ion, for
example, iron as Fe** or Be**:
@ iron(II) oxide = FeO
¢ iron(II] )oxide = Fe,O,
The II and III are called oxidation states.
@ Fe?+ has an oxidation state of +2.
e Fe** has an oxidation state of +3.
® oxygen has an oxidation state of —2.
You take the ion charge and reverse it, so an ion of 3— has oxidation
number —3.
The oxidation state of elements is always 0 (zero).
An oxidation state describes how many electrons an atom loses or gains
when it forms a chemical bond.

QUESTIONS |
1. Define the term Pana
wn
=
2. What is the oxidation state of the metal ion in each of the
©
following compounds? fee
UW
<
a) copper(II) oxide
4d
oe
D4
(2)
b) iron(IIl) chloride a)
Lt
o
c) potassium manganate(VIl).
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
oxidation, oxidation state, redox, reduction

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() The definitions of oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen loss or gain.

() That oxidation states are used to name ions, for example, iron(II), iron(II),
copper(II), manganate(VIl).

(.) EXTENDED That an oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises another substance
during a redox reaction.
() EXTENDED That a reducing agent is a substance that reduces another substance
during a redox reaction.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. The following equation shows a redox reaction:

Mg(s) + ZnO(s) — MgO(s) + Zn(s)

a) What has been oxidised in the reaction? (1 mark)

b) What has been reduced in the reaction? (1 mark)

c) EXTENDED What is the oxidising agent? (1 mark)

d) EXTENDED What is the reducing agent? (1 mark)

- EXTENDED Look at the following equation showing the reaction between
lead(II) oxide and hydrogen. Name the oxidising agent in this reaction. Explain
your answer.

2PbO(s) + C(s) > 2Pb(s) + CO,(g)

PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
Acids, bases and
salts
INTRODUCTION
Acids are commonly used in everyday life.
Many of them, such as hydrochloric acid
and sulfuric acid, are extremely toxic and
corrosive. About 20 million tonnes of
hydrochloric acid are manufactured
worldwide each year. Some of this is used to
make important chemicals, such as PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) plastic. Alkalis and bases
are less common in everyday use, yet about
A Fig. 2.30 Sodium hydroxide.
60 million tonnes of sodium hydroxide are
produced worldwide each year and used in the manufacture of
paper and soap. Sodium hydroxide is harmful and corrosive.
Common salt, sodium chloride, is an example of a salt.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/Y Know the names of some common acids, including hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid,
/Y Know that vegetable dyes can be used as indicators to identity acids and alkalis.
V Be able to use state symbols such as (s), (I), (g) and (aq).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH
measured using universal indicator.
V Be able to describe the characteristic properties of acids as reactions with metals,
bases, carbonates and the effect on litmus paper.
VY Be able to describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in soil.
/ Be able to describe the preparation, separation and purification of soluble salts.
Y Be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of preparation, separation
and purification of salts.
/ EXTENDED Be able to suggest a method of making a given salt from a suitable
starting material, given appropriate information.

SALTS
AND
BASE
ACIDS
 AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
When any substance dissolves in water, it forms an aqueous solution,
shown by the state symbol (aq). Aqueous solutions can be acidic,
alkaline or neutral. A neutral solution is neither acidic nor alkaline.
Indicators are used to tell if a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
They can be used either as liquids or in paper form, and they turn
different colours with different solutions. There are different indicators
that can be used.
The most common indicator is litmus. Its colours are shown in the table:

oflitmus _
__Colour Type ofsolution
Acidic . ws y
4Red |
Blue > ’ Pes Lan Alkaline
A Table 2.3 Litmus.

Universal indicator can show how strongly acidic or how strongly

alkaline a solution is because it has more colours than litmus. Each
colour is linked to a number ranging from 0 (most strongly acidic
solution) to 14 (most strongly alkaline solution). A neutral substance
has a pH of 7. This range is called the pH scale and is related to the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H*(aq)).
4/10000000 Liquid drain cleaner,
caustic soda

1/1000000 mores
oven cleaner
1/100000 Soapy water
Household
1/1
pace ammonia (11.9)
1/1000 Milk of magnesia (10.5)

1/100 Toothpaste (9.9)

Baki soda da (8.4)

aking (8.4), |
Concentration of 1/10 iene eggs
hydrogen ions Examples of solutions
compared to distilled 0 Pure water (7) and their respective pH
water
10 Urine (6) milk (6.6)
Acid rain (5.6)
100
black coffee (5)
1000 Tomato juice (4.1)
40000 Grapefruit and orange
juice, soft drink
400000 Lemon juice (2.3)
vinegar (2.9)
| 1000000 Hydrochloric acid secreted
from the stomach lining (1)|
>
c
= | 10000000 Battery acid
vt
=
ww A Fig. 2.31 The pH scale.
a
vu
—
<x
=
Ww
>
ae
a
WHAT ARE ACIDS?
Acids are substances that contain replaceable hydrogen atoms. These
hydrogen atoms are replaced in chemical reactions by metal atoms,
forming a compound known as a salt. Acids have pHs in the range 0-7.
Acid name Acid formula
Hydrochloric acid LG
Nitric acid ; HNO, ;
[ Sulfuric acid H_SO, , . |
Phosphoric acid Ae)
A Table 2.4 Common acids.

The typical reactions of acids include:

¢ Acid + metal makes a salt and hydrogen gas.
e Acid + carbonate makes a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
e Acid + base makes a salt and water.

QUESTION
1. Two solutions are tested with universal indicator paper.
Solution A has a pH of 8 and solution B has a pH of 14.
What does this tell you about the two solutions?

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING ACIDITY IN SOIL

If soil is too acidic, then it can be neutralised using quicklime.
Quicklime is made from limestone, which is quarried from
limestone rocks. It is heated in lime kilns at 1200°C to make
calcium oxide or quicklime:

1200°CT
limestone —> quicklime + carbon dioxide
CaCO,(s) —> CaO(s) + CO,(g)

When quicklime is added to water, it makes calcium hydroxide, which

is an alkali and so can neutralise the acidic soil:
va)
5
<x
quicklime + water - slaked lime ea)
=)
CaO(s) + 4H,O(I) -> Ca(OH),(s) =
<
vA)
Lit
“
<<
co
vi
S
U
—
 Different plants grow better in different types of soil. The pH of a soil
is an important factor in the growth of different plants — some plants
prefer slightly acidic conditions and others slightly alkaline conditions.
Adding fertilisers to soil can also affect the pH and so the soil may have
to be treated by adding acids or alkalis. The pH of soil can be measured
by taking a small sample, putting it in a test tube with distilled water
and adding indicator solution or using indicator paper. The pH can be
found from a pH chart.

| aya BIOLOGY - CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS,

| HUMAN EFFECTS ON ECOSYSTEMS
- Anumber of plants grow flowers of different colours, depending on
whether they are growing in acidic soil or alkaline soil — this
| property forms the basis of many indicators used in chemistry, such
as litmus.

A knowledge of acids and bases is important in understanding the

effects of acid rain and some other environmental effects — it is also
important in trying to reduce any damaging consequences.

WHAT ARE SALTS? sodium chloride (NaCl)

Acids contain replaceable hydrogen atoms. hn NS

When metal atoms take their place, a
compound
x
called a salt is forméd#:4 Ihe4 manteamume us 2oe
that replaced the
ue ee Oo ic Sei aiile
showing which acid
of salts have two parts, as shown in Fig. 2.32. hydrogen was used
A Fig. 2.32 Salt — sodium chloride.

Table 2.5 shows the four most common acids

and their salt names.

Acid Salt name

Hydrochloric (HCl) Chloride (Cl)
Nitric (HNO,) Nitrate (NO,>)
Sulfuric (H,SO,) Sulfate (SO,*)
1 Phosphoric (HPO? | Phosphate (PO,*) : |
> A Table 2.5 Common acids and their salt names.
co
-~
7
=
uu
a8
U
li
<—f
=
a)
>
aL:
o.
A Fig. 2.33 Sodium chloride crystals. A Fig. 2.34 Copper(Il) sulfate crystals.

Salts are ionic compounds. The names of these compounds are created
by taking the first part of the name from the metal ion, which is a
positive ion (cation), and the second part of the name from the acid,
which is a negative ion (anion). For example:

copper(II) sulfate: Cu’* + SO?" + CuSO,

cation anion — salt

Salts are often found in the form of crystals. Crystals of many salts
contain water of crystallisation, which is responsible for their crystal
shape. Water of crystallisation is shown in the chemical formula of a
salt. For example:
copper(II) sulfate crystals: CuSO,.5H,O
iron(II) sulfate crystals: FeSO,.7H,O
Salts that do not contain water of crystallisation are anhydrous.

MAKING SALTS
The solubility of salts in water
Here are the general rules that describe the solubility of common types
of salts in water:
e All common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble.
e All nitrates are soluble.
¢ Common chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble — except those
7)
of silver chloride, silver bromide and silver iodide. zi
¢ Common sulfates are soluble — except those of barium, lead 3
a)
Qa
and calcium. p=4
x
¢ Common carbonates are insoluble — except those of sodium, “
Ww
potassium and ammonium. nv
<<
oO
a
=
U
<x
 Making soluble salts
1
Re

acid + alkali = a Sait + water

For example:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) — NaCl(aq) + H,O(!)

Ds

acid + base => © dsalt + water

For example:
H,SO,(aq) + CuO(s) — CuSO,(aq) + H,O(l)
a e ae DNS. ee eS i

Ps.
aes a ae ae re hs bi
acid + carbonate —- asalt + water + carbon dioxide

For example:
2HNO,(aq) + CuCO,(s) —> Cu(NO,),(aq) + H,O(I) + CO,(g)
————
| 4.

acid + metal — asalt + hydrogen

For example:
2HCl(aq) + Myg(s) — MgCl(aq) + H,(g)

Here is a shortcut for remembering the four general equations above.

Remember the initials of the reactants:
A (acid) + A (alkali)
A (acid) + B (base)
A (acid)+ C (carbonate)
A (acid) + M (metal)
The symbol ‘(aq)’ after the formula of the salt shows that it is a
soluble salt.
=
Neutralisation describes the reactions of acids with alkalis and bases.
cc
j= When acids react with alkalis, the reaction is between H* ions and
2
= OH ions to make water, as in:
li
aa
U
ai
< H*(aq) +
4
w
>
le
-5
Reactions of acids with alkalis are used in the experimental procedure
of titration, in which solutions react together to give the end-point
shown by an indicator. Calculations can then be performed to find the
concentration of the acid or the alkali.

In the laboratory
Of the four methods for making soluble salts, shown
by the symbol (aq), only one uses two solutions:
1. acid(aq) + alkali(aq) > a salt(aq) + water(I)
The other three methods involve adding a solid(s) to a
solution(aq):
2. acid(aq) + base(s) — a salt(aq) + water(])
3. acid(aq) + carbonate(s) > a salt(aq) + water(l) +
carbon dioxide(g)
4. acid(aq) + metal(s) > a salt(aq) + hydrogen(g)
Method | involves the titration method.
An indicator is used to show when exact quantities of
acid and alkali have been mixed. The procedure is
then repeated using the same exact volumes of acid
and alkali, but without the indicator. The resulting
solution is evaporated to the point of crystallisation, A Figs using the neunslseton |
then left to cool and the salt to crystallise. method for a titration.
ns ems) SO TONTT! Vs OvIbivehe OASKATSUNIOIAD YrLnere on Biarges inne LNCS <6
EXTENDED
|

You should know that because acids in water form H*(aq) ions and |
alkalis form OH (aq) ions, the neutralisation reaction of acids with
alkalis can be summarised as:

H*(aq) + OH (aq) = H,O(1)

|
All neutralisation reactions can be represented by this equation,
whatever the acid or alkali used. |

END OF EXTENDED
ESS TT TT

The general procedure used for each of the methods 2, 3 and 4 is |

the same:
e The solid (base, carbonate or metal) is added to the acid with stirring
until no more solid will react. Heating may be necessary.
SALTS
AND
BASES
ACIDS
i
 e The mixture is filtered to remove unreacted solid and the solution is
collected as the filtrate in an evaporating dish.
¢ The solution is evaporated to the point of crystallisation and is then
left to cool and the salt to crystallise.
The process is summarised in Fig. 2.36:

add solid Ay aN filter off

(base/carbonate/metal) f/ ~~ excess solid

SJ mes LY
transfer hot crystals form after
acid solid in excess evaporating evaporate to liquid to dish_ leaving to cool and
(salt formed in dish reduce volume when solution is
the solution) of solution saturated

A Fig. 2.36 Making soluble salts from solids.

-QUESTIONS—
oo

1. What Is a sa/t?
2. Which acid would you use to make a sample of sodium sulfate?
3. Would you expect potassium chloride to be soluble or insoluble
in water? Explain your answer.
4. What is the name of the salt formed when calcium carbonate
reacts with nitric acid?
5. What does the word neutralisation mean?

SOME INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT ACIDS

AND ALKALIS

1. Pure sulfuric acid is a clear, oily,

highly corrosive liquid. It was well
known to Islamic, Greek and Roman
scholars in the ancient world, when
>
it was called ‘oil of vitriol’ Although
ce
= pure sulfuric acid does not occur
2
= naturally on Earth because of its
iu
ft
U
attraction for water, dilute sulfuric
—
=8 acid is found in acid rain and in the
Pa upper atmosphere of the planet
wn
>
=
oa.
Venus. It has a wide range of
industrial uses from making A Fig. 2.37 A wasp.
 fertilisers, dyes, paper and pharmaceuticals to batteries, steel and
iron. Sulfuric acid is not toxic but it is highly reactive with water, ina
strongly exothermic reaction. It can cause severe burns. The acid
must be stored in glass containers (never plastic or metal) and
handled with extreme care.
2. Hydrochloric acid, although classified as toxic and corrosive, is part
of the gastric acid in the stomach and is involved in digestion. Excess
acid in the stomach can cause indigestion but ‘anti-acid’ (alkali)
medications can be taken to neutralise this.
Perhaps the strongest acid is a mixture of nitric acid and
hydrochloric acid, known as ‘aqua regia’ because it reacts with the
‘royal’ metals. Unlike other acids, it reacts with very unreactive
metals such as gold and platinum. However, some metals like
titanium and silver are not affected.
Formic acid (now called methanoic acid) is in the venom ofant and
bee stings. Such stings can be relieved by (or neutralised with) an
alkali such as sodium bicarbonate (sodium hydrogencarbonate).
Wasp stings, however, contain an alkali and so need to be
neutralised by a weak acid such as vinegar.
The differences can be remembered using:

Bee - Bicarb

Wasp (W looks like two Vs) - Vinegar

EXTENDED

Choosing the method for making a salt

It is important to be able to choose a suitable method for making a
salt. For example:
1. Making zinc sulfate by using dilute sulfuric acid. There are a
number of possibilities for the reaction:
a) Zinc + dilute sulfuric acid (zinc is above hydrogen in the
reactivity series and so will react with the acid)
b) Zinc oxide + dilute sulfuric acid
c) Zinc carbonate + dilute sulfuric acid
The method is practically the same whichever solid is used, however
in the case of zinc oxide the acid will need to be warmed to ensure
the zinc oxide reacts. Zine and zinc carbonate will react with the
acid at room temperature. The overall method is shown in Fig 2.36.
2. Making copper(II) chloride from dilute hydrochloric acid. In this ACIDS
BASE
SALT
AND
case there are only two possibilities for the reaction: In this case
there are only two possibilities for the reaction:
 a) Copper(II) oxide + dilute hydrochloric acid
b) Copper(II) carbonate + dilute hydrochloric acid
Copper does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid as copper is below
hydrogen in the reactivity series. As in example 1, if copper(II) oxide is
chosen the acid will need to be warmed to ensure the copper(II) oxide
reacts. Again, the overall method is shown in Fig 2.36.

| _END OF EXTENDED
tigative skills
wakesa sample of copper(II) sulfate crystals,
cuso, SH.0.She used the following steps in her method.
| She put on eye protection and warmed 50 cm3 of dilute sulfuric acid ina
| 250cm? beaker and then copper(II) oxide was added a spatula at a time,
_Stirring the reaction mixture with aglass rod.
: _ When no more copper(I) oxide would react, she filtered themide se
: collected thecopper(I) sulfate solution in
i an evaporating basin.
“She then heated the solution i in the evaporating basin until she could see
crystals starting to form and then allowed it to cool. _
‘After several hours, blue crystals of copper(II) sulfate had formed.
She drained off any eas liquid and dried the crystals between
filter papers. | ce ee

Using and organising techniques, apparatus and materials

@ Copper(|!) sulfate crystals are hydrated. Explain what this means.
@ Draw a diagram showing the apparatus the student could have used
to filter the mixture.
© What is the general name given to a liquid that passes througha
filter paper?
@ How could the student have tested for the crystallisation point while
heating the filtrate?

Observing, measuring and recording

© What is the colour of copper(II) oxide?
@ What would be the colour of the solution the student evaporated?

Evaluating methods
@ While heating the solution in the evaporating dish the student noticed
some very pale blue powder around the edges of the evaporating basin.
CHEMISTRY
j
-AAL
What do you think this powder was and how do you think it had formed?
© [2,415\)9)4>) Write a fully balanced equation for the reaction.
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
acid, anhydrous, filtrate, indicator, litmus, neutralisation, DH scale, salt, soap,
titration, universal indicator, water of crystallisation

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH
measured using universal indicator paper.

©) How to describe the characteristic properties of acids as reactions with metals,

bases, carbonates and the effect on litmus paper.

©) How to describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in soil.

QO) How to describe the preparation, separation and purification of salts as prepared
by the following reactions:
acid + metal
acid + base
acid + carbonate
acid + alkali.
IDED How to suggest a method of making a given salt from a suitable
starting material, given appropriate information.

SALT
AND
BASE
ACID
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the answers. In
the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be different.
1. a) What is an indicator? (1 mark)

b) What is the pH scale? | (1 mark)

c) What do the following pH numbers indicate about a solution that has been tested?
i) pH6 (1 mark)
ii) pH8 (1 mark)
iii) pH 14. (1 mark)
2. a) What is an acid? (1 mark)
b) What is an alkali? (1 mark)
c) What is the name ofthe process when an acid reacts with an alkali to
form water? (1 mark)
3. Calcium chloride can be made from calcium oxide and dilute hydrochloric acid.
a) What type of chemical is calcium oxide? (1 mark)
b) What type of chemical is calcium chloride? (1 mark)
c) Is calcium chloride soluble or insoluble in water? (1 mark)
d) Describe the different stages in the preparation of calcium
chloride crystals. (4 marks)
e) EXTENDED Write a fully balanced equation, including symbols,
for the reaction. (2 marks)
. EXTENDED Copy and complete the following equations and include state symbols:
a) 2KOH(aq) + H,SO, (aq) > + (2 marks)
b) 2HClI(aq) + MgO(s) > + (2 marks)
c) 2HNO,(aq) + BaCO,(s) > (2 marks)
d) 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) > | (2 marks)
e) ZnCl,(aq) + K,CO,(aq) > _ (2 marks)

PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
Identification of
ions and gases
INTRODUCTION
It is important to be able to analyse different
substances and identify the different
elements or components. The techniques
used today are fairly sophisticated but many
of them are based on simple laboratory tests.
With improved understanding of the
beneficial and harmful properties of
chemical substances, it has become more
and more BY
import:tant ify
to identify
metals <
metals and
| |
A Fig. 2.38 A chemist performs a chemical
non-metals in chemical processes and in the __ test ona substance in her pharmaceutical
F laboratory.
environment.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Understand the nature of the chemical bonding in ionic compounds.
VY Be familiar with the terms anion and cation.
¥ Know some of the characteristics of Group | and Group VII elements.
VY Know the order of the common metals that are included in the reactivity series.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES reat,

V Be able to describe the tests for the aqueous cations of ammonium, calcium,
copper(I), iron(II), iron(II!) and zinc using aqueous sodium hydroxide and
aqueous ammonia.
VY Be able to use a flame test to identify lithium, sodium, potassium and copper(I!) cations.
VY Be able to describe the tests for the anions carbonate, chloride, nitrate and sulfate.
V Be able to describe the tests for the gases ammonia, carbon dioxide, chlorine,
hydrogen and oxygen.

IDENTIFYING METAL IONS (CATIONS)

lons of metals are cations — positive ions — and are found in ionic
compounds. There are two ways of identifying metal cations:
¢ either from solids of the compound
¢ or from solutions of the compound.

Flame tests
In a flame test, a piece of nichrome wire is dipped into concentrated
hydrochloric acid, then into the solid compound, and then into a blue
Bunsen flame. The colour seen in the flame identifies the metal ion in IDEN
GASE
AND
IONS
OF
e
ee
SB
ee
SS
E e
the compound.
 Name Formula Colour seen in
ofion _ of ion flame
¥ lithium | Li | bright red
sodium Nat golden yellow/orange
potassium ake | lilac (light purple) |
| copper | Cu “green

A Table 2.6 Colours of ions in a flame.

Tests on solutions in water

Metal ions are found in ionic compounds, so most
of them will dissolve in water to form solutions.
These solutions can be tested with sodium hydroxide
solution to identify the aqueous cation. A Fig. 2.39 The colourof the flame can be
used to ey the metal ions Sea

_ Name of ion in ~ Formula |Result |

SOlutOn eee cae
Calcium ‘G a?*(aq) "White precipitate formed; remains, even when
Ce ee ee UN NN AOS SO EON alse
~ Copper((II) | Cu**(aq) | Light blue precipitate formed; insoluble in excess
po | sodium hydroxide solution
~ Tron(II) | Fe**(aq) | Green precipitate formed; insoluble in excess |
_ sodium hydroxide solution; after a few minutes
__ starts to)change to reddish-brown colour
|“Tron(IIT) | Fe*+(aq) | Reddish-brown precipitate formed; insoluble in
Void | a __excess sodium hydroxide solution
fom Zine | Zn**(aq) White precipitate formed; dissolves in excess
ex ec a
| e ee
| sodium, hydroxide solution en

A Table 2.7
2 Testseter sentingcationsay Sein sodium hydroxide solution to excess.

>
ce
=
VW

Ss
>
L

WU
ad
=8 A Fig. 2.40 Colourful hydroxide precipitates.
J
“i
>
=
ae
a.
Note: Similar results can be obtained if these reactions are performed
using ammonia solution instead of sodium hydroxide solution.
However, there is a noticeable difference in the case of copper(II) ions.
At first, as with sodium hydroxide solution, a pale blue precipitate is
formed, but then as excess ammonia solution is added the precipitate
dissolves to form a royal blue solution.

EXTENDED |
The reactions in the table can be represented by ionic equations.
For example:

Ca’*(aq) + 20H (aq) = Ca(OH),(s)

white precipitate

Cu?*(aq) + 20H-(aq) =< Cu(OH).(s)

light blue precipitate

Fe?*(aq) + 30H (aq) = Fe(OH),(s)

reddish-brown precipitate

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. a) What would you observe if you added sodium hydroxide
solution to a solution of calcium chloride?

b) In what way would the observations be different if zinc chloride v4)

Lu
solution were used instead of calcium chloride solution? Ww
<
7)
2. What test can be used to distinguish between Fe** and Fe** ions? Qa
Fas
What is the result of the test with each ion? <
a)
=
=
uo.
12)
Zz
S
ke

<
YU
e
=
2
iu
=
 IDENTIFYING AMMONIUM IONS, NH;
The test for the ammonium ion is shown in Fig. 2.41.
damp red
litmus paper

dilute sodium
hydroxide
solution ;
blue if
ammonia
ammonium formed
ion solution

A Fig. 2.41 Test for the ammonium ion NH}.

The suspected ammonium compound is dissolved in water in a test

tube and a few drops of dilute sodium hydroxide are added. The
mixture is then warmed over a Bunsen burner and some damp red
litmus paper (or universal indicator paper) is placed in the mouth of
the test tube. A colour change in the indicator to blue (alkaline) shows
that an ammonium compound is present.

IDENTIFYING ANIONS
Negative ions (anions) can be tested as solids or in solution.

Testing for anions in solids or solutions

The following test for anions in solids applies only to carbonates.
Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to the solid, and any gas produced is
passed through limewater. If the limewater goes cloudy/milky, the solid
contains a carbonate.

bubbles of gas
dilute acid

solid carbonate limewater

A Fig. 2.42 Testing for anions in solids.

>
ce This reaction is as follows:
Ee
2 acid + carbonate —> asalt + water + carbon dioxide
=
2HCl(aq)
tu
ole
U
+ Na,CO,(s) + 2NaCl(aq) + H,O(1) + CO,(g)
a)
<< 2HCI (aq) + ZnCO,(s)} — ZnCl (aq) + HOt CO,(g)
a
wn
>
ae
a.
 eri
Io

EXTENDED
The reaction between an acid and a carbonate can be represented by
the following ionic equation:

END OF EXTENDED

Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, and so they form solutions
that contain anions.
The tests and results used to identify some other common anions are
shown in the table.
“Name of ion Formula __Test i ~ Result |
a aaeiok A wees eee erat
libs Ate Bini. Ss etoeensser
2
Chloride Cl (aq) | Add: White precipitate |
| |1. Dilute nitric acid | (of AgCl) |
| — = 2. Silver nitrate solution | Klan atin |
Sulfate |SO* (aq) |Add: White precipitate |
| /1. Dilute hydrochloric (of BaSO,)
| | _acid |
| 2. Barium chloride
ane habhe anol Colon aah vel | 2) |
Nitrate | NO;(s) _1. Add sodium hydroxide | Red litmus paper |
| | solution and warm goes blue |
| | 2. Add aluminium _(ammonia gas is
| | powder produced)
| 3. Test any gas produced |
| \with damp red litmus | |
| | | paper |
|
A Table 2.8 Tests for anions.

Ww
Ut
Ww
<
1]
=)
i
=
W
=
S)
oh.
o
=
iS)
<f
WU
i-
=
Ll
<] Fig. 2.43 Test for the chloride ion —a QO

white precipitate with silver nitrate solution.

 |
|
nn
EXTENDED
This reaction can be represented by an ionic equation:
.

Ag*(aq) + Cl-(aq) a AgCl(s)

white precipitate

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS —
1. Describe how you would test for an ammonium compound.
Give the result of the test.
2. When a carbonate is reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid, a gas
is given off.
a) What is the name of the gas?
b) What is the test for the gas? Give the result of the test.
3. Sodium hydroxide solution is added to solution X and a reddish-
brown precipitate is formed. What metal ion was present in
solution X?
4. A mixture of dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution is added
to solution Y in a test tube. A white precipitate forms. What
anion is present in solution Y?
5. EXTENDED Metallic ions in solution can be identified using
sodium hydroxide solution.
Sodium hydroxide is useful because it forms coloured precipitates
with many metallic ions although it will form white precipitates
with others.
a) Copy and complete the table with the names of two cations
that form white precipitates and three cations that give
coloured precipitates.

Name of cation Colour of precipitate

>
c
=
2
=
ui
Fs
U
a_i b) When testing for sulfate ions, why is itimportant to add
4
os dilute hydrochloric acid before adding barium chloride?
Ww
>
a
a.
6. A forensic scientist has been provided with a small sample of a
blue compound which is suspected to be copper(II) sulfate, and a
white compound that is suspected to be sodium carbonate.
Devise a series of tests that could be followed to identify the
ions. Indicate in your plan the expected results if the samples are
to be positively identified.

IDENTIFYING GASES
Many chemical reactions produce a gas as one of the products.
Identifying the gas is often a step towards identifying the compound
that produced it in the reaction.
a

1
Gas
titan
ES
Formula Test Result of test
Hydrogen H, Put in a lighted ‘Pop’ or ‘squeaky
splint (a flame) pop heard (flame
usually goes out)
Oxygen OF Put in a glowing Splint relights,
ii splint producing a flame
Carbon dioxide CO, Pass gas through Limewater goes
L limewater cloudy/milky
Chlorine CL Put in a piece of Paper goes red
damp blue litmus | then white
paper or universal | (bleached)
indicator paper
Ammonia NH, Put in a piece of A strong smell is
damp red litmus produced and the
or universal indicator paper
indicator paper goes blue
A Table 2.9 Tests for gases.

REMEMBER
Carbon dioxide: cloudiness with limewater is caused by insoluble
calcium carbonate. If carbon dioxide continues to be passed through,
the cloudiness disappears: CaCO,(s) is changed to soluble calcium
hydrogencarbonate, Ca(HCO,),(aq)

Chlorine: the gas is acidic, but also a bleaching agent

Ammonia: the only basic gas

: WwW
| ine)| |ele

QUESTIONS —
1. What is the name aea gas natiisPaicalinens
2. What is the name of a gas that supports combustion?
GASE
OF
IDEN
AND
IONS
¢ a bleach?
3. What |is the | name of a gas that acts asa
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
anion, carbonate, cation

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to carry out tests for the aqueous cations ammonium, calcium, copper(Il),
iron(ll), iron(II) and zinc using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia.

() How to use a flame test to identify lithium, sodium, potassium and copper‘Il).

() How to carry out tests for the anions:

carbonate by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater
chloride by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver nitrate
nitrate by reduction with aluminium
sulfate by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous barium ions.

() How to carry out tests for gases:

@ ammonia using damp red litmus paper
carbon dioxide using limewater
chlorine using damp litmus paper
hydrogen using a lighted splint
oxygen using a glowing splint.

PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. What ions are likely to be present in the compounds X, Y, and Z?
a) Solution X forms a pale blue precipitate when sodium hydroxide solution is
added. (1 mark)

b) Solution Y forms no precipitate when sodium hydroxide solution is added, but

produces a strong-smelling, alkaline gas when the mixture is heated. (1 mark)

c) Solution Z forms an orange-brown precipitate when sodium hydroxide

solution is added. (1 mark)
2. Copy and complete the table about the identification of gases. (3 marks)

Observations
Chlorine Damp universal
indicator paper
Bubble through White precipitate
limewater or suspension
forms
Hydrogen Burns with a ‘pop’

3. A white powder is labelled ‘lithium carbonate’ What test could you do to prove it
was a carbonate? (2 marks)

4. How would you test a solid to identify the presence of each of the ions
shown below?
a) the sulfate ion, SO?” (3 marks)

b) the nitrate ion, NO; (3 marks)

EXTENDED Write ionic equations for the following reactions:

a) between copper(II) sulfate and sodium hydroxide solution (2 marks)

b) between sodium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid. . (2 marks)

GASE
AND
IONS
OF
IDEN
 ‘This section concentrates on a‘branch’of chemistry known as
inorganic chemistry. As the title suggests, it focuses on the
= chemical elements,ofwhich there are over 100. This may seem
rather a lot, but the good news is that you will not study all 100
elements! However, because the chemical elements are arranged
in a particular pattern, known as the Periodic Table, learning about
one element often provides a very good idea of how other
elements may behave. So, it should be possible to learn about the
chemistry of about 45 elements from studying this section.
The section starts with the Periodic Table. You will learn how the
elements are arranged into groups and periods. You will then study
a group of metals and a group of non-metals, followed by the
transition metals and noble gases. The topic on metals highlights
differences in the reactivity of metals and how this influences the
methods used to extract them from their ores. A topic on air and
water allows a consideration of the environmental impact of living
in an industrial world.

STARTING POINTS
1. What is an element — how would you define the term?
2.What does the proton number of an atom tell you about
its structure?
3.In terms of electronic structures, what is the difference between
a metal and a non-metal? vet
4.You will be learning about the Periodic Table of elements. Look
at the Periodic Table and make a list of the things that you notice
about it. © |
5. You will be learning about the composition of gases in the air.
What is the most abundant gas in the air?
6. Make a list of six to eight metals that you have come across.
Which metal in your list do you think is the most reactive? Which
metal do you think is the least reactive? Explain your choices.

SECTION CONTENTS
a) The Periodic Table d) Transition metals and noble gases
bb) Group | elements e) Metals
c) Group VII elements f) Air and water
 chem istry

r
tte les contain
ti
VAY, jhich ISa Group |
 The Periodic Table
INTRODUCTION
With over 100 different elements in
existence, it’s very important to have some
way of ordering them. The Periodic Table
puts elements with similar properties into
columns, with a gradual change in properties
moving from left to right along the rows.
This topic looks at some of the basic features
of the Periodic Table. Later topics will look
in more detail at particular groups and
- & °
ae arrangements of the elements.
A Fig. 3.1 This ordering of elements was first
published in 1871 by the Russian chemist
Dmitri Mendeleev.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/ Understand that all matter is made up of elements.
Y Know that the proton number of an element gives the number of protons
(and electrons) in an atom of the element.
Y Know that electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus of the atom.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Be able to describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements and
recognise its use in predicting properties of elements.
V Be able to describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period.
Y EXTENDED Be able to describe the relationship between group number, number
of valency electrons and metallic/non-metallic character.

THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

As new elements were discovered in the nineteenth century, chemists
tried to organise them into patterns based on the similarities in their
properties. The English chemist John Newlands was the first to classify
elements according to their properties and produced his classification
system before Mendeleev produced his. When the structure of the
atom was better known, elements were arranged in order of increasing
proton number, and then the patterns started to make more sense.
(Proton number is the number of protons in an atom.)

CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC
HOW ARE ELEMENTS CLASSIFIED IN THE MODERN
PERIODIC TABLE?
More than 110 elements have now been identified, and each has its
own properties and reactions. In the Periodic Table, elements with
similar properties and reactions are shown close together.
The Periodic ‘Table arranges the elements in order of increasing proton
number. They are then arranged in periods and groups.
Groups | Il Wl IV V Vi Vil VillorO
Periods

hydrogen helium
1 2

2 Li Be B F | Ne
lithium | beryllium boron fluorine neon
3 4 5 9 10

3 Na Mg transition metals ClH

sodium {magnesium aluminiu! Groin argon
4 we a ~ a 18

4 Ca SCiat seh Fe Co Ni Ga
calcium | scandium | titanium iron cobalt nickel gallium |germanium| arsenic
20 21 22 23 24 27 28 31 32 33

5 Rb Sr A¢ Zr Nb | Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Cd In Sn Sb Xe
fubidium | strontium } yttrium | zirconium | niobium |molybdenum| technetium] ruthenium | rhodium | palladium cadmium | indium tin antimony xenon
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 48 49 50 $11 54

6 Cstil; Bay ian lahitie | elas saW-o|s-Rew Os =|2 clr Pt | Au | H Tl | Pb | Bi

caesium | barium |lanthanum} hafnium | tantalum age thenium | osmium | iridium } platinum gold mercury | thallium lead bismuth radon
55 56 57 72 73 4 75 76 77 78 79 82 83 86

metal Enon
a | transition metalloid
metal

A Fig. 3.2 The Periodic Table.

Periods
Horizontal rows of elements are arranged in increasing proton number
from left to right. Rows correspond to periods, which are numbered
from | to 7.
Moving across a period, each successive atom of the elements gains
one proton and one electron (in the same outer shell/orbit).
You can see how this works in Fig. 3.3.
Group | Group Il Group III Group IV Group V Group VI Group VII Group VIII or 0
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

A Fig. 3.3 Moving across a period shows the atomic structure of each element.
a
—
Moving across a period such as Period 3 (sodium to argon), the a=
following trends take place: =
QO
e Metals on the left going to non-metals on the right. ece
¢ Group | elements are the most reactive metal group, and as you go Ld
oo

to the right the reactivity of the groups decreases. Group IV iu

<
elements are the least reactive.
ool

¢ Continuing right from Group IV, the reactivity increases until Group VII,
the most reactive of the non-metal groups.
 Groups
Vertical columns contain elements with the proton number increasing
down the column — they are called groups. They are numbered from
[ to VII and 0 (Group 0 is sometimes referred to as Group VIII).
Groups are referred to as ‘families’ of elements because they have
similar characteristics, just like families — the alkali metals (Group 1),
the alkaline earth metals (Group II) and the halogens (Group VI).

REMEMBER
It is important to understand the relationship between group number,
number of outer electrons, and metallic and non-metallic character
across periods.

QUESTIONS
—

1. Find the element calcium in the Periodic Table. Answer these

questions about calcium:
a) What is its proton number?
b) What information does the proton number give about the
structure of a calcium atom?
c) Which group of the Periodic Table is calcium in?
d) Which period of the Periodic Table is calcium in?
e) Is calcium a metal or a non-metal?
2. What is the family name for the Group VII elements?
3. Are the Group VII elements metals or non-metals?

EXTENDED

CHARGES ON IONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

We can explain why elements in the same group have similar
reactions in terms of the electron structures of their atoms. Elements
with the same number of electrons in their outer shells have similar
chemical properties. The relationship between the group number and
the number of electrons in the outer electron shell is shown in
Table 3.1.

Electrons in the outer

electron shell
INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
A Table 3.1 Relationship between group number and number of electrons in outer shell.
The ion formed by an element can be worked out from the element's
position in the Periodic ‘Table. The elements in Group IV and
Group VIII (or 0) generally do not form ions.

Group 1 | VIL) VIL (or 0) |

T = = — — — =

Ion charge 1+ | 2+ | 3+ ‘Typically 35 22 | |— |No ions |

|
ear! | no ions | | |
Metallic or | Metallic Non-metallic, | Non-metallic |
non-metallic metalloid and | (except for some metalloids) |
metallic _
A Table 3.2 Groups and their ions.

REACTIVITIES OF ELEMENTS
Going from the top to the bottom of a group in the Periodic Table,
metals become more reactive, but non-metals become less reactive. As
the metal atom gets bigger, the outer electrons get further away from
the nucleus and can be removed more easily to form positive ions. So,
the larger metal atoms can react more easily with other elements and
form compounds.
The reverse is true for a group of non-metal atoms: the smaller the
atom, the easier it is to accept electrons and form ions. So, the smaller
non-metal atoms react more easily with other elements to form
compounds.
Group VIII or 0 elements, known as the noble gases, are very
unreactive. They already have full outer electron shells (two electrons
for helium and eight electrons for the other noble gases).

FE
fluorine
9

Cl
chlorine
ne.

A Fig. 3.4 The Group VII elements A Fig. 3.5 Group | elements:
(non-metal) become more reactive (metals) become more reactive Liu
J
further down the group.
further up the group. <-
S
a
=cc
uu
a
wi
x
=
 a QUESTIONS
1. How many electrons does an aluminium atom have in its
outer shell?
2. What ion charge does oxygen have?
3. Which is the most reactive element in Group VII?
4. Which is the most reactive element in Group II?

END OF EXTENDED

THE FIRST PERIODIC TABLE

In 1871 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his work on

the Periodic Table. It included the 66 elements that were known at
the time. Interestingly, Mendeleev left gaps in his arrangement when
the next element in his order did not seem to fit. He predicted that
there should be elements in the gaps but that they had yet to be
discovered. One such element is gallium (discovered in 1875), which
Mendeleev predicted would be between aluminium and indium.

By June 2011 there were 118 known elements, but only 91 of these
occurred naturally — the others had been made artificially. Some of
these artificial elements can now be detected in small quantities in
the environment, for example, the element americium (Am, proton
number 95), which is used in smoke detectors.

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
group, period, Periodic Table

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements and its
use to predict properties of elements.

©) How to describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across

a period.

QC EXTENDED How to describe the relationship between group number, number

of valency electrons and metallic/non-metallic character.

TABLE
PERIO
THE
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. Look at the diagram representing the Periodic Table. The letters stand for
elements.

confine |g | a el a i
Sl |b eaelfin oa ee ne
a) Which element is in Group IV? (1 mark)
b) Which element is in the second period? (1 mark)
c) Which element is a noble gas? (1 mark)
d) Which element is a transition metal? (1 mark)
e) Which elements are non-metals? (1 mark)
f) Which element is most likely to be a gas? (1 mark)
. What are the electron arrangements in the following atoms?
a) sodium (proton number = 11) (1 mark)
b) silicon (proton number = 14) (1 mark)
c) fluorine (proton number = 9) (1 mark)
. How does the metallic and non-metallic nature of the elements change
across Period 3 of the Periodic Table? (1 mark)
. Why do elements in the same group have similar chemical properties? (1 mark)
. What ions would you expect the following atoms to form?
a) sodium (1 mark)
b) chlorine. (1 mark)
. In the Periodic Table, what is the trend in reactivity:
a) down a group of metals? (1 mark)
b) down a group of non-metals? (1 mark)
~ Explain why the noble gases in Group 0 are very unreactive. (2 marks)
INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
Group | elements
INTRODUCTION
Metals are positioned on the left-hand side
and in the middle of the Periodic Table.
Therefore the Group I elements are metals,
but rather different from the metals in
everyday use. In fact, when you see how
the Group | metals react with air and water,
it is hard to think how they could be used
outside the laboratory. This very high
reactivity makes them interesting to study.
Our focus is on the first three elements in
the group: lithium, sodium and potassium. A Fig, 3.6 Potassium reacting with water.
Rubidium, caesium and francium are not
available in schools because they are too reactive.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/Y Understand that metals are positioned on the left-hand side and middle of the
Periodic Table.
Y Know that elements in a group have similar electron arrangements.
Y Know that metal oxides are basic and those that dissolve in water form alkalis.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group | as a collection
of relatively soft metals showing trends in melting point, density and reaction
with water.
VY EXTENDED Be able to predict the properties of other elements in Group |, given
data where appropriate.

REACTIVITY OF GROUP | ELEMENTS

All Group I elements react with water to produce an alkaline solution.
This makes them recognisable as a ‘family of elements, often called the
alkali metals.
These very reactive metals all have only one electron in their outer
electron shell. This electron is easily given away when the metal reacts
with non-metals. The more electrons a metal atom has to lose in a
reaction, the more energy is needed to start the reaction. This is why
the Group II elements are less reactive — they have to lose two
electrons when they react.
GROU
ELEM
|
 Lo) eee
EXTENDED
Reactivity increases down the group because as the atom gets bigger
the outer electron is further away from the nucleus and so can be
removed more easily, as the atoms react to form positive ions.
END OF EXTENDED

PROPERTIES OF GROUP I METALS

The properties of Group I metals are as follows:
e Soft to cut.
e Shiny when cut, but quickly tarnish in the air.
¢ Very low melting points compared with most metals — melting points
decrease down the group.
¢ Very low densities compared with most metals. Lithium, sodium and
potassium float on water. Densities increase down the group.
¢ React very easily with air, water and elements such as chlorine. The
alkali metals are so reactive that they are stored in oil to prevent
reaction with air and water. Reactivity increases down the group.

A Fig. 3.8 Group | elements become more

A Fig. 3.7 The freshly cut surface of sodium. reactive as you go down the group.

QUESTIONS
1. Why are the Group | elements known as the alkali metals?
2. How many electrons do the Group | elements atoms have in their
outer shell?
3. The Group | metals are unusual metals. Give one property they
have that is different to most other metals.
4. EXTENDED Predict how the melting point of rubidium will
compare to that of sodium. Explain your answer.
CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC
5. EXTENDED Why is potassium more reactive than lithium?
 Reaction Observations Equations |
Air or oxygen The metals burn easily lithium + oxygen > lithium
and their compounds oxide
colour flames:
lithium — red
4Li(s) + O,(g) > 2Li,O(s)
sodium — orange/ sodium + oxygen > sodium
yellow oxide |
potassium — lilac
4Na(s) + O,(g) > 2Na,O(s)
A white solid oxide is
formed. potassium + oxygen — potassium
oxide

|
4K(s) + O,(g) > 2K O(s)
The metals react lithium + water > lithium
vigorously. hydroxide +
They float on the hydrogen
surface, moving around 2Li(s) + 2H,O(l) — 2LiOH (aq)
rapidly. inne)
With both sodium and
sodium + water > sodium
potassium, the heat of
hydroxide +
the reaction melts the
hydrogen
metal so it forms a
sphere; bubbles of gas 2Na(s) + 2H,O(l) — 2NaOH (aq)
are given off and the tle)
metal ‘disappears’.
potassium + water — potassium
With the more reactive hydroxide +
metals (such as hydrogen
potassium) the
hydrogen gas produced 2Kis) LOU) > 2KOH (aq)
burns. + H,(g)
The resulting solution
is alkaline.

Chlorine The metals react easily, lithium + chlorine 3 lithium

burning in the chlorine chloride
to form a white solid,
2Li(s) + Cl igi 2hiChs)
chlorine the metal chloride.
sodium + chlorine sodium
sodium
chloride
a)
=
2 Na(s) + Cl.(g) > 2NaCl(s) =z
Ww
=Lad
potassium + chlorine — potassium —!
Lu
chloride a
2
ie}
2K(s) + Cl,(g) > 2KC\(s) 4
7]

A Table 3.3 Reactions of Group | metals.

 COMPOUNDS OF THE GROUP | METALS
The compounds of Group | metals are usually
colourless crystals or white solids and always have
ionic bonding. Most of them are soluble in water.
Some examples are sodium chloride (NaCl) and
potassium nitrate (KNO,).
The compounds of the alkali metals are widely used:
e lithium carbonate — as a hardener in glass and
ceramics
lithium hydroxide — removes carbon dioxide in
air-conditioning systems
sodium chloride — table salt
sodium carbonate — a water softener
sodium hydroxide — used in paper manufacture
monosodium glutamate — a flavour enhancer
sodium sulfite — a preservative
potassium nitrate —a fertiliser; also used in
explosives.

A Fig. 3.9 Sodium burning in chlorine.

QUESTIONS
1. Sodium burns in oxygen to make sodium oxide. What colour
would you expect sodium oxide to be?
2. What gas is produced when potassium reacts with water? What
is the name of the solution formed in this reaction?
3. Are the compounds of the Group | metals usually soluble or
insoluble in water?
It is important to understand the structure of the Periodic Table and
how it relates to the properties and reactions of the elements.
These questions link electronic structure with the reactivity trends
of the different elements in the Periodic Table.
4. EXTENDED Predict how the melting point of rubidium will
compare to that of sodium.
5. EXTENDED These questions are based on Group | of the
Periodic Table.
a) What do you understand by a group in the Periodic Table?
b) Name the first three metals of Group I.
c) Why do the elements in this group have similar
chemical properties?
d) Group | elements are very reactive. Suggest reasons for this.

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 FACTS ABOUT THE GROUP | METALS

1. Lithium is found in large quantities (estimated at 230 billion tonnes)

in compounds in seawater.
Sodium is found in many minerals and is the sixth most abundant
element overall in the Earth’s crust (amounting to 2.6% by weight).
Potassium is also found in many minerals and is the seventh most
abundant element in the Earth’s crust (amounting to 1.5% by
weight).
Rubidium was discovered by Bunsen (of Bunsen burner fame) in
1861. It is more abundant than copper, about the same as zinc, and
is found in very small quantities in a large number of minerals.
Because ofthis low concentration in mineral deposits, only 2 to
4 tonnes of rubidium are produced each year worldwide.
Caesium is more abundant than tin, mercury and silver. However,
its very high reactivity makes it very difficult to extract from
mineral deposits.
Francium was discovered as recently as 1939 as a product of the
radioactive decay of an isotope of actinium.

A Fig. 3.10 Lithium is used in all of these batteries.

a)
=
z=
tu
=
a
=
uu

a.
=)
ie)
co
0]
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
alkali metal

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group | as a collection
of relatively soft metals showing trends in melting point, density and
reaction with water.

() EXTENDED How to predict the properties of other elements in Group I,given data
where appropriate.

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. This question is about the Group | elements lithium, sodium and potassium.
a) Which is the most reactive of these elements? (1 mark)
b) Why are the elements stored in oil? (1 mark)
c) Which element is the easiest to cut? (1 mark)
d) Why do the elements tarnish quickly when they are cut? (1 mark)

e) Why does sodium float when added to water? (1 mark)

. Why are the Group | elements known as the ‘alkali metals’? (2 marks)

. Write word equations and balanced equations for the following reactions:

a) lithium and oxygen (3 marks)

b) potassium and water (3 marks)

c) potassium and chlorine. (3 marks)

. EXTENDED This question is about rubidium (symbol Rb), which is a less common
Group | element.

a) What state of matter would you expect rubidium to be in at room

temperature and pressure? (1 mark)

b) When rubidium is added to water:

i) Which gas is formed? (1 mark)

ii) What chemical compound would be formed in solution? What result
would you predict if universal indicator was added to the solution? (2 marks)
c) Would you expect rubidium to be more or less reactive than potassium?
Explain your answer. (2 marks)

5. EXTENDED Explain why potassium is more reactive than sodium. (3 marks)

ELEM
GROU
|
 |Group VII elements
INTRODUCTION
Group VII elements are located on the right-
|
hand side of the Periodic Table with the other
non-metals. They look very different from
Chiorine |
————

= each other, so it may seem strange that they

are in the same group. However, their
chemical properties are very similar, and all of
them are highly reactive. This topic focuses on
chlorine, bromine and iodine. Fluorine is a
oo highly reactive gas and astatine is a radioactive
§ black solid with a very short half-life (so will
A Fig. 3.11 At room temperature and atmospheric exist in only very small quantities).
pressure, chlorine is a pale green gas, bromine a
red-brown liquid and iodine is a black solid.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Understand that non-metals are positioned on the right-hand side of the
Periodic Table.
¥ Know that the elements in a group have similar electron arrangements.
Y Be familiar with the terms oxidation and reduction.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Be able to describe chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII as a collection of
diatomic non-metals showing trends in colour and physical state.
Y EXTENDED Be able to describe the reactions of chlorine, bromine and iodine with
other halide ions.
¥ EXTENDED Be able to predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given
data where appropriate.

REACTIVITY OF GROUP VII ELEMENTS

The Group VII elements are sometimes referred to as the halogen
elements or halogens.
‘Halogen’ means ‘salt-maker’— halogens react with most metals to
make salts.
Halogen atoms have seven electrons in their outermost electron shell,
so they need to gain only one electron to obtain a full outer shell.
This is what makes them very reactive. They react with metals, gaining
an electron and forming a singly charged negative ion.

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
ee
EXTENDED
The reactivity of the elements decreases down the group because as
the atoms gets bigger, an eighth electron will be further from the
attractive force of the nucleus. This makes it harder for the atom to
gain this electron.
END OF EXTENDED

fluorine
9

chlorine
17

At
astatine
85

A Fig. 3.12 Increasing reactivity goes

up Group VII.

PROPERTIES OF GROUP VII ELEMENTS

The properties of the Group VII elements are as follows.
e Fluorine is a pale yellow gas; chlorine is a pale green gas; bromine is
a red—brown liquid; iodine is a black shiny solid.
e All the atoms have seven electrons in their outermost electron shell.
e All exist as diatomic molecules, that is, each molecule contains two
atoms. For example, F,, Gl, Br, I..
e Halogens react with water and react with metals to form salts. lodine
has very low solubility and little reaction with water.

EXTENDED
e They undergo displacement reactions. |

END OF EXTENDED

ELEM
Vii
GROU
 _ Reaction Observations _ Equations
coi. ae The halogens dissolve | chlorine + water > hydrochloric
| | in water and also react acid +
ie
chloric(1)
> g °
| with it, forming solutions |
4
| chlorine gas
| | that behave as bleaches. acid
| water Chlorine solution is | Cl(g) + H,O() > HCl(aq) +
| pale yellow. | HCIO(aq)
| _ Bromine solution is
| | orange.
| lodine solution is
yellow/brown. [
| Metals The halogens form iron + chlorine > iron(II)
| __ salts with all metals. chloride
ee For example, gold leaf | 2fFe(s) 4 3CL,(g) > 2FeCl,(s)
will catch fire in | i aoe ain
Prise henner | Fluorine forms salts called
sodium hentine fluorides
Chlorine forms salts called
With a metal such as | chlorides
iron, brown fumes of | Bromine forms salts called
|}
if iron(II) chloride form. | bromides
}
|
|
|
lodine forms salts called iodides

EXTENDED

Displacement A more reactive chlorine + sodium bromide >

| chlorine gas halogen will displace a | sodium chloride + bromine
—— less reactive halogen Cl(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 3
from a solution of a salt. 2NaCl(aq) + Br,(aq)
Chlorine displaces chlorine + sodium iodide >
bromine from sodium sodium chloride + iodine
potassium bromide solution. The Cl(g) + 2NalI(aq) >
iodide
colourless solution
solution 2NaCl(aq) + I,(aq)
(sodium bromide) turns
iodine
orange when chlorine is
added due to the
formation of bromine.
Chlorine displaces
iodine from sodium
>
cc
iodide solution. The
j=
4 colourless solution
= (sodium iodide) turns
tu
<=
U brown when chlorine is
= added due to the
=<
<=
oO formation of iodine.
in4
1)
= END OF EXTENDED
A Table 3.4 Properties of the Group VII elements.
 ; i -7 7 et
ge. oree rey Dey 4 ates 2
Bes : Mio ec
1. How many electrons do the Group VII element atoms have in
their outer shell?
2. Why are the Group VII elements particularly reactive when
compared with other non-metals?
3. Chlorine exists as diatomic molecules. Explain what this means.
E NDED Astatine is an element in Group VII. Predict whether
you would expect it to be a solid, liquid or gas at room
temperature. Explain your answer.

tie.
Pas
>
ey
ae!

rae :Ps-
ie ny 4
>}
tue
4
-
~~
ey
al
ae
Sarit
Ue -_
id
a
ea
-
7S)
= a
i‘ "a
uae .

asOe
 END OF EXTENDED

USES OF HALOGENS
Halogens and their compounds have a wide range of uses:
¢ fluorides — in toothpaste help prevent tooth decay
¢ fluorine compounds — making plastics such as Teflon (the non-stick
surface on pans)
¢ chlorofluorocarbons — propellants in aerosols and refrigerants (now
being replaced because of their damaging effect on the ozone layer)
¢ chlorine — purifying water
¢ chlorine compounds — household bleaches
¢ hydrochloric acid — widely used in industry
¢ bromine compounds — making pesticides
¢ silver bromide — the light-sensitive film coating on photographic film
¢ iodine solution — an antiseptic.

FLUORINE

Fluorine is the most reactive non-metal in the Periodic Table. It reacts

with most other elements except helium, neon and argon. These
reactions are often sudden or explosive. Even radon, a very unreactive
noble gas, burns with a bright flame in a jet of fluorine gas. All metals
react with fluorine to form fluorides.The reactions offluorine with
Group | metals are explosive.

Early scientists tried to make fluorine from hydrofluoric acid (HF(aq)) but
this proved to be highly dangerous, killing or blinding several scientists
who attempted it. They became known as the‘fluorine martyrs’. Today
CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC
 fluorine is manufactured by the electrolysis of the mineral fluorite,
which is calcium fluoride.

Fluorine is not an element to play with. You will certainly not see it in
your laboratory!

QUESTIONS
I. Why is chlorine used in the treatment of drinking water in
many countries?
2. Which halogen element has medical uses as an antiseptic?
3. EXTENDED Fluorine is used to make a plastic material with the
common name of ‘Teflon’. What is Teflon used for?
You should be familiar with the elements of Group VII, the halogens.
These are coloured non-metallic elements of varying reactivity.
Although they are potentially harmful, their properties make them
very useful. Use your knowledge of atomic structure, bonding and
reaction types to answer the questions below.
4. EXTENDED Chlorine is a pale green gas obtained by the
electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
Chlorine can be used to kill bacteria and is used in the
manufacture of bleach.
a) The electronic structure of a chlorine atom is 2,8,7. Draw
simple diagrams to show the arrangement of the outer
electrons in a diatomic molecule of Cl, and a chloride ion, Cr.
b) Chlorine will displace bromine from a solution of potassium
bromide to form bromine and potassium chloride. Explain
why this reaction takes place and describe what you would
observe if chlorine water was added to a solution of
potassium bromide in a test tube.
5. EXTENDED Fluorine is a pale yellow gas and is the most reactive
of the chemical elements. It is so reactive that glass, metals and
even water burn with a bright flame in a jet of fluorine gas.
Fluorides, however, are often added to toothpaste and,
controversially, to some water supplies to prevent dental decay.
a) Give a reason why fluorine is so reactive.
b) Potassium fluoride is a compound that may be found in
toothpaste. Explain why fluorine cannot be displaced from
this compound using either chlorine or iodine.

ELEM
VII
GROU

uw
wT
o
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
displacement reaction, halogens

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to describe chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group Vil as a collection of
diatomic non-metals showing trends in colour and density.

() EXTENDED How to describe the reactions of chlorine, bromine and iodine with
other halide ions.

©) EXTENDED How to predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given
data, where appropriate.

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.”

1. This question is about the Group VII elements: chlorine, bromine and iodine.

a) Which is the most reactive of these elements? (1 mark)

b) Which of the elements exists as a liquid at room temperature
and pressure? (1 mark)

c) Which of the elements exists as a solid at room temperature

and pressure? (1 mark)

d) What is the appearance of bromine? (1 mark)

2. Explain the following statements:
a) The Group VII elements are the most reactive non-metals. (2 marks)

b) The most reactive halogen is at the top of its group. (2 marks)

3. Write word and balanced equations for the following reactions:

a) sodium and chlorine (3 marks)

b) magnesium and bromine (3 marks)

c) hydrogen and fluorine. (3 marks)
4. EXTENDED Aqueous bromine reacts with sodium iodide solution.

a) What type of chemical reaction is this? (1 mark)

b) Write a balanced equation for the reaction. (2 marks)

ELEM
Vil
GROU
 Transition metals
and noble gases
INTRODUCTION
There are two other important families
of elements. The first are the transition
elements, a ‘block’ of metals — including
more ‘everyday metals than Group I.
The second is the noble gases (Group
VII or 0), a group of elements of interest
because of their uses rather than their
chemical reactions.
A Fig. 3.13 This incandescent light bulb
contains unreactive argon instead of air.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Understand that metals are positioned on the left side and the middle of the
Periodic Table.
/ Understand that non-metals are positioned on the right side of the Periodic Table.
/ Know that elements in a group have similar electron arrangements.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Be able to describe the transition elements as a collection of metals with high
densities, high melting points and forming coloured compounds.
Y Know that transition elements and their compounds are often used as catalysts.
Y Be able to describe the noble gases as being unreactive, monatomic gases and
explain this in terms of electronic structure.
VY Be able to describe the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert atmosphere,
such as argon in lamps and helium in balloons.

TRANSITION ELEMENTS
The transition metals are grouped in the centre of the Periodic Table
and include iron, copper, zinc and chromium.
All the transition metals have more than one electron in their outer
electron shell. They are much less reactive than Group | and Group II
metals and so are more ‘everyday’ metals. They have much higher
melting points and densities. They react much more slowly with water
and with oxygen.
They are widely used as construction metals (particularly iron
through steel).
One of the typical properties of transition metals and their compounds
is their ability to act as catalysts and speed up the rate of a chemical
CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC
reaction by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation
energy, for example, vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact process and iron
in the Haber process.

Property Group I metal Transition metal |

Melting point Sie Tow Penta rc High - wee ble
mevensity : | OWE | High me ;
Colour of compounds | White ; _ Mainly coloured
Reactions with water/air Vigorous Slow or no reaction
Reactions with an acid Violent (dangerous) | Slow
or no reaction
A Table 3.5 Properties of the Group | metals and the transition metals.

The compounds of the transition metals are usually coloured. Copper

compounds are usually blue or green; iron compounds tend to be either
green or brown. When sodium hydroxide solution is added to a solution
of a transition metal compound, a precipitate of the metal hydroxide
is formed. The colour of the precipitate helps to identify the metal.
For example:

copper(II) sulfate + sodium hydroxide -—> copper(II) hydroxide + sodium sulfate

CuSO, (aq) + 2Na0H(aq) — Cu(OH),(s) + Na,SO,(aq)

eeeee ee ee
EXTENDED
This can be written as an ionic equation: |

Cu**(aq) + 20H (aq) — Cu(OH),(s)

a
END OF EXTENDED

Colour of metal hydroxide Likely metal present

Blue | Copper(ID) Cu*
w
L Green Nickel(II) Ni?* Ld
wn
<
Green turning to brown Iron(II) Fe** i)
My

Orange/brown Iron(II1) Fe** =

co
2)
=
A Table 3.6 Transition metal hydroxides and their colours. a
za
<=
wi
qbe
QUESTIONS hd
>

1. Would you expect a reaction to happen between copper and water?

2
Q
=
2. a) Write a fully balanced equation for the reaction between uw
=
iron(II) sulfate solution and sodium hydroxide solution.
x
oc
=

b) What will be the colour of the precipitate formed?

 THE NOBLE GASES
This is actually a group of very unreactive non-metals. They used to be
called the inert gases as it was thought that they didn’t react with
anything. But scientists later managed to produce fluorine compounds
of some of the noble gases. As far as your school laboratory work is
concerned, however, they are completely unreactive.

Name Symbol
Helium Sisk:
| Neon Ne
Argon | Ar |
Krypton Kr i
Xenon Xe |
Radon _ Rn
A Table 3.7 The noble gases.

The unreactivity of the noble gases can be explained in terms of their

electronic structures. The atoms all have complete outer electron shells
or eight electrons in their outer shell. They don’t need to lose electrons
(as metals do), or gain electrons (as most non-metals do).

Similarities of the noble gases

¢ Full outer electron shells
e Very unreactive
© Gases
e Exist as single atoms — they are monatomic (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)

How are the noble gases used?

¢ Helium — in balloons
¢ Neon — in red tube lights
¢ Argon — in lamps and light bulbs

>
cc
=
2
=
Lt

U
=
=
<
Oo
cc
oO
=
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
catalyst, monatomic, noble gas, transition metal

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O) How to describe the transition elements as a collection of metals with high
densities, high melting points and forming coloured compounds.

() That transition elements and their compounds are often used as catalysts.

O) How to describe the noble gases as being unreactive, monatomic gases and
explain this in terms of electronic structure.

() How to describe the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert atmosphere,
such as argon in lamps and helium in balloons.

GASE
NOBL
AND
META
TRAN
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. This question is about the transition metals.

a) Give two differences in the physical properties of the transition metals

compared with the alkali metals. (2 marks)

b) Transition metals are used as catalysts. What is a catalyst? (1 mark)

c) Suggest why the alkali metals are more reactive than the
transition metals. (2 marks)

2. Look at the table of observations.

Compound | Colour of Effect of adding sodium hydroxide solution

tested compound | toa solution of the compound
White No change

Pee Blue Blue precipitate formed

White precipitate formed

a) Which of the compounds, A, B or C, contains a transition metal?

Explain your answer. (1 mark)
b) Which transition metal do you think it is? (1 mark)
c) Compound B is a metal sulfate. Write a balanced equation for the
reaction between a solution of this transition metal compound and
sodium hydroxide solution. (2 marks)
3. Explain why the noble gases are so unreactive. (2 marks)
4. The noble gases are monatomic. What does this mean? (1 mark)
5. Although the noble gases are generally very unreactive, reactions do occur
with very reactive elements such as fluorine. Which of the noble gases are
more likely to react — helium at the top of the group or xenon near the bottom
of the group? (1 mark)

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
Metals
INTRODUCTION
Metals are very important in our everyday
lives and many have very similar physical
properties. Some metals are highly reactive,
such as the Group | metals on the left-hand
side of the Periodic Table. Other metals are
much less reactive, such as the transition
metals in the middle of the Periodic Table.
Knowing the order of the reactivity of metals
can help chemists make very accurate
predictions about how the metals will react
with different substances and also what A Fig. 3.14 What sort of properties should the
metals used in the construction of this
individual metals can be used for. neieontep hae’

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Know where metals are found in the Periodic Table.
Y Know that metals have different reactivities.
¥ Know some of the uses of everyday metals.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
/ Be able to describe the general physical properties of metals as solids with high
melting and boiling points, malleable and good conductors of heat and electricity.
/ Be able to describe an alloy, such as brass, as a mixture of a metal with
other elements.
/ Be able to explain, in terms of their properties, why metals are often used in the
form of alloys.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure.
Y Know the order of reactivity of metals — potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
aluminium, (carbon), zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper — by reference to the
reactions, if any, of the metals with water or steam, or dilute hydrochloric acid.
Y Know which metal oxides can be reduced by carbon.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of a
metal to form its positive ion illustrated by its reaction, if any, with the aqueous ions
or the oxides of other listed metals.
Y Be able to deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results.
/ Be able to describe the use of carbon in the extraction of copper from copper oxide.
Y Know that aluminium is extracted from the ore bauxite by electrolysis.
/ Be able to describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence realise the need to
recycle metals.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe the essential reactions in the extraction of iron
from hematite.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe the ease of obtaining metals from their ores by META
relating the metals to their positions in the reactivity series.
 PROPERTIES OF METALS
Most metals have similar physical properties.
Good conductors of electricity High melting points Good conductors of heat

oe
Sw

Ve)
Typical properties of metals

Shiny a A INE ia Sonorous

ring when struck
Malleable Ductile
can be hammered can be drawn
Z into shape "@ into a wire

\) ye y SS

Exceptions:
¢ The alkali metals have low melting points and are not sonorous.
¢ Mercury has a low melting point.

A Fig. 3.15 Properties of metals.

Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or more other elements.
Common examples are:
Alloy Constituents
Brass Copper (70%), zine (30%)
Bronze Copper (90%), tin (10%)
Steel [ron and small amounts of
carbon
Solder | Tin (50%), lead (50%)
A Table 3.8 Common alloys.

The reason for producing alloys is to ‘improve’ the properties of a metal.

Table 3.9 shows some examples.

Alloy Property improved

Steel _ _Hardness/tensile strength
Bronze Hardness
Solder Lower melting point
—
cc
= Cupronickel Cheaper than silver (used for coins)
=
w
_ Stainless steel | Resistance to corrosion |
es
U Brass Easier to shape and stamp into shape
=
Pa A Table 3.9 Alloys and their properties.
<
1Y)
c
e)
Zz
A Fig. 3.16 Alloys are used to make coins.

EXTENDED

The structure of alloys

The structure of pure metallic elements is usually shown as
in Pre 3 sle/e

A Fig. 3.17 Particles in a solid.

This is a simplified picture but, surprisingly, such a structure is very

weak. If there is the slightest difference between the planes of atoms,
the metal will break at that point.

A Fig. 3.18 The gaps show a weak point of a metal.

The more irregular (jumbled-up) the metal atoms are, the stronger the
metal is. This is why alloy structures are stronger: because of the
elements added. META
 foreign atoms

foreign atoms

A Fig. 3.20 Even smaller atoms make the metal stronger.

Steel that is heated to red heat and then plunged into cold water is made
harder by the process of ‘jumbling up’ the metal atoms. Further heat
treatment is used to increase the strength and toughness of the alloy.
END OF EXTENDED

FACTS ABOUT METALS

1. The use of metals can be traced back to about 7000

years ago. An archaeological site in Serbia has
evidence of the extraction of copper about that
time, and gold artefacts dating to about 1000 years
later have been found at a burial site at Varna in
Bulgaria. In the period up to 2700 years ago, seven
metals were known and used. These so-called
‘metals of antiquity’ were gold, copper, silver, lead,
tin, iron and mercury. Of these gold, silver, copper,
iron and mercury were found in their native state —
that is, as pure elements. (Iron as a pure metal is
found only in meteors.)
2. Mercury is the only liquid metal at normal room
temperature and pressure. A Fig. 3.21 The Burj Khalifa building
in Dubai.
CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC
 3. The most reactive metals are found in Group | ofthe Periodic Table
and include sodium and potassium.
4. Many of the metals used in construction are found in the middle of
the Periodic Table and are called the transition metals.
5. Most of the metallic structures around us are not made from pure
metals but from alloys. Alloys are mixtures of metals or occasionally
mixtures of metals and non-metals: for example, steel is an alloy of
iron and carbon. 39000 tonnes of steel were used in building the
Burj Khalifa building in Dubai (the world’s tallest skyscraper at
828 metres). Alloys allow the properties of a metal to be modified
for a particular purpose. For instance, aluminium is useful in building
aircraft because it has a low density, but alloying it with other metals
increases its strength. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first
alloy invented.
6. Some elements have the properties of both metals and non-metals.
They are called metalloids. One of the most common metalloids
is silicon.

QUESTIONS
1. Metals are usually malleable. What does this mean?
2. What is an alloy?
3. Which alloy is used to make many coins?
4. Explain why an alloy, of aluminium is likely to be stronger than
pure aluminium.

SCIENCE
ira BIOLOGY - PLANT NUTRITION

- Metal ions are important for the healthy growth of plants, for
example, magnesium ions for making chlorophyll.

PHYSICS - ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

- The metallic bonding structure allows a number ofelectrons to be
‘free’ of particular atoms — metals are good conductors.
Having electrons to conduct electricity is the basis of electric
circuits, where the property of electric charge allows us to give a
large number ofelectrons a general ‘drift’ in one direction — leading
to an overall energy transfer.
Metals are also good thermal conductors since the electrons are
also able to transfer thermal energy — in addition to the energy META
transferred by the ions in the structure which can transfer energy
by vibration as in insulators.
 REACTIVITY SERIES
The Periodic Table is a way of ordering the chemical elements that
highlights their similar and their different properties. The reactivity
series is another way of classifying elements, this time in order of their
reactivity to help explain or predict their reactions. This has many
practical applications, such as being able to predict how metals can be
extracted from their ores and how the negative effects of the chemical
process of rusting can be reduced.
The more reactive metals react with oxygen to form oxides:

calcium + oxygen — calcium oxide

2Ca(s) + O,(g) — 2Ca0(s)

Less reactive metals, such as gold, do not react with oxygen.

most reactive
potassium

sodium

calcium

magnesium
A Fig. 3.22 Sodium, magnesium, gold — these are all metals, but they have very
different reactivities. aluminum

Elements can be arranged in order of their reactivity. The more ates

reactive a metal is, the easier it is to form compounds and the sine
harder it is to break those compounds down. We can predict how
metals might react by looking at the reactivity series (Fig. 3.23). Fon
The most reactive metals react with water at room temperature. lead
: For example, potassium, sodium and lithium in Group I and
fe calcium in Group II react rapidly with water: hy,
w
5 copper
uu A
= sodium + water — sodium hydroxide + hydrogen bii3 ’
U
= 2Na(spe= =e 2H0(/) — 2NaOH(aq) + H,(g)
<x gold
0
least reactive
= A Fig. 3.23 The reactivity series
shows elements, mainly metals, in
order of decreasing reactivity.
The less reactive metals such as magnesium and iron react with steam:

magnesium + steam -—> magnesiumoxide + hydrogen

Mq(s) + H,0(g) — MygO(s) + H,(g)

Some of the mid-reactivity series metals produce hydrogen when

they react with dilute acids. So, for example, magnesium, aluminium,
zine and iron all release hydrogen when they react with dilute
hydrochloric acid:

zinc + hydrochloricacid —> zincchloride + hydrogen

Zn(s)_ + 2HCI(aq) —> ZnCl,(aq) et. (0)

The metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series do not react to form
hydrogen with water or dilute acids.
Another use of the reactivity series is to predict how metals can be
extracted from their ores. The elements below carbon in the reactivity
series can be obtained by heating their oxides with carbon:

zinc oxide + carbon => zinc + carbon dioxide

2Zn0(s) + C(s) — 2Zn(s) + CO,(g)

copper(II) oxide + carbon — copper + _ carbon dioxide

2Cu0(s) + Cs) S30) FONG e8y CONG)

This type of reaction is called a displacement reaction. A more

reactive element, such as carbon, ‘pushes’ (or displaces) a less reactive
metal, such as copper, out of its compound. In this reaction the
copper(II) oxide has lost oxygen and been reduced. The carbon has
gained oxygen and been oxidised.

EXTENDED
The position of a metal in the reactivity series depends on how easily it
forms ions. More reactive metals will form ions more readily than less
reactive metals.
Any element higher up the reactivity series can displace an element
lower down the series.
For example, magnesium is higher up the reactivity series than copper.
So, if magnesium powder is heated with copper(II) oxide, then copper
and magnesium oxide are produced:
META
 ES
magnesium + copper(II) oxide — magnesium oxide + copper

Mg(s) + CuO(s) — MgO(s) + Cu(s)

This reaction is an example of a redox reaction. The magnesium has been

oxidised to magnesium oxide and the copper(II) oxide has been reduced
to copper. Because the magnesium is responsible for the reduction of the
copper(II) oxide, it is acting as a reducing agent. Similarly, the copper(II)
oxide is responsible for the oxidation of the magnesium, so it is acting as
an oxidising agent. In a redox reaction, the reducing agent is always
oxidised and the oxidising agent is always reduced.
What will happen if copper is heated with magnesium oxide? Nothing
happens, because copper is lower in the reactivity series than magnesium.

Using displacement reactions to establish

a reactivity series
Displacement reactions of metals and their compounds in aqueous
solution can be used to work out the order in the reactivity series.
In the same way that a more reactive element can push a less reactive
element out of a compound, a more reactive metal ion in aqueous
solution can displace a less reactive one.
For example, if you add zinc to copper(II) sulfate solution, the zinc
displaces the copper because zinc is more reactive than copper. When
the experiment is carried out, the blue colour of the copper(II) ion will
fade as copper is produced and zinc ions are made:

zinc + copper(ll) sulfate solution — inc sulfate solution + copper

Zn(s) + Cu?*(aq)
+ $O%(aq) — Zn**(aq)+SO7(aq) + Cu(s)

To build up a whole reactivity series, a set of reactions can be tried to

see if metals can displace other metal ions. By following the general
rule that a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal it is
possible to establish the reactivity series.
For example, you may have seen the reaction of copper wire with silver
nitrate solution. As the reaction proceeds, a shiny grey precipitate
appears (this is silver) and the solution begins to turn blue as Cu(II)
ions are produced from the copper.

copper +. silvernitrate — copper(ll) nitrate + silver

Cu(s) + 2AgNO,(aq) -—> Cu(NO,).(aq) + 2Ag(s)

This shows that silver can be displaced by copper, and so silver is below
copper in the reactivity series.
INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY

END OF EXTENDED
 QUESTIONS
1. Will copper react with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce
hydrogen? Explain your answer.
2. EXTENDED Write a balanced equation for the reaction of
potassium with water.
3. Can carbon displace magnesium from magnesium oxide? Explain
your answer.
4. EXTENDED Write the balanced equation for the reaction
between magnesium and lead(II) oxide.

Developing investigative skills te

: _Astudent was asked to carry out some possible displacement reactions.
| She was given samples of four metals A, B, Cand D and a solution of each of
their metal nitrates. She setPup a series ostest
as reactions a
assun ced
inthe fone

Metal A nitrate, A(NO,), (aq)|

_ Metal B nitrate, B(NO,), (aq)
Metal C nitrate, C(NO, , (aq) es

Metal D nitrate, D(NO,), (aq)

She decided that she would need 12 test tubes. In each test tube she put alcm
depth of one of the solutions and then added a small piece of one of the metals.
She left the tubes for 10 minutes and then examined the solution and the piece
_ of metal to see if any reaction was evident. She then recorded a‘yes'ifa_
displacement reaction had taken place and a‘no ‘where no reaction was evident.
She didn't have time to record her results for the metal D nitrate solution (tubes ©
10, Hand 12).

: Using and organising techniques, apparatus and materials

@ Why didn’t the student set up the tubes represented by the white eangies
@ Even though the student didn’t record her results for metal D nitrate solution,
explain why she would still be able to put the metals in order of reactivity.

Interpreting observations and data

© Use the results to put the four metals |in er ofay Start with themost —
reactive metal.
4] Complete the results you would oe for the three reactions 10, 11 and 12.
@ Write a balanced equation for the displacement reaction between metal B
and metal C nitrate solution. (Use the symbols B and C for the two metals).
@ Metal D nitrate solution was blue and metal D was a shiny orange colour. META

Suggest a name for metal D.

361
 EXTRACTION OF METALS
Metals are found in the form of ores containing minerals mixed with
unwanted rock. In almost all cases, the mineral is a compound of the
metal, not the pure metal. One exception is gold, which can exist
naturally in a pure state.
Extracting a metal from its ore usually involves two steps:
1. The mineral is physically separated from unwanted rock.
2. The mineral is broken down chemically to obtain the metal.

Reactivity of metals
The chemical method chosen to break down a mineral depends on
the reactivity of the metal. The more reactive a metal is, the harder it is to
break down its compounds. The more reactive metals are obtained from
their minerals by the process of electrolysis. For example, aluminium is
obtained from its ore, bauxite, by electrolysis.
The less reactive metals can be obtained by heating their oxides with
carbon. This method will only work for metals below carbon in the
reactivity series. It involves the reduction of a metal oxide to the metal.

| | ee
| Potassium | |
Serer oc | The most reactive metals are obtained using |
| Sodium ' |
SS $$ | | electrolysis
| Calcium
| Magnesium |
_ Aluminium
(Carbon) |
Wd5 | | ‘Sj aaa 5 i
Peete These metals are below carbon in the
[ron reactivity series and so can be obtained by
Tin heating their oxides with carbon
Lead
Copper
se ey The least reactive metals are found as pure
Gald elements
A Table 3.10 Methods for extracting different metals.

EXTENDED

Extracting iron
Iron is produced on a very large scale by reduction
using carbon. The reaction takes place in a huge
furnace called a blast furnace.
Three important raw materials are put in the top of the
furnace: iron ore (iron(III) oxide), coke (the source of
carbon
INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY for the reduction) and limestone, to remove the
impurities as slag. Iron ore is also known as hematite.
A Fig. 3.24 Coke (nearly pure carbon).
A Fig. 3.25 Iron ore (hematite).

A Fig. 3.27 Molten iron. A Fig. 3.28 Slag.

Crushed iron ore, coke and limestone are fed into

crushed iron ore the top of the blast furnace
coke
limestone Hot air is blasted up the furnace from
ry hot gas used the bottom
to heat
incoming air Oxygen from the air reacts with coke to
form carbon dioxide:
C(s) + O2(g)
—» COz(g)
Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke to
form carbon monoxide:
COz(g) + C(s)
— 2CO(g)
Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent.
Iron(Ill) oxide is reduced to iron:
;—reduction = loss of oxygen—
Fe,Oa(s) + 3CO(g) > 2Fe(|) + 3CO,(g)
Dense molten iron runs to the bottom of the
furnace and is run off. There are many
impurities in iron ore. The limestone helps to
remove these as shown in processes 7 and 8.

Limestone is broken down by heat to

calcium oxide:
CaCO3(s) —> CaO(s) + COo(g)

hot air ve hot air eo) Calcium oxide reacts with impurities like
blast blast sand (silicon dioxide) to form a liquid
called ‘slag’:
molten wn
CaO(s) + SiOo(s)— CaSiO3(() =
slag <
impurity slag -
run off molten iron The liquid slag runs to the bottom of the uu
run off furnace and is tapped off. =

A Fig. 3.29 How iron is extracted in a blast furnace.

 The overall reaction is:

iron(II) oxide + carbon —> iron + carbon dioxide

2Fe,0,(s) + 3C(s) —- 4Fe(s) + 3CO, (g)

The reduction happens in three stages.

Stage | — The coke (carbon) reacts with oxygen ‘blasted’ into the furnace:

carbon + oxygen — carbon dioxide

C(s) + 0,(g) — CO,(g)

Stage 2 —The carbon dioxide is reduced by unreacted coke to form

carbon monoxide:

carbon dioxide + carbon -— carbon monoxide

CO,(g) + C(s) — 2C0(g)

Stage 3 — The iron(II) oxide is reduced by the carbon monoxide to iron:

iron(Ill) oxide + carbon monoxide — _ iron + carbon dioxide

Fe,0,(s) + 3CO(g) Sys, ioeNG)

REMEMBER
In a blast furnace the iron(II) oxide is reduced to iron by carbon
monoxide, formed when the carbon reacts with the air blasted into the
furnace. In the reduction of iron(III) oxide, the carbon monoxide is
oxidised to carbon dioxide.

QUESTIONS
1. What solid raw materials are used in the blast furnace?

2. The iron ore used in the blast furnace is usually hematite. What
is the name of the main compound present in the ore?
3. What gases will escape from the top of the blast furnace?
4. Write a balanced equation to show the reduction of iron(III)
oxide by carbon.
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RECYCLING
Extracting metals from their ores is an expensive process and so recycling
metal objects can be economically worthwhile as well as environmentally
more efficient. Recycling of metals essentially involves melting the metal
and then using the molten metal to form a new object. Steel and
aluminium are metals which are often recycled. One potential problem is
separating the different types of metal. For example, a motor car as well as
being made of steel may include some parts made of aluminium (as well as
a range of other materials). Separating the two different metals needs to be
done before they can be recycled. In some cases recycling could prove more
expensive than extracting the metal form its ore. However, the supplies of
metal ores are limited and will eventually be used up. Recycling metals
such as steel and aluminium will therefore become increasingly essential.

SCIENCE

mie THE EXTRACTION OF METALS

The reactivity of a metal determines how it can be extracted from
ores from the Earth's crust. It also explains why some metals have
been used for thousands of years while others have only been used
much more recently.

The most unreactive metals can be found

in their ‘native’ state, which is as the pure
metal and not combined with other
elements. Examples of such metals
include gold and silver - metals that
have been used for thousands of years. It
is estimated that gold was first
discovered in about 3000sceE.

Metals below carbon in the reactivity

series can be extracted by heating their A Fig. 3.30 This gold shoulder cape from North Wales is
ores with carbon. Examples include lead nearly 4000 years old and still in good condition.
and iron. It is possible that lead was
discovered by accident when the silvery element was seen in the
ashes of a wood fire that had been made above a deposit of lead ore.
It is estimated that lead was first discovered in about 2000scE.

The most reactive metals, all those above carbon in the reactivity series,
have to be extracted from their minerals by electrolysis.
This process is
a much more recent development and explains why these metals were
not used until relatively recently. Aluminium was first extracted in 1825.

7)
a
=
us
=
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
alloy, displacement reaction, mineral, ore, oxidation, reactivity series, reduction

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How to describe the general physical properties of metals as solids with
high melting and boiling points, malleable and good conductors of heat
and electricity.

C) How to explain, in terms of their properties, why metals are often used in the
form of alloys.

©) How to identify representations of an alloy from a diagram of its structure.

©) About the order of reactivity of metals — potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,

zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper — by reference to the reactions, if any, of the
metals with water or steam, or dilute hydrochloric acid.

O) About which metal oxides can be reduced by carbon.

of ametal to form its positive ion, illustrated by its reaction, if any, with the
aqueous ions or the oxides ofthe other listed metals.

©) How to deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results.

© EXTENDED How to describe the ease of obtaining metals from their ores by
relating the metals to their positions in the reactivity series.

() EXTENDED How to describe the essential reactions in the extraction of iron

from hematite.

CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. Arrange the following metals in order of reactivity, starting with the most reactive:
calcium, copper, magnesium, sodium, zinc. (2 marks)

2. This question is about four metals represented by the letters Q, X, Y and Z. A series
of displacement reactions was carried out and the results are shown below:

Reaction 1: Q oxide + Y > Y oxide + Q

Reaction 2: X oxide + Z — Z oxide + X
Reaction 3: Q oxide + Z— no change

a) Arrange the metals in order of reactivity starting with the most reactive.(2 marks)
b) In reaction 1:
i) Which substance has been oxidised? (1 mark)

ii) Which substance has been reduced? (1 mark)

iii) Which substance is the oxidising agent? (1 mark)
iv) Which substance is the reducing agent? (1 mark)

3. The least reactive metals, such as gold and silver, are found in their native state.
What do you understand by this? (1 mark)
4. EXTENDED Iron is extracted from iron ore (iron(IIl) oxide) in a blast furnace by
heating with coke (carbon).
a) Write a balanced equation, including state symbols, for the overall reaction.
(2 marks)

b) Is the iron(Ill) oxide oxidised or reduced in this reaction? Explain

your answer. (1 mark)

c) Why is limestone also added to the blast furnace? (2 marks)

METAL
 End of topic questions continued
5. EXTENDED Zinc can be extracted from zinc oxide by heating with carbon.
a) Write the balanced equation, including state symbols, for this reaction.
(2 marks)

b) Zinc could also be extracted by the electrolysis of molten zinc oxide.

Suggest why heating with carbon is the preferred method of
extraction. (2 marks)

6. EXTENDED Copper(Il) sulfate solution reacts with zinc as shown below:

CuSO, (aq) + Zn(s) — ZnSO, (aq) + Cu(s)

a) What type of chemical reaction is this? (1 mark)

b) What can be deduced about the relative reactivities of copper and zinc? (1 mark)

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
Air and water
INTRODUCTION
Clean air is precious. It provides the oxygen
that all living things need to survive, and the
carbon dioxide that plants need when they
photosynthesise. Nitrogen in the air is also
very important for healthy plant growth, but
not all plants can make use of nitrogen in
this form.
Unfortunately, not all the air we breathe is
clean. It may contain a number of pollutants
that can be harmful to living things and the
environment. It is important to understand A Fig. 3.31 The smog over the Forbidden City in
Beijing Is so thick that it obscures the view from
how these pollutants are produced and how Feng Shui Hill.

they can be prevented from contaminating

the air.
Water vapour is also present in the air. With oxygen, this causes
rusting, a process that can be very destructive.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Know that oxygen is present in the air and forms oxides when substances burn in it.
Y Know that oxides of non-metals are acidic.
Y Know that acids react with carbonates to make salts.
VY Know that salts can be anhydrous or hydrated.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
V Be able to describe chemical tests for identifying the presence of water using
cobalt(Il) chloride and copper(I!) sulfate.
V Be able to describe in outline the treatment of the water supply in terms of filtration
and chlorination.
VY Know that clean air is approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen with the
remainder made up of a mixture of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide.
Y Know that the common pollutants in the air are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen.
/ Know the adverse effects of the common pollutants on buildings and health.
VY Be able to state the conditions required for the rusting of iron (presence of oxygen
a
-and water). 4
Y Be able to describe methods of rust protection including using paint and other <
=
coatings to exclude oxygen. a
Y Know that carbon dioxide is formed from the complete combustion of carbon- =
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containing substances, as a product of respiration, as a product of the reaction =
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between an acid and a carbonate and as a product of the thermal decomposition of
calcium carbonate.
 / Know that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
/ EXTENDED Be able to explain that increased concentrations of greenhouse gases
cause an enhanced greenhouse effect, which may contribute to climate change.
VY Be able to describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the complete combustion
of carbon-containing substances, respiration, the reactions between an acid and a
carbonate, and the thermal decomposition of a carbonate.

A CHEMICAL TEST FOR WATER

The test for water is to add it to anhydrous copper(II) sulfate solid. If
the liquid contains water, the powder will turn from white to blue as
hydrated copper(II) sulfate forms.

A Fig. 3.32 Chemical test for water.

The equation for the reaction is:

anhydrous copper(I!) sulfate + water -—> hydrated copper(I!) sulfate

CuSO,(s) + 5H,O(!) > CuSO,.5H,O(s)

The presence of water can also be detected using anhydrous cobalt(II)

chloride. The pink anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride turns to blue hydrated
> cobalt(II) chloride. A convenient way of performing the test is to use
ce

a cobalt(II) chloride paper:

e—
O-
U anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride + water —> hydrated cobalt(I!) chloride
a CoCl,(s) + 6H,O(l) > CoCl,.6H,O(s)
fe
fe)
z Neither of these tests shows the water is pure — only that the liquid has
water In it.
THE WATER CYCLE
The recirculation of water that takes place all over the Earth is called
the water cycle.
pee, water droplets in
. =~ \__ clouds become large
g L- \. enough to fall as rain
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Hipp peppy fl yl
li} H THAT Abecarina =alots
20 water vapour
condenses
to form clouds

treams —
flow back to the sea

A Fig. 3.33 The water cycle.

The pattern of rainfall over the planet determines where there are
deserts, rainforests and areas of land that can or cannot be used for
growing plants.
Some scientists think that global warming is responsible for climate
changes that are affecting both where rain falls and how much there is
of it. This could be causing both increased risks of flooding in some
regions and droughts in others.
Water is essential for life on Earth, and the demand for drinking water
is increasing as the world’s population grows. Two-thirds of the water is
used in homes for washing, cleaning, cooking and in toilets. The rest is
used by industry. Most industrial processes use water either as a raw
material or for cooling. For example, it takes 200000 litres of water to
make 1 tonne of steel.
Water stored in reservoirs must be purified to produce drinkable
tap water.

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elles et 2 Be
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Fig. 3.34 Water pipes discharging in Thailand.

 Water from Water is Water is Chlorine is Water is
reservoirs filtered filtered passed supplied to
goes toa through through through to homes and
water coarse beds of kill industry.
treatment gravel to fine gravel bacteria.
plant. remove and sand
larger to remove
pieces small
of dirt. particles.

In addition, tap water in certain areas is treated with sodium fluoride

(NaF) to combat tooth decay.
In certain parts of the world supplies of water are very limited. There is
insufficient clean water to drink and not enough water to irrigate and
support the growth of crops. Water that is not purified can often
contain harmful bacteria and so is not safe to drink. In the absence of
clean water people have little choice but to drink contaminated water
and risk illness or death.

THE COMPOSITION OF CLEAN AIR

Air is a mixture of gases that has remained fairly constant for the
last 200 million years. The amount of water vapour varies around
the world. For example, air above a desert area has a low proportion
of water vapour.

y Nitrogen 78%

y Oxygen 21%

Trace amounts of other noble

gases and water vapour 0.06%

A Fig. 3.35 Components of air.

QUESTIONS
1. What does anhydrous mean?
2. What colour change would you observe if water is added to
CHEMISTRY anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride?
INORGANIC
3. In the purification of water there are two important stages. |
a) In the first stage, the water is filtered twice. What is used as
the filter in each case?
b) In the second stage, bacteria are killed. What chemical is used
to kill the bacteria?
4. This question is about the composition of the air.
a) What is the percentage of nitrogen in clean air?
b) What is the percentage of carbon dioxide in clean air?

POLLUTANTS IN THE AIR

Pollutants in the air come from a variety of sources. Some come from
burning waste and some from power stations burning coal or gas.
Industry produces pollutants as well.
The most common pollutants in the air are:
¢ carbon monoxide — from the incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons (petrol/coal/gas/diesel)
e sulfur dioxide — from burning fossil fuels such as petrol and coal
which contain sulfur compounds
@ oxides of nitrogen — from burning fossil fuels (petrol/diesel/coal).

A Fig. 3.36 Cycling is encouraged in Amsterdam to

reduce air pollution.

HOW IS THE ATMOSPHERE CHANGING, AND WHY?

The greenhouse effect
Carbon dioxide, methane and CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are known
as greenhouse gases. The levels of these gases in the atmosphere are
increasing due to the burning of fossil fuels, pollution from farm
animals and the use of CFCs in aerosols and refrigerators.

WATER
AND
AIR
 EXTENDED
Short-wave radiation from the Sun warms the ground, and the warm
Earth gives off heat as long-wave radiation. Much of this radiation is
stopped from escaping from the Earth by the greenhouse gases. ‘This is
known as the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect is responsible for keeping the Earth warmer than
it would otherwise be. This is normal — and important for life on Earth.
However, most scientists think that increasing levels of greenhouse gases
are stopping even more heat escaping and that the Earth is slowly
warming up. This is known as global warming. If global warming
continues the Earth’s climate may change, polar ice may melt and sea
levels may rise flooding low-lying areas — some of them highly populated.
The Earth’s average temperature is gradually increasing, but nobody knows
for certain if the greenhouse effect is responsible. It may be that the recent
rise in global temperatures is part of a natural cycle — there have been ice
ages and intermediate warm periods all through history. Many people are
concerned, however, that it is not part of a natural cycle and they say we
should act now to reduce emissions of these greenhouse gases.
Global atmospheric CO,: the past 200 years
= 340
One
=9
== 320 atmospheric CO, increase
26
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8g 300

Og
280
1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
Date

Global temperature: for the past 150000 years

19 possible effect of greenhouse warming ae

.
' .
:

16
last glaciation
13

10
Average
temperature/°C
global
150 125 100 75 50 25 today
Thousands of years ago

European temperature: for the past 1000 years

medieval warm period

little ice age

Temperature
change
from
average/°C
present 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Date
INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
A Fig. 3.37 How atmospheric carbon dioxide and temperature have varied.
~a)
|
© END OF EXTENDED
SCIENCE

SOME INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT METHANE

1. Methane makes up about 97% of natural gas.

2. It is formed by the decay of plant matter where there is no oxygen
(anaerobic decay).

3. Biogas contains 40-70% methane. Biodigesters convert organic

wastes into a nutrient-rich liquid fertiliser and biogas, a renewable
source ofelectrical and heat energy. These are widely used in non-
industrialised countries, particularly India, Nepal and Vietnam.
Biodigesters can help families by providing a cheap source of fuel,
reducing environmental pollution from the run-off from animal
pens, and reducing diseases caused by the use of untreated manure
as fertiliser. However, biodigesters only work efficiently in hot
countries; they are not as effective at low temperatures.

A Fig. 3.38 A commercial biodigester.

4. Methane is one of the greenhouse gases, thought by some scientists

to be responsible for global warming. It has almost 25 times the
effect of the same volume of carbon dioxide.
5. Ruminant animals such as cattle and sheep produce methane. It has ec
been estimated that a cow can produce as much as 200 litres of ra
<
methane per day. So could cattle be one ofthe causes of S
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global warming? z
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 QUESTION

1. a) Methane is a greenhouse gas. Name two sources of methane.

b) Name another greenhouse gas.

CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide is an important gas. It is formed as a product in the
complete combustion of carbon-containing substances:

C(s) + 0,(g) — CO,(g)

Carbon dioxide is also formed in

respiration. It can be made in the
laboratory by the reaction of dilute
hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate
in the form of marble chips.

> Fig. 3.39 Charcoal is mainly

carbon. When it burns it gives off
carbon dioxide.

calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid —> carbon dioxide + water + calcium chloride
CaCO, (s) + 2HCI(aq) — CO,(g) + H,O(I) + CaCl,(aq)

HCl(aq)
dilute hydrochloric

carbon dioxide
collects here

CaCO3
marble chips

A Fig. 3.40 The laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide gas.

If the gas is bubbled through limewater (calcium hydroxide

solution), a white precipitate forms. This is used as a laboratory
CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC
test for carbon dioxide.
 Carbon dioxide can also be prepared by the thermal decomposition
of certain metal carbonates. Copper(II) carbonate and zinc carbonate
are examples:

copper(II) carbonate — — copper(ll) oxide + carbon dioxide

CuCO,(s) > Cu0(s) + CO,(g)
green black

zinc carbonate > zinc oxide + carbon dioxide

ZnCO,(s) > ZnO(s) + CO,(g)
white white (yellow when hot)

METHODS OF PREVENTING RUSTING

Over time, the oxygen and water in the atmosphere affects metals. If
they react together the metal is corroded. The corrosion of iron is
called rusting.
In the presence of water, the following chemical reaction takes place:

4Fe(s) + 30,(g) — 2Fe,0,(s)

In fact, rust is hydrated iron(II) oxide, Fe,O,. xH,O. The ‘x’ can vary
depending on the conditions.
Here are two methods of preventing rusting:
¢ Stopping oxygen and water reaching the iron, for example, oiling/
greasing, as with bicycle chains; painting, as with car bodies.
e Alloying — iron is mixed with other metals to produce alloys such as
stainless steel that do not rust.

: Developing investigative skills

A dene set up the apparatus as Showainoo 3. AIait
the long tube turned upside-down in a trough of water. ron flings
Previously some iron filings had been sprinkled into the
tube, and many of these had stuck to the inside of the |
tube. With the same levels of water in the tube and the
trough, the student recorded the volume of air in the tube _
(100 cm’). :
After a few days he returned to the apparatus, equalised the _
water levels as before and took a second reading of the
volume of air in the tube (85 cm’). He then worked out how WATER
AND
AIR
much of the air had been replaced by water.
A Fig. 3.41 Apparatus for experiment.
~
Oe
Oe
i.
ae

So
oii

1. Carbon dioxide is formed in the complete combustion of carbon.

What product might form if carbon is burned in a limited supply
of air?
2. In the laboratory, carbon dioxide can be prepared by the
reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate.
a) Write a word equation for the reaction between copper(II)
carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid.
) Write a balanced equation for the reaction in part a).
3. Carbon dioxide can also be prepared by the action of heat on a
metal carbonate.
a) Write a word equation for the action of heat on calcium
carbonate.
EXTENDED Write a balanced equation for the reaction in part a).
4, What is the name of the chemical compound present in rust?
5. Name two ways of preventing water and oxygen from getting
into contact with the surface of an iron object.
 SCIENCE
tram BIOLOGY - HUMAN INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS

Pollutant gases, for example, from the burning of fuels, affect

ecosystems over a range of distances and time scales.

Water quality can be affected by a number of factors, including

some linked to chemical changes.

PHYSICS - ENERGY TRANSFERS, THERMAL PHYSICS

+ The range of sources used to supply energy on a large scale have an
impact on the air and water, in particular the production of carbon
dioxide gas from the burning of carbon-containing fuels.
- The management of the energy sources is an issue that involves all
aspects of the sciences.
Large scale heating of the atmosphere by the Sun leads to
convection currents which drive weather systems.

o
rs
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=
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=
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 End of topic checklist

Key terms
combustion, fossil fuel, global warming, greenhouse effect, greenhouse gas,
renewable energy, rusting, thermal decomposition, water cycle

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to describe chemical tests for identifying the presence of water using
cobalt(II) chloride and copper(II) sulfate.

©) How to describe in outline the treatment of the water supply in terms offiltration
and chlorination.

©) That clean air is approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen with the remainder
made up of a mixture of noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide.

©) That the common pollutants in the air are sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.

©) About the adverse effects of the common pollutants on buildings and health.

©) About the conditions required for the rusting of iron (presence of oxygen
and water).

() How to describe methods of rust protection, including using paint and other
coatings to exclude oxygen.

©) How to describe the formation of carbon dioxide from:

the complete combustion of carbon-containing substances

the process of respiration
the reactions between an acid and a carbonate
the thermal decomposition ofa carbonate.

O) That carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases and may contribute to
climate change.

() EXTENDED How to explain how increased concentrations of greenhouse gases

cause an enhanced greenhouse effect, which may contribute to climate change.

INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different. °
1. This question is about the composition of a sample of clean air.

a) What is the proportion of oxygen? (1 mark)

b) What is the proportion of carbon dioxide? (1 mark)
. a) What could you use to detect the presence of water? (1 mark)

b) What would you observe if water was present? (2 marks)

. This question is about the greenhouse effect.
a) What is the greenhouse effect? (2 marks)

b) Name two greenhouse gases. (2 marks)

c) Apart from an increase in greenhouse gases, what else could be causing
global warming? (1 mark)

. Carbon dioxide can be prepared using the reaction between calcium carbonate
and dilute hydrochloric acid.
a) How can the gas be collected in this reaction? (1 mark)

b) EXTE :N (2 marks)

. Carbon dioxide can be made by the thermal decomposition of copper(II) carbonate.

a) What does thermal decomposition mean? (2 marks)

b) EXTENDED Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (2 marks)

WATE
AND
_AIR
Organic chemi distinct from other branches of chemistry,
isstry
such as inorganic and physical chemistry. It may be described as
the chemistry of living processes (often referred to as biochemistry)
but extends beyond that. Organic chemistry focuses almost
entirely on the chemistry of covalently bonded carbon molecules.
As well as life processes, it includes the chemistry of other types of
compounds including plastics, petrochemicals, drugs and paint.
Early chemists never imagined that complex chemicals of living
processes could ever be manufactured in a laboratory, but they
were wrong. Today, medical drugs can be made and then their
structures modified to achieve improvements in their effectiveness.
An understanding of organic chemistry begins with knowledge of
the structure of a carbon atom and how it can combine with other
carbon atoms by forming covalent bonds. In this section you will
be introduced to two of the ‘families’ or series of organic
compounds.

STARTING POINTS
1. Where is carbon in the Periodic Table of elements? What can you
work out about carbon from its position?
2.What is the atomic structure of carbon? How are its
electrons arranged?
3.How does carbon form covalent bonds? Show the bonding in
methane (CH,), the simplest of organic molecules.
4.You will be learning about a series of organic compounds which
are hydrocarbons. What do you think a hydrocarbon is?
5. You will be learning about methane. Where can methane be
found and what it is used for?

SECTION CONTENTS
a) Fuels
lo) Alkanes
c) Alkenes
 Se
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Sherman
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 Fuels
INTRODUCTION
The most common fuels used today are
either fossil fuels or are made from fossil
fuels. There are problems associated with
using fossil fuels — burning them produces a
number of polluting gases and releases
carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
Nevertheless, fossil fuels are a very
important source of energy.

A Fig. 4.1 Crude oil contains a mixture

of hydrocarbons.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Know that the burning of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
Y Know that there are alternative energy sources to fossil fuels.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Know the fossil fuels coal, natural gas and petroleum (crude oil) produce carbon
dioxide on combustion.
Y Know that methane is the main constituent of natural gas.
/ Be able to describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into
useful fractions by fractional distillation.
Y State that cracking is a reaction that produces alkenes.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe the properties of molecules within a fraction.
Y Know the uses of the fractions obtained from petroleum.

WHAT ARE FOSSIL FUELS?

Petroleum (crude oil), natural gas (mainly methane) and
coal are fossil fuels.
Crude oil was formed millions of years ago from the
remains of animals and plants that were pressed together
under layers of rock. It is usually found deep underground,
trapped between layers of rock that it can’t seep through
(impermeable rock). Natural gas is often trapped in
pockets above crude oil.
The supply of fossil fuels is limited — having taken millions
of years to form, these fuels will eventually run out. They A Fig. 4.2 Fractional distillation takes
are
CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC
called finite or non-renewable fuels. This makes them _ Pace in oil refineries, like this one in
extremely valuable resources that must be used efficiently. ca ast CES
 Fossil fuels contain many useful chemicals (known as fractions) and
these must be separated so that they are not wasted.

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
The chemicals in petroleum are separated into useful fractions by a
process known as fractional distillation.

number of carbon
atoms in each fraction
refinery gas
(butane, propane 1=4
for bottled gas)

|
gases bubble up
gasoline
ipetiol)
5-8

liquids trickle down naphtha 9-12 by

(to make chemicals)

kerosene 10-14 ——_—-

(paraffin, fuel)

gas oll
preheated (diesel oil) Eee
crude

:
oil 340°C

bubble cap
[)

kept hot
(over 500°C) fuel oil Qa
for ships and f=
home heating, : ==
bitumen for Hy
making roads —

A Fig. 4.3 A fractionating column converts crude oil into many useful fractions.

The crude oil is heated in a furnace and passed into the bottom of a
fractionating column. It gives off a mixture of vapours that rise up the
column, and the different fractions condense out at different heights.
The fractions that come off near the top are light-coloured, runny
liquids. Those removed near the bottom of the column are dark and
sticky. Thick liquids that are not runny, such as those at the bottom of
the fractionating column, are described as viscous.

How does fractional distillation work?

The components of petroleum separate because they have different
boiling points. A simple particle model explains why their boiling points
differ. Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules, which “
ol
contain only carbon and hydrogen. The molecules are chemically lu
=)
bonded in similar ways with strong covalent bonds but contain
LL

different numbers of carbon atoms.

 A Fig. 4.4 Octane has one more carbon atom and two more hydrogen atoms than heptane.
Their formulae differ by CH.,,.

REMEMBER
The longer the molecule, the stronger the attractive force between
the molecules.

The weak attractive forces between the molecules must be broken for
the hydrocarbon to boil. The longer a hydrocarbon molecule is, the
stronger the intermolecular forces between the molecules. The stronger
these forces of attraction, the higher the boiling point because more
energy is needed to overcome the forces.

size of
molecule

strength of
intermolecular
forces

boiling point

A Fig. 4.5 How the properties of hydrocarbons change as molecules get longer.

The smaller-molecule hydrocarbons are more volatile — they form a

vapour easily. For example, we can smell petrol (with molecules
containing between 5 and 10 carbon atoms) much more easily than
we can smell engine oil (with molecules containing between 14 and
20 carbon atoms) because petrol is more volatile.
Another difference between the fractions is how easily they burn and
how smoky their flames are.

ease of ignite difficult

burning easily to light

blue yellow/grey
smokiness blue flame yellow
of flame almost no smoke smoky flame

A Fig. 4.6 How different hydrocarbons burn.

mt:
CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC
QUESTIONS
1. Petroleum is a ‘non-renewable’ fuel. What does this mean?

2. When drilling for oil, there is often excess gas to be burned off.
What is this gas? Where does it come from?
3. One of the oil fractions obtained from the fractional distillation
of crude oil is light-coloured and runny.
Is this fraction more likely to have a small chain of carbon atoms
or a long chain?
4. Another of the oil fractions obtained from the fractional distillation
of petroleum burns with a very sooty yellow flame.
Is this fraction more likely to have a small chain of carbon atoms or
a long chain?
5. Some fractions obtained from petroleum are very ‘volatile’.
What does this mean?

CRACKING THE OIL FRACTIONS

The composition of petroleum varies in different parts of the world.
Table 4.1 shows the composition of a sample of petroleum from the
Middle East after fractional distillation.

Fraction (in order of increasing Typical percentage produced

boiling point) by fractional distillation
Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) 3
Gasoline sits
| Naphtha 9
Kerosene 12
Diesel 14
Heavy oils and bitumen 49
A Table 4.1 Oil fractions.

Small molecules are much more useful than the larger molecules.
Larger molecules can be broken down into smaller ones by catalytic
cracking.

EXTENDED

Cracking requires a high temperature of between 600 to 700°C and a

catalyst of silica or alumina.
n
=!
Ww
=
as
 C49H20(9) C4Hio(g) + 2C3H¢(9)
decane butane propene

A Fig. 4.7 The decane molecule (C,,H,,) is converted into the smaller molecules
butane (C,H,,)
4 “10
and propene (C,H,) in cracking.

The butane and propene formed in this example have different types
of structures.

END OF EXTENDED

REMEMBER
Propene belongs to a family of hydrocarbons called alkenes.
Alkenes are much more reactive (and hence more useful) than
hydrocarbons such as decane (an alkane).

EXTENDED

test tube to
collect gases

mineral boiling
wool tube
soaked
in liquid pottery
paraffin fragments

tt:
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
1. The cracking of hydrocarbons often produces ethene. To which
homologous series does ethene belong?
2. Why is cracking needed in addition to the fractional distillation
of crude oil?
) What conditions are needed for the cracking of oil

THE FOSSIL FUEL DILEMMA

There is widespread agreement that supplies of the non-renewable

fossil fuels — oil, gas and coal — will eventually run out. However, it is
not easy to estimate exactly when they will run out. Many different
factors need to be considered, including how much of each deposit is
left in the Earth, how fast we are using each fossil fuel at the moment,
whether or not countries that have supplies will sell to those that
don't, and how this is likely to change in the future. If we start switching
to alternative fuel sources that are renewable, the reserves that we
currently have will last longer.
 Current estimates suggest that crude oil
(petroleum) will run out between 2025 and 2070.
The estimate for natural gas is similar, with 2060 a
possible date.

The situation with coal is very different. Most coal

deposits have not yet been tapped, and the
decline of the coal mining industry in countries
such as the UK means that many coal seams are re
| wip
lying undisturbed. If we carry on using coal at the
same rate as we do today, there could be enough
to last well over a thousand years. However, as
other fossil fuels run out, particularly oil, the use of
coal may increase, reducing that timespan
considerably.

So, should we increase our efforts to develop

A Fig. 4.9 A coal-fired power station.
renewable forms of energy such as wind and solar
energy; should we put greater emphasis on
nuclear power; or should we plan to make much greater use of coal?
Perhaps we should do all three? Solving this dilemma is likely to
depend as much on political decisions as scientific ones. What would
you recommend?

>
cc
f=
ne
=
Lu
<=
U
“4
=
<x
Oo
cc
°
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
alkene, catalytic cracking, fraction, fractional distillation, fossil fuel,
hydrocarbon, non-renewable, viscous, volatile

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O About the fossil fuels coal, natural gas and petroleum (crude oil) that produce
carbon dioxide on combustion.

QO) That methane is the main constituent of natural gas.

©) How to describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into

useful fractions by fractional distillation.

©) EXTENDED How to describe the properties of molecules within a fraction.

©) About the uses of the following fractions obtained from petroleum:

®@ refinery gas for bottled gas for heating and cooking

® gasoline fraction for fuel (petrol) in cars
@ naphtha fraction for making chemicals
® diesel/gas oil for fuel in diesel engines
@ bitumen for making roads.
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. a) How was crude oil (petroleum) formed? (2 marks)

fuel?
b) Why is crude oil called a‘non-renewable’ (1 mark)

2. The diagram shows a column used to separate the components present

in petroleum.

petrol

| naphtha

level X
kerosene

diesel oil
petroleum
—_—_—— >

vapours lubricating oil

=

fuel oil
Me and bitumen
heater LES

a) Name the process used to separate petroleum into fractions. (1 mark)

b) What happens to the boiling point of the mixture as it goes up the column?
(1 mark)

c) The mixture of vapours arrives at level X. What now happens to the various
parts of the mixture? (2 marks)
. The cracking of decane molecules is shown by the equation CPR Pert Carinbs
a) Decane is a hydrocarbon. What is a hydrocarbon? (1 mark)
b) EXTENDED What reaction conditions are needed for cracking? (2 marks)
c) Write down the molecular formula for hydrocarbon Y. (1 mark)
d) What ‘family’
does hydrocarbon Y belong to? (1 mark)
e) Why is the cracking of petroleum fractions so important? (2 marks)

ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
4. Petrol is a hydrocarbon with a formula of C,H,.
a) What are the products formed when petrol burns in a plentiful supply
of air? (2 marks)

b) EXTENDED Write a balanced equation, including state symbols, for the reaction
when petrol burns in a plentiful supply of air. (2 marks)
 Alkanes
INTRODUCTION

Alkanes are the simplest family or

homologous series of organic molecules.
The first alkane, methane, is the major
component of natural gas, a common fossil
fuel. Other alkanes are obtained from
petroleum and are widely used as fuels.

A Fig. 4.10 Natural gas is being extracted from

beneath the ocean floor.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/ Understand the nature of covalent bonds.
Y Know the typical physical properties of compounds that exist as simple molecules.
Y Understand that combustion involves burning in oxygen or air.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe a homologous series as a ‘family’ of
similar compounds with similar properties due to the presence of the same
functional group.
Y Be able to describe alkanes as saturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain
only single bonds.
Y Be able to describe the properties of alkanes (as shown by methane) as being
generally unreactive, except in terms of burning.
Y Be able to describe the complete combustion of hydrocarbons to give carbon dioxide
and water.

SCIENCE
tram BIOLOGY - BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

The ability of carbon atoms to form long chains is the basis for many
of the compounds that make up living things — leading to the title of
‘organic chemistry:
* Studying hydrocarbons, such as alkanes and alkenes, helps to show
the patterns and ideas that will help understand the properties of
many biological substances.
- The idea ofjoining smaller units together to create larger molecules
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY (polymerisation) links to the idea of forming starch molecules by
joining together glucose molecules.
WHAT ARE ALKANES?
Alkanes are hydrocarbons, which are molecules that contain only
carbon and hydrogen atoms. They are made up of carbon atoms linked
together by only single covalent bonds and are known as saturated
hydrocarbons.
Many alkanes are obtained from crude oil by fractional distillation.
The smallest alkanes are used extensively as fuels. Apart from burning,
however, they are remarkably unreactive.
= : =
Alkane | Molecular | Displayed formula Boiling State atroom |
formula | | point (°C) temperature
| and pressure
| Methane | CH | H ite | Gas |
| | H—C—-H |
lc
| ae sae eee ee |
| Ethane (Caer | HoH —89 Gas |
Ho oat |
HH | |

Propane las HoH A | —42 Gas |

| ee att |
| H H H
Butane | Ge a al etal Ae 0) Gas |
(He C- 6-670
ml olsl te) tal

Renranes)) ©. EL. | Fel Le mat aett | 36 Liquid

| | Woot yor ae
H

A Table 4.2 Alkanes and their molecular structure.

EXTENDED

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Alkanes form a homologous series. Members
of a homologous series have similar chemical
properties.
They contain the same functional group (the
part of the molecule that is responsible for the
similar chemical properties) — in this case, the
functional group is a C-H single bond.

ALKA
A Fig. 4.11 Formula 1 cars use specially blended
mixtures of alkane hydrocarbons.
 The general characteristics of an homologous series include:
e They have the same general formula. For alkanes this is CH, ,.
e They have similar chemical properties.
e They show a gradual change in physical properties, such as melting
point and boiling point.
e They differ from the previous member of the series by -CH,-.

END OF EXTENDED

THE PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

The properties of alkanes are given in Table 4.3.
Properties of alkanes
General formula Ger iaee
Description Saturated (no double C=C bond)
Combustion Burn in oxygen to form CO, and H,O
7 (CO if limited supply of oxygen)
Reactivity Low
Chemical test | None
Uses _ migeiiels
A Table 4.3 Properties of alkanes.

A Fig. 4.12 Methane is burning in the oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide and water.

QUESTIONS
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
1. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.
a) What is meant by the word saturated?
b) What is meant by the word hydrocarbon?
2. a) What is the chemical formula for the alkane with 15
carbon atoms?
b) What products would you expect to be formed if this alkane
were burned in a plentiful supply of oxygen?

Combustion of alkanes
In a plentiful supply of air, alkanes burn to form carbon dioxide and
water. A blue flame, as produced by a Bunsen burner, indicates
complete combustion:

methane + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water

CH,(g) + .20,(g) = _ ©O{G) + 2H,O(|)

SCIENCE

When the oxygen supply is limited, as it is when a Bunsen burner

burns with a yellow flame, incomplete combustion occurs:

methane + oxygen — carbon 4 water

CH,(g) + 0,(g) —> Cs) ee 2 0(1)

The incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons such as methane can be very

dangerous. It can produce carbon monoxide, which is extremely poisonous.

methane + oxygen — carbon monoxide + water

2CH,(g) + 30,(g) — 2CO(g) + 4H,0(1)

Carbon monoxide is difficult to detect

without special equipment, because it
has no colour or smell. Gas and oil
heaters or boilers must be serviced
regularly. This is to ensure that jets do not
become blocked and limit the air supply,
or that exhaust flues don’t become
blocked and allow small quantities of
carbon monoxide to enter the room. The
flame in such a boiler or heater should A Fig. 4.13 The gas in this cooker is burning completely.
always be blue in colour.

QUESTIONS n
wi
=
1. What products are formed when propane gas burns completely? ¢
=
=
2. What conditions are essential for an alkane to undergo <

complete combustion?
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
alkane, functional group, homologous series, hydrocarbon, saturated
hydrocarbons

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to describe a homologous series as a ‘family’of similar compounds with the
same general formula and similar chemical properties.

©) How to describe alkanes as saturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain

only single covalent bonds.

©) How to describe the properties of alkanes (as shown by methane) as being

generally unreactive, except in terms of burning.

©) How to describe the complete combustion of hydrocarbons to give carbon

dioxide and water.

ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different. -
. What is a homologous series? (1 mark)

. What is the molecular formula for an alkane with 10 carbon atoms? (1 mark)

. Is the compound with the formula C,.H,, a member of the

alkane series? Explain your answer. (1 mark)

. Ethane burns in oxygen.

a) What is the molecular formula of ethane? (1 mark)

b) Name the products formed when ethane burns in excess oxygen. (2 marks)

c) What colour flame would indicate that the ethane was burning in
excess oxygen? (1 mark)

d) EXTENDED Write a balanced equation for the reaction. (2 marks)

ALK
 Alkenes
INTRODUCTION
Alkenes are hydrocarbons and burn in air
in the same way that alkanes do. However,
alkenes are much more reactive due to the
C=C double bond they contain. This
makes them very useful starting materials
for a number of important industrial
processes, including the manufacture of
synthetic polymers and margarine.

A Fig. 4.14 The plastic objects above are made

from alkenes.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Understand the sharing of electrons in a double covalent bond.
Y Know the typical physical properties of compounds that exist as simple molecules.
/ Know the simple properties of alkanes.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
/ Be able to describe alkenes as unsaturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain
one double covalent bond.
Y Be able to state that cracking is a reaction that produces alkenes.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to describe the formation of smaller alkanes, alkenes and
hydrogen by cracking of larger alkane molecules and state the conditions required
for cracking.
Y Be able to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons from their
molecular structures and by their reaction with aqueous bromine.
V Be able to describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition
polymerisation of monomer units.

WHAT ARE ALKENES?

Alkenes are another homologous series, so they have similar chemical
properties and physical properties that change gradually from one
member to the next.
Alkenes are often formed by the catalytic cracking of larger hydrocarbons
(refer to the previous topic on fuels). Hydrogen is also formed in this
process. Alkenes contain one or more carbon-to-carbon double bonds.
Hydrocarbons with at least one double bond are known as unsaturated
hydrocarbons. Alkenes burn well and are reactive in other ways also.
Their reactivity is due to the carbon-to-carbon double bond.
CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC
 Molecular | Structural formula Boiling State at room
formula point (°C) | temperature
and pressure
Cel a H —104 Gas
ethene C—C
/
le - -
Propene Cy ie: —48 Gas
ae
propene ones
/ \
H oH
or
- H
| 7,
H—C—C=c
ees
a H HH
ie
Butene Carl ; i e —6 Gas
iene Inl—C— © -G=¢€
ses
H H HH mil
Pentene Gibls | | ; of 30 Liquid
pentene H— i an ive on

H H H HH
A Table 4.4 Structure and state of alkenes.

A simple test to distinguish alkenes from alkanes, or an unsaturated

hydrocarbon from a saturated one, is to add bromine water to the
hydrocarbon. Alkanes do not react with bromine water, so the colour
does not change. An alkene does react with the bromine, and the
bromine water loses its colour.
Ethene can also form poly(ethene) or polythene in an addition reaction,
a process known as addition polymerisation. Ethene is the monomer
and reacts with other ethene monomers to form an addition polymer,
poly(ethene). many small molecules

Alkenes can be used to make polymers, which are very large (Cye®
molecules made up of many identical smaller molecules called ethene @Om©
monomers. Alkenes are able to react with themselves. They join O
together into long chains, like adding beads to a necklace. When
the monomers add together like this, the material produced is
called an addition polymer. Poly(ethene) or polythene is made catalyst and heat

this way.
By changing the atoms or groups of atoms attached to the
carbon-to-carbon double bond, a range of different polymers poly(ethene)
can be made.
The double bond within the alkene molecule breaks to form n
one large molecule uu
a single covalent bond to a carbon atom in an adjacent 2
Fig. 4.15 Ethene molecules link uu
molecule. This process is repeated rapidly as the molecules b4
=
together to produce a long
link together.
<q.
polymer chain of poly(ethene).
 H Cl H Cl H ] 1 t | i ; *
Grey Ginetta oy ee > G G CG CG Ge
C=C C=C CE
Y. [EE EY ee
H lal al In| inl H H H H H H H

A Fig. 4.17 Poly(chloroethene) from chloroethene.

| | Properties of alkenes
if

_ General formula Girl

: | = a
_ Description Unsaturated (contain a
| double C=C bond)
Combustion a Burn in oxygen to form CO,
and H,O (CO if limited
supply of oxygen)
| ‘Reactivity _ High (because of the double
| C=C bonds); undergo
addition reactions
Chemical test Turn bromine water from
orange to colourless (an
addition reaction)
_ Uses Making polymers (addition
reactions) such as polyethene
A Table 4.5 Properties of alkenes.

QUESTIONS
1. Ethene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. What does
unsaturated mean?
2. Name a large-scale use of ethene.

SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FATS

We all need some fat in our diet because it helps the body to absorb
certain nutrients. Fat is also a source of energy and provides essential
fatty acids. However, it is best to keep the amount of fat we eat at
sensible levels and to eat unsaturated fats rather than saturated fats
whenever possible. A diet high in saturated fat can cause the level of
cholesterol in the blood to build up over time. Raised cholesterol
levels increase the risk of heart disease.
CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC
Foods high in saturated fat include:

® fatty cuts of meat

® meat products and pies
se eLtinicle
® cheese, especially hard cheese
® cream and ice cream
® biscuits and cakes.

Unsaturated fat is found in:

® oily fish such as salmon, tuna and mackerel

® avocados
® nuts and seeds
® sunflower and olive oils.
So, having a carbon-to-carbon double bond does
make a difference. A Fig. 4.18 Margarine is made from olive
oil, whose unsaturated molecules have
been saturated with hydrogen.

Pann
wZz
wi
x4
a
i?
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
addition polymer, alkene, monomer, polymer, polymerisation, unsaturated

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() Describe alkenes as unsaturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain one
double covalent bond.

() That cracking is a reaction that produces alkenes.

(.) EXTENDED How smaller alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen are formed by cracking of
larger alkane molecules and know the conditions required for cracking.

) How to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons:

e from their molecular structures

@ byreaction with aqueous bromine.

(©) How to describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition

polymerisation of monomer units.

ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different. -
1. Ethene burns in oxygen.
a) Name the products formed when there is a plentiful supply
of oxygen. (2 marks)

ib) Write a balanced equation for the burning of ethene

in a plentiful supply of oxygen. (2 marks)

2. a) Draw structural formulae for butane and butene. (2 marks)

b) Which hydrocarbon is unsaturated? (1 mark)

c) Which substance could you use to distinguish between butane

and butene? (1 mark)

3. Propene gas is bubbled through some bromine water.

a) Describe the colour change that would occur. (2 marks)

lb) EXTENDED Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (2 marks)

ALKE
This section covers concepts that will be important throughout
your course. First, you will look at how to measure quantities such —
as length and time. Then you will look at speed and acceleration
before considering mass, weight and density. You will then
consider forces and their different effects.

STARTING POINTS
1. What would you use to measure: a) the width of this book; b) the
length of the school playing field; c) the amount of milk needed
to make a dessert?
2.How could you find the time taken to: a) finish your physics
homework; b) run 100 metres?
3.What do we mean when we say a car is travelling at
30 kilometres per hour?
4.\fan object is stationary, what must be true about the forces
acting on the object?
5.In physics, what do we mean when we say an object
is accelerating?
6. How are mass and density related?

CONTENTS
a) Length and time
lb) Motion
c) Mass and weight
d) Density ©
e) Effects of forces
f) Pressure
PESTA
 Length and time
|

INTRODUCTION
Making measurements is very important in
physics. Without numerical measurements,
physicists would have to rely on descriptions,
which could lead to inaccurate comparisons.
Imagine trying to build a house if the only
descriptions were ‘big’ and ‘small’.

You also need to make sure that you are

consistent in your use of units. For example,
the Mars Climate Orbiter mission failed in
1999 because not all of the scientists were
A Fig. 1.1 Using a micrometer. : é
using the same units.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/Y Know how to use a ruler to measure lengths to the nearest millimetre.
/ Know how to use a stopwatch to measure time to the nearest second.
Y Know how to use a measuring cylinder to measure volume.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Be able to use and describe the use of rulers and measuring cylinders to calculate a
length or volume.
VY Be able to use and describe the use of clocks and devices for measuring an interval
of time.
Y Be able to obtain an average value for a small distance and for a short interval of
time by measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum).

MAKING MEASUREMENTS
When making measurements, physicists use different instruments,
such as rulers to measure lengths, measuring cylinders to measure
volume and clocks to measure time.
A physicist always takes care to make the measurements as accurate as
possible. If she is using a ruler, she will place the ruler along the object
to be measured, and read off the scale the positions of the beginning
and the end of the object. The length is the difference between these
two readings. When the ruler is nearer to her eye than the object being
measured, the reading will appear to change as she moves her eye. The
correct reading is obtained when her eye is directly above the point
being measured.

MOTION
 correct incorrect
position position
for eye , for eye

A Fig. 1.2 Making accurate measurements.

‘To improve accuracy further, she may take several readings and use the
average of these readings as a better result.

A Fig. 1.3 The Maglev train runs for 30km between Shanghai and Pudong Airport, and
completes the journey in 7 minutes, reaching a top speed of 430 km/h. The train uses magnets
to hover 10mm above the track. The track must be placed within a few millimetres of the
planned route, requiring great accuracy in all measurements.

To use a measuring cylinder, she will first make sure that the cylinder is
standing on a level table. Then she will make sure that her eye is at the
same level as the liquid inside the cylinder. The surface of most liquids
will bend up or down near the walls of the measuring cylinder. This
bent shape is known as a meniscus. However, most of the surface is
flat, and measurements are made to this flat surface.
LENG
TIME
AND
 REMEMBER
Warning: Some measuring cylinders have unusual scales and one
division may represent an unexpected quantity, perhaps 2.cm? or
0.5cm?*. Check carefully.

In this book, volumes will usually be measured in cm? (or perhaps in m’).
In other places, such as on some measuring cylinders, you will see
the millilitre.
A volume of | ml is the same as a volume of | cm’.
1000cm? = 1000 ml = | | (or 1 dm? to avoid confusion between the
number | and the letter 1)
For measuring large volumes, we also use the cubic metre.
1m? = 1000 dm? = 1000000 cm?

Times are measured by using a stopwatch or stopclock.

Hand-operated stopwatches have an accuracy that is limited by the
delay between your eye seeing the moment to start, your brain issuing
the command to start the watch and your finger pressing the start
button. The total delay is typically around 0.2 s. This delay is known as
your ‘reaction time’, and it increases the danger of some tasks, such as
driving a car.
When measuring time accurately is critical, such as in athletics, the
clock has to be started and stopped automatically by the athlete
breaking a light beam that shines across the track.
If you are measuring the time of an oscillation, such as the swing of a
pendulum, it is very easy to improve the accuracy of the measurement
by timing a number of swings, perhaps 10 or 20.
It is important to count correctly. Let the swing go, count zero and start
the stopwatch as the pendulum crosses a mark at the bottom of the
swing (we call this the fiducial mark). The next time the pendulum
crosses the fiducial mark going in the same direction count one, and so
on. In this way the count will be correct.
After measuring the time for 20 swings, say, divide the total time by
20 to give the period of one oscillation of the pendulum.

MOTION

i=]
=

wT
 End of topic checklist

Key term
fiducial mark

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to use and describe the use of rulers and measuring cylinders to calculate
length and volume.

©) How to use and describe the use of clocks and devices for measuring time.

(©) How to measure, and describe how to measure, a short interval oftime (including
the period of apendulum).

TIME
AND
LENG
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given for questions like these may
be different.
1. Rulers that are 30cm long are often made of wood or plastic that is thicker in the
middle and thinner along the edges where the scale is printed. Explain why the
user is less likely to make an error if the ruler is thinner at the edge, and suggest
reasons why the ruler is thicker in the middle. (3 marks)

2. A plastic measuring cylinder is filled with water to the 100 cm? mark. A student
measures the column of water in the cylinder with a ruler and finds that it is
20cm high.
a) The student pours 10 cm? of the water out of the cylinder. How high will the
column of water be now? (2 marks)
b) The student then refills the cylinder back to the 100 cm? mark by holding it
under a dripping tap. She finds that it takes 180 drops of water to do this. What
is the volume of one of these drops? (3 marks)

c) What is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder? (Hint: The volume of a cylinder
is given by the equation: volume = cross-sectional area x length.) (3 marks)

d) From your answer to part ¢), what is the internal diameter of the
measuring cylinder? (3 marks)

. A student tries to measure the period of a pendulum that is already swinging left
and right. At the moment when the pendulum is fully to the left, she counts ‘one’
and starts a stopwatch. She counts successive swings each time that the
pendulum returns to the left. When she counts ‘ten’ she stops the stopwatch, and
sees that it reads 12.0s.
a) What was her mistake? (2 marks)
b) What is the period of swing of this pendulum? (3 marks)
c) In this particular experiment, explain the likely effect of her reaction time on
her answer. (3 marks)

MOTION
Motion
INTRODUCTION
To study almost anything about the world
around us or in outer space, we will need to
describe where things are, where they were
and where we expect them to go. It is even
better if we are able to measure these things.
Only when we have an organised system for
doing this will we be able to look for the
patterns in the way things move — the laws
of motion — before going a step further and
suggesting why things move as they do —
using ideas about forces. A Fig. 1.4 You can use a stopwatch to measure
the time taken to run a certain distance.

Think about being a passenger in a car travelling at 90 kilometres per hour.

This, of course, means that the car (if it kept travelling at this speed for 1 hour)
would travel 90km. During | second, the car travels 25 metres, so its speed can
also be described as 25 metres per second. Scientists prefer to measure time in
seconds and distance in metres. So they prefer to measure speed in metres per
second, usually written as m/s.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Know how to measure distances and times accurately.
VY Know how to calculate the areas of a rectangle and a triangle.
¥ Know how to plot a graph given particular points.
Y Know how to substitute values into a given formula.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
/ Define speed and calculate average speed from total distance/total time.
VY Be able to plot and interpret a speed—time graph or a distance-time graph.
/ Recognise from the shape of a speed—time graph when a body is at rest, moving
with constant speed or moving with changing speed.
/ EXTENDED Be able to calculate the area under a speed—time graph to work out
the distance travelled for motion with constant acceleration.
/ Demonstrate understanding that acceleration and deceleration are related to
changing speed, including qualitative analysis of the gradient of a speed-time graph.
/ EXTENDED Define and calculate acceleration using change of speed/time.
/ EXTENDED Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed—time graph.
/ EXTENDED Recognise linear motion for which the acceleration is constant.
/ EXTENDED Recognise motion for which the acceleration is not constant.
MOTI
 CALCULATING SPEED
The speed of an object can be calculated using the following formula:
_ distance
speci —————
P time
S
v=-

where: v = speed in m/s,

s = distance in m, and
t= time In s.
Most objects speed up and slow down as they travel. An object's
average speed can be calculated by dividing the total distance
travelled by the total time taken.

REMEMBER
Make sure you can explain why this is an average speed. You need to talk
about the speed not being constant throughout, perhaps giving specific
examples of where it changed. For example, you might consider a
journey from home to school. You know how long the journey takes and
the distance between home and school. From these, you can work out
the average speed using the formula. However, you know that, in any
journey, you do not travel at the same speed at all times. You may have
to stop to cross the road, or at a road junction. You may be able to travel
faster on straight sections of the journey or round corners.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the average speed of a motor car that travels 500 metres in
20 seconds.
Write down the formula: VS St
Substitute the values for s and t: v= 500720
Work out the answer and write down the units: =v = 25 m/s

<J Fig. 1.5 Cover speed to find that speed = distance/time.

2. A horse canters at an average speed of 5 m/s for 2 minutes.

Calculate the distance it travels.
Write down the formula in terms of s: Sav x

MOTION Substitute the values for v and t: s BE 2x OU

Work out the answer and write down the units: s = 600m
wT
L el

“fT
 <1 Fig. 1.6 Cover distance to find that distance = speed x time.

QUESTIONS
1. A journey to school is 10km. It takes 15 minutes in a car. What is
the average speed of the car?
2. How far does a bicycle travelling at 1.5m/s travel in 15s?
3. A person walks at 0.5 m/s and travels a distance of 1500m.
How long does this take?

USING GRAPHS TO STUDY MOTION

Journeys can be summarised using graphs. The simplest type is a
distance—time graph, where the distance travelled is plotted against
the time of the journey.
At the beginning of any measurement of motion, time is usually given
as Os and the position of the object as Om. If the object is not moving,
then time increases but distance does not. This gives a horizontal line.
If the object is traveiling at a steady speed, then both time and distance
increase steadily, which gives a straight line. If the speed is varying,
then the line will not be straight. You can calculate the speed of the
object by finding the gradient of the line on a distance—-time graph.
In Fig. 1.7, which shows a bicycle journey, the graph slopes when the
bicycle is moving. The slope gets steeper when the bicycle goes faster.
The slope is straight (has a constant gradient) when the bicycle’s speed
is constant. The cyclist falls off at about 150 metres from the start.
After this, the graph is horizontal because the bicycle is not moving.
160
140

120
100
80
distance/m
60

0 40 60 80
time/s | 5
graph curves straight line bicycle bicycle ra
as bicycle as bicycle speed stops not Oo
is constant suddenly moving =
speed increases

A Fig. 1.7 A distance-time graph for a bicycle journey. 1.

=

“Nt
 ~ QUESTIONS
1. How can you tell from a distance-time graph whether the object
was moving away from you or towards you?
2. Very often we use sketch graphs to illustrate motion. Describe
the main differences between a sketch graph and a graph.
3. Sketch a distance-time graph for a bicycle travelling downhill.

WHAT IS ACCELERATION?
The speedometer of a car displays 50 km/h and then a few seconds
later it displays 70 km/h, so the car is accelerating. When a car is
slowing down, this is called negative acceleration, or deceleration.
Acceleration is a change in speed. On a distance—-time graph,
acceleration is shown by a smooth curve.

distance
covered distance
covered

0 time 0 time

A Fig. 1.8 Steady speed is shown by a straight line. Acceleration is shown by a smooth curve
of increasing gradient.

Imagine that the car is initially travelling at 15 m/s, and that 1 second
later it has reached 17 m/s, and that its speed increases by 2 m/s each
second after that. Each second its speed increases by 2 metres per
second. We can say that its speed is increasing at ‘2 metres per second
per second’. This can be written, much more conveniently, as an
acceleration of 2 m/s?.

EXTENDED
How much an object’s speed changes in one second is its acceleration.
Acceleration can be calculated using the following formula:
. : change in speed
JCCOlCIAL Ope =e
time taken
(v—u)
l
where: a = acceleration
v = final speed in m/s
u = starting speed in m/s
MOTION t time ins
REMEMBER
Make sure that you are clear what the word ‘acceleration’ means in
physics. It does not necessarily mean ‘gets faster’. Neither does it
measure how much the speed changes.
Acceleration. measures how quickly the speed changes, that is, the rate
of change of speed.
$s

WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate the acceleration of a car that travels from 0 m/s to 28 m/s in
10 seconds.
Write down the formula: = ST
Substitute the values for v, u and t: = 250710
Work out the answer and write down the units: a= 2.8m/s?

QUESTIONS
1. As a stone falls, it accelerates from Om/s to 20 m/s in 2 seconds.
Calculate its acceleration and state the unit.

2. A racing car slows down from 45 m/s to Om/s in 3 seconds.

Calculate its acceleration and state the unit.

END OF EXTENDED

USING SPEED-TIME GRAPHS

A speed-time graph provides information on speed, acceleration and
distance travelled. Steady speed is shown by a horizontal line. Steady
acceleration is shown by a straight line sloping up. You can calculate the
acceleration of the object from the gradient of a speed—time graph.

72} ne)
® s ®
fod) oO o
Qa (ol. QO
) i) n

0 time 0 time 0 time

A Fig. 1.9 Steady speed is shown by a horizontal line. Steady acceleration is shown by a straight
line sloping up. Acceleration that is not constant is shown by a curved line.

In the left-hand graph, the object is already moving when the graph
begins. In the right-hand graph, the object starts with a speed of zero,
and the line therefore starts from the origin.
MOTI
 Note that the object may not move to begin with. In this case the line
will start by going along the x-axis, showing that the speed stays at zero
for a while.

QUESTION
1. An athlete and a fun runner complete a 400m race. The athlete
takes 50s and the fun runner takes 64s.
a) Calculate the average speed for each runner.
b) Sketch a speed-time graph for the two runners.

EXTENDED

Finding distance from a speed-time graph

The area under a speed—time graph gives the distance travelled because
distance = speed x time. Always make sure that the units are consistent,
so when the speed is in km/h you must use time in hours too.
The graph in Fig. 1.10 shows how the speed of a car varies as it
travels between two sets of traffic lights. The graph can be divided
into three regions.

B-car reaches speed

limit and travels ata
constant speed of
o 16m/s
=42}
oO
oO
O:
wn

A-car accelerates C-driver uses

brakes and the
car decelerates

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
’ |
traffic lights change to green time OU Sails red traffic lights
— car moves off — car stops

A Fig. 1.10 The speed of a car travelling between two sets of traffic lights.

In region A, the car has constant acceleration (the line has a constant
positive gradient). The gradient is 16/40 so the acceleration is 16/40 m/s?
in region A. The distance travelled by the car can be calculated
as follows:
average speed in region A = (16 + 0) /2 = 8m/s
time = 40s
so, distance =v X= 5 x 40 = 320m
MOTIONThis can also be calculated from the area under the line:
¥2 base x height = % x 40 x 16 = 320m
In region B, the car is travelling at a constant speed (the line has a
gradient of zero). The distance travelled by the car can be calculated:
speed in region B = 16m/s
time = 30s
so, distance =v x t = 16 x 30 = 480m
This can also be calculated from the area under the line
(base x height = 30 x 16 = 480m).
In region CG, the car is decelerating at a constant rate (the line has a
constant negative gradient). The distance travelled by the car can be
calculated:
average speed in region C =
close Oh 2—= Sim/s
fans) S
so, Gistance =v ~ t= 6 «30 = 240m
This can also be calculated from the area under the line:
Y base x height = % x 30 x 16 = 240m
Total distance travelled in 100s = 320 + 480 + 240 = 1040m

QUESTIONS
1. Explain how to calculate the acceleration from a
speed-time graph.
2. Explain how to calculate the distance travelled from a
speed-time graph.
3. Two runners complete a 400m race. Athlete A takes 50s and
athlete B takes 64s.
a) Calculate the average speed of each runner.
b) Sketch a speed-time graph for each runner.
4. How could you show from the graph that the runners both
cover 400m?
5. From the graph below, calculate the distance travelled between
2 and 12 seconds.

MOTI
 Speed-time graphs can tell us much information about the speed,
acceleration and distance of an object when it is travelling.
A

40.0 +-

35.0 +

30.0

25.0
speed/m/s

0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 1OLO dl Om 0
time/s

Use the speed—time graph to answer the questions below:

1. What is the speed of the object at | s?
2. What can you say about the speed between points B and C?
3. Between which points is there the greatest acceleration?
4. What is happening to the object between points E and F?
5. What is the distance travelled between points D and E?
6. Calculate the acceleration of the object between points A and B.
In Fig. 1.10, the acceleration and deceleration were constant and the
lines in regions A and C were straight. This is very often not the case.
You will probably have noticed that a car can accelerate much more
quickly when it is travelling at 30 km/h than when it is travelling
at 120 km/h.
A people-carrying space rocket does exactly the opposite. If you watch
one being launched you can see that it has a small acceleration as it
leaves the ground. As it is burning several tonnes of fuel per second, it
quickly becomes less massive and its acceleration increases.

ios
END OF EXTENDED
o-
ie)
=
|
Wiebe?
ae)

MOTI
en
422
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
acceleration, average speed, distance-time graph, gradient, speed

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to define speed and calculate speed from total distance-total time.

©) How to plot and interpret a speed-time graph or a distance-time graph.

O How to recognise from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is:

@ atrest
@ moving with constant speed
@ moving with changing speed.

D How to work out the distance travelled from a speed-time graph

by calculating the area under the speed-time graph for motion with
constant acceleration.

Q) That acceleration is related to changing speed and how to analyse

speed-time graphs.

D How to recognise linear motion for which the acceleration is constant

ana PAPI the acceleration.
Q EXTENDED How to recognise motion when the acceleration is not constant.

(ya
MOTI
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given for questions like these may
be different.
1. A student's journey to school takes 10 minutes and is 3.6 kilometres. What is his
average speed in km/min? (1 mark)

. Arunner runs 400 metres in 1 minute 20 seconds. What is her speed in m/s?
(1 mark)

. EXTENDED A train moves away from a station along a straight track, increasing
its speed from 0 to 20m/s in 16s. What is its acceleration in m/s*? (1 mark)

. EXTENDED A rally car accelerates from 100 km/h to 150km/h in 5s. What is its
acceleration in:

a) km/h per second (1 mark)

b) m/s?? (1 mark)

. a) On a distance-time graph, what does a horizontal line indicate? (2 marks)

b) A car is travelling at constant speed. What shape would the corresponding

distance-time graph have? (2 marks)
. EXTENDED a) Define acceleration. (2 marks)
b) Explain how to calculate the distance travelled from a speed-time graph.
(3 marks)

. Astudent cycles to his friend’s house. In the first part of his journey, he rides 200m
from his house to a road junction in 20s. After waiting for 10s to cross the road, he
cycles for 20s at 8m/s to reach his friend’s house.

a) What is his average speed for the first part of the journey? (3 marks)
b) How far is it from the road junction to his friend’s house? (2 marks)
c) What is his average speed for the whole journey? (2 marks)

MOTION
8. The graph shows a distance-time graph for a
car journey.

a) What does the graph tell us about the speed of

the car between 20 and 60 seconds? ~— (2 marks)
distance/m
b) How far did the car travel between
20 and 60 seconds? (3 marks)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time/s
c) Calculate the speed of the car between 20 and
60 seconds. (3 marks)

y What happened to the car between 80 and 100 seconds? (2 marks)

TENDED Look at the speed-time graph for a toy tractor.

ts jo)

speed/m/s
2 oO

6) 0.5 1.0 eS) 2.0 25 SHC

time/s

a) Calculate the total distance travelled by the tractor

from A to C. (3 marks)

b) Calculate the acceleration of the tractor between

A and B. (1 mark)

(4
MOTI
 Mass and weight
INTRODUCTION
Scientists use the words ‘mass’ and ‘weight
with special meanings. By the mass of an
object we mean how much material is
present in it. Weight is the force on the
object due to gravity. It is measured in
newtons. The weight of an object depends
on its mass and gravitational field strength.
Any mass near the Earth has weight due to
the Earth’s gravitational pull.

A Fig. 1.12 An apple being weighed using a

newton meter.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/ Know the acceleration due to the Earth’s gravitational field.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
¥ Show familiarity with the idea of the mass of a body.
Y State that weight is a gravitational force.
¥ Distinguish between mass and weight.
V Recall and use the equation W = mg.
Y Demonstrate understanding that weights (and hence masses) may be compared
using a balance.
Y EXTENDED Be able to describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a
gravitational field on a mass.

MASS AND WEIGHT

Scientists use the words mass and weight with special meanings.
The ‘mass’ of an object means how much material is present in it. It is
measured in kilograms (kg).
Weight is the force on the object due to gravity. It ismeasured in
newtons (N). The weight of an object depends on its mass and
gravitational field strength. Any mass near the Earth has weight due
to the Earth’s gravitational pull.
Weight is calculated using the equation:
weight = mass gravitational field strength
W = mg
MOTION
QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between mass and weight?
2. What is the weight of someone whose mass is 60 kg?
3. What is the mass of someone whose weight is 500 N?

THE EARTH'S GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

Scientists often use the word ‘field’. We say that there is a ‘gravitational
field’ around the Earth, and that any object that enters this field will be
attracted to the Earth.
The value of the gravitational field strength on Earth is 9.8 N/kg,
though we usually round it up to 10 N/kg to make the calculations
easier. A gravitational force of 10 N acts on an object of mass | kg on
the Earth’s surface.
Note that gravity does not stop suddenly as you leave the Earth.
Satellites go around the Earth and do not escape, because the Earth is
still pulling them, even if less strongly than before the satellites were
launched. The Earth is even pulling the Moon, and this is why it orbits
the Earth once every month. And the Earth goes around the Sun
because the Sun's gravity is pulling the Earth.
If you could stand on the Moon you would feel the gravity of the Moon
pulling you down. Your mass would be the same as on Earth, but your
weight would be less. This is because the gravitational field strength on
the Moon is about one-sixth of that on the Earth, and so the force of
attraction of an object to the Moon is about one-sixth of that on the
Earth. The gravitational field strength on the Moon is 1.6 N/kg, so a
force of 1.6 N is needed to support a | kg mass.

EXTENDED
Weight is the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.

ia
weight =900N
—e
=
) Sy

a Ne,

A Fig. 1.13 Though your mass remains the same, your weight is greater on Earth than it would WEIG
AND
MASS
be on the Moon.
&
N
END OF EXTENDED wT
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
gravitational field strength, mass, newton, weight

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() That mass is the amount of matter in a body.

() That weight is a force.

() How mass and weight are different.

©) Recall and use the equation W = mg.

EX”TENDED How to describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a
aavrational field on a mass.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given for questions like these may
be different.
1. a) Explain the difference between ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ (2 marks)

b) Explain why your weight would change if you stood on the surface of
different planets. (3 marks)

: ENDED The height that you can jump has an inverse relationship to the
gravitational field strength. When the field strength doubles, the height halves.
The gravitational field strength on the surface of Mars is 3.8 N/kg. If the Olympic
Games were held on Mars in a large dome to provide air to breathe, what would
happen to the records for: |
a) weightlifting (weight in N) (2 marks)
b) high jump (height) (2 marks)
c) pole vault (height) (2 marks)
d) throwing thejavelin (distance) (2 marks)
e) the 100m race (time)? (2 marks)
In each case, explain if the record will increase, stay similar or decrease.
MOTION
Density
INTRODUCTION
Which is heavier, a tonne of feathers or a
tonne of iron?

That is a trick question, of course — they

have the same weight (a tonne). But there
would be a noticeable difference if you
loaded each one onto a truck: the feathers
would take up more space, and we use
the idea of density to help explain
this difference.
A Fig. 1.14 The density of the different layers of
Density is a useful measure that gives an the Earth varies.
insight into other areas of physics. For
example, density helps explain convection currents, which can lead on to the

a
movement of the continents on the surface of the Earth and the very structure
of the Earth itself.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/Y Know how to calculate areas of regular shapes, such as squares and rectangles.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Recall and use 9=m/V.
VY Be able to describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid and of a
regularly shaped solid and make the necessary calculation.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe the determination of the density of an irregularly
shaped solid by the method of displacement and make the necessary calculation.

WHAT IS DENSITY?
You must have noticed that the weight of objects can vary greatly.
A plastic teaspoon weighs less than a metal one, and a gold ring
weighs twice as much as a silver one, even if the objects are exactly the
same size.
The density of a material is a measure of how ‘squashed up ‘it is, and a
dense object contains more mass than a light object of the same size.
The density of a material is defined as the mass per unit volume.

DENSI
 The density of a material is calculated using
this formula:
p=m/V
where: m = mass in g or kg
V = volume in cm?’ or m*
p= density in g/cm’ or kg/m?
Note that in this equation you must use g and cm
throughout, or you must use kg and m. Also note that
if you measure the weight in N you must convert it
into mass in g or kg.

THE DENSITY OF A REGULARLY SHAPED A Fig. 1.15 Gold is one of the densest metals.
A block of gold the size of a one-litre carton of
OBJECT milk would have a mass of almost 20kg.

J g/cubic centimetre _g/cubic metre ;

“Vacuum 0 0
‘Helium gas. 0.00017 0.17
‘Air 0.00124 [1.24
Oil (petroleum) | 0.88 880
Water 1.0 | 1000
_Sea water £03 1030
Plastic 0.9-1.6 900-1600
| Wood 0.5-1.3 | 500-1300
Magnesium 1.74 [1740 F
Aluminium EL. 2700
Titanium 4.5 4500
| Steel eels 7800
Mercury (liquid) 13.6 13 600
Silver 10.5 [10500 |
Gold 19% 19300
A Table 1.1 Some useful densities.

WORKED EXAMPLE
A brick has the dimensions 20cm x 9cm x 6.5cm.
Weight of brick = 22.2N
What is the density of the brick?
Mass of brick, m = Wig
=e Oke
MOTION SK O
jo)

= 2220¢ A Fig. 1.16 The equation triangle

for mass, density and volume.
(Remember that | ke = 10008)
Volume of brick, V = 209, 6..cm:
6.5cm
= iN Oe,
Density of brick, p = mass/volume
= 2200/1170 2/cm?
A Fig. 1.17 Finding the density
= 1°90 ¢/cm? of a brick.

DENS

631
|
BPS.
 the equation density = mass / volume to
nits atthe top of the ‘density’ column.
nould you give your values of density?

| evaluating investigations |
th e method be changed to find the density of objects with

MEASURING THE DENSITY OF A LIQUID

The density of a liquid can be measured using an instrument called a
hydrometer. The hydrometer measures the ratio of the density of the
liquid to the density of water and is usually made of glass. It has a
cylindrical stem and a bulb, which contains mercury or lead shot to
make it float upright. The liquid that is being tested is poured into a
measuring cylinder and the hydrometer is lowered into the liquid until
it floats. There is a scale on the stem of the hydrometer and the point
on the scale at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the
hydrometer is noted. The scale usually allows the density to be read
directly. The type of scale used depends on what the hydrometer is
used for.

DID YOU KNOW?

The first hydrometer is credited to the Greek scholar Hypatia, and was
probably made sometime in the late fourth or early fifth century. An
early description of such a device appears in a letter from Synesius of
Cyrene, who asked Hypatia to make one for him.

QUESTIONS
1. Asmall rectangular block of steel measures 2cm by 4cm by 5cm
and has a mass of 312g. Calculate:
a) its volume
b) its density.
2. Why is bread usually less dense than a root vegetable such as a
potato or carrot?

MOTION
 DENSITY IN ACTION

In January 2009, an aircraft took off from LaGuardia Airport, New

York, bound for Charlotte Douglas International Airport in North
Carolina. About three minutes into the flight, it struck a flock of
Canada geese, which resulted in a complete loss of thrust from both
engines. The pilot realised that they could not safely reach any
airfield, so he decided to ditch the aircraft on the Hudson River — in
the middle of New York City! The aircraft ditched safely about three
minutes after losing power. The pilot
said later that he had chosen the
ditching location to be as close as
possible to boats to maximise the
chance of rescue.

Immediately after the aircraft ditched,

the crew began to evacuate the
passengers. A panicking passenger
opened a rear door, which could not
be resealed. This made the aircraft fill A Fig. 1.19 The ditched aircraft floating in the Hudson River.
with water more quickly than it would
otherwise have done. All 155 passengers and crew safely evacuated
the aircraft, which was almost completely intact but partially
submerged and slowly sinking, and nearby ferries and other
watercraft quickly rescued them all.

The successful outcome was due to all involved knowing what they
had to do and doing it, and to the fact that the density of the aircraft
allowed it to stay afloat long enough for the evacuation to take place.

EXTENDED

MEASURING THE DENSITY OF AN IRREGULAR OBJECT

This method involves submerging an object in a

liquid and measuring the volume of the liquid
that is displaced. It only works when the object
is denser than the liquid used so that it sinks,
although the method can be modified to measure
a less dense object by attaching a ‘sinker’ to the
object to hold it beneath the surface. It does not
work when the object absorbs the liquid, or if it
is damaged by the liquid.
A Fig. 1.20 Using a balance to find the mass
of an object. DENSI
 | 4. A balance is used to weigh the object in question, as shown in
Fig. 1.20, and find its mass, m.
2. A measuring cylinder is chosen that is wide
| and deep enough to hold the object. A
narrower cylinder will give a more accurate
answer than a wider one. Liquid is added to
fill the cylinder to a deep enough level so that
Volume V, Volume V,
the object will be completely submerged.
The volume of liquid, V, is then measured
(see Fig. 1.21). The exact amount of liquid Fig 1:2 EMessuring tne volar ame biece
that you use is not at all critical. Water is the
liquid normally used.
3. The object is lowered into the liquid (without splashing) and the
new reading V, is measured (Fig. 1.21). This is the volume of the
object and the liquid. The volume of the object is therefore V, — V,.
4. The density of the object can now be calculated from the mass and
the volume.

| WORKED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
The mass of a small metal object, like the one in Fig. 1.22, is found
to be 90¢.
A measuring cylinder is filled with water to the 82 cm? mark. The
object is lowered into the measuring cylinder and the water rises to the
Pcmye mark:
What metal is the object made of?
Volume of the object: V=91-82
07 Cle
Write down the formula: p= m/v
Substitute the values
for m and V: jy)
Work out the answer and did!)
write down the units: DLO oycine by

So, from Table 1.1, what metal could the object

be made of?

An experiment of this type is never perfectly

accurate, so the density that you measure will
never be exactly the same as the values given AFig’31i22 Measuring thevolumerotan
in tables. irregular metal object by displacing water.
za
fe)
=
oO oS ea ee a ee

= END OF EXTENDED
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
density, hydrometer, volume

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O To recall and use p = m/V.
©) About an experiment to determine the density of a liquid and of a regularly
shaped solid and how to make the necessary calculation.

IDED How to describe the determination of the density of an irregularly

Pape’ solid by finding its mass and then determining the volume of water that it
will displace, and how to make the necessary calculation.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given for questions like these may
be different.
1. The density of air is 1.3 kg/m?. Estimate the mass of air in the room you are in.
2. Ice floats on water.
a) Which has the greater density, ice or water?
b) Use particle ideas to suggest why this is surprising.
. Aking who has studied physics believes that his jeweller has given him a crown
that is a mixture of gold and silver, not the 1.93 kg of pure gold that he paid
for. He weighs the crown on a balance and finds that it has the correct mass
of 1.93 kg. He then immerses it in a measuring jug where the water level was
originally 800 cm°.
a) If the crown is pure gold, what will the new water level be? (2 marks)

b) What will happen to the water level if the jeweller has cheated? (2 marks)

DENSI
 Effects of forces
INTRODUCTION
We live in a dynamic universe. There is
constant motion around us all the time, from
the vibrations of our atoms to the sweep of
giant galaxies through space, and the motion
is constantly changing. Objects themselves
do not remain constant — some change size,
others change shape. Atoms arrange and
rearrange themselves into many different
chemicals. Energy moves about through the
motion of objects and through transfer by
A Fig. 1.23 These people are applying forces to waves. All of this motion and change is driven
drag the net from the sea. : : : base. oe
by forces. This topic explores the forces
behind the movement of objects.
i

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/ Be able to explain that mass is how much matter is contained in a body.
Y Be able to distinguish between mass and weight and know that weight is a force.
Y Know that acceleration is a rate of change of speed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y State that a force may produce a change in size and shape of a body.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to plot and interpret extension—load graphs and describe the
associated experimental procedure.
/Y EXTENDED State Hooke’s law and recall and use the expression F = kx, where
k is the spring constant.
¥ EXTENDED Recognise the significance of the term ‘limit of proportionality’ for an
extension—load graph.
/ Be able to describe the ways in which a force may change the motion of a body.
V Be able to find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line.
¥ Recognise that if there is no resultant force on a body it either remains at rest or
continues at constant speed in a straight line.
¥ Understand friction as the force between two surfaces that impedes motion and
results in heating.
¥ Recognise air resistance as a form of friction.

WHAT ARE FORCES?

=
A force is a push or a pull. The way that an object behaves depends on
fe) all of the forces acting on it. A force may come from the pull of a chain
=
fe) or rope, the push of a jet engine, the push of a pillar holding up a
=
ceiling, or the pull of the gravitational field around the Earth.
Effects of forces
It is unusual for a single force to be acting on an object. Usually there
will be two or more. The sizes and directions of these forces determine
whether the object will
move and thedirection
it will move in.
Forces are measured in pulling pushing
newtons (N). They take
many forms and have
many effects, including
pushing, pulling,
bending, stretching, eee
squeezing and tearing. (stretching) compression

POrees Can:
¢ change the speed of
an object is
@ change the direction <a
of movement of iurnin torsion
an object g (twisting)
change the shape of A Fig. 1.24 Different types of force.
an object.
There are several different types of force. All objects in the Universe
attract each other with the extremely feeble force of gravity. The
strength of the attraction depends on the mass of the two objects and
the distance between their centres. You may think that gravity is strong,
but you are, after all, close to the Earth, which is a very massive object!
The gravitational attraction between everyday objects is very small.
Electricity and magnetism both generate forces that are far stronger
than gravity. You see magnetic forces and electric forces combining as
an electromagnetic force used every day when an electric motor turns.
A current in a magnetic field experiences a force. A motor has a coil of
wire moving in a magnetic field. One side of the coil experiences an
upwards force in the magnetic field, the other side experiences a
downward force, and the coil turns in the magnetic field.
Electrostatic forces are the most important in our everyday lives.
Electrostatic forces are those between charges, such as electrons.
Like charges repel (so an electron will repel another electron) and
unlike charges attract (so a negatively charged electron will attract
a positively charged proton). The reason that you are
not sinking into the floor at the moment is that the
electrons on the outside of the atoms of your shoes
are being repelled by the electrons on the outside of
the atoms of the floor (Fig. 1.25).
The same force is used when your hand lifts Cree (er 1S
something sa ee when friction slows down e co A Fig. 1.25 Electrons on the surface of the
In fact, all of the forces in this section are either eee coronsonmecuisce or ine EFFECT
FORCE
OF

gravitational or — ultimately — electrostatic. sole of the shoe.

 And when you consider that it is an electrostatic force that allows a
bulletproof coat to stop a speeding bullet, you'll probably agree that
electrostatic forces are much stronger than gravity.
There are a few other types of force apart from these three, for
example, the ‘strong’ force that holds the nucleus of the atom together.
But most of the forces that we feel or notice around us are one of the
three: gravitational, electrostatic or magnetic.

QUESTIONS |
1. a) Describe three effects of a force.
b) Describe three types of force.
2. a) What is the force that causes all the objects in the Universe
to attract?
b) What two factors does the strength of this force depend on?
3. Where do we find the ‘strong’ force?
4. What force is seen in a motor?

LINKING THE FUNDAMENTAL FORCES

Scientists are working to find a theory that links all the fundamental
forces: gravity, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force and weak
nuclear force. Particle accelerators, in which high-energy collisions
take place, are useful tools in this search. In 1963, Glashow, Salam and
Weinberg predicted that the electromagnetic force and the weak
nuclear force might combine (in what would be called the
electroweak force) at energies of about 100 GeV or temperatures of
about 10'°K, which would have occurred shortly after the Big Bang.
This prediction was confirmed 20 years later in a particle accelerator.

MOTION

A Fig. 1.26 Inside the Large Hadron Collider.

 There are theories that predict that the electroweak and strong forces
would combine at energies greater than 10'° GeV and that all the
forces may combine at energies greater than 10'’GeV. At present, the
largest particle accelerator is the Large Hadron Collider, at the
European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland.
It is able to accelerate protons to 99.99% ofthe speed of light, and
they can reach energies of 1.4 x 10*GeV, so it is still some way short
of the energies needed to test the theory about combining the
electroweak and strong forces, and all four forces.

However, science never stands still and it may be that these energies
are reached in your lifetime!

ADDING FORCES
When two or more forces are pulling or pushing an object in the same
direction, then the effect of the forces will add up; when they are
pulling it in opposite directions, then the backwards forces can
be subtracted.

A Fig. 1.27 These husky dogs are able to pull the sledge due to the low level of friction between
the sledge and the snow.

Twelve husky dogs are pulling a sledge. The sledge is travelling to the
right and each dog is pulling with a force of 50 N. There is a friction
force of 250N that is trying to slow the sledge, and therefore must be
pointing to the left.
The total force to the right is (12 x 50) N = 600N. Wy
iu
U
The total force to the left is 250 N. oc
2)
re
The resultant force (the total added-up force) = 600 — 250 N to the right LL
ie)
= 350 Nitorie rohit. wa)
=
U
uu
Note that you must give the direction of the resultant force. re
re
uu
 REMEMBER
Think very carefully about this. Having zero resultant force does not
mean the object is stationary. What it does mean is that the object is
not accelerating — if it is already moving it will continue to do so at
constant speed in a straight line.

EXTENDED

HOW ARE MATERIALS AFFECTED BY STRETCHING?

When weights are added to a length of wire, the wire will stretch. The
eraph in Fig. 1.28 shows how the amount that the wire stretches (the
extension) varies with the load attached to it (the force). The wire will
stretch in proportion to the load up to a certain point, which depends
on the material from which the wire is made. Beyond
Wire
this point, the extension is no longer proportional to
the load, and so this point is called the limit of
proportionality.
A string on a musical instrument, such as a guitar string, force/N

will behave as shown in the graph for wire, but will break
shortly after the limit of proportionality is reached. This
means that, when tuning a string on a musical instrument, extension/cm
we need to take care that we do not tighten the string too MEGA ore eeeentern
much or we risk it breaking. ae eee

REMEMBER
A material shows elastic behaviour if it returns to its original length
when any deforming forces have been removed. During elastic
behaviour, the particles in the material are pulled apart a little, so they
return to their original positions when the forces are removed. A
material shows plastic behaviour if it remains deformed when a load is
removed. During plastic behaviour, the particles slide past each other
and the structure of the material is changed permanently.

THE BEGINNINGS OF PLASTICS

In 1862, at the Great Exhibition in London, Alexander Parkes

demonstrated an organic material that was derived from cellulose
that, once it was heated, could be moulded and kept its moulded
shape when it was cooled. This was the first plastic material, which
was Called Parkesine.

MOTION

i=]
wT
bf
 Six years later, John Wesley Hyatt
invented celluloid, which again is derived
from cellulose, as an alternative to ivory,
which was then used to make billiard
balls. Celluloid became more famous as
the first flexible photographic film used
for still photographs and moving
pictures. By 1900 it had an expanding
market in movie films.

The first fully synthetic resin to be

commercially successful was Bakelite,
which was invented in 1907 by Leo
:
Mencdricbackeland. A Fig.ee
pak 1.29Ma earlylyteleoh
telephones were made

Hooke’s law
For a wire, there is a section of the force—extension graph
that is linear. Like a wire, when a spring stretches, the
extension of the spring is proportional to the force stretching
it, provided the limit of proportionality (see Fig. 1.28) of force/N
the spring is not exceeded. This is Hooke’s law and is
shown by a straight line on a force—extension graph
(Fie 130)
extension/cm
The gradient of the line is a measure of the stiffness of
. A Fig. 1.30 Hooke's law in a spring
the spring. is shown by a straight line.
An experiment to show Hooke’s law:
1. Assemble the apparatus (Fig. 1.31) and allow |
the spring to hang down. Measure the a6
starting position of the bottom end of the
spring on the ruler.
2. Take the first mass, which consists of the
hook and base plate, typically of mass 100g
(a weight of 1 N), and hang it on the spring measures the
(take care to ensure that the mass can't fall a extension of
~<—_ the spring
onto anyone’s feet). Measure the new against the
position of the bottom end of the spring on ruler

the ruler. The difference in the readings is

the extension of the spring.
3. Add masses one by one to the first one. weights
uv
Lu
1S]
Typically each mass is C-shaped, and adds an provide the
stretching
ce
Oo
additional 100g. Add the masses carefully so aa LL
pe

that the spring stretches slowly.

Eset
aa
rc
eae
(ae
| Oo
vp)
|

4. You should then reverse the experiment to U

Lu
A Fig. 1.31 Apparatus to investigate Hooke’s law.
aes

see what happens as the masses are removed. be

Wu
 5. Calculate the extension (Table 1.2) and plot a graph of extension
against force (Fig. 1.32).

cm the cm |
| | /extension/ | |

0~ Boe i528 ae — ae
100 oe |16.8 }16.8— 15.2 [1.6 | |
| 200 | 2.0 OSs TMi a eich PE

rade ame tina cole |610.220 Oa

petcich wow ete. «|. eer =e

force/N

0 4 8 12 16
extension/cm

A Fig. 1.32 Graph of results.

A spring that obeys Hooke’s

law shows ‘proportional’
behaviour: the extension
of the spring increases in
proportion to the load on the
spring. It also shows elastic
behaviour — when the force is
removed, the spring returns
to its original length provided
the elastic limit (the point at
which the spring returns to
its original length after the
load is removed) has not
been exceeded.

A Fig. 1.33 Carrying out the experiment.

MOTION
 SCIENCE
IN
isa HOOKE’S LAW IN ACTION

Hooke’s law applies to springs that are both extended and

compressed by a load, so whenever a spring is used it is an
applicationof Hooke’s law. Examples are toys that use springs such as
jack-in-the boxes, and trampolines, which rely on springs returning to
their original length and then stretching again to give the ‘bounce’
required. Anyone who sleeps on a mattress that contains springs also
experiences Hooke’s law in action on a nightly basis - a mattress with
springs that do not return to their original length after being
compressed would be rather uncomfortable to sleep on!

FORC
OF
EFFE

ten
i
a
A
iN
ah
ey
Sa
YS
ee
ew?
es
|

| LIMIT OF PROPORTIONALITY
| When you stretch a spring too far, the line is no longer straight and
| Hooke’s law is no longer true. This point at the end of the straight line
| is known as the ‘limit of proportionality’.
| The spring may (if you do not stretch it too far) be elastic and go back
to its original length.
However, as you stretch the material beyond the limit of
proportionality, different materials can behave in widely different ways.
As we have seen, the equation for Hooke’s law is:
force = spring constant x extension of spring
ice
Where: F = force in newtons
k = spring constant in N/m
| x = extension of the spring in m
| Note that it is acceptable to use a spring constant in N/em or N/mm,
| so long as the extension is measured in the same units.
|
This equation works for springs that are being stretched or
| compressed. The value of k will be the same for both, but note
| that some springs cannot be compressed (if, for example, the
| turns of the spring are already in contact).
_ You can use the triangle in Fig. 1.34 to help you to rearrange the
| equation. Cover the quantity you want to find and the form of the
other two will show you how to write the equation. For example,
to find x, cover it and you will see that the equation should be A Fig. 1.34 The equation
written as x = F/k. triangle for Hooke’s law.
WORKED EXAMPLE
A motorbike has a single compression spring on the rear wheels. When
the rider sits on the bike, she pushes on the rear wheel with 60% of her
weight. Her mass is 50 kg, and the spring constant is 60 N/em. How
much does the spring compress when she sits on the bike?

The formula ef the weight of the rider: W = mg

Substitute the values for m and g: Wie 5010
Work out the answer and write down the units: W =500N
The force on the rear spring = 60% of 500N
=) Op apUGiIN

= 300N

Write down the formula for the compression of the spring: x = F/k
Substitute the values for F and k: x = 300/60

Work out the answer and write down the units: x=) em

The spring compresses by 5cm.

QUESTIONS
1. What force is required to stretch a spring with spring constant
0.2N/m a distance of 5cm?
2. A vertical spring stretches 5cm under a load of 100g. Determine
the spring constant.
3. A force of 600N compresses a spring with spring constant
30N/cm. How far does the spring compress?

END OF EXTENDED

BALANCED FORCES
Usually there are at least two forces acting on an object. When push up
: . : from table
these two forces are balanced, then the object will either be
stationary or moving at a constant speed. If forces are
balanced, there is no resultant force on the object. Two forces wi
uw
are balanced when their magnitude is the same but they act in
Q
oe
O
re
opposite directions. weight pee
O
The book in Fig. 1.35 is stationary because the push upwards A Fig. 1.35 The forces on
wn
Ke

from the table is equal to the weight downwards. If the table this book are balanced.
1S)
Ww
Lh
stopped pushing upwards, the book would fall. me
us
 The aircraft in Fig. 1.36 is flying ‘straight and level’
because the lift generated by the air flowing over the
wings is equal and opposite to the weight of the
aircraft. This diagram shows that the plane will neither
climb nor dive, as it would if the forces were not equal. weight
aig
n’s first law of motion, which simp!
, ° a 6
.
Dners NES py A Fig. 1.36 The balanced forces on this
says you need a resultant force to change the way Ai rate rican He Te cinec one pOT ee
something is moving. will not change.

UNBALANCED FORCES
For an object's speed or direction of movement to change, the forces
acting on it must be unbalanced (there must be a resultant force).
You can find the resultant of two unbalanced forces by adding them up,
taking into account their direction. So, when the driving force on a car
is 10ON to the left but the friction force is 50 N to the right, the
resultant force is 50 N to the left.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Find the resultant force when a skydiver of mass 60 kg jumps from a
plane and the air resistance is 1ON.

Force downwards =m x g
= 600-10
= OU0IN

Force upwards = = —10N (if you take the downwards direction as

positive)

Resultant force =600-—10N

= 590N downwards

2. Find the resultant force on a car when the driving force in 1500 N to
the left and the friction force is 100 N to the right.

Resultant force = 1500-100

= 1400N to the left
[UU se aa Se Tn Suen Ec ssas a co cet
As a gymnast first steps on to a trampoline, his weight is much greater
than the opposing supporting force of the trampoline, so he moves
downwards, stretching the trampoline. (Note that we are not talking
about the gymnast jumping onto the trampoline — if that were the case,
the physics would be different!) As the trampoline stretches, its
supporting force increases until the supporting force is equal to the
z gymnasts weight. When the two forces are balanced, the trampoline
fe) stops stretching. If an elephant stood on the trampoline, the trampoline
=
e)
=
would break because it could never produce a supporting force equal to
the elephant’s weight.
You see the same effect when you stand on snow or soft ground. When
you stand on quicksand, the supporting force will not equal your
weight, and you will continue to sink.

t
Ef gymnast stops moving 4
\\__ when trampoline's supporting
\____ force equals his weight __
REE

A Fig. 1.37 A trampoline stretches until it supports the weight on it.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the motion of an object when the forces on it are
balanced.
2. Describe the motion of an object when the forces on it are
unbalanced.
3. In Fig. 1.37, if the gymnast is standing at rest on the trampoline,
what must the supporting force of the trampoline be equal to?

SCIENCE
tram BIOLOGY - LIFE PROCESSES

Forces changing the shapes of objects links to the idea of how

muscles work and the effects they have on the body. For example,
the heart is muscle tissue that changes its shape to maintain blood
flow around the body.

A second example is the action of the biceps and triceps muscles —

an antagonistic pair — in the arm which also change shape to move
the arm.

CHEMISTRY - METALS 7)
Lu
U
ce
- Metals are malleable - applying a force to a metal can cause its oO
Lh

_ shape to change. Forces have this effect on metals due to the Le

fe)
metallic bonding. vn
lol

UO
uu
LL
LL
Lu
 WHAT IS FRICTION?
A force that opposes motion may not be a
bad thing. When you walk, your feet try to
slide backwards on the ground. It is only Fores ef pincer
because there is friction (working against care es
this sliding) that you can move forwards.
Where there is friction, heat is released. Just
think how much harder it is to walk on a
slippery (that is, low friction) surface such as
ice. A force that opposes motion is also very
useful in applications such as between the
brake pads and a bicycle wheel.
However, in many situations friction can be a
disadvantage. For example, there is some
friction in the bearings of a bicycle wheel,
which causes some energy to be transferred A Fig. 1.38 Friction can stop any
to unwanted thermal energy. movement occurring at all, and it
Sy is friction that stops a nail coming
Air resistance is a form of friction. The air out of a piece of wood.
resistance experienced by a parachutist is a
form of friction and is useful in this case because there is a large
resistive force, which means that the terminal velocity of a parachutist
is quite low and he or she can land relatively safely.

QUESTIONS
1. Give an example of where friction may be useful.
2. Give an example of where friction may be a disadvantage.

MOTION
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
electrostatic forces, extension, force, friction, Hooke’s law, limit of
proportionality, Newton's first law of motion, proportional behaviour,
resultant force

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O That a force may produce a change in size and shape of a body.

O EXTENDED How to plot load—extension graphs and describe the associated

Sa procedure.

eed graph

() To describe the ways in which a force may change the motion of a body.

©) How to find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line.

QO) That if there is no resultant force on a body it either remains at rest or continues at
constant speed in a straight line.

() That friction is the force between two surfaces that impedes motion and results
in heating.

Q) That air resistance is a form of friction.

FORC
OF
EFFEC
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. A student performed an experiment stretching a spring. She loaded masses onto
the spring and measured its extension. Here are her results.

Extension/cm

a) On graph paper, plot a graph of load (vertical axis) against extension (horizontal
axis). Draw a suitable line through your points. (3 marks)
b) EXTENDED Mark on the graph the limit of proportionality, and indicate the
region where proportional behaviour occurs and the region where the
behaviour is probably plastic. (3 marks)
c) EXTENDED How does she check whether the spring, after being loaded with
8.6 N, has shown plastic behaviour or purely elastic behaviour? (1 mark)
. For each of the following situations, give two different examples:
a) Forces causing objects to change speed
b) Forces causing objects to change direction
c) Forces causing objects to change shape.
. For each of the examples you gave in your answer to question 2, describe what
would happen after the force is removed.

. EXTENDED Find the resultant of a force of 3N acting vertically and a force

of 4N acting horizontally. (4 marks)

MOTION
Pressure
INTRODUCTION
A snowmobile can travel over soft snow
because its weight is spread over a large area
of snow by the skis. If the rider got off and
stood on the snow, he would probably sink
into it up to his knees, even though he is
much lighter than the snowmobile.

If a pair of shoes has narrow (stiletto) heels,

the wearer can easily damage a wooden floor
by making indentations in it. You can push
a drawing pin into a notice board by the
A Fig. 1.39 The skis underneath stop the
pressure your thumb exerts on the sharp end. snowmobile from sinking into deep snow.

In each case, the question is not just what force is used, but
also what area it is spread over.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥Y Know how to calculate areas of regular shapes, such as squares and rectangles.
Y Know how to calculate the volume of regular objects, such as cubes and cylinders.
/ Understand the concept of force.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to relate (without calculation) pressure to force and area, using
appropriate examples.
/ EXTENDED Recall and use the equation p = F/A.

MEASURING PRESSURE
Pressure is the ratio of force to area. Where we have a
large force over a small area we have a high pressure, and
a small force over a large area gives us a low pressure.
Pressure is measured in newtons per square metre
(N/m), usually called pascals (Pa). So 1 Pa = 1 N/m’.
A Fig. 1.40 When a drawing pin is
placed pin-side down, the pressure on
the surface is much greater than when
it is placed head-side down.

PRESS
 EXTENDED

To measure how ‘spread out’ a force is, use this formula:

pressure = force/area
p=FIA
Where: _ p = pressure in pascals, Pa (or newtons per square
metre, N/m’)

F = force in newtons, N A Fig. 1.41 the equation triangle

for force, pressure and area.
A = area in m°

WORKED EXAMPLE
What pressure on the snow does a snowmobile make when it has a
weight of 800N and the runners have an area of 0.2 m*?

Write down the formula: p= FIA

Confirm that F is in N and A is in m?.

Substitute the values for F and A: p = 800/0.2

Work out the answer and write down the units: p = 4000 Pa or 4kPa

Note that 4kPa is a very low pressure. When you stand on the ground
in basketball shoes, the pressure on the ground will be around 20 kPa.
The wheel of a car generates a pressure on the ground of around
200 kPa. Pressures can be quite high, so the kPa is often used.
a

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. Why can you push a drawing pin into a surface using your thumb
when you can’t push your thumb into the same surface?
2. EXTENDED Calculate the pressure exerted by a 100N force acting
on an area of 0.2m.
3. EXTENDED A pressure of 40Pa is exerted over an area of 2m’.
Calculate the force involved.
4. EXTENDED A force of 500N produces a pressure of 640 Pa. Over
what area is the force acting?
=
oi
Oo
=
 i
thee as

eres
mae

PRESS
 End of topic checklist

Key term
pressure

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

CO EXTENDED That
p =F/A.
O) That pressure is related to force and area and be able to give
appropriate examples.

2
e)
Fa
fe)
=

wT
Lo
wt
 End of topic questions
- Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these
may be different.
NDED Calculate the pressure on the floor caused by:

i) an ordinary shoe heel (person of mass 40 kg, heel 5cm x 5cm) when all the
person's weight is on one heel (2 marks)
ii) an elephant (mass 500 kg, area of one foot 300 cm’) when all four feet are on
the ground (2 marks)

iii) a high-heeled shoe (worn by a person of mass 40 kg, heel area 0.5 cm?) when
all the person's weight is on one heel. (2 marks)
b) Which of the situations described in part a) will damage a wooden floor that
Starts to yield at a pressure of 4000 kPa? (2 marks)

(Note: to convert from cm? to m? you need to divide by 10000.)

2. Askater glides on one skate. The mass of the skater is 65 kg and the area ofthe
skate is 9 x 10°*m?. What pressure is exerted on the ice by the skate? (2 marks)

PRESS
&
 ‘This section looks at the important concept of energy. First you will
__ use the idea of work to measure the energy transferred when
forces cause objects to move, before going on to consider energy
itself and then using the idea of power to consider how quickly
energy is transferred. Finally, you will look at the large-scale
resources we use to provide energy for society.

STARTING POINTS
1. Think about the word ‘work’ - how many different situations
can you think of where this wordis used? :
2. If someone says they have ‘lots of energy’ today, what does
that mean?
3. A light bulb is marked 60W - what does that tell you about
the bulb?
4. Do energy-saving light bulbs really save energy?
5. Can the world ever run out of energy?

CONTENTS
a) Work
lo) Energy
c) Power
d) Energy resources
ule SH
 Work
INTRODUCTION
How much work did you do today?
Be careful how you answer — this is an
example of when the words we use in
physics are the same words that we use in
everyday life, but in physics we use the
words to have a very specific meaning.
In physics, ‘work is related to the particular
situation where a force causes an object to
move. It allows us to calculate a number —
this is important when comparing
A Fig. 2.1 The mobile crane is doing work as it different situations.
lifts the girder into place.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
_ ¥ Be able to describe situations where forces cause objects to move.
Y Know that the weight of objects is caused by the force of gravity.
¥ Know how to use rulers and forcemeters.
= ——

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
V Relate (without calculation) work done to the magnitude of a force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force.
Y/Y EXTENDED Recall and use W=F x d= AE.
ee =

WORK
~ Work is done when the application of a force results in movement. The
amount of work done depends on the magnitude of the force and the
distance moved in the direction of the force. Work can only be done when
the object or system has energy. When work is done, energy is transferred.
Look at Fig. 2.2. In this position, the gymnast is not doing any work
against his body weight — he is not moving (he will be doing work
pumping blood around his body though).

ENERGY
WORK,
POWER
AND
The gymnast in Fig. 2.3 is doing work. He is moving upwards against
his weight. Energy is being transferred as he does the work. |

A Fig. 2.2 A gymnast. A Fig. 2.3 A gymnast doing work

against his own body weight.

EXTENDED
Work done is equal to the amount of energy transferred. It can be
calculated using the following formula:
work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force
= energy transferred
Vie od 2
where: W = work done in joules (J)
F = force in newtons (N)
d = distance moved in the direction of the force in metres (m)
E = energy transferred in joules (J)
1 joule of energy (or work) will move a weight of 1 newton a distance
of | metre.

|WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
1. A cyclist pedals along a flat road. He exerts a force of 60 N on the road
surface and travels 150m. Calculate the work done by the cyclist.
Write down the formula: NY See x a!

Substitute the values for F and d: W = 60> e150

Work out the answer and write down the unit: W = 9000]

2. A person does 3000] of work in pushing a supermarket trolley 50m

across a level car park. What force was the person exerting on the
trolley?
Write down the formula with F as the subject: F = W/d
<2
ina
Substitute the values for W and d: F = 3000/50 2)
=
Work out the answer and write down the unit: F=60N
 When something slows down because of friction, work is done. The
kinetic energy of the motion is transferred to heat as the frictional
forces slow the object down. For example, if you are riding your bike
and you brake, the energy from your motion is converted to heat in the
brake blocks.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS

| 2. Calculate the force required to move an object 8m by

transferring 4000! of energy.
3. Calculate the work done when a force of 40N moves a block 2m.

4. How far does an object move when the force on it is 6N and the
work done is 300J?
5. What force is needed to move a piano a distance of 2m when
the work done is 8005?
6. EXTENDED The Space Shuttle uses friction to do work on its
motion upon re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere.

A Fig. 2.4 The space shuttle in orbit.

fs | The shuttle has 8.45 x 10'7J of energy to transfer over an

al 8000km flight path. What force is applied by the atmosphere?
S| _ 7, EXTENDED Use the internet or books to research the shuttle
a landing and answer the following questions.
ez | a) What happens to the transferred energy?
eA
z | b) What temperatures are generated by the work being done,
=a and how does this relate to the material used for the
=
|| underside of the shuttle surface, such as why is it not made
from aluminium or iron?
 End of topic checklist
Key term
work
During your study of this topic you should have learned:
QO) That work done is related to the magnitude of a force and the distance moved.
O EXTENDED How to describe energy changes in terms of work done.
O EXTENDED AW= Fd = AE

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

100

120

(6 marks)

3: EXTENDED Jumana and Maria went up the hill. Jumana’s weight is 500 N and
Maria’s weight is 450 N. Who did the most work? (3 marks)
. EXTENDED Explain why, however long you have been sitting writing, you have
hardly done any work at all. (3 marks)

WORK

661
 Energy
INTRODUCTION
The study of energy, how it moves about, what
it does when it is transferred, is at the heart of
physics. Energy is that ‘stuff’ that allows
things to happen. But what actually is ‘energy ?
s

Energy is surprisingly hard to pin down. We

have an intuitive ‘feel’ that when we have lots
of energy, we can get lots of things done.
When we are feeling ‘drained’ of energy, then
it is much harder.

A Fig. 2.5 These trams take electrical energy Being able to track where the energy is
from the overhead wires and convert some of
ante Cate enercy moving, in all its ‘disguises’, is a key skill that
will help you explain many aspects of physics.

~_ KNOWLEDGE CHECK —
/ Know some everyday uses of energy.
| / Be able to describe devices that transform energy from one form to another.
ee
LEARNING OBJECTIVES —__
/ Demonstrate understanding that work done = energy transferred.
/Y Demonstrate understanding that an object may have energy due to its motion
(kinetic energy) or its position (potential energy) and that energy may be transferred
and stored.
VY Identify changes in kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear
and internal energy that have occurred as a result of an event or process.
VY Recognise that energy is transferred during events and processes, including
examples of transfer by forces (mechanical working), by electrical currents (electrical
working), by heating and by waves.
V Apply the principle of conservation of energy to simple examples.
/Y EXTENDED Recall and use the expressions kinetic energy = Y2mv? and change in
gravitational energy = mgAh.

ENERGY
A car will not move without using fuel. At present this
fuel could be petrol, alcohol, diesel fuel or liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG). In the past the fuel could, just
possibly, have been coal; and in the future it could be
hydrogen, or electricity stored in a battery. However,
whatever fuel you use, you are buying something with
ENERGY
WORK,
POWER
AND
the ability to make that car move. This stored ability is
Fig. 2.6 Fuel, whatever form it comes in,
known as potential energy. gives a car the ability to move.
A clock needs energy to make the hands move, and
this energy can be stored in a spring that you wind up
with a key, in an electrical battery, or in weights that
are raised up.
Potential energy is stored or hidden energy. In this
context potential’ means ‘containing power. When a
spring is stretched or compressed, the spring will have
elastic potential energy as shown in Fig. 2.7.

When a load is raised above the ground, it will have

gravitational potential energy, as shown in Fig. 2.8.
Gravitational potential energy is energy due to an
object's position.
If the spring is released or the load moves back to the
ground, the stored potential energy is transferred to
movement energy, which is called kinetic energy.

A Fig. 2.7 The spring in this vehicle suspension

system stores elastic potential energy.

<I Fig. 2.8 This cuckoo clock stores gravitational potential

energy in two weights: one to run the mechanism that
turns the hands, and one to make the cuckoo sing on
each hour.

Potential energy can be used to make an object move,

and so give it kinetic energy. Kinetic energy can also be
transferred into potential energy, and this can be seen
most clearly in the action of a pendulum, where at each
end of its swing (at A and C in Fig. 2.9) the pendulum
has a maximum amount of gravitational potential energy, ©: 2
and at the middle of its swing (at B) some of the Masso mr
potential energy has been transferred into kinetic energy _y fig. 2.9 Energy changes in the swing of
(the pendulum is moving fastest), as shown in Fig. 2.9. a pendulum.
 |
}

REMEMBER
An object gains gravitational potential energy as it gains height. Work
has to be done to increase the height of the object above the ground.
_ Therefore: gain in gravitational potential energy of an object = work
done on that object against gravity.
EEE

| Delta notation
| We use the Greek letter A (delta) to stand for ‘the change in’. For
example, Ah means ‘the change in the height. When you are using Ah
in an equation, treat it as one symbol meaning ‘the change in energy;
don't separate them.

EXTENDED
You can use the expression p.e. = mgAh to calculate the amount of
potential energy an object has. In this expression, m is its mass, g is
acceleration due to gravity (usually taken as 10 m/s’) and h is its height
above the ground (zero level).

WORKED EXAMPLE
| A skier has a mass of 70 kg and travels up in a ski lift that has a vertical
height of 300m. Calculate the change in the skier’s gravitational
| potential energy.

| Write down the formula: p.e. =m Xx fo)g xX Ah

Substitute values for m, g and h: p.e. = 70 x 10 x 300

Work out the answer and write

down the unit: p.e. 210000] or 210k]

WORKED EXAMPLE
An ice skater has a mass of 50 kg and travels at a speed of 5 m/s.
Calculate the ice skater’s kinetic energy.
cc
Lud
You can use the expression k.e. = “4mv? to calculate the amount of
S potential energy an object has. In this expression, m is its mass and v is
oO
o.
its velocity,
a)
=
<x Write down the formula: k.e. = “mv?
>
a)
oc
Lu
Substitute the values for m and v: ke. = 450% 5a 5
=
Lu
Work out the answer and write down the unit: — k.e. = 625]
4
oe —
o
=
QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the Aeerationsl potential energy gained anenea ae
mass is lifted 2m.
pk Calculate the kinetic energy OLaa2 kg ball rolling at 2mis.

END OF EXTENDED

DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY

As shown by the pendulum, energy can either be stored or can be seen
as a form of motion. The different types of stored energy are all forms
of potential energy. Here are some important examples:
¢ Gravitational potential energy: This is energy stored by an object
that has been raised up in a gravitational field, for example, a ball at |
the top of a hill.
e Elastic (strain) energy: The word ‘strain’ means stretched. ‘Strain
energy can be stored in springs (in clocks, for example) and in bows
when they are drawn back before the arrow is released.
¢ Chemical energy: The energy stored in fuels, such as petrol and
diesel, is usually called ‘chemical energy’. In any object, the atoms are
held together by forces that are called bonds. These bonds behave
like springs. In some materials, such as fuels and explosives, the
bonds are forced to be shorter or longer than they wish. This stores
energy in the bonds that can be transferred by breaking up the
structure of the fuel or the explosive.
A battery is ready to turn ‘chemical energy’ into
‘electrical energy, and a rechargeable battery is so
called because every time that it is discharged it
can be recharged by forcing electricity through it
backwards. The ‘electrical energy that is
transferred is stored as ‘chemical energy’.
e Nuclear energy: The energy in a nucleus of an atom
is stored in the extremely strong bonds between the
particles of which the nucleus is made. Some ofthis bE S7 SESS Nee
energy can be released, in the case of uranium (and Tee DO Satine arudeus en eieewe a
some other metals) by splitting the nucleus of the lot of energy.
atom into two smaller nuclei. This can be done either
slowly and for good purposes in a nuclear power station,
or very rapidly in an atomic bomb.
ooo
Forms of kinetic energy O00 ‘ oO °
Here are some other important types of energy. They are 000 oO 00
actually all different sorts of kinetic energy, but this is far
from obvious in some cases: cold hot a
io

When people just use the words ‘kinetic energy, they ee Miners melhor i
are referring to the energy of a visible moving object with object vibrate more because they i
ee have more energy.
 e Internal energy (heat): This is contained within an object and makes
the difference between the object being hot or cold. A hot object
contains atoms that are moving fast or vibrating strongly.
copper wire

electrical
energy
~

copper atoms

A Fig. 2.12 Electrical energy in a wire.

¢ Electrical energy: Electrical currents carry electrical energy from one

place to ROL: Electrical energy can easily be turned into kinetic
energy in a motor or internal energy
in a resistor, perhaps used as a heater.
| © Light energy: A light wave carries ‘light energy
| as it travels, and this will be turned into internal
energy in most objects when it strikes them. If the
light hits a solar panel it can be made to generate
electrical energy.
¢ Sound waves: These carry a very small amount of current

energy from the source of the noise. The source .

: i ; : 3 ee : , A Fig. 2.13 A solar cell transfers light
vibrates, setting air particles around it into vibration. energy into electrical energy.
These vibrations are passed through the air as a
longitudinal wave. When the wave reaches the ear it sets the
| eardrum into vibration. (Do not confuse the 2000 W of electricity
| consumed by a band performing on stage with the 100 W of sound
being emitted by the loudspeakers. The ear is extremely good at
detecting sound.)

TRANSFER OF ENERGY
Any type of energy can be transferred into any other type of energy. In
some cases, this transfer can be done efficiently, such as between kinetic
_ energy and electrical energy. In other cases, the transfer is inefficient. One
_ example of inefficient transfer of energy is the power station, Fig. 2.20.
In every case of transfer of energy, some of the energy is converted to
cc internal energy. A light bulb transfers electrical energy to light energy
but also gets hot; an electric motor transfers aaa tel energy to kinetic
ud

S
i)
a energy but also gets hot; a diesel engine transfers chemical energy to
a
=|
<
kinetic energy but also gets hot; a Batter) that is being charged gets hot.
> Even a pendulum eventually stops swinging because the movement of
U)
fc
Lu
the pendulum through the air heats up the air due to resistance.
z
did

7
Lo
@)
2
 SCIENCE

ag ENERGY AND THE EARTH

Energy and matter are constantly interacting on our planet. Part of this
interaction produces volcanoes, glaciers, mountain ranges, oceans and
continents. The energy comes from two sources: energy from the Sun,
which keeps the oceans and the atmospheric cycles (such as the water
cycle) going; and the internal energy, which comes from radioactive :
decay in the Earth’s core and is the driving force behind plate tectonics. |

The amount of energy that moves through the system is huge: it is of

the order of 1.74 x 10'7W. Most of this comes from the Sun. Figure 2.14
shows the energy transfers that take place in the Earth’s system.

reflection from
clouds:
5.2 x 10'8w

‘| atmosphere

a evaporation:
Al 4 <1 018W
heating air, land aeonee
-and oceans:
8.1 x 1618W

convection:
conduction:
1.1 x 101eW
2.1 x 10'3W

internal heat

A Fig. 2.14 Energy flows in the Earth.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the energy changes that take place as a pendulum
swings from one side to the other.
2. Where can elastic strain energy be found?
3. What is the source of chemical energy?

ENER
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy says that energy cannot be
created or destroyed. Often the words ‘conversion’ and
‘conservation’ are misused.
_ Energy conversion is transferring one form of energy to another (such as
electrical to light in a light bulb). In another example, a tram takes
electrical energy and converts it mainly into kinetic energy, but also
into internal energy and sound. Likewise, as a pendulum swings, some
of its energy is transferred between kinetic and gravitational potential
energy: but when you add up its total energy, you will find that the total
stays almost the same. The movements of the pendulum slowly die
away as energy is transferred to the air in the room and the air heats
up slightly.
|

REMEMBER
~ You may need to describe how energy is transferred in different
_ situations, but remember that total energy is always conserved: the
_ energy at the start and at the end must have the same total value. So,
_ you must account for all of the energy converted, and that includes the
energy that will have been transferred as internal energy, as well
__ perhaps as light or sound. For example, the amount of electrical energy
| that is put into a light bulb will all come out of the light bulb in the
_ form of light (useful output) and some internal energy (heat), which is
| wasted output.

EXTENDED
You can use the principle of the conservation of energy to calculate
what happens when kinetic energy and potential energy are converted
from either one to the other.
So long as negligible energy is lost in the conversion, mgh = Yamv?.

- QUESTIONS
—_—_—_ ae ee

1, State the law of conservation of energy.

oc
2. Describe the energy transfers that take place in a light bulb.
had

S 3. Consider a tram.
Oa. |
(a) a) What form of energy is its input?
=
>
b) What form of energy is its useful output?
ol
oO
ac
Lau
=
c) What form of energy is its ‘waste’ output?
lu ~=— — SS Z

x“
oc
© |
S
|WORKED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE |
A stone is thrown vertically upward and reaches a height of 6m above
the hand of the thrower. What speed was the stone travelling at when it
left the person’s hand?

The decreasein k.e. of the stone as it rises = the increase in

the p.e. of the stone.

As the final k.e. of the stone = 0, the initial k.e. of the stone
= the increase in the p.e. of the stone at the top of its flight.

Write down the formula: “mv = mgh

Yay" = gh

Note that the mass has cancelled out; the mass does not
matter in this case.

Substitute values for g and h: v? = gh x 2

=l10x6x2
=) A Fig. 2.15 The path of a stone
when it is thrown.
Work out the answer and write down the unit:
vi 120
= 10/95m/s
iii eh ne ee eS en a 7... CSS:

REMEMBER
Note that in this worked example, the answer has been given to four
significant figures. In most physics examples at this level, you should
remember to use three or four significant figures, not the 10 or more
digits that your calculator might give! You may be penalised in an exam
if you give too many.
Nee sss s...ess sss

The kinetic energy given to the stone when it is thrown is transferred to

potential energy as it gains height and slows down. At the top of its
flight a large part of the kinetic energy will have been converted into
gravitational potential energy. A small amount of energy will have been
lost due to friction between the stone and the air.

END OF EXTENDED
Peis Lalcuiaetie DOLE Ualclelgy OF 8 SOON T ay: Sey WEG GMOUGD. > Mal

REMEMBER : 2
As a skier skis down a mountain the loss in potential energy should |
~ equal the gain in kinetic energy (assuming no other energy transfers >

take place, as a result of friction, for example). Calculations can then

O
oc

be performed using: loss in p.e. = gain in k.e. (mgh = Yamv’). | oakatu

 etiam)
LINK BIOLOGY - LIFE PROCESSES, ECOSYSTEMS
- Ideas about energy transfer allow us to describe the central purpose
of life processes such as respiration and photosynthesis.

The law of conservation of energy — that the total energy present at

any stage is always the same — allows us to explain the relationships
behind food chains and the number of organisms an ecosystem is
able to support.

CHEMISTRY - ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Energy is conserved in all chemical reactions. Calculating the
energies involved in bond-making and bond-breaking leads to an
overall figure deciding whether any particular reaction will release
energy (an exothermic reaction) or require energy to be input (an
endothermic reaction).

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 End of topic checklist

Key terms
chemical energy, elastic strain energy, gravitational potential energy, internal
energy, kinetic energy, longitudinal wave, potential energy

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) That work done = energy transferred.
©) About examples of energy in different forms, including kinetic, gravitational,
chemical, strain, nuclear, internal, electrical, light and sound.
©) That energy is transferred during events and processes, including examples of
transfer by forces (mechanical working), by electrical currents (electrical working),
by heating and by waves.
©) How to apply the principle of conservation of energy to simple examples.
CO) EXTENDED That k.e. = “amv? and p.e. = mgAh.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. EXTENDED A student is carrying out a personal fitness test. She steps on and off
the ‘step’ 200 times. She transfers 30 Jof energy each time she steps up. Calculate
the energy transferred during the test. (3 marks)

. EXTENDED A child of mass 35 kg climbed a 30 m high snow-covered hill.

a) Calculate the change in the child's potential gravitational energy. (3 marks)

b) The child then climbed onto a lightweight sledge and slid down the hill.
Calculate the child’s maximum speed at the bottom of the hill. (Ignore the
mass of the sledge.) (3 marks)

c) Explain why the actual speed at the bottom of the hill is likely to be less than the
value calculated in part b). (3 marks)

. EXTENDED Calculate the potential energy of a piano of mass 300kg lifted through
a vertical height of 9m. (3 marks)

. EXTENDED Calculate the height climbed up a ladder when the person's mass is
70kg and the gravitational potential energy gained is 2800J. (3 marks)
came
DED A 1500 kg helicopter gains potential energy of 1.35 MJ in climbing
eae the ground. Calculate its height. (3 marks) ENER
 . EXTENDED Use the relationship between kinetic energy, mass and velocity to
complete the table.

Kinetic energy/J Mass/kg Speed/m/s

(6 marks)

. EXTENDED What is the kinetic energy of a bird of mass 200g flying at 6 m/s?
(3 marks)

. EXTENDED What is the speed of a car of mass 1500 kg with a kinetic energy
of 450 kJ? (3 marks)

. EXTENDED a) A skateboarder of mass 60kg is 3.15 m above ground level

travelling at 1 m/s. What is his kinetic energy? (3 marks)
b) What is the gravitational potential energy of the skateboarder in part a)?
(3 marks)

c) What is the total energy (kinetic + gravitational) of the skateboarder in

parts a) and b)? (2 marks)
d) Assuming that no energy is lost in the descent, show that the skateboarder
is travelling at about 8m/s on reaching ground level after the descent down
the 3.15m slope. (3 marks)
. EXTENDED A man pushes a wheelbarrow up a 5m long ramp onto a surface
1.6 m higher than his starting level. The weight of the barrow is 300N.
a) How much work has been done in raising the barrow 1.6m? (3 marks)
b) The force he needed to push the barrow along the ramp is 100N.
How much work did he do? (3 marks)
c) Why are the numbers in parts a) and b) different? (2 marks)
d) Why are ramps useful? (1 mark)

4a
’Ay
\VORK,
POWER
AND
ENERGY
Power
INTRODUCTION
There are many situations where it is
important to know how quickly energy is
being transferred — a kettle is no use if it
takes 5 hours to deliver the energy to heat
some water. For this we need to introduce
the concept of power.

A Fig. 2.16 When designing a kettle it is

important to think about how quickly the
energy is transferred.

/Y Know that domestic appliances have power ratings.

VY Be able to describe the energy transfers in a range of situations.
/ Know that energy can be transferred at different rates.

PERRNING OBJECTIVES 0 WWE = 4 SimuoA) nvalyuierw

Vv Relate (without calculation) power to work done and time taken, using
appropriate examples.
Y/Y EXTENDED Recall and use the equation P = AF/ tin simple systems.

POWER
A powerful engine in a car can take you up a road to the top of a
mountain more quickly than a less-powerful engine. Both engines can
do the same amount of work, given enough time, but the powerful
engine can do the work more quickly. In the same way, a powerful
electric motor on a cooling fan will move the air in the room more
quickly; and a ‘powerfully built’ athlete will, by transferring more
kinetic energy to it as it is launched, throw a javelin further.
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transferring
energy. The more powerful a machine is, the quicker it does a fixed
amount of work or transfers a fixed amount of energy.

POWE
7
 EXTENDED
Since power is the rate of doing work or the rate of 4
transferring energy, power can be calculated using
the formula:
power = work done/time taken = energy transferred/time
| taken
| P>WHorl= Ant A Fig. 2.17 The equation
a: triangle
: le ftor work kd done,
Where: P = power in joules per second or watts (W) ee Bnd Heke
use this triangle to help
AE = energy transferred in joules (J)
you rearrange the
W = work done in joules (J) formula.
t = time taken in seconds (s)

|
1 watt of power is | joule of work being done every second.
||

| WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES,
1. A crane lifts a 100 kg girder for a skyscraper by 20m in 40s. Hence
it does 20000] of work in 40s. Calculate its power over this time.
Note: this calculation tells you the power of the electric motor that
the crane needs.
Write down the formula: P = W/t

Substitute the values for W and t: P = 20 000/40

Work out the answer and write down the unit: P = 500 W

2. A student with a weight of 600N runs up the flight of

stairs, a distance of 5m, shown in the diagram (right)
in 6s. Calculate the student's power.
Write down the formula for work done: W = Fd

Substitute the values for F and d: W = 600 x 5 = 3000]

Write down the formula for power: P = W/t

A Fig. 2.18 A student running up a
Substitute the values for W and t: P 3000/6 peu

c Work out the answer and write down the unit: P = 500 \W
Lu
S
12)
a
a)
z= REMEMBER
<
>
O
The student is lifting his body against the force of gravity, which acts in
wc |
Lu a vertical direction. The distance measured must be in the direction of
=
ii the force (that is, the vertical height).
7
a eVv—_—_—_—__—_——-eo: eo ee

2)a eee
S
END OF EXTENDED
[SUEcHIONG WERENLiefiO® 8 8=60 ell UUU!UUU™~™~™~—
1. Aman (70kg) and a boy (35kg) run up a set of stairs in the same
time. Explain why the man is twice as powerful.
2. When a machine is called ‘powerful’, what does it mean?
3. EXTENDED What is the unit of power?
4. EXTENDED Calculate the power of a motor that transfers 12005
of energy every 5s.
5. EXTENDED a) A crane lifts a mass of 60kg to a height of 5m.
How much work does it do?
b) The crane takes 1 minute to do this. Calculate the power of
the crane.

jong
Ww
S
to)
a.
 End of topic checklist

Key term
power

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() That power is related to work done and time taken and be able to give
appropriate examples.
CO) EXTENDED That P = AE/t in simple systems.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

EXTENDED Peter and Paul walk home from school together up a hill. Peter is
heavier than Paul.
a) Who does more work? (2 marks)

b) Who produces more power? (2 marks)

EXTENDED A crane takes 10s to lift a load of 5000N a distance of 20m.

What is its power? (4 marks)

ED Calculate the work done by a 75 kW tractor in 20s. (3 marks)

{Mi
rAy
WORK,
ENERGY
POWER
AND
Energy resources
INTRODUCTION
Our everyday lives depend on energy being
transferred to us so that we can then ‘use it
to power our modern society. But where does
the energy come from?

The original source of almost all our energy

is nuclear fusion reactions in the Sun. This
energy has either been locked away over
millions of years in non-renewable resources,
such as coal, or drives renewable energy
resources such as the wind.
A Fig. 2.19 Wind farms are used around the
This topic looks at the energy resources we Hoile HO gRSSi CWE GSC TEIN
use in more detail.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Know that energy can be transferred by a range of devices.
¥ Know that energy can be transferred in a range of forms.
V Be able to describe energy transfers as useful or non-useful.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.
Y Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained from:
— chemical energy stored in fuel
— water, including the energy stored in waves, in tides, and in water behind
hydroelectric dams
— geothermal resources
— nuclear fission
— heat and light from the Sun (solar cells and panels)
— wind.
/ EXTENDED Understand that the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy
resources except geothermal, nuclear and tidal.
/ EXTENDED Understand that the source of tidal energy is mainly the Moon.
/ EXTENDED Give advantages and disadvantages of each method in terms of
-renewability, cost, reliability, scale and environmental impact.
/ EXTENDED Show an understanding that energy is released by nuclear fusion in
the Sun.
RESOU
ENERG
 ENERGY RESOURCES
Fossil fuels
Most of the energy we use is obtained from fossil fuels — coal, oil and
natural gas.
f hot waste gases

high pressure steam

generator
turbine —

to transformer

hot water
vapour

cooling
tower

hot water

cooling water from

I waste hot water river or sea

A Fig. 2.20 How a power station works. The most common fuels used in
power stations are coal, oil and gas.

Many power stations use fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) to produce
electricity that is supplied to homes and factories. Other power stations
burn alternative fuels to produce this electricity, but the basic method
of producing power is generally the same:
¢ Fuel is burned and steam is produced in a boiler.
e The steam turns a turbine.
e The turbine drives a generator.
e The generator produces electricity.
¢ The electricity is supplied to homes and industry.
cc
Once supplies of fossil fuels have been used up they cannot be
Lu

S replaced — they are non-renewable. At current levels of use, oil and

(2)
a.
gas supplies will probably last for about another 40 years, and coal
ra sanayallies for no more than a few hundred years from now. The
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Wind power
The wind is used to turn windmill-like turbines that generate electricity
directly from the rotating motion of their blades. Modern wind turbines
are efficient, but it takes about one thousand of them to produce the
same amount of energy as a modern gas, coal or oil-burning power
station, and that is only when the wind is blowing favourably.

A Fig. 2.21 On a windy day, a very large wind turbine generates 2000 kW of electricity. That's
enough to meet the needs of about 1200 families.
 Dams can be used to store water, which is aliowed to fall in a
controlled way that generates electricity. This is particularly useful in
hilly regions for generating hydroelectric power. When demand for
electricity is low, surplus electricity can be used to pump water back up
into the high dam for use in times of high demand.

NN
Rain falls and collects in rivers.
Water is pumped back
up to the reservoir when
electricity demand is low.
water _,’
evaporates

River water is - -
trapped by a dam wall.
Bi Re ee Sree ah eet

ater is released when _| Sea deal

electricity demand is high

A Fig. 2.22 A pumped storage hydroelectric power station.

Solar power
Solar cells can be used to
convert light energy from the
Sun directly into electricity. This
electricity can be stored, often
in batteries, to be used when
convenient. Electricity
generated in this way uses a
renewable source. These panels
are commonly referred to as
solar PV (photovoltaic) panels to
distinguish them from solar
heating panels.
In solar panels, the energy from
the Sun is used simply to heat
water that is pumped through
black pipes in a panel, often on
the roof of a house. Heating
the water in this way reduces
the demand on other energy
resources. Again, the energy
can be stored in the water for
later use. A Fig. 2.23 Solar (photovoltaic) panels on a roof.

480
WORK,
ENERGY
AND
POWER
REMEMBER oS
Make sure you don’t confuse the two systems for using the Sun’s
energy. One heats water; the other generates electricity.
SS
Ee ee

EXTENDED.
Solar power is energy from the Sun, which itself is powered by nuclear
fusion reactions (where the small nuclei of hydrogen atoms join to
make larger nuclei that are, in fact, helium) and an enormous amount
of energy is released.
Although there have been several attempts to reproduce this
continuous release of energy on Earth, so far they have been
unsuccessful. The Sun is the source of energy for all our energy
resources except geothermal, nuclear and tidal.

END OF EXTENDED

Geothermal power
Geothermal power is obtained using the heat of the Earth. In certain
parts of the world, water forms hot springs that can be used directly for
heating. Water can also be pumped deep into the ground to be heated.

Nuclear fission
A nuclear power station uses the heat generated by a controlled fission
process to convert water to steam. This drives a turbine as in a
conventional power station. However, a typical power plant produces
20 metric tonnes of waste per year. People disagree over whether this
radioactive waste is more hazardous than the gases emitted by coal-
fired power stations.

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A Fig. 2.24 A nuclear power station in the Czech Republic.

 Water power
The motion of waves can be used to move large floats and generate
electricity. A very large number of floats are needed to produce a
significant amount of electricity.

A Fig. 2.25 An artist's impression of a wave generator.

Dams on tidal estuaries trap the water at high tide. When the water is
allowed to flow back at low tide, tidal power can be generated. This
obviously limits the use of the estuary for shipping and can cause
environmental damage along the shoreline.

EXTENDED
The River Severn Barrage is a proposed project to build a huge dam on
the estuary of the River Severn in the UK. The project is expected to
cost around $20 billion and, if completed, will produce a clean,
sustainable source of electricity for the next 120 years.
In the area behind the dam are huge areas of mud that are exposed at
low tide. These mud flats contain many small animals and are a
significant source of food for many species of birds. If the dam is built,
these mud flats could be disrupted and it may not be easy for the birds
to feed on the small animals in the mud.
Imagine that you are called as an expert witness as part of an
environmental group to evaluate the benefits, disadvantages and
environmental impact of constructing the barrage. Write a report
in preparation for a press release. It should be approximately
200 words long.

END OF EXTENDED

ENERGY
WORK,
AND
POWER
QUESTIONS
1. What energy transfers take place in a solar cell?
2. What energy transfers take place in a wind turbine?
3. Describe the process used to generate electricity in fossil-fuelled
power stations.
4. How is electricity produced from geothermal sources?

RESOU
ENERG
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
non-renewable resource, renewable resource, turbine
During your study of this topic you should have learned:
©) That electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained from:
chemical energy stored in fuel
water, including the energy stored in waves, in tides, and in water behind
hydroelectric dams
geothermal resources
nuclear fission
heat and light from the Sun (solar cells and panels).
©) About the advantages and disadvantages of each method in terms of
renewability, cost, reliability, scale and environmental impact.
(©) EXTENDED That the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources
except geothermal, nuclear and tidal.

©) EXTENDED That energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun.

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 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. a) What is meant by a non-renewable energy resource? (2 marks)

b) Name three non-renewable energy sources. (2 marks)
c) Which non-renewable energy source is likely to last the longest? (2 marks)
Draw up a table to compare renewable energy resources and non-renewables.
Add columns to your table to describe at least one advantage and one
disadvantage for each energy resource when it is used to provide large-scale
electricity production. (6 marks)
Compare the effects on the environment of coal-fired power stations and nuclear
power stations.
a) Which of these power stations releases greenhouse gases? (1 mark)
b) Which of the fuels used in these power stations will run out first? (1 mark)
Power stations need to be located on suitable sites. Write down three factors that
a company may consider before choosing a site for a coal-fired power station.
(3 marks)

RESOU
ENERG
 ther a solid, a liquid or a gas. These
yatter. Substances can change from
ss called melting, and from liquid to ga
aporation. Gases change to liquids by
iquids change to solids in solidification.
You are Fropaey most familiar with these changes for water. Itis
possible for these states to exist at the same time: for example,
_ there is a temperature at which ice, water and steam are all presen
_ This is called the triple point of water and is used to define the
_ kelvin scale of temperature, which you will meet later in this sectior

STARTING POINTS
1. Describe how particles are arranged in: a) a solid; b) a liquid;
and c) a gas.
2-What happens
to the particles when a solid melts?
3. Explain what happens when a solid dissolves in a liquid.
4. Are evaporation and boiling the same thing? Give a reason for
your answer.
5.What happens to the speed of gas molecules as
temperature increases?

CONTENTS
Fy) Simple kinetic molecular model of matter
©) Matter and thermal properties
© Thermal processes
A Water exists as a Solid, a liquid and a gas in
the world around us.
 1 Simple kinetic
1 molecular model
of matter
INTRODUCTION
Almost all matter can be classified as a solid,
a liquid or a gas. These are called the three
states of matter.

The fourth state of matter is called ‘plasma.

It only exists at high temperatures seldom
seen on Earth, so we won't consider it further

Universe and most stars are made of plasma.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Know what happens when you heat a solid, liquid or gas.
/ Know what happens when you cool down a solid, liquid or gas.
Y Know that matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
/ Know how to define and calculate pressure.
/ Know some everyday properties of gases, for example, that they expand when
heated and they exert a pressure on container walls.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases.
VY Be able to describe qualitatively the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases.
Y Be able to describe qualitatively the pressure of a gas and the temperature of a gas,
liquid or solid in terms of the motion of its particles.
/Y EXTENDED Relate the properties of solids, liquids and gases to the forces and
distances between molecules and to the motion of the molecules.
Vv Be able to describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more-energetic molecules
from the surface of a liquid.
Vv Relate evaporation to consequent cooling of the liquid.
¥Y EXTENDED Demonstrate an understanding of how temperature, surface area and
draught over a surface influence evaporation.
VY Be able to state the meaning of melting point and boiling point, and recall the
melting and boiling points for water.

STATES OF MATTER
The three states of matter each have different properties:
¢ A solid has a fixed volume and shape, is not easily compressed
PHYSICS (squashed) and does not flow easily.
THERMAL
e A liquid assumes the shape of the part of the container that it
occupies, usually the lowest level, is not easily compressed and
flows easily.
e A gas assumes the shape and volume of its container, occupying the
whole volume, can be compressed and flows easily.

MOLECULAR MODEL
In this topic, these properties of matter are explained in terms of the
molecular structure of the three states.
<J Fig. 3.2 The main body of this rocket is filled with liquid
oxygen and liquid hydrogen, which have to be kept at
extremely low temperatures to prevent them from heating
up and turning back into gas. If the fuel were made colder it
would turn into a solid.

We now know that all materials are made of tiny

particles called atoms that can attract each other.
The atoms in a solid are locked together by the
forces between them. However, even in a solid, the
particles are not completely still. They vibrate
constantly about their fixed positions. When the
material is heated, it is given more internal energy,
and the particles vibrate faster and further.
When the temperature is increased more, the
vibrations of the particles increase to the point at
which the forces are no longer strong enough to hold
the structure together in the rigid order of a solid. oc
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6
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fly apart. They now form a gas. The particles fly around at high speed =)
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— several hundred kilometres per hour. If they are in a container, they
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travel all over it, bouncing off the walls. The volume of a gas is not =
fixed: it just depends on the size of the container that the gas is put 4=
into. We use the kinetic molecular model to explain the behaviour
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of solids, liquids and gases. Table 3.1 summarises this model. Lud
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 Solid _ Liquid Gas

Arrangement Regular pattern, Irregular, closely Irregular, widely

of particles | closely packed packed together, spaced, particles able
_ together, particles particles able to move to move freely.
held in place. past each other.
Diagram @ ‘*)

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Motion of Vibrate in place ‘Slide’ over each other |Random motion,
particles within the structure. | in arandom motion. | faster movement than
the other states.
b.

A Table 3.1 The kinetic molecular model of matter.

The kinetic molecular model uses this idea that all materials are made
up of atoms that behave rather like tiny balls. When the model is used
to try to explain the behaviour of gases it is often called the kinetic
theory of gases.

EXTENDED
The arrangement of atoms can be used to explain the properties of
solids, liquids and gases that you met earlier.
Solids:
¢ retain a fixed shape and volume because the particles are locked into
place in the lattice
* are not easily compressed because there is little free space between
the particles
* do not flow easily because the particles cannot move or slide past
one another.
Liquids:
¢ assume the shape of the part of the container that they occupy
because the particles can move or slide past one another
* are not easily compressed because there is little free space between
the particles
¢ flow easily because the particles can move or slide past one another.

THERMAL
PHYSICS
Gases: |
e assume the shape and volume of their container because the particles
move past one another continuously
* are compressible because there is lots of free space between the particles
* flow easily because the particles can move past one another.

END OF EXTENDED.

QUESTIONS
1. What happens to the motion of atoms as the temperature
increases?
2. Explain why it is easier to compress a gas than a liquid.
3. Describe the arrangement of particles in: a) a solid; b) a liquid;
c) a gas.
4. What does the volume of a gas depend on?

What are molecules?

In ‘Table 3.1, you can see that the particles in the
liquid and the gas consist of single atoms. There
are materials like this — elements such as helium
and neon. In most materials, though, the particles
that move around in the liquid or the gaseous
state are groups of atoms called molecules.
A water molecule is H,O and a nitrogen molecule
is N,. This means that the particles moving
around in liquid or gaseous water each consist of
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. In
liquid nitrogen or in nitrogen gas, the particles
each consist of two nitrogen atoms.
Taking the idea of particles one step further, you can
start to apply your knowledge of forces and motion
to the molecules of a gas. This step is building up a
theory — the kinetic theory of gases — to see if the
predictions that come from our ideas match what
happens when we experiment with gases.
It is quite a simple theory to begin with. We only
look at gases where the particles are generally
separated from each other and the maths is not
A Fig. 3.4 This balloon rises because the gas inside
too difficult. However, the ideas have proved to it is less dense than the surrounding area.
be remarkably successful in describing the
behaviour of materials.
The kinetic theory of gases builds up a set of ideas from the basic idea MOLE
KINET
SIMPL
MATT
OF
MODE
that a gas is made of many tiny particles called molecules. These ideas
give a picture of what happens inside a gas (Table 3.2).
 Observed feature of aa gas” "Related ideasfrom. the kinetic theory
eeshave masses that can | The (Stal mass of a gas is the sum of the masses of fe
|
be measured. individual molecules. -
Gases have temperatures | The individual molecules aree always moving, The faster
that can be measured. ‘they move (the more kinetic energy they have), the
| higher the temperature of the gas.
|Gases have a pressure that |When the molecules hit the walls of the container, they
can be measured. exert a force on it. It is this force, divided by the surface
area of the container, that we observe when measuring
pressure.
Gases have volumes that can Although the volume of each molecule is only tiny, they
be measured. are alee moving about and spread out throughout the
Econtainen tsshin 6 eat iosa i
Temperature has an absolute |As the temperature falls, the speed of the molecules
Zero. (and their kinetic energy) becomes less. At absolute zero
the molecules would have stopped moving.
A Table 3.2 What happens inside a gas.

These ideas help to explain Boyle’s law.

Boyle's law states that when the temperature of the gas stays constant,
the volume of the gas is inversely proportional to the pressure. The link
to kinetic theory is as follows. The temperature stays constant, so the
average speed of the molecules stays constant. If the volume of the
gas is reduced by half, then the molecules make the same number of
collisions with half the surface area of the wall, so the pressure
(= force/area) must be doubled. This is inverse proportionality.
Gases only follow Boyle’s law if the mass of the gas remains constant
(that is, no particles move in or out of the system) and the gases are
ideal, that is they do not liquefy or solidify.

QUESTIONS

1. How does the kinetic theory explain the measurable volume

of a gas?
2. A fixed mass of gas is at a constant temperature. What happens
to the volume when you increase the pressure?
3. What conditions must be met for gases to follow Boyle's law?

THERMAL
PHYSICS

N
ov
st
EVAPORATION
When particles break away from the surface of a liquid and form a vapour,
this is known as evaporation. The more energetic molecules of the liquid
escape from the surface, as shown in Fig. 3.5. This reduces the average
energy of the molecules remaining in the liquid, and so the temperature
of the liquid falls.
Therefore, evaporation causes cooling. The evaporation _ molecules from air
; “(the liquid “molecul
of sweat helps to keep your body cool in hot weather. ‘e Ie), De
@ dN
ae
The more energetic. molecules of liquid sweat escape a)
from the surface of your skin and so the average energy RS se
and therefore temperature of the remaining molecules
falls and your skin cools down. This is what happens
when any body is in contact with an evaporating liquid.
The body cools down. The cooling in a refrigerator is
also due to evaporation of a special liquid inside the
freezing compartment at the top of the refrigerator. A Fig. 3.5 Evaporation.
The vapour is collected and compressed back into
liquid inside the condenser behind the refrigerator.
The liquid is circulated by a pump and recycled.

EXTENDED
The rate of evaporation is increased at higher temperatures. It is also
increased by a strong flow of air across the surface of the liquid, as in
this way the evaporating molecules are carried away quickly. A certain
amount of water will also evaporate more quickly when you increase its
surface area. Tea or coffee in a shallow, wide cup cools down much
more quickly than in a tall, narrow mug because the large surface area
of the cup allows more evaporation.
Imagine you are a particle that has experienced evaporation. Write a
letter to your friend describing the experience. Your letter should
answer the following questions.
1. What change of state did you go through?
2. How close to your neighbours were you in your original state?
3. What was given to you to make you change state?
4. How did you change state

QUESTIONS
1. What factors increase the rate of evaporation?
2. Why does tea in a narrow mug cool down more slowly than tea
in a wide mug?

END OF EXTENDED

MATTE
OF
MODE
MOLE
KINET
SIMPL
 aia) BIOLOGY - TRANSPORT
- Evaporation of water drives the process of transpiration in plants.
This vital process allows chemicals to be transported around the
plant and accounts for most of the water a plant uses. The factors
that control the rate of evaporation of the water therefore control
the rate at which transpiration will happen and plants are adapted
to allow for this.

CHEMISTRY - THE PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

- Evaporation involves a change of state from liquid to gas and so
particle ideas are essential in helping to understand the process.
Particle ideas explain why evaporation happens at a range of
temperatures and why the rate of evaporation is affected by factors
such as temperature and humidity.

MELTING AND BOILING

We experience melting and boiling many times in everyday life.
This part explores what happens at the molecular level when materials
melt and boil.
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it
changes from a solid to a liquid. Solidification is when a substance
changes from a liquid to a solid. The molecules in the substance come
close together. The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at
which it changes from a liquid to a gas. The molecules in the substance
get further apart. Condensation is when a substance changes from a
gas to a liquid.

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 End of topic checklist

Key terms
atom, evaporation, inverse proportionality, kinetic molecular model,
kinetic theory of gases, molecules

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) About the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases.

©) About the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases.

() EXTENDED How the motion of particles and the forces and distances between
them relate to their properties.

() How temperature affects the way gases behave.

(©) How pressure affects the way gases behave.

() About the effect of a change in temperature on the pressure of a gas at

constant volume.

C) That the random motion of particles in a suspension gives evidence for the kinetic
molecular model of matter.

©) How evaporation can be described in terms of escape of more-energetic

molecules from the surface of a liquid.

() How evaporation is related to the consequent cooling of a liquid.

() EXTENDED That evaporation is affected by temperature, surface area and draught

over a surface.

() How a change in the volume of a gas is related to a change in pressure applied to

the gas at constant temperature.

MATTE
OF
MODE
MOLE
KINET
SIMPL
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these
may be different.
1. Give an example of a material for each state of matter that demonstrates the
properties of that state. (3 marks)

. Use ideas about particles to explain why:

a) solids keep their shape, but liquids and gases don't (3 marks)
b) solids and liquids have a fixed volume, but gases fill their container. (3 marks)

. How does kinetic theory explain the existence of absolute zero? (3 marks)
. Use the kinetic molecular model to explain the following observations in detail:

a) It is possible to keep a bottle of drink cold by standing it in a bowl and covering

it with a wet cloth. (3 marks)

b) EXTENDED The drink gets even colder when you place the bowl in a
strong draught. (3 marks)
. How is the speed of a gas molecule linked to the temperature of the gas?
(2 marks)

THERMAL
PHYSICS
Matter and thermal
properties
INTRODUCTION
Some things expand when they are heated.
In this topic you will find out why. You will
also find out how thermometers work, and
learn what happens at the molecular level
when there is a change of state.

A Fig. 3.6 This expansion joint on a bridge stops

the bridge from buckling when it expands in
hot weather.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Know the kinetic model for the states of matter.
¥ Know the equation energy = mcAT.
¥ Know thermal capacity = mc.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Vv Be able to describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases.
/ EXTENDED Explain, in terms of the motion and arrangement of molecules, the
relative order of magnitude of the expansion of solids, liquids and gases.
VY Be able to identity and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences
of thermal expansion.
VY Be able to use and describe the use of thermometers to measure temperature on the
Celsius scale.

THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

With only two or three exceptions, all materials (solids, liquids
and gases) expand as they become warmer. In the case of
solids, the atoms vibrate more as the temperature goes up. So,
even though they stay joined together, they move slightly
further apart, and the solid expands a little in all directions.
The effect is small but not trivial. A metre rule that is heated
from 0°C to 100°C (from the freezing point of water to its
boiling point) will increase in length by 1-2 mm depending on
what material it is made of. Some plastics do not make good
metre rules as they get up to 10mm longer when heated.
On a hot day, a 1000 km railway track can possibly become
more than 300m longer. In the case of a track that has joints,
there is a gap of a few millimetres every 20m, to allow the THER
MATT
PROP
AND
: : A Fig. 3.7 This track has to be held
rails to expand. Modern long welded tracks have no expansion Very firmly to stop it from bending
gaps of this type, although as can be seen from the photo in sideways when it gets hot.
 Fic. 3.7, the track has to be held extremely firmly to stop it moving.
ihis track is on a curve, so it will try to bend sideways to the left
when it gets hot.
Liquids expand for the same reason. The atoms vibrate as they move
around, and get slightly further apart. This means that the volume of
liquids increase as the temperature increases.
It is very difficult to restrict the thermal expansion of solids and liquids,
as very large forces will be created in the material if it is not allowed to
expand. So, for example, a large bridge is always built with expansion
joints to allow it to get longer on a hot day (Fig. 3.8).

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A Fig. 3.8 Expansion joints on a bridge.

<J Fig. 3.9 This thermometer has a

bulb of coloured alcohol at the base,
attached to a very narrow tube that
is half full of alcohol (ethanol). As
the alcohol expands and contracts
with change in temperature, the
length of the column of alcohol goes
up and down. The top of the tube is
sealed off to prevent the alcohol
wn z& from evaporating.
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al
< at different rates as their temperatures rise. So, when strips of two metals
=
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are bound closely together, and are warmed, they bend as one metal
ers
j= expands more than the other. Bimetallic strips like this can be used to
control the temperature in a heating system such as an electric iron.
 mains supply

The brass strip on top expands

more than the iron strip The screw adjusts the
when heated, causing temperature at which
the bimetallic strip to the contacts open and
bend and break the appliance
contact. switches off.

heating element

A Fig. 3.10 The temperature control mechanism in an electric iron.

Like other liquids, water contracts as its temperature falls and its
density increases. Unlike other liquids, when its temperature falls
below 4°C, water begins to expand again, and becomes less dense.
This is called the anomalous expansion of water.
The density falls even further as it freezes, because the water
molecules form an open crystal structure in the solid state. So, ice is
less dense than water, while almost all other materials are more dense
in the solid state than as a liquid.

REMEMBER
The properties of water are very strange. Not only does it require a
great deal of heat to change its temperature, it is also unique in that it
expands as it freezes. This makes ice less dense than liquid water, so
ice floats on water. This has been vital to evolution — life can survive at
the bottom of ponds, where in very cold weather the water stays liquid,
even when the surface has frozen.

Gases behave completely differently. First, there is no need to allow the

gas to expand if it gets hotter; if you put it in a sealed container, then
you can just allow the pressure to increase instead.

EXTENDED
Second, if a gas is allowed to expand, then it will increase in
volume much more than solids or liquids do as it gets hotter. Between
0°C and 100°C it will expand by a third, so 300 cm’ of gas will
become 400 cm’.

END OF EXTENDED PROP

THE
AND
MAT
 In Fig. 3.11 the piston compresses the gas with a constant force so that
the pressure of the gas is constant. You know from the molecular model
that the piston is supported by the collisions of the molecules with the
underside of the piston. If the temperature of the gas increases, the
pressure starts to increase because the molecules travel faster, and they
hit the piston harder. The piston starts to move up. It stops moving up
when the pressure has dropped to the original value.

gas at low gas at high

temperature temperature

A Fig. 3.11 The piston compresses the gas. As the gas is heated, the pressure increases and the
piston moves up until the pressure returns to the original value.

The result is that the gas has been heated and its volume allowed to
increase at constant pressure. Note that initially the pressure was caused
by many molecules hitting the piston at moderate speeds. After the gas
has heated up and expanded, the same pressure is now caused by the
same number of molecules hitting the piston less frequently (because they
are more spread out), but the molecules are moving faster. Each molecular
collision produces a greater change of momentum and a bigger force.

EXTENDED
Gases expand more than liquids, which expand more than solids. This
is because molecules in gases are spaced further apart than those in
liquids, which are spaced further apart than those in solids.

END OF EXTENDED

2
e
QUESTIONS
ee
1. Why do bimetallic strips bend?
2. Explain why a solid expands when it is heated.
3. What is the anomalous expansion of water?
4. How does the behaviour of gases differ from that of solids
THERMAL
PHYSICS and liquids?
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature can be measured using any suitable physical property that
changes with temperature.
Common examples in use include:
¢ volume of a liquid — mercury-in-glass or alcohol-in-glass thermometer
¢ length of a solid — bimetallic strip in a thermostat.
All thermometers need calibrating before they are first used. In the
case of a liquid-in-glass thermometer, this means that a scale must be
fixed to it in the right place. To do this, two fixed points are needed.
This type of thermometer has a bulb of the liquid (such as mercury or
coloured alcohol) at the base attached to a very narrow tube that is
half full of the liquid. As the liquid expands and contracts
with change in temperature, the length of the column of a
liquid goes up and down. The top of the tube is sealed off
(rye eteA i
Spee Pela es 100 2S
The Celsius scale is used in science, although other scales
are used elsewhere. The two fixed points used by the 90Witla
80

Celsius scale, as originally defined, are the melting point of 70

ice, defined as 0 °C, and the boiling point of water at

standard atmospheric pressure, defined as 100°C.
60
narrow glass tube

(At lower pressures water boils at a lower temperature.)

> 50

40

To calibrate the mercury-in-glass thermometer at these two

fixed points, the thermometer is immersed first in a funnel
30

containing melting ice, and the 0°C point is marked. It is

20

then immersed in the steam from a boiling kettle and the 10

100°C point is marked. Finally, the distance between the 1 0°C

THbo

marks (distance h in Fig. 3.12) is divided into 100 equal mercury

distances, each corresponding to | degree Celsius. The pe
scale can be extended beyond 100°C to measure higher
temperatures, and below 0°C to measure negative i eine ees
temperatures. thermometer.

va)
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=
 End of topic checklist
Key term
bimetallic strip
During your study of this topic you should have learned:
() How to describe the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases.
() EXTENDED About the relative order of magnitude of the expansion of solids,
liquids and gases.
() About some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. Explain the following observations:

a) A steel ruler is often marked ‘Use at 20°C’ (2 marks)

b) When you pour boiling water into a drinking glass, the glass may crack. (2 marks)

c) When you pour a very cold drink into a drinking glass, the outside of the glass
will become wet. (2 marks)
d) When you leave frozen food in a freezer for several weeks without covering it,
the outside surface of the food will suffer from what is called ‘freezer burn’ and
will look dry and unpleasant. (2 marks)
2. EXTENDED A bimetallic strip consists of a thin strip of aluminium,
100mm x 10mm, attached to a thin strip of stainless steel of the same size.

SEE Ia RA EE REE RE OR OTE CES EE

aluminium

stainless steel

aluminium

stainless steel
side view

THERMAL
PHYSICS
The two strips are joined together face to face, to give a thicker strip that is still
100mm x 10mm. They are joined together at 20°C using epoxy glue.

The strip is fixed to a block of metal at one end. What happens to the other end
at each change of temperature if the temperature goes to 100°C, then to
-10°C, and finally back to 20°C? (Note that aluminium expands more than
stainless steel when equal lengths are exposed to the same change in
temperature.) = (3 marks)

lb) Explain how this strip could be used as a thermometer. (2 marks)

c) Design an electrical circuit that will use the bimetallic strip to switch ona
warning light if the temperature of the bimetallic strip drops below room
temperature and approaches the freezing point of water. (Such a device is
known as a frost stat’ and is used to prevent damage from freezing.) (3 marks)

d) Explain what would happen if the warning light heated the bimetallic strip.
(2 marks)

PROP
THER
AND
MATT
 Thermal processes
INTRODUCTION
Energy will always try to flow from areas
at high temperatures to areas at low
temperatures. This is called thermal transfer.

Thermal energy can be transferred by

conduction, convection and radiation.

In this topic we shall consider all three

methods of heat transfer.

A Fig. 3.13 These paragliders stay in the air

longer by using of convection currents in the
atmosphere to take them higher.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
VY Know and be able to explain the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases.
/Y Know what is meant by energy.
Y Know that internal energy (heat) can be transferred from one place to another.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
¥ Recognise and name typical conductors.
/ Be able to describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad
conductors of heat.
/ EXTENDED Be able to give a simple molecular account of heat transfer in solids.
/ Be able to recognise convection as an important method of thermal transfer in fluids.
Y Be able to interpret and describe experiments designed to illustrate convection in
liquids and gases (fluids).
¥ EXTENDED Be able to relate convection in fluids to density changes.
VY Be able to identify infrared radiation as part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Y Be able to recognise that radiation does not require a medium.
V Be able to describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or
shiny) on the emission, absorption and reflection of radiation.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe experiments to show the properties of good and
bad emitters and good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to show understanding that the amount of radiation emitted
also depends on the surface temperature and surface area of a body.
V Be able to identity and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences
of conduction, convection and radiation.

CONDUCTION
Materials that allow thermal energy to transfer through them quickly
PHYSICSare
THERMAL called thermal conductors. Those that do not are called thermal
insulators.
REMEMBER
If someone talks about an ‘insulator’, you will have to work out from the
context if it refers to a thermal insulator or to an electrical insulator. If
the context is energy, then it could be a thermal insulator. If the context
is electricity, it is likely to be an electrical insulator.

EXTENDED
If one end of a conductor is heated, the atoms that make up its
structure start to vibrate more vigorously. As the atoms in a solid are
linked together by chemical bonds, the increased vibrations can be
passed on to other atoms. The energy of movement (kinetic energy)
passes through the whole material.
Metals are particularly good thermal conductors because they contain
freely moving electrons that transfer energy very rapidly.
As the electrons travel through the piece of metal, they take the
thermal energy with them. This is in addition to the thermal energy
that is transferred by vibrations of the atoms making up the structure of
the metal. Fig. 3.14 shows conduction in a solid. Particles in the hot
part of a solid (top) vibrate further and faster than particles in the cold
part (bottom). The vibrations are passed on through the bonds from
particle to particle. It is the movement of the free electrons that makes
metals act as good thermal conductors.

o-@- [2 -o-°
oy-O-oO o o- °
o~ ~Q- -Q- o- Q
A Fig. 3.14 Conduction in a solid.

Conduction cannot occur when there are no particles present, soa

vacuum is a perfect insulator. Gases and liquids are poor heat
conductors because their particles are so far apart.

END OF EXTENDED PROC

THER
 Conduction can be demonstrated using the equipment shown in
Fig. 3.15.
<1 Fig. 3.15 In this experiment to show
conduction, the rods are made of different
metals, so the heat conducts along them at
different rates. The better the conductor, the
quicker the wax at the end of the rod melts.

Another way to demonstrate the properties of good and bad conductors

of thermal energy is to wrap a piece of paper around a bar made of
wood on one side and copper on the other side. The bar is then held
just above a Bunsen flame. The paper only chars on the wood side of
the bar, as copper is a good thermal conductor so heat travels away
from the paper on the copper side. Wood is a thermal insulator so
doesn't conduct the heat away.
Another example is the fact that metal handlebars of a bike always feel
colder than the plastic grips — heat is conducted away from your hands
by the metal but not by the plastic.

QUESTIONS
1. Why are metals particularly good conductors?
2. Why is outer space a perfect insulator?
3. How is heat energy transferred in a thermal conductor?
4. Describe an experiment to demonstrate conduction.
5. EXTENDED Devise an experiment to find out whether or not the
rate of energy transfer varies along a strip of copper. Explain
how you could tell if any change is linear.

CONVECTION
Convection is the main method of thermal transfer in fluids.

EXTENDED

Convection occurs in liquids and gases because these materials flow

(they are fluids). The particles in a fluid move all the time. When a
fluid is heated, energy is transferred to the particles, causing them to
move faster and further apart. This makes the heated fluid less dense
than the unheated fluid. The less dense, warmer fluid rises above the
more dense, colder fluid, causing the fluid to circulate as shown in
Fig. 3.16. This convection current is how the thermal energy is
THERMAL
PHYSICStransferred.
 <J Fig. 3.16 Potassium manganate(VIl) crystals in water
demonstrate convection currents. The warmer water expands,
becomes less dense and rises, making a trail as some of the
dissolved potassium permanganate is carried along as well.
Colder water sinks and replaces the warmer water that has risen.

END OF EXTENDED

If a fluid’s movement is restricted, energy cannot be transferred. That is

why many insulators, such as ceiling tiles, contain trapped air pockets.
Wall cavities in some houses are filled with fibre to prevent air from
circulating and transferring thermal energy by convection.

QUESTIONS
1. Why does convection only occur in liquids and gases?
2. EXTENDED Explain why warm air rises.
3. How could you demonstrate convection in a laboratory?
4. Describe how cavity-wall insulation in houses reduces heat loss
by convection.

RADIATION
Radiation, unlike conduction and convection, does
not need particles at all. Radiation can travel
through a vacuum. This is clearly shown by the
radiation that arrives at the Earth from the Sun.
Radiated heat energy is carried mainly by infrared
radiation, which is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Infrared radiation is similar to light,
but has a longer wavelength.
All objects take in and give out infrared radiation
-10 - +55 E=0.00 Trefl=20
all the time. Hot objects radiate more infrared
than cold objects. The amount of radiation given A Fig. 3.17 Thermogram of a house.
out or absorbed by an object depends on its
temperature and on its surface. Figure 3.17 shows a thermogram. PROC
THER
Thermograms give a visual representation of the amount of infrared
radiation that is given out by an object at any particular moment.
 a

Type of As an As an Examples
surface emitter of | absorber of
radiation _ radiation
Dull black — |Good Good Emitter: cooling fins on the back of a
refrigerator are dull black to radiate away
more energy.
Absorber: the surface of a black bitumen
road gets far hotter on a sunny day than
the surface of a white concrete one.
Bright shiny | Poor Poor Emitter: marathon runners, at the end of
a race, wrap themselves in shiny blankets
to prevent them from cooling down too
quickly by radiation (and convection).
Absorber: fuel storage tanks are sprayed
with shiny silver or white paint to reflect
radiation from the Sun.
A Table 3.3 Comparison of different surfaces as emitters or absorbers of infrared radiation.

EXTENDED

Using a Leslie’s cube

radiometer —

Leslie’s cube

<] Fig. 3.18 A Leslie's cube. The meter

measures the amount of radiation that
is emitted by each surface.

To show the properties of good and bad emitters of infrared radiation,

you can use a Leslie's cube (Fig. 3.18), which is filled with boiling
water. Its sides have different surfaces — shiny, dull, dark, light — to
show how they emit thermal radiation at different rates. Because all
sides of the cube are heated by the same water inside the cube, any
differences in the way they radiate energy can only be due to the
differences in their surfaces.

THERMAL
PHYSICS
To show how different surfaces absorb radiation, you can use Where T1 > T2 > 73
boiling tubes covered with foil or with a matt black surface
T1
heated by radiation from an infrared (IR) bulb and measure
the temperature rise in each case.
The amount of radiation emitted by a body varies according emitted
radiation
to its temperature. The diagram shows the amount of radiation
emitted for a body at different temperatures. wavelength of radiation

The amount of radiation emi tted also depends on the surface, Fae to Amount ot adeten
area — a larger surface area will emit more radiation. emitted at different temperatures.

END OF EXTENDED

QUESTIONS
1. How does radiation differ from conduction and convection?

2. Which is the better emitter of infrared radiation: a hot object or

a cold object?
3. State two factors that affect the amount of thermal radiation
emitted by an object.
4. EXTENDED Which side of a Leslie’s cube will emit thermal
radiation at the greatest rate?
5. EXTENDED Two bodies, A and B, are compared. A is at 200K
and B is at 400K. Which will emit more radiation?

CONSEQUENCES OF ENERGY TRANSFER

This part of the topic considers some everyday consequences of
energy transfer.

Radiators
Radiators are used to heat homes in countries that have cool winters.
A radiator does radiate some heat, and if you stand near a hot radiator
your hands can feel the infrared radiation being emitted. However, this
is only around one quarter of the heat being released by the radiator.
Three quarters of the heat is taken away by the hot air that rises from
the radiator. Colder air from the room flows in to replace this hot air,
and a convection current is formed as shown in Fig. 3.20. So, a ‘radiator
is mainly a convection heater.

PROC
THER
 convection current

infrared
radiation

A Fig. 3.20 A side view of a room with a hot-water radiator underneath the window. You will
see from this that the convection current is far more efficient at heating the top of the room
than it is at heating the person standing in front of the radiator.

Vacuum flask
Another example of thermal transfers in everyday life is a vacuum flask
(Fig. 3.21). A vacuum flask will keep a hot drink hot or a cold drink cold
for hours by almost completely eliminating the flow of heat out or in.

vacuum

hot or cold drink

Ma)
=
w
>
<=
a
=
= aluminium coating
=
a
lw
ns
=

A Fig. 3.21 A vacuum flask.

Conduction is almost entirely eliminated by making sure that any heat
flowing out must travel along the glass of the neck of the flask. The
path is a long one, the glass is thin, and glass is a very poor conductor
of heat. Energy cannot be lost by conduction across the vacuum space
between the two walls of the glass flask. The bung in the top of the
flask must also be a very poor conductor of heat — cork or expanded
polystyrene are good materials to use.
Convection is eliminated because the space between the inner wall
and the outer wall of the flask is evacuated so that there is no air to
form convection currents.
When the contents are hot, radiation is greatly reduced because the
inner walls of the flask are coated with pure aluminium. Because the
aluminium is in a vacuum, it stays extremely shiny forever, so the wall
in contact with the hot liquid emits very little infrared radiation.
When the contents are cold, the shiny outer surface of the aluminium-
coated glass reflects almost all the infrared radiation falling on it, so
hardly any is absorbed.

QUESTIONS
1. What is the main method of heat transfer in a radiator?
2. Which part of a room is heated most efficiently by a radiator?
3. For a vacuum flask, describe which features reduce the energy
transfer by:
a) conduction
b) convection
c) radiation.
4. Explain why vacuum flasks are good at keeping hot drinks hot
and cold drinks cold.

PROC
THE
 perature/°C
tem

7 ny
a
: 4

‘
we
29
- time/minutes
oe

erene
aea
Using insulation to reduce energy transfers
There are a number of ways of reducing wasteful energy transfers in a
house. Figure. 3.23 shows some of them.

curtains reduce
radiation
loft insulation

porch to reduce
warm air loss

double-glazed
C [ draught excluder
windows insulate wall cavity filled on door keeps cold
with insulation air out
carpet underlay
acts as insulation

A Fig. 3.23 There are many ways to insulate a house.

Source of | % of Insulation technique

energy energy
wastage wasted
Walls 35 Cavity wall insulation. Modern houses have cavity walls, that
is, two single walls separated by an air cavity. The air reduces
thermal energy transfer by conduction but not by convection
as the air is free to move within the cavity. Fibre or
polystyrene bead insulation is inserted into the cavity to
|
_| prevent the air from moving, so reducing convection.
Root Jp Loft insulation. Fibre insulation is placed on top of the ceiling
and between the wooden joists in the loft. Air is trapped
between the fibres, reducing thermal energy transfer by
conduction and convection.
Floors 15 Carpets. Carpets and underlay prevent thermal energy loss by
conduction and convection. In some modern houses foam
blocks are placed under the floors.
Draughts i Draught excluders. Cold air can get into the home through
gaps between windows and doors and their frames. Draught
excluder tape can be used to block these gaps.
wn
Windows 10 Double glazing. Energy is transferred through glass by tu
va)
wn
conduction and radiation. Double glazing has two panes of ua
U
glass with a layer of air between the panes. It reduces energy oO
c
a
transfer by conduction but not by radiation. Radiation can be —
<
reduced by drawing the curtains. =
[oa
Lud
A Table 3.4 How different types of insulation in a house prevent thermal energy transfers. -
-
 Mountaineers and other people who need clothing to protect them
from extreme cold know that they need to wear several layers of
clothing, with each layer full of trapped air. The whole aim is to have
a thick layer of air around the body, because air is a poor conductor
of heat.

A Fig. 3.24 Mountaineers need well-insulated clothing.

The fibres of clothes, especially newer extremely fine spun-polyester

fibres, do a very good job at stopping the air from moving, thus
preventing convection. Mountaineers do not use metallised layers to
prevent radiation, because such layers would trap perspiration and
could interfere with movement. However, metallised plastic layers are
used in the emergency survival bags that mountaineers carry.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain why the walls and the roof are the most important
features of a house to insulate.
2. Air is a bad thermal conductor (a good insulator). Describe how
this is used to reduce energy loss from a house.
3. Describe how trapping a layer of air near the body helps a
person keep warm.
4. Explain why loose clothing can be an advantage in
hotter climates.

THERMAL
PHYSICS
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
conduction, convection, electromagnetic spectrum, infrared, radiation,
thermal conductor, thermal insulator, thermal transfer

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) About experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad
conductors of heat.

() EXTENDED How to describe heat transfer in solids in terms of molecules.

©) How to recognise convection as an important method of thermal transfer

in fluids.

O EXTENDED About the relationship between convection in fluids and density

changes and how to describe experiments to illustrate convection.

Q) That infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

C) That radiation does not require a medium.

() How to describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or
shiny) on the emission, absorption and reflection of radiation.

C) EXTENDED About experiments to show the properties of good and bad emitters
and good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation.

©) EXTENDED That the amount of radiation emitted also depends on the surface
temperature and surface area of a body.

Q) About some everyday applications and consequences of thermal energy transfer.

PROC
THE
 End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. Why are several thin layers of clothing more likely to reduce thermal transfer
than one thick layer of clothing? (3 marks)
. The diagram shows a cross-section of a steel radiator positioned in a room next
to a wall.

still air

hot water
circulated
from boiler
through pipes

steel radiator

Describe how energy from the hot water reaches the wall behind the radiator.
(6 marks)

Suggest a colour for a firefighter's uniform. Explain your choice. (3 marks)

EXTENDED Discuss how you might design a solar cooker to heat water using
infrared radiation from the Sun. (3 marks)

Explain why seawater absorbs infrared radiation faster than snow and ice.
(4 marks)

Imagine that you are a local councillor. You are deciding whether or not to give
grants for installing home insulation. Discuss all the factors you would consider
and what other information you would need before making a decision. (6 marks)

THERMAL
PHYSICS
 7. Explain why solids transfer energy mainly by conduction. (3 marks)

8. Describe how a convection heater warms a room. (4 marks)

9. Using conduction in your answer, suggest why serving dishes are usually made
from glass or china. (3 marks)
10. Which factors affect the rate at which an object transfers energy?
(3 marks)

PRO
THE
 What is the connection between the waves you see on water and |
light? Light is a wave that behaves in a similar way to water waves. ee
Sound is another type of wave, as you will learn later in this section. : =
Studying the behaviour of waves will help you to understand many nd
of your everyday experiences, ranging from how you see objects to —
how you hear sounds. — poe

You should already know that energy can be transferred as sound pone : tim
and light. White light is made up of a range ofdifferent colours and. — . >.
that light can be reflected and refracted. You should alsoknowhow — «00 =.
the frequency and amplitude of asound wave are related to the a e a
mn
pitch and loudness of the sound.

STARTING POINTS. wis FS

1. Explain why a red object looks red.
2.Describe the pitch and loudness of the sound you hear when the Gs
sound wave has a large amplitude and the frequency is low. =
3.Explain the meaning of the words translucent, transparent
and opaque. f=
4.How could you demonstrate the difference betweenalight wave = Sie
and a sound wave using: a) a rope; b) a spring; c) water? (If you
cannot use one or more of these to demonstrate the difference, bhi
explain why.) ;

5.How does light travel through space? sig | ie !

CONTENTS
a) General wave properties
b) Light
c) Electromagnetic spectrum
d) Sound
 General wave
properties
INTRODUCTION
The behaviour of waves affects us every
second of our lives. Waves are reaching us
constantly: sound waves, light waves,
infrared (heat), television and mobile phone
microwave signals, radio waves, and so on.
The study of waves is one of the central
subjects of physics.

The woman in Fig. 4.1 is surrounded by

A Fig. 4.1 This photo shows many examples
waves: she can feel the heat waves from the
Ot waves in. action. Sun coming in through the windows; she can
hear the sound waves of her friend on the phone; the phone uses microwaves;
and she can see around her with light waves.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
/ Know some simple examples of wave motion.
/ Be able to measure lengths and times.
Y Be familiar with everyday examples of reflection.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to demonstrate an understanding that waves transfer energy without
transferring matter.
/ Be able to describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in
ropes and springs, and by experiments using water waves.
V Be able to give the meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and
give suitable examples.
V Be able to describe the use of water waves to show reflection and refraction.
¥Y EXTENDED Understand that refraction is caused by a change in speed when a wave
moves from one material to another.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to recall and use the equation v = fA.

LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES

All waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Wave motion can
be illustrated by vibrations in ropes and springs. Fig. 4.2 shows two
types of wave motion illustrated by a spring.

EXTENDED
WAVES,
OF
PROPERTIES
LIGHT
INCLUDING
SOUND
AND
In a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are in the direction of travel of
the wave. This type of wave can be shown by pushing and pulling a
 longitudinal waves
fixed end

backwards rarefaction compression

and forwards
\\ movements

fixed end

sideways
movements

direction of wave travel

A Fig. 4.2 Longitudinal and transverse waves are made by vibrations. Both types of wave have
a repeating shape or pattern.

spring. The spring stretches in places and squashes in others.

The stretching produces regions of rarefaction, where the coils spread
out, while the squashing produces regions of compression. Sound is
an example of a longitudinal wave.
In a transverse wave, the vibrations are at right angles to the direction
of travel of the wave. Light, radio and other electromagnetic waves
are transverse waves.
In the examples in Fig. 4.2 the waves are very narrow, and are confined
to the spring or the string that they are travelling down. Most waves are
not confined in this way. Clearly a single wave on the sea, for example,
can be hundreds of metres wide as it moves along.
Longitudinal and transverse waves are made by vibrations. Both types
of wave have a repeating shape or pattern.

END OF EXTENDED

Amplitude, frequency, wavelength and period

Waves have a wavelength, frequency, amplitude and time period.
transverse vt
a
«wavelengths: ! - Cres t longitudinal
g Ee
| x g tac a
—— wavelength (A) ————»: a

5 amplitude o
5
Ss :
Ww
>
E <
2 =
ce
S amplilitude =
cc
ud

ra
V trough” oO

A Fig. 4.3 The wavelength and amplitude of a transverse wave and the wavelength of =

a longitudinal wave. N
Ts)
 REMEMBER
Take care with graphs or diagrams like the one in Fig. 4.3. Make sure
you notice if it is ‘distance’ or ‘time’ along the x-axis. Some labels only
apply to one type of graph.

¢ The wavelength of a transverse wave is the distance between two

adjacent peaks or, if you prefer, the distance between two adjacent
troughs of the wave. In the case of longitudinal waves, it is the distance
between two consecutive points of maximum compression, or the
distance between two consecutive points of minimum compression.
The frequency is the number of complete waves that go past each
second (measured in Hz).
e The time period is the time taken for each complete cycle of the
Wave motion.
The amplitude is the maximum particle displacement of the
medium’s vibration from the undisturbed position. In transverse
waves, this is half the crest-to-trough height.
e The speed of the wave is the distance the wave travels in | s.
The speed depends on the substance or medium the wave is
passing through.
The largest ocean wave measured accurately had a wavelength of
340m, a frequency of 0.067 Hz (that is to say, one peak every 15s), and
a speed of 23 m/s. The amplitude of the wave was 17m, so the ship
that was measuring the wave was going 17m above the level of a
smooth sea and then 17m below. (The wave went down 34m from
crest to trough.)

Waves transfer energy and information

A wave carries energy and can also carry information. You can feel the
energy in infrared waves from the Sun as they strike your hands; you
can see the energy contained in the ocean waves from a typhoon as
they reach the coast after travelling hundreds of miles. And you can see
the information contained in the light reaching your eyes from this
page, or from a movie screen.
Note that in none of these cases has any object or matter travelled by
vibrations from the source of the waves to the destination. Instead the
wave is passed on from point to point along the route taken by the
wave. One good example is a piece of w ies in the sea. It is shaken up
and down, and to and fro, by a wave, but after the wave has passed it
ends up where it started.
Surfers can travel by catching a wave and ‘riding’ it, but they are outside
the wave, not part of it.

OF
PROPERTIES
INCLUDING
WAVES,
AND
LIGHT
SOUND

N
N
Ts)
QUESTIONS
1. Describe how the vibrations travel in:
a) a longitudinal wave
b) a transverse wave.
2. What is: a) the wavelength, b) the frequency, c) the amplitude
of a wave?
3. How far does a wave with speed 5 m/s travel in 3s?
4. What do all waves transfer?

EXTENDED

Relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength

The speed of a wave in a given medium is constant. When you change
the wavelength, the frequency must change as well. If you imagine that
some waves are going past you on a spring or on a rope, then they will
be going at a constant speed. When the waves get closer together, then
more waves must go past you each second, and that means that the
frequency has increased. The speed, frequency and wavelength of a
wave are related by the equation:
wave speed = frequency x wavelength
Uy aA
where: _ v = wave speed, usually measured in metres/second (m/s)
f = frequency, measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz)
A = wavelength, usually measured in metres (m)
END OF EXTENDED

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A loudspeaker makes sound waves with a frequency of 300 Hz. The
waves have a wavelength of 1.13m. Calculate the speed of the waves.
Write down the formula: aie.

Substitute the values forfand A: v= 300 x13

Work out the answer and write down the unit: v= 339m/s
A Fig. 4.4 The
equation triangle
2. A radio station broadcasts on a wavelength of 250m. The speed of — for wave speed,
the radio waves is 3 x 10°m/s. Calculate the frequency. frequency and
wavelength.
f as the subject:
Write down the formula with f= a
a750
yas
Substitute the values for v and A:
PROP
WAVE
GENE
Work out the answer and write down the unit: f = 1 200 000 Hz or 1200kHz
@
WN
Ts)
 EXTENDED

Using water waves to show reflection,

refraction and diffraction
A ripple tank can be used to show reflection, refraction
and diffraction (Fig. 4.5).
_ illumination

shallow tank of water

oscillating paddle

<J Fig. 4.5 A ripple tank.

wave patterns on a viewing screen or table

To show reflection, you put a plane surface in the tank

some distance from the paddle. To show refraction, you
put a thin glass sheet in the water to change the depth of
the water in a given region. To show diffraction, you put a
plane surface with a gap approximately the same width as
the wavelength of the water waves.
Fig. 4.6 shows how water waves can be used to explain
reflection (see Reflection of light in the next topic) at a
plane surface. Waves hit a barrier at an angle of incidence, i. 4 Fig. 4.6 Reflection at a plane
The waves bounce off with the angle of incidence, i, equal *Y"#*
to the angle of reflection, r. The reflected wave is the same shape as
the incident wave.
When a wave moves from one medium into
ek ie: d t
another, it will either speed up or slow down. ie 6a | he saat
For example, a wave going along a rope will speed oe eee
up if the rope becomes thinner. (This is why you
can ‘crack’ a whip.) And sound waves going from
cold air to hotter air will speed up. When a wave ce iho 4 a) ae
slows down, the wavelength gets smaller.
Pig. 4.7 shows this happening as a wave moves
—- Be --—-— fae
from deep water to shallow water. The wave
slows down ‘as it a
travels
a
across
¥
the ary to
the bound try toa A Fig. 4.7 When waves slow down, their|
SOUND more
PROPERTIES
LIGHT
INCLUDING
WAVES,
OF
AND dense medium. The frequency of the wave wavelength gets shorter
does not change as it crosses the boundary, so
if the speed decreases and the frequency stays
deep water
the same, the wavelength must also decrease.
When a wave speeds up, the wavelength gets
larger. If the speed increases but the frequency
stays the same, then the wavelength must also
increase. Note that in both cases the same
number of waves will pass you per second; the
wavelength may have changed, but the . an
frequency has not. S
; shallow water
When waves slow down, their wavelength gets “Ss (slow)
shorter. When a wave enters a new medium BA
at an angle then the direction of the wave
changes. This is known as refraction (see A Fig. 4.8 If waves cross into a new medium
Refraction of light in the following topic). The tee angle, their wavelength and direction
amount that the wave is bent by depends on Saver
the change in speed. Water waves are slower in
shallower water than in deep water, so water waves will refract
when the depth changes as shown in Fig. 4.8.

QUESTIONS
1. A wave changes direction as it moves from one medium to
another. What affects the amount of change and direction?

END OF EXTENDED

PROP
WAV
GEN
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
amplitude, compression, diffraction, electromagnetic wave, frequency,
longitudinal wave, medium, rarefaction, reflection, refraction, speed,
transverse wave, wavelength

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() That waves transfer energy without transferring matter.

©) What is meant by wave motion, as illustrated by vibration in ropes and springs

and by experiments using water waves.

() The meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude.

() The difference between transverse and longitudinal waves, with

suitable examples.

() About the use of water waves to show: reflection at a plane surface; refraction
due to a change of speed.

() EXTENDED To use the equation v = fA.

PROPERTIES
OF
WAVES,
INCLUDING
LIGHT
AND
SOUND
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the answers. In
the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be different.
1. Asound wave is displayed using a cathode ray oscilloscope. It has a simple,
smooth repeating pattern.
a) Draw a trace of what is seen on the screen and label it to indicate: the crest of
the wave, the wavelength of the wave and the amplitude of
the wave. (6 marks)
b) The frequency of the wave is 512 Hz. How many waves are produced
each second? (2 marks)
. EXTENDED Radio waves of frequency 900 MHz are used to send information to and
from a mobile phone. The speed of the waves is 3 x 10®m/s. Calculate the
wavelength of the waves.
(1 MHz = 1000000 Hz, 3 x 10® = 300000 000) (2 marks)

. EXTENDED Calculate the wavelength of waves of speed 3 x 108 m/s with

frequency of 400 MHz. (2 marks)
. EXTENDED What is the frequency of waves of speed 3 x 10®m/s and
wavelength 0.1m? (2 marks)
5. EXTENDED What is the speed of a wave of 20Hz with a wavelength of 4m? (2 marks)
. EXTENDED Copy the table and calculate the missing quantities.

Speed/m/s Frequency/Hz Wavelength/m Period/s

10 : Z

2 + On

(12 marks)

PROP
WAV
GEN
 Light
INTRODUCTION
Visible light is just part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, but is an integral
part of much human interaction. Just
imagine how much communication takes
place using visible light, from encounters
with your friends in the street through to
television and movies. An understanding of
how visible light behaves will be helpful in
physics and beyond.

A Fig. 4.9 A music concert uses both light

and sound.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Know how to describe waves using key words such as wavelength, amplitude
and frequency.
/ Know the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.
/ EXTENDED Be able to describe the processes of reflection and refraction in terms
of wavefronts.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror, and give
its characteristics.
V Be able to use the law angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
/ EXTENDED Recall that the image in a plane mirror is virtual.
Y Be able to perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for reflection
by plane mirrors.
V Be able to describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light.
Vv Be able to describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light.
¥ Be able to use the terms ‘principal focus’ and ‘focal length’.
Y Be able to draw ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of a real image by a single lens.
¥ EXTENDED Be able to use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Perhaps the most familiar type of wave in everyday life (along with
water waves) is light. Light does not need a medium to travel through
as it is an electromagnetic wave (see the Electromagnetic spectrum in
the following topic).
Light waves have all of the properties of waves. You have already
SOUND learned
PROPERTIES
WAVES,
OF
LIGHT
INCLUDING
AND about their speed and wavelength. In addition, they are
transverse waves.
Like all other waves, light can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.
Reflection and refraction are easy to demonstrate with a mirror and a
glass of water. The effects caused by diffraction of light waves are very
hard to see. The effects are small because the wavelength of light is
so short.

Reflection of light and ray diagrams

When you look in a plane mirror you see an image of yourself
(Fig. 4.10). The image is said to be laterally inverted because when you
raise your right hand your image raises what you would call its left
hand. The image is formed as far behind the mirror as you are in front
of it and is the same size as you. The image cannot be projected onto
a screen. It is known as a virtual image.

A Fig. 4.10 As you look at the face of the girl and her image in the
mirror, you can see that every part of her face is directly opposite its
image in the mirror, and that each part is the same distance away from
the mirror as Its image.

y <J Fig. 4.11 Rays of light travel outwards

< —__»|< > from the lamp p in all directions. Here Jjust
two rays are drawn to show how light
goes from the lamp to the observer's eye.
After the rays have reflected from the
aw mirror, they travel along lines that /ook as
—_) if they started from the image. The eye Is
a «=, tricked into thinking that the light really
SN ee ' did start from the image.
angle of _ ORS ;
normal line incidence SSF
Fi
angle of —\ LONG
reflection > ae F
a
a
a

mirror =
ae
=aa)
 A ray of light is a line drawn to show the path that the light normal

waves take. We need to study what happens when an

incident light ray (a light ray that is going to fall on a surface)
hits a mirror and is reflected. Light rays are reflected from
mirrors in such a way that:
angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (7) Ag 4912 TReangeeet
The angles are measured to an imaginary
‘ c c - :
‘
line at 90 °
‘ ar incidence and reflection
MRM to the
a) are :

surface of the mirror. This line is called the normal. reflects light
The image in a plane mirror is virtual (it does not really exist).
When you are given the position of the object, you can construct a
diagram to show the position of the image. The diagrams in Fig. 4.13
nan you how. Notice that in each case the angle of incidence (angle
between normal and blue ray) is the same as the angle of reflection
(angle between normal and red ray).

image

object image

A Fig. 4.13 Calculating the position of an image. The blue rays are the incident rays and the red
rays are the reflected rays.

In a plane mirror the image is always the same size as the object.
Examples of plane mirrors include household mirrors, security mirrors
for checking under vehicles and periscopes.
(a)
=
An image formed by a plane mirror, such as the
2
ie)
one in Fig. 4.13, is: light ray
“a)
a) ¢ virtual
2
< @ Jaterally inverted
=
<= * the same size as the object
ee
_ ¢ the same distance behind the mirror as the
O
2 object is in front of the mirror.
(a)
=)
—_
Note that the image is never formed on the
U
= surface of the mirror. This is a mistake which is
wi
uu
often made by candidates in examinations.
>
< > Fig. 4.14 A periscope uses reflection to allow you to see
s above your normal line of vision — or even round corners.
uw
ie)
wn
==
a
ud
a
ie)
oc
[-3
4
r
4
3
\t

Es:
_

q
3
E
Be

plane mirror

REFRACTION OF LIGHT : =
The view through some windows is deliberately obscure — the image that oe
you see is distorted. This is because the glass has a different thickness in =
different places. Rays of light passing through the window are bent to a
different extent. Plain windows in old houses can give slightly distorted $
images because it used to be much harder to make large, flat panes wes
Pr
Ay of glass. . eal
The bending of light is the phenomenon known as refraction, which we
shall study in this part of the topic.
 Light waves slow down when they travel from air into glass. When they
are at an angle to the glass, light rays bend towards the normal as they
enter the glass. When the light rays travel out of the glass into the air,
their speed increases and they bend away from the normal. When the
block of glass has parallel sides, the light resumes its original direction
after passing through. This is why a sheet of window glass has so little
effect on the view beyond. However, the view is shifted slightly
sideways when you look through the glass at an angle.
Figure 4.16 shows how you can demonstrate the refraction of light
through a glass block.

single ray projector

4 rectangular block

A Fig.4.16 Refraction of light.

The angle of incidence, i, is the angle between the incident light ray
and the normal to the surface. The angle of refraction, r, is the angle
between the refracted light ray and the normal to the surface inside
the material.
(Note that people tend to use the letter r both for the angle of
reflection and the angle of refraction. It should be clear from the
context whether they are talking about reflection or refraction.)

QUESTIONS
1. Refraction of light at the surface of a pond can make the pond
look shallower than it really is. Explain why.
2. Sound waves can be refracted when they travel through balloons
filled with different gases. How would the motion of a sound
wave be changed if it travelled through a balloon filled with
carbon dioxide?
AND
LIGHT
WAVES,
PROPERTIES
OF
INCLUDING
SOUND
THIN CONVERGING LENS
Convex (converging, positive) lenses cause parallel rays of light
to converge (Fig. 4.17). The light rays are bent by refraction, as
described on pages 531-532, except that the amount of refraction
increases from the middle of the lens (where there is no refraction) to a
maximum at the outer edge of the lens. The point where the parallel
light rays arriving along the axis of the lens all cross over is known as
the principal focus, F, and the focal length,f,is the most important
feature of the lens. Note that there are two principal foci. (The word
‘foci’ is the plural of ‘focus’.) The foci are each side of the lens, at the
same distance away from it.

parallel
raysof -------~------ a yet
oe ere

i f > (focal length)

A Fig. 4.17 Rays through a convex lens converge to a focus.

principal focus F

focus of
parallel light

focal length f

A Fig. 4.18 Incoming rays converge to a point in the focal plane.

The principal axis is the line through the middle of the lens and at right
angles to it. The principal foci lie on this line.
Converging lenses are used to form images in magnifying glasses,
cameras, telescopes, binoculars, microscopes, film projectors and
spectacles for long-sighted people. =
ag
You can check your spectacles to see if they act as a weak magnifying ~ed
glass, or if they make things seem smaller. If they magnify, then you are
 long-sighted and you see distant
things more clearly. If they do the
opposite, then you are short-sighted . o Cry
and see close-up things more :
clearly. Long sight is corrected with
a converging lens. Short sight is
corrected with a different lens that
diverges light and is not covered in
this course.
When the object is further from the
lens than the focal length, the
converging lens forms a real image.
For example, a cinema projector “9
makes a real image on the screen of
the film inside the projector, anda A Fig. 4.19 What type of lenses do these spectacles have?
camera makes a real image of the object
being photographed on the film or the digital sensor inside. In the first
case the image is bigger than the object; in the second case it is smaller.

To find the position of an image

To find the position of the image of an object formed by a converging
lens, you can draw a ray diagram. There are three standard rays that
you can use to do this. A standard ray is one whose complete path you
know. In ray diagrams, you need any two of the standard rays to find the
position and size of the image. In addition, it is a wise precaution to draw
the third ray to check the accuracy with which you drew the first two.
For convenience, ray diagrams are usually drawn with the bottom of
the object on the principal axis. This means that the bottom of the
image is also on the principal axis, and you need only locate the top of
the image. Figures 4.20, 4.21 and 4.22 show the standard rays.

object Fo

<J Fig. 4.20 A ray from the top of the object,

convex lens straight through the centre of the lens.

object :
Fs <] Fig. 4.21 A ray from the top of the object,
parallel to the principal axis until it reaches the
lens, and then down through the principal focus
convex lens F, on the far side of the lens.
PROPERTIES
OF
WAVES,
INCLUDING
SOUND
AND
LIGHT
 <J Fig. 4.22 A ray from the top of the object
through the principal focus F, on the near side
of the lens, down to the lens and then parallel
convex lens to the axis.

You can use a suitable combination of these three rays to locate images.
Three examples are given here.
In Fig. 4.23 the image is real,
inverted, smaller than the object and
closer to the lens than the distance
of the object from the lens. A real
image is one through which the rays
actually pass, and which could be
picked up on a suitable screen. convex lens
Examples of the formation of this
A Fig. 4.23 The object is a long way from the lens
type of image are in the eye and (more than twice the. focal length).
in a camera.
In Fig. 4.24 the image is real,
inverted, larger than the object and
further from the lens than the
distance of the object from the lens. object
Examples of the formation of this
type of image are in a film projector convex lens
and in a photographic enlarger.

A Fig. 4.24 The object is closer to the lens

(between x1 and x2 the focal length)

EXTENDED
In Fig. 4.25 the image is virtual (does not really exist), upright, larger
than the object and further away from the lens than the distance of the
object from the lens. A virtual image is one through which the rays do
not actually pass, but from which they appear to come. Such an image
cannot be picked up on a screen. An example where this type of image
is formed is in the magnifying glass.

convex lens

A Fig. 4.25 The object is closer to the lens than

the focal length.
 Figure 4.26 shows how the eye sees the image through a magnifying glass.

convex lens

A Fig. 4.26 Looking at an image through a magnifying glass. Note that to see the image, you
have to look through the lens.

END OF EXTENDED

REMEMBER
The image in all these cases is never on the lens itself. This is a mistake
that students often make in examinations.

Let's find the position of the image in Fig. 4.27 a. As you can see in
Fig. 4.27b, we use the two rays to find where the image would be. It is
clear that one of the rays cannot really be followed by light because the
lens is too small. The lines are some of the real light rays that go through
the lens, but these rays cannot be used to find the position of the image.
We use two rays to find where the image would be, as shown in Fig. 4.27b.
Note that these special rays are ‘construction lines’. You may find that if
the lens has a smaller diameter, the upper ray could miss the lens
completely. This does not matter, simply pretend that the lens has a
large enough diameter and work out where the image is. That is where
all of the real rays will go. The image will not move just because the
real lens has a smaller diameter.
a
principal focus, F

object

convex lens

A Fig. 4.27 The camera forms a small inverted image of the object
SOUND in front of it on the digital sensor or the film at the back.
PROPERTIES
WAVES,
OF
LIGHT
INCLUDING
AND

eS]
o
Lo
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
angle of incidence, angle of reflection, normal, virtual image

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror and
give its characteristics.

©) About the law, angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

©) How to perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for

reflection by plane mirrors.

©) About an experimental demonstration ofthe refraction of light.

O) How to describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light.

©) The terms ‘principal focus’ and ‘focal length’

O) How to draw ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of a real image by a single lens.

©) How to describe the nature of an image using the terms enlarged/same size/
diminished and upright/inverted.

(©) EXTENDED How to use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
1. Write down all four characteristics that describe the image formed by a plane
mirror. Use the correct scientific language. (4 marks)

. Where must you place the object so that a convex lens gives an image with
a magnification of more than 1? (2 marks)

. Draw a diagram to show how a plane mirror forms an image of a simple object
such as a candle. (4 marks)

. Draw a diagram to show how a thin lens can be used as a magnifying glass.
(4 marks)
 Electromagnetic
Spectrum
INTRODUCTION
A number of animals, such as dogs and bats,
can hear sounds that are much too high for
humans to hear. The vibrations of the sound
waves repeat so quickly that our ear drums
cannot detect these waves. The sounds
humans can hear are only a small fraction
of the range of sounds.

In just the same way, there are light waves

A Fig. 4.28 Bats sleeping in a cave. ‘ j ;
; that our eyes cannot detect. But those light
waves do exist and scientists have been able
to study them. We collect all the different light waves into a family we call the
electromagnetic spectrum.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Know that waves can transfer energy and information from place to place.
¥ Know that waves can be described using the key words wavelength, frequency,
amplitude and wave speed.
Y Be able to describe simple properties of light, such as reflection and refraction.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
VY Be able to describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum and state
that all e.m. waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum.
V Be able to describe the role of electromagnetic waves in: radio and television
communications; satellite television and telephones; electrical appliances, remote
controllers for TVs and intruder alarms; medicine and security.
VY Be able to demonstrate an awareness of safety issues regarding the use of
microwaves and X-rays.
Vv Be able to state the dangers of ultraviolet radiation, from the Sun or from
tanning lamps.
/Y EXTENDED Be able to state the appropriate value of the speed of
electromagnetic waves.

PROPERTIES
OF
WAVES,
INCLUDING
SOUND
AND
LIGHT
The electromagnetic spectrum is a ‘family’ of
waves. Electromagnetic waves all travel at
the same high speed in a vacuum. This high
speed explains why you can have a phone
call between China and New Zealand with a
delay of only 0.1s before you hear the reply
from the person at the other end. It takes the
infrared signal this long to travel there and
back through an optical fibre.

EXTENDED
The speed of electromagnetic waves is
300000000 m/s in a vacuum, and
approximately the same in air. This can be
written more conveniently as 3 x 10°m/s.

END OF EXTENDED

However, for astronomical distances the

delays quickly become longer. Even when
Mars is at its nearest to Earth, it takes A Fig. 4.29 These satellite dishes are receiving
10 minutes
4
to send ai message2 to a robot
:
on Fee oyare ace Oe
electromagnetic spectrum.
ee
the surface and receive a reply. Getting a
reply from the nearest star (apart from the
Sun) would take 8% years.
Note that all electromagnetic waves can
travel through a vacuum, which is why we
can see the light and feel the heat coming
from the Sun. Other waves, such as sound
waves, cannot travel through a vacuum.

Order of the electromagnetic

spectrum
The visible spectrum is only a small part
of the full electromagnetic spectrum. The
electromagnetic spectrum has waves of
wavelength of the order of 10*m right down
to wavelengths of the order of 10-'*m . Visible =
=)
light has wavelengths ranging between 10° cc
=
and 10-’m. All electromagnetic waves travel U
Wu
o.
at the same speed in a vacuum, which is v2)

==
3 x 10°m/s. This means that the different wi
=
wavelengths must have different A Fig. 4.30 A prism splits white light into the 1)
<
frequencies, and that the longest colourful spectrum of visible light. =
oO
wavelengths have the lowest frequencies. cc
=
Fig. 4.31 shows the full electromagnetic spectrum. UO
wi
=
Lu
 Restart
Peet snes]
wavelength/m wavelength increases
10° 10° 102 10' 1 107 102 10° 10% 10° 10% 107 10% 10° 107° 10") 10”
i¢ 1 fuetep tacteest Bart ce mee
long Biwave i€
228: ' 53S 1 O21,
eg 32VES 1| j
micro BT
is :infrared ultra- a oot VS gt
radio i@sbigek, 53 £8 waves : peer ae

1 iP @? or GP 1 jo)(ce) jae! 30" We TOP sel 10° 401 1O1m0'8 1012. s1022
frequency/Hz
Oe en A
frequency and energy increase
perrrenas ce ee eee

A Fig. 4.31 The electromagnetic spectrum.

REMEMBER
The energy associated with an electromagnetic wave depends on its
frequency. The waves with the higher frequencies are potentially the
more hazardous ones, because they carry most energy.
The visible light region of the spectrum contains the colours ranged
from red, through orange, yellow, green and blue to violet. Infrared lies
next to red, and ultraviolet is next to violet.

QUESTIONS
1. EXTENDED What is the speed of electromagnetic waves in
free space?
2. Which has greater frequency, microwaves or X-rays?
3. Put these electromagnetic radiations into order of
increasing wavelength:
microwaves gamma rays infrared
visible light ultraviolet

SCIENCE
tram BIOLOGY - LIFE PROCESSES, TROPISM

- Most animals are able to sense electromagnetic radiation in their

environment, although there are variations in the particular part of
the spectrum involved. Knowledge of the range of wavelengths
involved provides a linking theme across a range of adaptations,
for example, the ability of bees to ‘see’ ultraviolet radiation or the
ability of some snakes to find their prey using infrared radiation

Plants also respond to electromagnetic radiation. Phototropism is

the process where the direction in which a plant grows is affected
by the direction from which the light is coming.

OF
PROPERTIES
LIGHT
INCLUDING
WAVES,
SOUND
AND
Uses and hazards of electromagnetic radiation
From Fig. 4.31 you will have seen that there are different types
of electromagnetic radiation. Some of these types of radiation
can have harmful effects on the human body when exposure to them
is excessive.
Gamma rays, which, as you see in Fig. 4.31 are the electromagnetic
waves with the shortest wavelength, and therefore the greatest
frequency and energy, are produced by radioactive nuclei. They carry
more energy than X-rays and can cause cancer or mutation in body cells.
Gamma rays are frequently used in radiotherapy to kill cancer cells.
Radioactive substances that emit gamma rays are used as tracers. A
tracer is something that can be used to track the flow of a substance,
and is often used to track substances in biological systems. For
example, if scientists want to know where in a plant the phosphorus
goes, they can feed the plant a radioactive isotope of phosphorus and
then measure the radioactivity that is given off by different parts of
the plant.
X-rays, which have the next highest energy radiation after gamma on
the electromagnetic spectrum, are produced when high-energy
electrons are fired at a metal target. Bones absorb more X-rays than
other body tissues. When a person is placed between an X-ray source
and a photographic plate, the bones appear to be white on the
developed photographic plate compared with the rest of the body.
X-rays have high energy, as shown in Fig. 4.32, and can damage or
destroy body cells. They may also cause cancer. An X-ray could save
your life, but it is not free from danger. A doctor will only arrange for an
X-ray when it is clear that the benefits to you are far greater than the
tiny risk that it will make you ill.
However, X-rays are also used to treat cancer.
X-rays are targeted at the tumour with the aim of
destroying the tumour cells while leaving healthy
cells surrounding the tumour untouched.
X-rays are also used to screen baggage at airports
and other places. It works in the same way as a
medical X-ray. Different materials absorb different
amounts of X-rays.
X-ray scanners can also be used to scan bodies and =
much larger objects. They can even be used to scan =)
ce
=
trucks and shipping containers to see if there are UO
uu
any things such as weapons or people hidden in the A Fig. 4.32 An X-ray of the lungs.
a
wn

trucks or containers. ==
lu

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the component of the Sun’s rays that Zz

Oo
<
gives you a suntan. It is also created in fluorescent light tubes after =
exciting the atoms in a mercury vapour. The UV radiation is then
2)
[es
(=
absorbed by the coating on the inside of the fluorescent tube and U
Lu
a
uJ
 re-emitted as visible light. Fluorescent tubes are more efficient than light
bulbs because they do not emit heat energy, so more energy is available
to produce light. Ultraviolet can also damage the surface cells of the
body, which can lead to skin cancer. It can also damage the eyes, leading
to blindness.
All objects give out infrared radiation (IR). The hotter the object is,
the more radiation it gives out. Thermograms are photographs taken to
show the infrared radiation given out from objects. Infrared radiation
grills and cooks our food in an ordinary oven and is used in remote
controls to operate televisions and videos. Excessive exposure to
infrared, such as when you get close to a very hot object, can burn skin
and other body tissue.
Microwaves are high-frequency radio waves. They are used in radar
to find the position of aircraft and ships. Metal objects reflect the
microwaves back to the transmitter, enabling the distance between the
object and the transmitter to be calculated. Microwaves are also used
for cooking. Water particles in food absorb the energy carried by
microwaves. They vibrate more, making the food much hotter.
Microwaves penetrate several centimetres into the food and so speed
up the cooking process. Because of their ability to penetrate several
centimetres, which is useful when cooking food, microwaves can heat
body tissue internally, so care must be taken to ensure they cannot
escape from a microwave oven.

REMEMBER
Infrared radiation is absorbed by the surface of the food, then the
energy is spread through the rest of the food by conduction. In
contrast, microwaves penetrate a few centimetres into the food and
then the energy is transferred throughout the food by conduction.

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies.

e UHF (ultra-high frequency) waves are used to transmit television
programmes to homes.
¢ VHF (very high frequency) waves are used to transmit local
radio programmes.
¢ Medium and long radio waves are used to transmit over longer
distances because their wavelengths allow them to diffract around
obstacles such as buildings and hills.
¢ Communication satellites above the Earth receive signals carried by
high-frequency (short-wave) radio waves. These signals are amplified
and re-transmitted to other parts of the world.

WAVES,
OF
PROPERTIES
LIGHT
INCLUDING
AND
SOUND

N
wT
Lo)
 SCIENCE
IN
iy PROTECTION FROM ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

In 2007, scientists at the University of Virginia published a study

about how cells protect themselves (or fail to protect themselves)
from damage to the DNA caused by ultraviolet rays. The study
showed that there is a simple switch mechanism inside cells, which is
triggered by exposure to ultraviolet and helps cells to survive and
even thrive after exposure to ultraviolet rays.

After DNA damage caused by exposure to ultraviolet rays, cells

normally stop moving and responding to stimuli until they are
repaired. If the repair work is not carried out properly, the result can
be cancer, as the damaged cell keeps dividing.

QUESTIONS
1. Gamma rays and X-rays are both used in medical contexts.
Describe how each is produced.
2. How is UV created in fluorescent tubes?

3. What is a thermogram?
4. How do microwaves cook food?

SPECT
© ELEC
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
gamma ray, infrared, microwave, radio wave, ultraviolet light, visible spectrum,
X-ray

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() About the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum and that all e.m. waves
travel with the same high speed in a vacuum.

©) EXTENDED About the approximate value of the speed of electromagnetic waves.

©) About the role of electromagnetic waves in:

@ ‘radio and television communications (radio waves)

satellite television and telephones (microwaves)
electrical appliances, remote controllers for televisions and intruder
alarms (infrared)
medicine and security (X-rays).
O) About safety issues regarding the use of microwaves, UV rays and X-rays.

PROPERTIES
WAVES,
OF
INCLUDING
LIGHT
AND
SOUND
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
1. Here is a list of types of wave:

gamma, infrared, microwaves, radio, ultraviolet, visible, X-rays

Choose from the list the type of wave that best fits each of these descriptions:
a) Stimulates the sensitive cells at the back of the eye. (1 mark)
b) Necessary for a suntan. (1 mark)
c) Used for rapid cooking in an oven. (1 mark)
d) Used to take a photograph ofthe bones in a broken arm. (1 mark)
e) Emitted by a TV remote control unit. (1 mark)

Gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays are useful to
us but can also be very dangerous.
a) Explain how the properties of gamma rays make them useful to us. (3 marks)
b) Explain why gamma rays can cause damage to people. (3 marks)
c) Give one difference between microwaves and gamma rays. (1 mark)
d) EXTENDED Microwaves travel at 300000000 m/s. At what speed do
gamma rays travel? (2 marks)
3. a) Write down the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing
wavelength. (4 marks)
b) How would your list in part a) be different if you wrote it in order of increasing
frequency? (1 mark)

SPEC
ELEC
 End of topic questions continued
4. Copy and complete the table describing waves ofthe electromagnetic spectrum.

Wave type Source of wave Use | Property 3

Radio Radio transmitter
[and aerial_ st

[Xray tubes |
Lamps, Sun, Can be dispersed
flames =e
into seven colours
Mercury vapour Security markings
lamps
Thermal imaging | Can cause burns
Radioactive Very penetrating
substances
Hearing
Magnetron Heating food
| quickly —

(13 marks)

. Why do microwave ovens take less time to cook food than normal ovens?
(3 marks)

. a) Copy the electromagnetic spectrum shown and complete it by filling

in the gaps.

Radio waves | |infrared Light X-rays | |

(3 marks)

b) Which waves have the longest wavelength? (1 mark)

¢) Which type of wave carries the greatest energy? (1 mark)

d) What do all of the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum

have in common? (2 marks)

e) What part of the spectrum is detected by: i) the eyes; ii) the skin? (2 marks)

PROPERTIES
OF
INCLUDING
WAVES,
LIGHT
SOUND
AND
Sound
INTRODUCTION
Think about the importance of sound.
Humans and other animals use sounds for
communicating in a variety of situations —
for greetings, to get information across, to
attract a mate, to warn of danger — there are
many examples.

Sound is a form of wave, like light. However,

light is a transverse wave and sound is a
longitudinal wave. Some of the properties
of sound are the same as light, but some of .
ars : : A Fig. 4.33 Sound is caused by vibrations which can
them are different. In this section you be seen by the motion recorded in this photo of
. ti kers,
are going to find out how these sound pe ee
waves operate.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
VY Know how to describe waves using key words such as wavelength, amplitude
and frequency.
Y Know the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.
Vv Be able to describe the processes of reflection, refraction and diffraction.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
/ Be able to describe the production of sound by vibrating sources.
VY EXTENDED Be able to describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves.
V Be able to state the approximate range of audible frequencies.
VY Be able to show an understanding of the term ultrasound.
¥ Be able to show an understanding that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves.
V Be able to describe an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air.
VY Be able to relate the loudness and pitch of sound waves to amplitude and frequency.
VY Be able to describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo.
VY EXTENDED Be able to describe compression and rarefaction.
/ EXTENDED Be able to state the order of magnitude of the speed of sound in air,
liquids and solids.

WHAT IS SOUND?
Sound is caused by vibrations, for example, of the front of a violin or a
cello, or of the column of air inside a trumpet. In the case of a
loudspeaker it is particularly clear that the cone of the loudspeaker
moves in and out and changes the pressure in the air in front of it. The
sound travels as longitudinal waves.
 EXTENDED
The compressions (where vibrations are closer together on the wave)
and rarefactions (where vibrations are further apart on the wave) of
sound waves result in small differences in air pressure (see Fig. 4.2 in
General wave properties)
Like other longitudinal waves, sound waves can be reflected, refracted
or diffracted. Sound waves travel faster through liquids than through
air. The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. The speed of sound in water
is 1484 m/s. Sound travels fastest through solids (in iron it travels at
5120 m/s). This is because particles are linked most strongly in solids.
Note, however, that sound must have a medium through which to
travel. Unlike electromagnetic waves, sound will not travel through
a vacuum.
. *
o
* s .
a DA
=

. >
. < [
~e ese es
me

iii tlt/
|i a
al

A Fig. 4.34 This orchestra is creating a single longitudinal wave of very complicated shape.
In ways that we barely understand, our brains can pick out the sounds of all the individual
instruments that are playing together.

END OF EXTENDED

Sounds humans can hear

The human ear can detect sounds with pitches in the range 20 Hz to
20000 Hz. Sound with frequencies above this range is known as
ultrasound. Ultrasound is used by bats for navigation. It can also be
used to build up images of organs within the body, since different
tissues reflect ultrasound waves in different ways. By combining the
various reflections, an image is generated. A well-known example of the
use of ultrasound scanning is for checking the development of a fetus
during pregnancy.

PROPERTIES
WAVES,
OF
INCLUDING
LIGHT
SOUND
AND
Measuring the speed of sound in air
The simplest method to measure the speed of sound in air uses
two microphones and a fast recording device, such as a digital
storage oscilloscope.
1. A sound source and the two microphones are arranged in a straight
line, with the sound source beyond the first microphone.
2. The distance between the microphones (x), called the microphone
basis, is measured.
3. The time of arrival between the signals (delay) reaching the different
microphones (t) is measured.
4. Then speed of sound = x/t

EXTENDED

Speed of sound in air, liquids and solids

The speed of sound in solids is greater than that in liquids, which is
greater than that in gases. Typical values are:
e steel: 3200 m/s
e fresh water: 1497 m/s
e dry air: 343 m/s.
END OF EXTENDED

SCIENCE
IN
rasa DAMAGING EARS

The ear is far more easily damaged than most people realise. You
should always take care, both with the volume of sound and the length
of time that your ear is exposed to it. The damage is cumulative, so is
not noticed at first. Many older rock musicians have serious hearing
problems, and many of the younger ones now wear earplugs to
prevent their own performances from damaging their hearing.

Earplugs worn by rock musicians are designed to reduce the range of

audio frequencies equally, so that the wearer hears the upper and
lower frequencies at the same relative levels as they would without
the earplugs. (If this were not the case, then the bass guitarist, for
example, may feel that he or she was not playing loudly enough to
balance the vocalist, simply because the lower iy
frequencies were reduced in level too much in
relation to the higher vocal frequencies.)

This type of earplug usually has a tiny diaphragm to

reduce low frequencies (100 to 50Hz), and absorbent
or damping material to reduce high frequencies (5 to
2 kHz). They are quite expensive and are intended to
be used again and again. They reduce noise levels by
about 20 decibels (dB) but are not intended to protect
the wearer from noise levels above 105 GB (Fig. 4.35). A Fig. 4.35 A musician's earplug.
 QUESTIONS
1. What type of wave is a sound wave?
2. EXTENDED What happens to the air as a result of compressions
and rarefactions in a sound wave?
3. What is the frequency range for human hearing?
4. What is ultrasound?
5. Describe a simple method for measuring the speed of sound in air.

Using an oscilloscope and microphone to display

sound waves
Sound waves can be represented on an oscilloscope by using a
microphone and a loudspeaker as shown in Fig. 4.36. This produces
a voltage—time graph for the sound wave on the screen of the
oscilloscope. From the voltage—time graph, you can find the frequency
of the sound wave, since you will know the time taken for one cycle of
the wave (which is the frequency).
o)
7)
2
fe.
E
©
'

vibrating
loudspeaker

microphone
oscilloscope

A Fig. 4.36 Displaying sound waves on an oscilloscope screen.

Pitch, frequency, amplitude and loudness

Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency. Examples of high-
pitch sounds include birdsong and all the mae that you hear on
someone else's personal stereo when they have set the volume too high.
Low-pitch sounds have a low frequency. Examples of low-pitch sounds
include the horn of a large ship and a bass guitar.
Loud sounds have large amplitude, whereas quiet sounds have small
PROPERTIES
WAVES,
OF
INCLUDING
LIGHT
SOUND
AND
amplitude. The loudness of sounds can be compared using decibels.
© Typical sound wave patterns are shown in Fig. 4.37.
Lo
Lo
 time time

voltage voltage

fad) R ®o
» ee D time
3S ee ae ae
oO

A Fig. 4.37 Wave sound patterns: (a) A loud sound of low frequency; (b) A loud sound of high
frequency; (c) A quiet sound of low frequency; (d) A quiet sound of high frequency.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Using this displacement—time graph for a sound wave, calculate the
amplitude of the waveform.

horizontally,each square
represents 1mm

displacement/mm

<J Fig. 4.38 Displacement-time graph for

a sound wave.

The amplitude is the maximum displacement from the mean position,

so can be read straight from the graph.

Amplitude = 3mm.

Echoes
Hard surfaces reflect sound waves. An echo is a sound that has been
reflected before you hear it. For an echo to be clearly heard, the
obstacle needs to be large compared with the wavelength of the sound. a)
For example, you will hear an echo when you make a loud noise when =
=)
you are several hundred metres from a brick wall or a cliff. You will not (eo)
7)
 hear an echo when you are several hundred metres from a pole stuck in
the ground. There will still be an echo, even when you are much closer
to the wall, but because sound travels very quickly, the echo will return
in such a short time that you will probably not be able to distinguish it
from the sound that caused it.

Measuring the speed of sound by an echo method

The following worked example illustrates how echoes may be used to
measure the speed of sound.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Two students stand side by side at a distance
of 480m from the school wall. Student A has school wall , }
two flat pieces of wood, which make a loud |
sound when clapped together. Student B has
a stopwatch.
As student A claps the boards together,
student B starts the stopwatch. When
student B hears the echo, he stops the
stopwatch. The time recorded on the
stopwatch is 2.9s.

A Fig. 4.39 Two students carrying out an investigation

into the speed of sound.
Calculate the speed of sound.

Write down the formula: speed of sound = distance travelled/time taken

Work out the distance: distance to wall = 2 x 480

and back

= 960m

Record the time the sound took to travel there and back:

time =2.9$

Substitute the formula: speed of sound = 960429

=o.
See if you can think of some things that might be done to improve the
accuracy of this experiment.

PROPERTIES
WAVES,
OF
INCLUDING
LIGHT
SOUND
AND

N
Lo
Te)
:
: Y

e
2
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
decibel, echo, oscilloscope, pitch, ultrasound

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() How sound waves are produced by vibrating sources.

(©) About the longitudinal nature of sound waves.

©) About the approximate range of audible frequencies.

() About the term ultrasound.

() That a medium is needed to transmit sound waves.

©) About an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air.

©) That loudness and pitch of sound waves are related to amplitude and frequency.

©) How to describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo.

O EXTENDED About compression and rarefaction.

(©) EXTENDED About the order of magnitude of the speed of sound in air, liquids
and solids.

PROPERTIES
WAVES,
OF
INCLUDING
LIGHT
SOUND
AND
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
1. a) i) What causes a sound? (2 marks)
ii) Explain how sound travels through the air. (2 marks)
b) Astronauts in space cannot talk directly to each other — they have to speak to
each other by radio. Explain why this is so. (3 marks)
2. Ayesha and Salma are carrying out an experiment to measure the speed of sound.
They stand 150m apart.

Ayesha starts the stopwatch when she sees Salma make a sound and she stops it
when she hears the sound herself. She measures the time as 0.44. Calculate the
speed of sound in air from this data. (3 marks)

3. EXTENDED The speed of sound is approximately 340 m/s.

a) Calculate the wavelength of the musical note middle C, which has a frequency
of 256 Hz. (3 marks)
b) A student hears two echoes when she claps her hands. One echo is 0.5s after
the clap, and one echo is 1.0s after the clap. She decides that the two echoes
are from two buildings in front of her. How far apart are the buildings? (3 marks)

4. Draw an oscilloscope trace representing each of the following sounds.

a) low-frequency quiet sound (1 mark)

b) high-frequency loud sound (1 mark)
c) high-frequency quiet sound (1 mark)
d) low-frequency loud sound. (1 mark)

5. A polystyrene ball is suspended so that it is touching the prongs of a vibrating

tuning fork. The ball kicks away from the tuning fork and then
moves back to it.
a) Explain the behaviour of the ball by:
i) describing how the prongs ofthe tuning fork move
(2 marks)

ii) describing how a sound wave is created by the tuning fork

(2 marks)

iii) making a drawing of the sound wave, labelling the key

features. (2 marks)

b) Explain what you would see if the tips of the tuning fork were
dipped into a beaker of water. (3 marks) SOUN
 Have you everHapbed a‘ballogn in used static electricity to ‘stick’
~ the balloon toa wall? O1 have }you ever ‘got a shock’ when you
- touched a metal handrail? Has your phone ever run out of charge
completely, leavingyou |unable to communicate?
Just think how your lifewould be if we had no Pee anding of
electrical effects and how to use them.
In this section you will consider the origins of electric forces before
moving on to study electric circuits. You will look at the key ideas ve
involved and the key measurements we can make.

STARTING POINTS
1.Which parts ofan atom are charged?
2.Why are electric cables made of metals?
3. What is a lightning conductor?
4. List five examples of energy changes caused by electrical circuit
5.Why do bathrooms not have electric sockets but kitchens do?

CONTENTS
a) Electric charge
lb) Current, potential difference and electromotive force (e.m.f.)
ra] Resistance
 eh

pe
tegeneel
Boe
aapeal

reseed

e
< yams
ial partOfour |Ive
A Electr clty Is an essent la
re lyonit to operate Pnany dev ices

Ba eae nD

et
Sinan
ee a
ai

esta wile
 Electric charge
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever brushed your hair and seen
individual hairs standing on end and
wondered why this happens? Would you like
to know how to stick a balloon to a surface
without glue? This section explores how and
why these things happen. They are both the
result of movement of electric charge.

A Fig. 5.1 A plasma globe. The blue light is

caused by a flow of electric charge.

_KNOWLEDGE CHECK
- / Know that common electric effects are caused by imbalances in the number of
electrons present.
/ Know that forces can be attractive or repulsive.

___LEARNING OBJECTIVES _
_ v Describe simple experiments toshowthe production and detection ofelectrostatic charges.
_ v State that there are positive and negative charges.
VY State that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel.
Y State that charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
V Distinguish between electrical insulators and conductors and give typical examples.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
Individual hairs stand on end after brushing and balloons stick to certain
surfaces without glue as a result of movement of electrostatic charge.

Conductors and insulators

Substances that easily allow electric energy to pass through them are
called conductors; those that do not are called insulators.
n Metals are conductors. In a metal structure, the metal atoms exist as
= ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of electrons. (Fig. 5.2).
~ When the electrons are moving through the metal structure, they bump
© into the metal ions and experience ance to the electron flow or
< current. In different conductors, the easeofflow of the electrons is
ce different and so the conductors have different resistances. For example,
re copper is a better conductor than iron.
EL
 metal atoms (some people
describe them as positive
; ions because they donate
(—) electrons into the ‘sea’ of |
Aes electrons)

9.0°0
xe @
[7
a.
‘sea’ of electrons
(holds the metal atoms
together)

A Fig. 5.2 In a metal structure the metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of electrons.
|
|

Table 5.1 lists materials ranging from the best conductor to the best
insulator. The range in the resistance of different materials is truly
amazing. Silver is about 10°’ times better at conducting charges than
the plastic Teflon. So to replace a | mm diameter wire of silver or
copper in an electrical circuit, you would need a bar of Teflon far larger
in diameter than the Moon’s orbit around the Earth.

Name Metal/non-metal Conductor/

insulator
Silver Metal Conductor (best)
Copper | Metal Conductor
Aluminium Metal Conductor
Iron Metal Conductor |
Graphite Non-metal Conductor
Silicon Non-metal Semiconductor
Most Plastics Non-metal Insulator
Oil Non-metal Insulator
Glass Non-metal Insulator
Teflon Non-metal Insulator (best)
Table 5.1 Comparison of conductors and insulators.

Electrostatic charges: charging insulators by friction

Materials such as glass, acetate and polythene can only become
charged when they are rubbed. This is because they are insulators.
Electrons do not move easily through insulating materials, so when
extra electrons are added, they stay on the surface instead of flowing
away, and the surface stays negatively charged. Similarly, when
electrons are removed, electrons from other parts of the material
do not flow in to replace them, so the surface stays positively charged.
Conductors, such as metals, cannot be charged by rubbing.

Charge as the loss or gain of electrons

All atoms are made up of three main kinds of particles, called
electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons are the tiniest of these and
CHARG
ELECT
have a negative charge. Protons and neutrons have about the same
mass, but protons are positively charged while neutrons have no
 charge. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of the atom
and electrons are found as a cloud surrounding the nucleus.
When you charge an object with static electricity, you are adding or
taking away negatively charged electrons, so that the charge on the
object overall is unbalanced. For example, when you rub a glass or
acetate rod with a cloth, electrons from the rod get rubbed onto the
cloth. The cloth becomes negatively charged overall and the rod is left
with an overall positive charge.
When you rub a polythene rod with a cloth, electrons from the cloth
get transferred to the rod, so the polythene carries a negative charge
overall and the cloth carries a positive charge (Fig. 5.3).

polythene

wool

fewer electrons, more electrons,

therefore positive therefore negative

A Fig. 5.3 Transferring charge from a cloth to a rod.

- QUESTIONS >
| 1. Have you ever ‘got a shock’ from a metal handrail? Explain why it
| was really the other way round — you gave a shock to the handrail.
_ 2. Storm clouds can become charged, leading to lightning. Suggest
| how a cloud can become charged.

Attraction and repulsion

Every proton and electron produces an electric field. So, around any
object in which the charges are not balanced, there is an electric field.
When a charged particle moves into the field, it feels a force toward or
away from the other particle (see Fig. 5.4). The strength of the force
_ depends on:

are
|e how close the particles are: the closer they are, the larger the force
| ¢ how much electrical charge they carry: the more charge, the larger
wn
= | the force.
== |
=
<=
=]
Co
al
<
=
c
be

i
uu
ow!
rT Like charges repel each other. Unlike charges attract each other.

A Fig. 5.4 Field lines show the shape of an electric field.

When an unbalanced charge collects on the surface of an
object, the charge is called static charge. (‘Static’ means
‘not moving.) When electrons move, or flow, from one
place to another, they produce an electric current.

Simple experiments using static electricity

When you suspend charged polythene and acetate rods so
they can move freely, and bring the two close together, they
will attract each other, since unlike charges attract.
Similarly, when a balloon is rubbed against clothing it will
‘stick’ to a wall or ceiling. This is because of the attraction
between the negative charges on the balloon and the induced 4 Fig. 5.5 Because the static charge
Byes “y. : on each hair is similar, the hairs
positive charges on the ceiling (Fig. 5.6). Sai amstee rae
directions.

ceiling

<J Fig. 5.6 The balloon induces a |

negative balloon charge on the ceiling’s surface.

All the phenomena of electrostatics can be explained in terms of moving

negative or moving positive charges. Early scientists did not know what
was moving, and it was only towards the end of the nineteenth century |
that they became sure that it was the negative charges that moved.

QUESTIONS”
— a ee a _ ee eee — —

1. The key foe atTaye end it he a nerecaih eerie was

the electron. From your knowledge of atoms, explain why it
is negative charges that move to create electrostatic effects. |
2. Describe how electrostatic effects stop you from falling through
the floor.
3. a) Complete the diagrams to show what happens when a cloth is
rubbed on a material that gains electrons, and when a cloth is
rubbed on a material that loses electrons.

Lhd
©)
ce
<
ao
ws,
VU
oad
LF
i
polythene rod perspex rod ett
eel
Lid

b) What can you say about the sizes of the positive or negative
charges on the cloth and on the rod in each of the diagrams?
ane nnenernemenenns nena EN RI
 SCIENCE
IN
feiisay HAZARDS OF ELECTROSTATICS

The sudden discharge ofelectricity caused by friction between two

insulators can cause shocks in everyday situations, for example:

combing your hair

pulling clothes over your head
ironing synthetic fabrics
getting out of a car.

You may have noticed that you can get a nasty

spark from your finger if you touch a metal
object after rubbing your feet on a nylon
carpet. This is similar to the effect you can
sometimes feel if you touch a metal door
handle. It is for this reason that workers who
make sensitive electronic devices connect
themselves to ground using devices such as
antistatic wrist straps (Fig. 5.7), which link to a
grounding point (a point that is connected to
OV) so that any static charge can discharge
safely via the wrist strap and not damage the
equipment before starting work. Also, to
protect against sparks of this type, aircraft are
A Fig. 5.7 An antistatic wrist strap in use.
connected to the ground by a special wire
before refuelling starts.

Lightning is a spectacular example of

electrostatics in action. Scientists believe that the
electrical charge is generated by induction when
ice particles in clouds collide. One bolt of
lightning carries about 5 C of electrical charge.
Lightning conductors on buildings usually
prevent lightning strikes by discharging the
cloud above, but if a strike still occurs the charge
should be carried safely to ground. A Fig. 5.8 Lightning.
WwW
Md
j-

—
rd
<

os
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
conductor, electric charge, electron, insulator, ion, resistance, static electricity

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) About simple experiments which can produce static electric charges

©) That there are positive and negative charges and that these will attract if the
charges are different but repel if the charges are the same

O) That charging an object involves adding or removing electrons

©) To carry out and describe simple experiments to show the production and
detection of electrostatic charges.

©) How to distinguish between electrical insulators and conductors and give

typical examples of each.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.
1. A plastic rod is rubbed with a cloth.
a) How does the plastic become positively charged? (2 marks)

b) The charged plastic rod attracts small pieces of paper. Explain why this
attraction occurs. (2 marks)

2. a) Acar stops and one of the passengers gets out. When she touches a metal post
she feels an electric shock. Explain why she feels this shock. (2 marks)

b) Write down two other situations where people might get this type of shock.
(2 marks)

CHARG
ELECT
 Peupeny potential

L atecivGnetice force
(e.m.f.)
INTRODUCTION
You have seen the effects of static electric charges
in the previous topic. However, when the charges
move in an organised way a number of different
effects are seen — these are the effects of electric
currents. We can build upon our atomic model of
A Fig. 5.9 How many of these do you use in electric charges to describe, measure and explain
your life? how electric circuits have these effects. This will
allow us to design electric circuits to perform a
wide variety of useful functions, from lighting our
homes to controlling a heart pacemaker.

_ KNOWLEDGECHECK —
Y Know that electric charges ccan bepositive orr negative,
/ Know the electric charges produce forces of attraction and repulsion.

___LEARNING OE OBJECTIVES -
Y State that current is related to flow ofcharge.
Y Use and describe the use of an ammeter and a voltmeter, both analogue and digital.
Y State that current in metals is due to a flow of electrons.
VY State that the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured
in volts.
V State that the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of an electrical source of energy is
measured in volts.
¥Y EXTENDED show an understanding that current is a rate of flow of charge and
recall and use the equation / = Qt.
— - = ee = = . ee |

CURRENT
When there is no current in a conductor, the free electrons move
randomly between atoms, with no overall movement. When you
connect it in an electrical circuit with a power source such as a
battery, there is a current in the conductor. Now the electrons drift in
one direction, while still moving in a random way as well. The drift
speed is very slow, often only a few millimetres each second. There can
only be a current in a conductor when it is connected in a complete
QUANTITIES
ELECTRICAL

circuit. When the circuit is broken, the current stops.

 SCIENCE
ira BIOLOGY - LIFE PROCESSES

An electric current is a rate offlow of electric charge. The idea of a

‘rate of flow, how much a particular quantity changes in a measured
amount of time, is a key concept that is used in many situations as
we describe the world around us. For example, we might be
interested in the rate of growth of a tree or an animal, or the rate at
which bacteria multiply.

CHEMISTRY - CHEMICAL REACTIONS

« Rates of change are also important in chemistry. We may need to
know how quickly a chemical change will happen, or if the rate of
energy release will be enough to provide the power we need ina
car engine.

The size of an electric current depends on the number of electrons that

are moving and how fast they are moving. However, instead of
measuring the actual number of electrons we use the total charge
carried by the electrons round the circuit each second. So, current is a
flow of charge.
Electric current is measured in amperes, or amps (A).

EXTENDED
When there is a current of 1 A in a wire, then one coulomb of charge
is passing any point on the circuit each second. (1A = 1 C/s.)

END OF EXTENDED
You use an ammeter to measure current in an electrical circuit.
When the current is very small, you might use a milliammeter, which
measures current in milliamps (1 mA = 0.001 A). Even smaller currents
are measured with a microammeter.
When you want to measure the current in a particular component,
such as a lamp or motor, the ammeter must be connected in series with
the component. In a series circuit, the current is the same at all points
so it does not matter where the ammeter is put. This is not the case
with a parallel circuit (see Section 6, Electric circuits for more about
series and parallel circuits).

<1] Fig. 5.10 In this series circuit, the current (E.M.F.

FORCE
ELECT
AND
DIFFE
POTEN
CURRE
XN.

will be the same throughout the circuit so

A, =A, =A,.
 EXTENDED
The electric current is the amount of charge flowing
every second (the number of coulombs per second):
= OF
Where: I = current in amperes (A)
O = charge in coulombs (C)
t = time in seconds (s)
A Fig. 5.11 Equation triangle
for charge, current and time.

QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the flow of charge in the following:
a) current 3A for 5s
b) current 2A for 10s
c) current 4A for 235
d) current 1.5A for 0.5 minutes.
2. A charge of 120C flows for 4 minutes. What is the current?
3. A charge of 60C produces a current of 0.5A. How long does
this take?

END OF EXTENDED

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
The battery in an electrical circuit can be thought of as pushing
electrical charge around the circuit to make a current. It also transfers
energy to the electrical charge. The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of
the battery, measured in volts, measures how much ‘push’ it can provide
and how much energy it can transfer to the charge.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The electrons moving around a circuit have some kinetic energy, which
can be referred to as electrical energy. As electrons pass through the
battery, or other power supply, they are given potential energy, and as
they move around a circuit, they transfer energy to the various
components in the circuit. For example, when the electrons move
through a lamp they transfer some of their energy to the lamp.
The amount of energy that a unit of charge (a coulomb) transfers
between one point and another (the number of joules per coulomb) is
called the potential difference (p.d.). Potential difference is
CTRICAL
E
measured in volts, so it is often referred to as voltage (Fig. 5.12).
QUANTITIES
lui
 1 coulomb of charge
1 coulomb of charge
Carrying energy
carrying less energy

OO current |

p.d. across lamp = energy transferred <J Fig. 5.12 Potential

to lamp by difference (p.d.) is the
1 coulomb of charge difference in energy of
i al one coulomb of charge
p.d. across both lamps = energy transferred to both between two parts of a |
lamps by 1 coulomb of charge circuit.

Measuring electricity |
Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter. When you want to
measure the p.d. across a component then the voltmeter must be
connected in parallel across that component. Testing with a voltmeter does
not interfere with the circuit provided the voltmeter has a high resistance. |
A voltmeter can be used to show how the potential difference varies in
different parts of a circuit. In a series circuit you find different values
of the voltage depending on where you attach the voltmeter. You can
assume that energy is only transferred when the current passes through
electrical components such as lamps and motors — the energy transfer
to thermal energy as the current passes through copper connecting wire |
is very small indeed. Therefore, it is only possible to measure a p.d. or
voltage across a component.
p.d. = 6V
\i

p.d.= 3V rm
6 joules transferred from each coulomb = 3J/C | =
power = 2 coulombs per second, of 6 joules each power = 2C/s x 3u/C Le
12 joules per second 6 joules per second |
|
|

current = 2A
(2 coulombs
every second) ov battery |

p.d. = 9V = 9 joules transferred

to each coulomb +

power = 2 coulombs per second,

of 9 joules each
= 18 joules per second A Fig. 5.14 A voltmeter can be
A Fig. 5.13 The potential difference across the battery equals the sum of the added after the rest of the
potential differences across each lamp. That is V= V, + V,. circuit has been connected.

(CURRE
FORCE
ELECT
AND
DIFFE
POTEN
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
ammeter, ampere (amp), coulomb, electromotive force, potential difference,
voltage, volt

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() About current, potential difference and e.mf.

() That current is related to flow of charge.

() How to use and describe the use of an ammeter and a voltmeter, both analogue
and digital.

() That current in metals is due to a flow of electrons.

() That the e.m-f. of a source of energy and potential difference are both measured
in volts.

C) EXTENDED That current is a rate of flow of charge and how to use the equation
!= Q/t.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may
be different.

1. EXTENDED a) A charge of 10 coulombs flows through a motor in 30 seconds.

What is the current in the motor? (2 marks)

b) A heater uses a current of 10A. How much charge passes through the heater in:

i) 1 second (2 marks)

ii) 1 hour? (2 marks)

2. Suggest why the diameter of a cable must be suitable for the current it has to
carry. (Hint: current has a heating effect.) (2 marks)
3. What is the difference between a digital ammeter and an analogue ammeter?
(2 marks)

4. Electromotive force (e.m.f.) and potential difference (p.d.) are both measured
in volts. Using ideas about energy, describe one similarity between e.m-f.
and p.d. and one difference. (2 marks)
QUANTITIES
ELECTRICAL
Resistance
INTRODUCTION
Having built our model on the ideas that
current measures how much electric charge
is moving per second and that p.d. and
e.m.f. are related to the energy transfers
involved, the third key feature of circuits
that we need to consider is the material the
charges are moving through. This brings in
the idea of electrical resistance.

A Fig. 5.15 The cables that carry electric current to

household appliances have a very low resistance.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Electric current is due to the movement of charges.
Y How to measure currents with an ammeter.
¥ How to measure potential differences with a voltmeter.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y State that resistance = p.d. / current and understand qualitatively how changes in
p.d. or resistance affect current.
/ Recall and use the equation R = V/I.
/ EXTENDED Recall and use quantitatively the proportionality between the
resistance and length, and the inverse proportionality between resistance and
cross-sectional area of a wire.

RESISTANCE
All components in an electrical circuit have a resistance to the
current in them. The relationship between voltage, current and
resistance in electrical circuits is given by this equation:
Vea Ih
where: V = potential difference in volts (V)
I |=current in amps (A)
R = resistance in ohms (Q).
. V
[t is important to be able to rearrange this equation when /tofind | = =F
cover
é lations. Use the triangle in Fig. 5.16 to help you.
SSO MLN: vale 8 8 P) A Fig. 5.16 Equation triangle for
From this equation, you find that R = V/I. This is Ohm’s law. _ voltage, current and resistance.
 REMEMBER
The idea of resistance is useful because for a lot of objects their resistance
does not change when you change the current through them. But there
are many components, such as light bulbs, for which this is not true.
a SE EEE EEE

- WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A heater element is connected to a 230V supply. The current in the
heater is 1OA. Calculate the resistance of the heater.

Write down the formula in terms of R: Raval

Substitute the values for V and I: R= 230/10
Work out the answer and write down the unit: R= 230
2. A 6V supply is applied to 1000 resistor. What will be the current?
Write down the formula in terms of I: eats
Substitute the values for V and R: I = 6/1000
Work out the answer and write down the unit: I =0.006A

QUESTIONS |
1. Use the Ohm’s law equation to calculate the potential difference
| across a 5Q resistor, which has a current of 2A in it.
|
2. A lamp has a potential difference of 3.0V across it and a current
|
of 0.5A in it. What is its resistance?

Measuring resistance
_ The resistance of a component can be found using the circuit in
_ Fig. 5.13 in the previous topic. The component (lamp, resistor or
whatever) is placed in a circuit with an ammeter to measure the
current in the component and a voltmeter to measure the potential
_ difference across it. To take readings, the circuit is switched on and
readings are made of the p.d. and the current.
The resistance is calculated from the following equation:
ce — Vii
wy
bu
Note that the readings may change a little over the first few seconds.
E |
If so, this is probably because the component is heating up and its
=
<
resistance is changing. If this happens, you would have to decide
=
oO
whether to take the readings before the component has heated
ood
<x
|
| up, and so measure the resistance at room temperature, or to wait
U
x
t
|
|
until the readings have stopped changing. This would give you the
-
U
Ls
|

|
‘steady-state’ resistance with the component at its usual running
wal
bu temperature. | V is equivalent to 1 J/C.
You may wish to change the e.m.f. of the battery by
changing the number of cells (or you may adjust the
output of the power supply). When the component is a
perfect resistor, then you will get the same answer for
the resistance; but you will often find that the resistance
of the component varies. (Modern multimeters measure
resistance automatically and give a reading in ohms.)
For components such as resistors and thick wires, the
current through the component doubles when you switch
double the voltage and triples when you triple the
voltage. The resistance of the component to the
passage of electricity does not change, and the extra ag
current is caused solely by the increased pressure of || |
the extra voltage. The current is directly proportional |
to the voltage and the graph is a straight line. Dfcomponent.
gl dacasuiing the jesistance ola
To power the circuit you could
‘Take care. If you try using thick wire as the component, _use a battery as shown (with a maximum
¢ : of 3V), or you could use a power supply
the current will be extremely high for a very low voltage. aiith*e suitable oltpute For sstetyeswiitch
The wire can get very hot very quickly and there is a on for a maximum of 10 seconds only.
risk of injury.

HOW CHANGING RESISTANCE AFFECTS CURRENT

Figure 5.18 (left) shows the voltage—current graph for a component
where the resistance remains constant, as shown by the constant
gradient of the voltage—current graph. This would be the graph for an
‘ohmic’ resistor, such as carbon. For such a resistor, Ohm’s law (see /
page 569) applies and the voltage is directly proportional to the current
—a straight line is obtained. However, the resistance of most
conductors becomes higher if the temperature of the conductor |
increases. As the temperature rises, the particles in the conductor |
vibrate more and provide greater resistance to the flow of electrons. For
example, the resistance of a filament lamp becomes greater as the |
voltage is increased and the lamp gets hotter. Ohm’s law is not obeyed
because the heating of the lamp changes its resistance. Figure 5.18
(right) shows the voltage—current graph for such a component. You can |
see that the gradient of the graph increases with increasing voltage.

p.d.
V/V
resistor,
across
p.d.
filament
V/V
lamp,
across

current in through current in through

resistor, /(A) component, /(A)

A Fig. 5.18 Left: Voltage—current graph for a component where resistance remains constant.
Right: Voltage current graph for a component where resistance increases as voltage increases.
 nce ofa piece of fuse wire. He sets up
ote of the readingson the ammeter
ettings of the variable resistor. His

diagrm for the investigation.

_ Potential difference/V_
60...

Using and organising techniques, apparatus and materials -

@ The student did not measure the voltage of the supply or the particular
settings of the variable resistor. Explain why these measurements were
_ notrequired. — -
@ Thestudent should check the ammeter and voltmeter for zero errors.
What are these?

Observing, measuring and recording

© Draw a graph of the student's results.
@ Use your graph, with p.d. on the y-axis and current on the x-axis, to find
the resistance of the wire.

Handling experimental observations and data

© Another student suggests that drawing a graph is not necessary. They
say that you could use the equation R = V// for each pair of
measurements and then find a mean of these values. Explain why
calculating the gradient of the graph is a better method.
: @ To get an accurate value for the resistance of the wire, the student
__ heeded to avoid any heating effects in the wire. Describe how the
student could reduce heating effects when carrying out the experiment.
EXTENDED
Effects of length and cross-sectional area
For a particular conductor, the resistance is proportional to length. The
longer the conductor, the further the electrons have to travel, the more
likely they are to collide with the metal ions and so the greater the
resistance. So, a wire that is twice as long will have twice as much
resistance.

A Fig. 5.20 Two wires in series are like one

long wire, because the electrons have to
travel twice as far.

Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the |

wire. The greater the cross-sectional area of the conductor, the more
electrons there are available to carry the charge along the conductor's |
length, so the lower the resistance. Therefore, a wire with twice the |
cross-sectional area will have half the resistance. |
@®<o @®<o @
@<+o @®<o
@<o0 ©<o © |
@®<o @®<o ©
@<o @®<o
@<o @<o ©

A Fig. 5.21 Two wires in parallel are like one

thick wire, so the electrons have more routes
to travel along the same distance.

REMEMBER |

If the wire is of twice the diameter, then its cross-sectional area will be |
four times greater, so the resistance of the wire will be one-quarter |
as much. |
EIIUEIEIE SEES SESS
EEUU

ee ee OES g See cast SY oe aes ond sn RENT ee et otal foe

END OF EXTENDED
LEN ee ee ea ee eee ee Eee ee ee
|
|
|

|
|
 SCIENCE

SUPERCONDUCTORS
non-superconductive
In 1908, the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh mietal
Onnes became the first person to produce liquid oy
helium, which meant reaching temperatures less
than -269°C, the boiling point of helium. Having
such a cold liquid meant that other low- <——_ superconductor
resistance
temperature experiments became possible, as he
could now cool down the apparatus sufficiently.

In particular, Kamerlingh Onnes investigated 0K Te temperature

passing electric currents through extremely cold Fig 5.22 How resistance varies with
metals and in 1911 measured the resistance of a _ temperature in a superconductor and
sample of mercury. He found that below a ehnelabel]ssiec med
particular temperature, called the critical temperature, the mercury
behaved as if it had no electrical resistance at all - he had discovered
superconductivity.

Following this discovery, many more metallic elements

were found to have superconducting properties, but it
wasn't until the 1950s that a theory to explain their
behaviour was developed. It requires energy for the
electrons to scatter as they move through the metal
lattice (these scatterings are the ‘collisions’
that lead to
heating in a resistance) and at such low temperatures this
energy is not available, so the electrons move smoothly —
with zero resistance. The two key features ofthis are that
no energy is wasted through heating the conductor,
which leads to the ability to produce very large
magnetic fields.

The search for superconductors has continued, with

breakthroughs coming in the study ofalloys rather i Fig. 5 239A crosssechion ore
than elements. superconductor at CERN (Central
European Organisation for Nuclear
A particular milestone came in the discovery of materials Research) in Geneva, Switzerland.
that demonstrated superconductivity at temperatures up to
—183°C, as this meant that liquid nitrogen could be used as the coolant
— and liquid nitrogen is readily available commercially. The search for
WwW
materials that superconduct at higher temperatures continues.
ia
=
fae Superconductors are used in a variety of applications.
They produce
=
< the strong magnetic fields required for MRI scanning in medicine and
a
oO to confine beams of particles in accelerators such as the Large
wal
<< Hadron Collider. They even provide magnetic fields to support
od
cf
= Maglev trains that ‘float’ above the track. On a small scale,
U
ui}
Ss |
superconductors are used in SQUID (superconducting quantum
uw |
interference device) magnetometers, which can measure the fine
magnetic fields associated with activity in the brain.
 |
to length. |
2. Explain why the resistance of a conductor is inversely
proportional to cross-sectional area. |

3. a) EXTENDED The length of a resistor A is x. Resistor B is made of |

the same material and is of the same thickness, but its length |
is 3x. The resistance of A is R. What is the resistance of B?
|

b) EXTENDED The area of cross-section of a resistor A is x. Resistor |

j
B is made of the same material, but its area of cross-section Is 3x. |
|
The resistance of A is R. What is the resistance of B?

ud
WU
=
<<
bee

w
Vv
Li
mm
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
Ohm’ law, resistance, resistor, variable resistor

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

C) That resistance = p.d./current and understand qualitatively how changes in p.d.
or resistance affect current

) How to use the equation R = V/I.

©) EXTENDED How to use quantitatively the proportionality between the resistance
and length, and the inverse proportionality between resistance and cross-
sectional area of awire

ECTRICAL
QUANTITIES
El
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.

1. Calculate the following:

a) the potential difference required to produce a current of 2A ina

120 resistor (2 marks)

b) the potential difference required to produce a current of 0.1Aina

2000 resistor (2 marks)

c) the current produced when a potential difference of 12V is applied

toa 1000 resistor (2 marks)

d) the current produced when a potential difference of 230V is applied

to a 100 resistor (2 marks)

e) the resistance of a wire that under a potential difference of 6V carries a

current of 0.1A (2 marks)

f) the resistance of a heater, which under a potential difference of 230V

carries a current of 10A. (2 marks)

RESIS
 udying the e aviour aneprepenies of electric charges, either
when they are stationary or when they are moving, is very
= interesting and it is a mental challenge to imagine a model to
explain the observation we make. However, it is when we use our
i understanding to design the wide variety of circuits that we meet.
in everyday life that a knowledge of electricity becomes
particularly useful.
In this section you will make sure you understand the international
system for drawing electric circuits before studying the properties
of two particularly key types of circuits—series and parallel. You will|
then go on to consider how to calculate the energy transferred by
_ circuits, finishing by considering some of the factors we need to -
think about if we are to use circuits safely.

STARTING POINTS
1. Why is it important to have an agreed system for drawing de
circuits?
2.Think about where you live - do all the lights have a separate
switch or can some be turned on or off by multiple switches?
7 3. Ifyou have an electric cooker at home, it is likely to have its own,
separate, electric circuit. Why is this?
4.Why might the thickness of the wires used in a circuit be
important?
5. Does it matter which rating of fuse is used ina plug?
6.Why should care be taken with electrical circuits near water?

CONTENTS
a) Circuit diagrams
bb) Series and parallel circuits
c) Electrical energy
d) Dangers of electricity
 Electric
circuits

SER REALE LSS

aC

An abstract represe ation of an electric circuit.

 Circuit diagrams
INTRODUCTION
Whenever you use an electrical appliance,
electrical circuits operate. Some are visible to
the eye but some have been etched onto
microchips and are microscopic. The basic
operation of all circuits relies on connecting
components, the nature of the components
and the energy supplied to the circuit. In
this topic you will learn about different ways
of connecting components in circuits, how
to draw circuit diagrams that can be followed
A Fig. 6.1 You can investigate electrical circuits in by anyone, anywhere in the world, and how to
SSG et carry out calculations to choose the right
values for the components in a circuit.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Be able to make simple circuits

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors, lamps,
ammeters, voltmeters and fuses.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
When people started using electricity, they quickly normally open switch
found that it was not convenient to draw accurate
pictures of the circuits that they made. It was much
easier to understand how the circuit worked, and to
correct any faults, when they used standard symbols lamp
for the parts. It was also much easier when the wires
were drawn in straight lines, rather than trying to = -
copy the exact route taken. || ||
Study y the circuitsts used
used in
in thisthis topic,
topic, <and learn
ar the |
N Fig’ .20A creiit dacremtonare
symbols and what they represent.
Figure 6.2 is a simple circuit diagram that shows how a torch is
powered by a battery consisting of three 1.5V cells, giving a total of 4.5V.
15V+15V4+15V=45V
When powering a torch, the cells are put in separately, but in a 9V
battery, for example, the six cells are pre-assembled by the
CIRCUITS
ELECTRIC
manufacturer. The word ‘battery’ means an assembly of several cells, but people often use
the word to refer to a single cell.
The ‘+’ terminal of the cell is indicated by the long line, and the —’ terminal by the short
line. To help you remember, imagine yourself cutting the long line into two shorter pieces
and turning them into a + sign.
The other symbols in the circuit are the normally open switch, and the lamp.
Figure 6.3 shows the circuit symbols that you need to know.

cell switch

battery of cells earth or ground

power supply ammeter

junction of | Aes
conductors

_ gees

ee.

heater
aa

4 {[LE

A Fig. 6.3 Important circuit symbols for you to learn.

ee

motor
|r
#
b|o/Ni
Ww
=
<x
coc
oO
<
a
=)
U
=
U
 arivame CHEMISTRY - METALS
- Flectric circuits are usually constructed from wires made from
metals. This links to two key properties of metals — they are good
electrical conductors and they are ductile (they can be drawn out
into thin wires). To understand why metals have these properties we
need to follow the link to the structure of metals and how the atoms
are joined together through metallic bonding.

BIOLOGY - NERVOUS SYSTEM

* The behaviour ofelectric circuits links to the properties of the
nervous system. In both cases energy is transferred through the
motion of charged particles, electrons in the case of circuits and
electrons and ions in the case of nerves.

2
:c
y
:
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
circuit, circuit symbol, component

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

O) How to draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing a range of components,
including sources, switches, resistors (fixed and variable), lamps, ammeters,
voltmeters and fuses

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
1. Draw the circuit symbols for a cell, a battery, a fixed resistor, a variable resistor, an
ammeter and a voltmeter.
2. In asimple torch, two cells are connected to a switch and a lamp. Draw a circuit
diagram to show this.

DIAG
CIRCU
 Series and parallel
circuits
INTRODUCTION
There are two different ways of connecting
two lamps (or other components) to the
same battery (or other power source). [wo
very different kinds of circuit can be made.
These circuits are called series and parallel
circuits.

A Fig. 6.4 A simple parallel circuit.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
V In electric circuits, current, potential difference and resistance are related.
/ How to measure current and potential difference.
/ How to calculate resistance.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Y Understand that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same.
VY Calculate the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series.
VY State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current
in each branch. 12V
Y State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that i
of either resistance by itself.
/ EXTENDED Calculate the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel.
Y State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a circuit. (x) &)
/ EXTENDED Recall and use the fact that the sum of the potential differences
across the components in a series circuit is equal to the total p.d. across the supply. A Fig. 6.5 A simple series
/ EXTENDED Recall and use the fact that the current from the source is the circuit diagram.
sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit.

CIRCUITS - IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

When components are in series, then there is exactly the same
| electric current in each of the components in the circuit. The voltage 6)
wn is shared between the units in the circuit. Thus, it is possible to join
= in series two identical lamps designed for 6 V and then to connect =
—_
U
= them to a 12V battery (Fig. 6.5).
Uu
= In a parallel circuit (Fig. 6.6), the current splits, with part of it
Grn going through each component. All of the appliances in a house )-
_
rr are connected in parallel to the mains supply, and each one receives A Fig. 6.6 A parallel
circuit diagram.
the full 110V or 230V of the mains supply when it is switched on.
The two great advantages of the parallel arrangement are that each
appliance can be designed to work with the mains voltage supply, and
that the appliances can be switched on and off individually.

A Fig. 6.7 All of these ligh ts are in parallel. If they were in series then they would all go off if
any one of them failed or was switched off.
—————

Penn beinper Wil CScrics Parallel

| Circuit |
| diagram |

Appearance of Both lamps have the same | Both lamps have the same
the lamps | brightness, both lamps are dim. | brightness, both lamps are bright.
| Battery The battery is having a hard time The battery pushes the charge
| pushing the same charge first along two alternative paths.
through one bulb, then another. | This means that more charge
This means less charge flows | _ can flow around the circuit
each second, so there is a low each second, so energy is
| current and energy is transferred | transferred quickly from the
slowly from the battery. battery.
| Switches | The lamps cannot be switched The lamps can be switched on
“
on and off independently. and off independently by putting les
=
| switches in the parallel branches. | Vv
co
rw)
| Advantages/ A very simple circuit to make. If one lamp ‘blows’, the other |
=
i
disadvantages | The battery will last longer. If one will keep working. The =
=
<x
_ one lamp ‘blows’ then the battery will not last as long. cc
circuit is broken so the other Bs
fan)
one goes out foo. ; See ie es ms ra
<
vA)
| Examples Strings of lights for decoration Electric lights in the home are =
ir
are often connected in series. connected in parallel. | lu
“
A Table 6.1 A comparison of series and parallel circuits for two identical 3 V lamps supplied
from a 3V battery.
 ee
QUESTIONS
1. If one bulb in a string of lights does not work, why does the rest
of the string not work either?
2. A battery running two bulbs in parallel runs out of energy
before the same battery running the same two bulbs in series.
Explain why.
3. Why are electric lights in the home connected in parallel?
4. What is the difference in brightness in two bulbs connected:
a) in series; b) in parallel with a given battery? Give a reason for
your answer.

Current in a series circuit

The current in a circuit can be measured using an ammeter. When you
want to measure the current in a particular component, such as a
lamp or motor, the ammeter must be connected in series with the
component. Figure 6.8 shows an ammeter in series with a motor. In a
series circuit, the current is the same no matter where the ammeter is
placed in the circuit. This is not the case with a parallel circuit.
The voltage across a component can be measured using a
voltmeter, as shown in Fig. 6.9.
In a series circuit, the current is the same throughout the
circuit (Fig. 6.10). In a parallel circuit, the current splits
between the two branches of the parallel circuit. This means
that the current from the source is larger than the current in
each branch.

ees
A Fig. 6.8 A circuit has to be
broken to connect an ammeter.

{- )

| iF
A Fig. 6.9 A voltmeter can be A Fig. 6.10 In this series circuit, the current
connected across the motor after the will be the same throughout the circuit so
rest of the circuit has been completed. A, =A, =A,;.

ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
EXTENDED
In a parallel circuit, the current from the source is the sum of the currents
in the separate branches of the circuit, so in Fig. 6.1] a ee

<] Fig. 6.11 The current splits between

the two branches of the parallel circuit so
A, =A, +A;:

END OF EXTENDED

Combining resistors
‘Iwo resistors can be replaced by a single resistor that has the same
effect in the circuit. Calculating the value of the resistor needed
depends on whether the original resistors are connected in series
or parallel.
When the resistors R, and R, are in series, then the combined
resistance, H., is:
Ro=R, +A,
For resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is less than the value
of either of the two resistors. This is because there are more paths for
the charge to pass along, so the current is higher.

EXTENDED
When the resistors R, and R, are in parallel, then R,, is:

FL = au i R we R, “ R,

Reeth Ree
In a series circuit, the potential difference across the battery equals the
sum of the potential differences across each lamp.

CIRCU
PARA
AND
SERIE
 p.d. = 6V p.d.= 3V
6 joules transferred from each coulomb = 3uJ/C
power = 2 coulombs per second, of 6 joules each power = 2C/s x 3u/C
12 joules per second oll 6 joules per second

current = 2A
(2 coulombs
every second) ve
9V battery

p.d. = 9V = 9 joules transferred

to each coulomb
power = 2 coulombs per second,
of 9 joules each
= 18 joules per second

A Fig. 6.12 In this circuit, V = V, + V,.

END OF EXTENDED

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Two resistors, 1OOOQ and 3000Q, are connected in series. What is
their combined resistance?
Write down the formula: eae ora

Substitute the values: lie 1000 + 3000

Work out the answer and add the unit: R.=4000Q

G

Note that the combined resistance is greater than the value of either
of the two resistors.

2. EXTENDED Iwo resistors, 20.0 and 30Q, are connected in parallel.

What is their combined resistance?
Hielas
Write down the formula:
SDBaa
Substitute the values ae

Work out the answer and add the unit: BR =——0

ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS

is)
wo
ify]
a
QUESTIONS

1. In a series circuit, what can you say about the current at different
points in the circuit?
2. Give two. advantages of a parallel circuit in a house.
3. Two resistors, 1009 and 220, are connected in series. What is
their combined resistance?

4. EXTENDED Two resistors, 147kQ and 220kQ, are connected in

parallel. What is their combined resistance?

CIRCU
PARA
AND
SERIE

oO
oO
te)
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
parallel circuit, series circuit

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

() That the current at every point in a series circuit is the same.

() How to calculate the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series.

() That, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in
each branch.

©) That the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either
resistance by itself.

() EXTENDED How to calculate the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel.

©) The advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a circuit.

() EXTENDED That the sum of the potential differences across the components ina
series circuit is equal to the total p.d. across the supply.

() EXTENDED That the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the
separate branches of a parallel circuit.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
1. Look at the following circuit diagrams. They show a number of ammeters and in
some cases the readings on these ammeters. All the lamps are identical.
a) For circuit X, what readings would you expect on ammeters A, andA,?
(2 marks)
b) For circuit Y, what readings would you expect on ammeters A,and A?
(4 marks)

circuit X

ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS

circuit Y
2. Look at the circuit diagram. It shows
how three voltmeters have been added
to the circuit. What reading would you
expect on V ? (2 marks)

- Look at the circuit diagram and answer the

following questions:
a) What supplies the voltage in this circuit? (1 mark)

b) What will happen to the current if another

cell is added? (1 mark)

c) If the resistance of the circuit is increased,

what will happen to the current
in the circuit? (2 marks)

d) if the ammeter shows 0.3A and the resistor is 5 O, what is the voltage of
the cell? (2 marks)

. Copy and complete the following table.

Potential difference/V
2

(5 marks)

. EXTENDED In the circuits shown here, what you would expect to read
on each ammeter and voltmeter? All lamps are the same, and each cell
produces 1.5V. What could happen to these values if the bulbs had
different resistances? (12 marks)

CIRCU
PARA
AND
SERIE
 Electrical energy
INTRODUCTION
Electric circuits are particularly useful
because they transfer energy. We have
three different ways to calculate how much
energy is involved — all three methods are
useful in different situations. First, we may
simply want to know the total energy
transferred, which we would measure in
joules. Second, we might want to know
how much energy is transferred by each
unit of charge, for which we would use p.d.
A Fig. 6.13 Electric lights have transformed or e.m.f. In this section we will meet a ;
the world.
third method, how quickly the energy is
transferred — the concept of power.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
Y Be able to measure currents and potential differences in circuits.
Y Know that electric circuits can transfer energy.
| / Be able to describe the energy transfers in a range of circuits.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

¥ EXTENDED Be able to calculate the power transfer in electric circuits using P = IV.
¥ EXTENDED Be able to calculate the energy transferred in electric circuits
using £ = /Vt.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
All electrical equipment has a power rating, which indicates how
many joules of energy are supplied each second. The unit of power
used is the watt (W). Light bulbs often have power ratings of 60W or
100W. Electric kettles have ratings of about 2 kilowatts (2kW = 2000 W).
A 2kW kettle supplies 2000] of energy each second to the circuit
components and then to the surroundings.

EXTENDED
The power of a piece of electrical equipment depends on the voltage
and the current. The units watt, volt and amp are defined as follows:
e |] watt = 1 J/s
ELECTRICSt
CIRCUITS volt= 1/0
eileamp = | C/s
From these definitions, we can see that | watt = 1 volt x | amp.
In other words: power = current x voltage
Per
where: P = power in watts (W)
I = current in amps (A)
V = potential difference in volts (V)
You: can useé the triangle in Fig. 6.14 to help you to rearrange A Fig. 6.14 Equation triangle
this equation. for power, current and
voltage to help with
rearranging the equation.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. What is the power of an appliance when a current of 7A is obtained
from a 230V supply?
Write down the formula in terms of P: Ny al

Substitute the values: pes Ope

Work out the answer and write down the unit: P = 1610

2. An electric oven has a power rating of 2kW. What will the current
be when the oven is used with a 230V supply?
Write down the formula in terms of I: L= P/V

Substitute the values: I = 2000/230

Work out the answer and write down the unit [I =8.7A

QUESTIONS
1. An appliance has 2A of current in it and operates at 110V. What
is its power rating?
2. A 60W lamp has a current of 5A in it. At what voltage is
it operating?
3. A 25W lamp is designed to be used with a voltage of 230V.
Calculate the current in it.

Energy, current, voltage and time

If you switch on an electric kettle for | minute or a room heater for
5 minutes, then you can measure the temperature increase of the water
in the kettle or of the room. The temperature will increase because
energy has been given to the water or to the room. Energy is measured
in joules (J). A heater rated at 1 watt will give out | joule of heat each
ENER
ELEC
 second. A 2kW heater will give out 2000 joules per second, and if the
heater is switched on for 4s, it will give out 8000J.
energy = current Xx voltage x time
Fe GV Ke
where: E =the energy transferred in joules (J)
I = current in amperes (A)
V = potential difference in volts (V)
t = time in seconds (s)

WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate the energy transferred when a 12V motor, running at a
current of 0.5A, is left on for 5 minutes.

Write down the formula: ES save

Substitute the values: k=05 <12%300

(Remember that the time must be in seconds.)

Work out the answer and write down the unit: E = 1800]

QUESTIONS
1. A laptop charger is designed for a country where the mains
voltage is 230V. The owner takes the charger to a country such
as the USA, where the mains voltage is 110V. Will they be able to
charge their laptop?
2. How much energy is transferred when a current of 3A flows ina
circuit with a voltage of 12V for 1 minute?
3. A heater which runs on 12V transfers 4800J of energy in 2 minutes.
What is the current in the heater?
4. A bulb runs on a voltage of 110V and has a current of 0.1A in it.
It transfers 2400J of energy in a given time. What is this time?
5. A lamp transfers 24) of energy and draws a current of 2A for 1s.
What voltage is it operating at?

END OF EXTENDED

ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
 End of topic checklist
Key terms
joule, power rating, watt

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

©) How to draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors
(fixed and variable), lamps, ammeters, voltmeters, magnetising coils, transformers,
bells, fuses and relays.

QO That the current at every point in a series circuit is the same.

©) How to give the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series.

QO) That, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in
each branch.

O) That the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either
resistor by itself.

CO) About the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit.

() EXTENDED How to use the fact that the sum of the potential differences across
the components in a series circuit is equal to the total p.d. across the supply.

C) EXTENDED How to use the fact that the current from the source is the sum of the
currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit.

() EXTENDED How to calculate the effective resistance of two resistors in parallel.

QC) EXTENDED How to use the equations P= /V and E = /Vt.

ENER
ELEC
 End of topic questions
Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
. EXTENDED An appliance has a power rating of 1400 W. The potential difference
of the mains is 230V. Calculate the approximate current. (3 marks)

EXTENDED A lamp has a power rating of 11W and runs from a supply of 230V.
What is the current in the lamp? (2 marks)

- EXTENDED An appliance runs from a 110V supply. It has a current of 3.2A in it.
What is its power rating? (2 marks)

- EXTENDED An appliance has a current of 2.7A in it and has a power rating of

300 W. What is the voltage of the supply? (2 marks)

ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
Electricity is a clean and effective method of
generating heat and movement. When a
domestic appliance (such as a washing
machine or a fridge) is switched on, a circuit
is completed between the local substation
and the appliance. Electrical energy travels
from the substation to the appliance through
the ‘live’ and ‘neutral’ wires. Some appliances
have a third wire, the ‘earth’ wire. You will also
meet the American word ‘ground instead of
‘earth’. This wire does not normally carry any A Fig. 6.15 Electricity travels from power
oa re teratay ate : stations to our homes along the wires on
current, Dut it 1s there for sarety. pylons like these.

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
¥ Know some advantages of using mains electricity to transfer energy.
/ Know some safety precautions to take when dealing with mains electricity.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
V State the hazards of damaged insulation, overheating of cables and damp conditions.
VY State that a fuse protects a circuit.
¥ Show an understanding of the use of fuses and choose the appropriate fuse ratings.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Electricity can cause hazards in domestic situations. Table 6.2 gives
some examples.
Hazard _ Possible consequences
Frayed cables Wiring can become exposed
Long trailing cables | These might cause a trip or a fall
Damaged plugs Wiring can become exposed
:
Water around sockets Water conducts electricity, so can
connect a person into the mains supply
Pushing metal objects This connects the holder to the mains
into sockets supply and is likely to be lethal |
Overloading of sockets | Causes too high a current, which might
melt the insulation and cause a fire
Long, coiled cable to an Cable can heat up because of the
electric heater coiling and start a fire a: DANG
ELECT
OF
A Table 6.2 Examples of domestic electrical hazards.
 If there is a fault in an electrical appliance, it could take too much
electrical current. This might make the appliance itself dangerous, or it
could cause the flex between the appliance and the wall to become too
hot and start a fire.

Insulation and fuses

fuse live wire

earth wire neutral wire

A Fig. 6.16 A three-pin plug has a built-in safety device, the fuse.

There are several ways to make appliances safer to use and protect the
user if a fault should develop. In some countries, a fuse is fitted into
the plug of the appliance. The fuse fits between the brown live wire
and the pin. The brown live wire and the blue neutral wire carry the
current. The green and yellow striped earth wire is needed to make
metal appliances safer.
The laws for the safe use of electricity are constantly being improved
by governments, and electricians learn to work to the latest standards.
The most important aids to the safe use of electricity are insulation
and fuses.
Insulation these days is generally a plastic, such as PVC, which is used
to cover the copper wires. This prevents them from touching each
other, and also prevents the operator from touching them. hr parts of
appliances where the temperature goes above 100 °C, other plastics,
glass or ceramic are used.
The electric current usually has to pass through a current in
fuse before it reaches the appliance. If there is a = |_ reine
sudden surge in the current, the wire in the fuse he
will heat up and melt — it ‘blows’. This breaks the -——
circuit and stops any further current flowing in. Afig,Ga7 How afuseinrotests an appliance

REMEMBER
Many students misunderstand the role of a fuse. It does not ‘provide’
current, nor does it ‘allow’ a certain amount of current to go through.
It is just a wire that melts if the current gets too high.

CIRCUITS
ELECTRIC
In all houses with mains electricity, there is a distribution box
(sometimes called a consumer unit) that takes all of the electricity for
the house and sends it to the different rooms. In old houses this box
may still contain fuses, but in modern installations the box has
miniature circuit-breakers, often known as MCBs.
Where a fuse is fitted to a plug, it must have a higher current rating
than the appliance needs, but should have the smallest current rating
available above this. The most common ratings for plug fuses are 3A,
5A and 13A. Any electrical appliance with a heating element in it
should be fitted with a 13A fuse. An appliance working at 3.5A should
have a 5A fuse.
Metal-cased appliances, such as washing
machines or electric cookers, must have an
metal casing now ‘live’
earth wire as well as a fuse. If the live wire
works loose and comes into contact with the aa loose live wire touching
metal casing, the casing will become live and —< the casing

the user could be electrocuted.

A Fig. 6.18 A loose live wire can be dangerous if

the metal casing of an appliance is not ‘earthed’.
metal casing

low resistance wire to earth.

= The current will take this path
in preference to the path
through the case

A Fig. 6.19 An earth wire provides a path for current to

flow to ground.

This low resistance means that a large current passes from the live wire
to earth, causing the fuse to melt and break the circuit. If the earth
wire is not fitted correctly, or if it has broken, the appliance will be
extremely dangerous! If there is any doubt about the earthing of the
appliance, or of the whole house, it must be
tee metal casing
checked by an electrician.
Appliances that are made with a plastic casing such fee
vy fuse
as kettles do not need an earth wire. The plastic is |
an insulator and so can never become live.
Appliances like this are said to be double >
Loe
insulated. —
cc
=
The earth wire provides a very low resistance route U
us
=f
to the 0V earth. This low resistance means that a uw
ve
large current passes from the live wire to earth, o
v,)
ing the fuse to melt and break the circuit. This . co
lu
h iF f Ke |i ‘i A Fig. 6.20 The earth wire and fuse work
ee 8
disconnects the appliance from the live connection, together to make sure that the metal iY)
=
<
making it safe to touch (Fig. 6:20): outer casing of this appliance can never Qa
become live and electrocute someone.
 In some situations people may be unexpectedly exposed to electricity:
for example, using an electric drill, especially drilling into a wall with
hidden power cables, or using power tools out of doors, perhaps in wet
conditions. In these cases, a special type of circuit breaker called a
residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) must be used in the power
socket on the wall. If any of the electricity starts to leak, through a
short circuit (for example, because the device has got wet), the
RCCB will turn off the power in 30 ms or less. The RCCB cannot be
guaranteed to save the user's life, but it gives them a much better
chance of surviving.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the wiring of a three-pin plug. You should explain what
each of the wires in the plug is connected to and the colour of
the insulation.
2. Explain the function of a fuse.
3. A student wants to run an appliance that requires a current of
6A. He chooses a fuse of 5A ‘because it’s the nearest available’.
Explain why this is not a good choice.
4. The earth wire connection to the ground is usually quite a thick
piece of copper wire. Explain why.
5. Explain why appliances with plastic casing do not need to
be earthed.

ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
 End of topic checklist

Key terms
double insulated, circuit breaker, earth wire, fuse, insulator, short circuit

During your study of this topic you should have learned:

C) About the hazards of:

@ damaged insulation
@ overheating of cables
@ damp conditions.

©) That a fuse protects a circuit.

©) About the use of fuses and choose appropriate fuse ratings.

End of topic questions

Note: The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.

1. a) A hairdryer works on 230V mains electricity and takes a current of 4A. Calculate
the power ofthe hairdryer. (2 marks)

b) In some countries it is illegal to have power sockets in a bathroom to stop

you using electrical devices such as hairdryers near the wash basin or bath.
Why would it be foolish to use a hairdryer near to water? (2 marks)

. Why should a fuse always be connected in series with the live wire? (1 mark)

. An appliance has a power rating of 1400W. The potential difference of the mains
is 230V. Calculate the approximate current. Explain what size standard fuse
you would use. (3 marks)
. What rating of fuse would you use in a microwave of power rating 800W with:
a) a 240V mains supply (2 marks)

b) a 120V mains supply? (2 marks)

5. What potential problems might there be with the fuse in question 4? (2 marks)

ELECT
OF
DANG
 Doing well in examinations
INTRODUCTION
Examinations will test how good your understanding of
scientific ideas is, how well you can apply your understanding to
new situations and how well you can analyse and interpret
information you have been given. The assessments are
opportunities to show how well you can do these things.
To be successful in exams you need to:
¥ have a good knowledge and understanding of science
Y be able to apply this knowledge and understanding to familiar and
new situations
¥ be able to interpret and evaluate evidence that you have just been given.
You need to be able to do these things under exam conditions.

OVERVIEW
Ensure you are familiar with the structure of the examinations you are
taking. Consult the relevant syllabus of the year you are entering your
examinations for details of the different papers and the weighting of
each, including the papers to test practical skills. Your teacher will
advise you of which papers you will be taking.
~ You will be required to perform calculations, draw graphs and describe,
explain and interpret ideas and information about physics. In some of
the questions the content may be unfamiliar to you; these questions are
designed to assess data-handling skills and the ability to apply physical
principles and ideas in unfamiliar situations.

ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES AND WEIGHTINGS

For the Cambridge IGCSE Combined Science examination, the
assessment objectives and weightings are as follows:
¥ A01: Knowledge with understanding (50%)
¥ A02: Handling information and problem solving (30%)
¥ A03: Experimental skills and investigations (20%).
The types of question in your assessment fit the three assessment
objectives shown in the table.

DOING
EXAMINATIONS
IN
WELL
(<=

Assessment objective Your answer should show that you

can ...
AO1 Knowledge with Recall, select and communicate your
understanding knowledge and understanding of science.
AO2 Handling information and Dt Apply skills, including evaluation and
problem solving analysis, knowledge and understanding of
. scientific contexts.
AQ3 Experimental skills and Use the skills of planning, observation,
investigations analysis and evaluation in practical
situations.

EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES
To help you to work to your best abilities in exams, there are a few
simple steps to follow.

Check your understanding of the question

¥ Read the introduction to each question carefully before
moving on to the question itself.
¥ Look in detail at any diagrams, graphs or tables.
¥ Underline or circle the key words in the question.
Y Make sure you answer the question that is being asked rather
than the one you wish had been asked!
Y Make sure that you understand the meaning of the ‘command
words in the questions.

REMEMBER
Any information you are given is there to help you to answer
the question.

EXAMPLE
/ ‘Give’, ‘state’ and ‘name are used when recall of knowledge is
required. For example, you could be asked to give a definition, or
provide the best answers from a list of options.
Y ‘Describe’ is used when you have to give the main feature(s) of, for
example, a biological process or structure.
Y ‘Explain’ is used when you have to give reasons, for example, for
some experimental results or a scientific fact or observation. You will
often be asked to ‘explain your answer’, that is, give reasons for it.
/ ‘Suggest’ is used when you have to come up with an idea to explain
the information you're given — there may be more than one possible TECH
EXAM
 answer, no definitive answer from the information given, or it may
be that you will not have learned the answer but have to use the
knowledge you do have to come up with a sensible one.
Y ‘Calculate’ means that you have to work out an answer in figures.
Y ‘Plot and ‘Draw a graph’ are used when you have to use the data
provided to produce graphs and charts.

Check the number of marks for each question

Y Look at the number of marks allocated to each question.
Y Look at the space provided to guide you as to the length of
your answer.
Y Make sure you include at least as many points in your answer as
there are marks.
Y Do not use any more space than the space that has been provided in
the examination paper.

REMEMBER
Beware of continually writing too much because it probably means you
are not really answering the questions. Do not repeat the question in
your answer.

Use your time effectively

Y¥ Don't spend so long on some questions that you don’t have time to
finish the paper.
¥Y Regularly check how much time you have left.
¥ If you are really stuck on a question, leave it, finish the rest of the
paper and come back to it at the end.
¥ Even if you eventually have to guess at an answer, you stand a better
chance of gaining some marks than if you leave it blank.

ANSWERING QUESTIONS
Multiple choice questions
¥ Select your answer by placing a cross (not a tick) in the box. In the
final exam multiple choice questions will be answered on a separate
answer sheet using a pencil.

Short-answer and structured questions

¥ In short-answer questions, don’t write more than you are asked for.
¥ You may not gain any marks, even if the first part of your answer is
DOING correct, if you've written down something incorrect later on or
EXAMINATIONS
IN
WELL
 something that contradicts what you've said earlier. This might give
the impression that you haven't really understood the question or
are guessing.
V Always use clear scientific language. In some short answer
questions one or two words may be sufficient, but in longer
questions you should aim to use full sentences.
V Present the information in a logical sequence.
¥ Dont be afraid to use labelled diagrams or flow charts if it helps
you to show your answer more clearly.

Questions with calculations

V In calculations, always show your working.
V Even if your final answer is incorrect you may still gain some marks
if part of your attempt is correct.
V If you just write down the final answer and it is incorrect, you will
get no marks at all.
¥ Write down your answers to as many significant figures as are
used in the numbers in the question (and no more). If the question
doesn't state how many significant figures, then a good general rule
is to quote 3 significant figures.
Y¥ Dont round off too early in calculations with many steps.
¥ You may also lose marks if you don’t use the correct units. In some
questions, the units will be mentioned (for example, calculate the mass
in grams) or the units may also be given on the answer line. If numbers
you are working with are very large, you may need to make a
conversion (for example, convert joules into kilojoules, or kilograms
into tonnes).

Finishing your exam

¥ When you've finished your exam, check through your paper to
make sure youve answered all the questions.
¥Y Check that you haven't missed any questions at the end of the paper
or turned over two pages at once and missed questions.
/ Cover over your answers and read through the questions again and
check that your answers are as good as you can make them.
You will be asked questions on investigative work. It is important that
you understand the methods used by scientists when carrying out
investigative work.
More information on carrying out practical work and developing your
investigative skills are given in the next section.

QUES
ANSW

605
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS

Note: The questions, sample answers and marks in this a) i) It is important to know the
section have been written by the authors as a guide only. features of different groups
The marks given for these questions indicate the level of of organisms and be able to
detail required in the answers. In the examination, the label these.
number of marks given to questions like these may be
different. A Correct — nucleus.

B Correct — vacuole.

C Incorrect — the outer

layer of the hypha is
The diagram shows the structure of a part of an the wall.
organism called Mucor.
D Incorrect — the
membrane is the next
layer within the wall,
pushed up against
the wall.

E Correct — cytoplasm.

ii) Correct — the hyphae of

moulds such as Mucor
have a large central
vacuole.
C
The answer is correct in
a) i) Name each ofthe parts A-E. Use the words that the hyphae have a
in the box below. fe
wall, but this cannot be
cytoplasm membrane nucleus described as a‘cell wall’as
the hyphae are not divided
starch grain vacuole _ wall
into cells. To be completely
A vurclens
correct, the student
simply had to repeat this
B | vacuole information from
part a) i).
membrane

| D | wall

cytoplasm
 iii) Correct. The student li) State two features the organism has in
could have chosen from a common with plants.
selection of features but
Mucor hay w large centrav
was only asked to give
one for the mark.

b) The answer is correct, but the

student could have added
that food is digested outside iii) EXTENDED Give one feature that tells you
the mould, and that this that Mucor is a fungus.
process is called saprotrophic
It hay many a nuclei wing w the
nutrition. 4 ¢

c) Correct — the mycelium of

Mucor has many nuclei
distributed through the b) EXTENDED Describe how moulds such as
cytoplasm, with no cell Mucor feed. (4)
boundaries; yeast is made up Mucor lwey ow ity food, e.g. bread, and
of single cells.

c) EXTENDED Yeast is another type of fungus.

State one major difference between Mucor
and yeast.
PG stalled v7 (1)
(Total 13 marks)

Question 2
This question is about the characteristics of living things.

a) Copy and complete the sentences by writing the most appropriate word in each space.

Use only words from the box.

detect development energy gravity

growth light location nutrition

position respiration respond sensitivity QUEST

EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued
_ is the taking in of substances needed for energy and for

is the ability to ___ to changes in external and

internal conditions.
Movement causes a change in of the organism. In animals, this involves
their entire bodies. Plants often move parts of their body in response to external
STIMU SUCH .dSan wae enc) Ce (12)
b) Define the term excretion. (3)
c) Which ofthe characteristics shown by living things are shown by a motor car? (4)
(Total 19 marks)

EXTENDED Question 3
Not everyone agrees that viruses should be called living things. Use your knowledge of
viruses and the characteristics of living things to discuss whether or not viruses should
be classed as living. (4)
(Total 4 marks)

Question 4
Most living organisms are made up of cells.

a) Copy and complete the sentences by writing the most appropriate word in
each space.

holds the cell together and controls substances entering

is the jelly-like substance contained
within the cell. It is where many different chemical processes occur.

is the control centre of the cell and contains genetic

. These control how a cell grows and works.

Plant cells also have features that are not found in animal cells. These include
, made of , which gives the cell extra

that contains

Plant cells exposed to the light contain

green pigment
QUESTIONS
EXAM-STYLE (10)
b) The levels of organisation in multicellular organisms include cells, tissues, organs
and systems.

State whether each of the following structures is a cell, tissue or organ.

Structure | Tissue )
Blood

(8)
(Total 18 marks)

Question 5

The light micrograph shows a cell from the liver of ahuman.

ar

a © &

tts
em
a) Identify the three structures labelled X, Y and Z. (3)
b) State the functions of the three structures. (6)
(Total 9 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued

EXTENDED Question 6

A Biology student set up an investigation in which three cubes of different sizes were
cut from an agar jelly block. The agar jelly contained a red indicator that turns blue in
the presence ofalkali.

The cubes were placed in an alkali. The student measured the time taken for the cubes
to turn completely blue.
<
a

‘~
1mm
&

5mm 10mm

a) What is the name of the process that causes the alkali to penetrate the agar jelly? (1)

b) EXTENDED The student used cubes of three dimensions:

Dimensions of cube, mm
1x1x1
3X XD
10x 10x10

For each cube, calculate its:

i) surface area

ii) volume

iii) surface area : volume ratio.

Dimensions of i) Surface area of |_ ii) Volume of iii) Surface area:

cube/mm cube/mm? cube/mm? volume ratio
dFoci cael
mo
1010 <.10

c) EXTENDED Explain the relationship between surface area and volume as the cube
increases in size. (1)
EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
d) EXTENDED During the biology lesson, the alkali penetrated the two smaller cubes,
but by the end of the lesson, the 10mm x 10mm x 10mm cube had still
not turned completely blue.
i) Explain these results. (3)
li) Explain what implications this has for organisms of increasing size. (3)

(Total 17 marks)

Question 7

A student cut a number of cylinders from a potato and weighed them. These were
placed in sucrose solutions of different concentrations.

After one hour, the cylinders were removed, blotted dry and reweighed. The student
calculated the percentage change in mass for each cylinder. The results are shown
in the table.

Percentage change in mass of potato cylinders Average

Concentration
| percentage
of sucrose/g
Experiment 1|Experiment2 |Experiment3|Experiment 4 |Changein
mass

0.0 +314 +337

+20.9

a) Calculate the average percentage changes in mass for each of the

sucrose concentrations.

b) i) Drawa graph of these results. Join the points with a line of best fit.
ii) At what concentration of sucrose was there no net movement of water?

iii) Describe the changes in mass over the range of sucrose concentrations.

iv) State the process involved in these changes in the potato cylinders.
(Total 16 marks)

QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued

Question 8
The table below lists some molecules that are important biologically.
a) Give the units that each one of the following biological molecules is made up of.

Biological molecule Units that make up the molecule

Glycogen
Fats
Proteins
Starch

b) Describe a test that can be carried out in the laboratory for the
following carbohydrates:

i) glucose (5)

ii) starch. (4)

(Total 14 marks)

EXTENDED Question 9

A company that produces enzymes publishes information sheets of their performance.

The graphs below show the performance of an enzyme, pectinase, at different pHs
and temperatures.
100

80

activity
percentage activity
percentage
zi
ais
20 40 60
Temperature / °C

a) Describe and explain the effect of:

i) pH

li) temperature, on the activity of the enzyme pectinase.

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
lb) A student finds an information sheet on the effect of pH on the activity of a
protease called papain, from the papaya plant.

activity
percentage

i) EXTENDED State two proteases produced by the human gut. (2)

ii) A student says that the graph shows that papain is unaffected by pH. Is the
student correct? Explain your answer. (2)
(Total 15 marks)

EXTENDED Question 10
a) In humans, proteases are produced by the stomach, pancreas and small intestine.
Copy the diagram and show the location of these organs. (3)

QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued
b) The graphs show the effect of pH on the activity of two proteases that break
down proteins.

activity
enzyme activity
enzyme

10
pH

stomach protease small intestine protease

i) EXTENDED What are the optimum pHs of stomach and small

intestine proteases? (2)

ii) Describe an experiment to investigate the effect of temperature on the

breakdown of anamed food molecule. (5)

(Total 10 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS

a) i) Correct. As light intensity

increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases,
because light energy Plants respond to the light available.
supplies energy for the
process of photosynthesis. a) The graph below shows the effect of light intensity on
At a certain point, the photosynthesis in a single-celled plant.
graph levels off, so any
further increase in light
intensity after that
point will result in no
further increase in
photosynthesis. At this
point, some other factor photosynthesis
of
Rate
must be limiting, for
example, carbon dioxide, Light intensity
and preventing any
i) Describe and explain the effect of light Ee
further increase.
on the plant. 1)
ii) One mark has been given
Increasing light intensity increasey the
for the sketch given. The
student has not vate of}ohotosy thesiy up to- a certain
responded to the second 7 apt Gt OS20q .
part of the question — point.
explain the shape ofthe
Thig ix becouse light energy ix needed for
graph you have drawn.To
gain a second mark, the
photosynthesis.
student needed to explain Se et Sm
that as carbon dioxide was The graph stops getting steeper because
a factor that was limiting ~ a ia iy
the rate of photosynthesis mcrea Si ng theY ight ivtensity COM C ye

where the graph levels off, increase the vate of Pphotosx 4 nthe si ONY
in a higher concentration =
of carbon dioxide, the VWYLOTVE.
graph will continue to a
higher point (i.e. a higher Thig w because another factoris umiting
rate of photosynthesis)
until it again levels off. The the rate of photosynthesis. 7 \L
third mark would have The investigation was also carried out in a high
been given for stating that concentration of carbon dioxide.
at this point, with light
and carbon dioxide being
available, another factor
(e.g. temperature) must
 Exam-style questions continued be preventing any further increase
in the rate of photosynthesis.
ii) Sketch a graph of what you would
expect so you can compare it with The student has correctly identified
the graph above. Explain the shape that there is no significant difference
of the graph you have drawn. (3) between the amount of auxin in the
plants in the light, the dark or those
>
high COQz concentration illuminated on one side. A further
mark is gained by correctly stating
that this shows that light has no
effect on the production of auxin.
To gain further marks, the student
photosynthesis
of
Rate needed to provide a more in-depth
explanation using the results, such as:
‘This shows that light has no effect on
VAG
Light intensity
the production of auxin. In the plant
x illuminated from one side, about 71%
of the auxin in the plant is on the dark
b) A scientist investigating the response side, so as the total auxin was
of plants to light placed: unaffected by light, the auxin must
® one group in the light, given have been redistributed from the
even illumination light to dark side’
@ one group of plants in the dark, and
@ one group exposed to light from one side.
The plants were in an atmosphere of radioactive carbon dioxide, and after five hours,
the amount of radioactive auxin in the area below the shoot tip was measured. The
scientist’s results are shown below.

Plants in Plants in Plants exposed to light

the light the dark from one side
Dark side | Lighted side
Total radioactive auxin/ | 2085 3004 — 17 878
_countsperminute
|_|
Explain fully what these results show about the effect of light on auxin in the plants. (4)
There i not uch di {fevence be AWween the amountof auxin WwW the
planty iM the dark, the plants iw the light or the plant that was half

iw the light and half iw the dark. v @)

This showI that altevig the le vel 5y OF |AG ht doe 5not make ony

di {rere vWwce to the production of OWN. A @)

(Total 11 marks)

©
EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
EXTENDED Question 2

The leaf is the main organ of photosynthesis.

a) Write a word and symbol equation for photosynthesis.
b) EXTENDED Explain how the leaf is adapted to exchanging gases required
for photosynthesis.
c) Chemical substances in a plant are transported in the xylem and phloem.
Copy and complete the table below.

Substances transported
Substances are transported:
from
to (8)

(Total 18 marks)

Question 3
The diagram shows a section through a leaf.

a) Name parts A-E shown in the diagram.

b) The leaf is the main organ of photosynthesis. Write a word equation
for photosynthesis. (3)

c) Define the term transpiration. (3)

d) Describe a technique used to investigate the effect of temperature on

transpiration rate. (7)

(Total 18 marks)
QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued

EXTENDED Question 4

a) The diagram below shows a section of a plant root surrounded by soil particles.

i) Identify the parts of the plant root, A and B. (2)

ii) EXTENDED Explain the importance of water potential in the uptake and transport
of water by plant roots. (7)
b) The effect of osmosis on animal cells is different from its effect on plant cells.
i) EXTENDED Explain how osmosis is involved in the body's response to a
cholera infection. (5)
(Total 14 marks)
Question 5
The circulatory system has several functions, including the transport of substances,
temperature regulation and defence.

The diagram shows the structure of the heart.

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
a) Name the chambers ofthe heart, A, B, C and D.

b) Copy and complete the table for each of the different components of the blood.

Component of blood Function

Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Plasma (8)

(Total 12 marks)
Question 6
a) Describe how the back flow of blood in the heart is prevented. (4)
lb) EXTENDED Explain why the wall of the left ventricle is four times as thick as the wall
of the right ventricle. (4)
(Total 8 marks)

Question 7

a) Yeast, a fungus, is used in the production of biofuel.

i) Give the word equation for the production of ethanol by yeast.

ii) Describe how yeast cells are involved in the process. (1)

b) Compare the energy produced by yeast undergoing anaerobic respiration with yeast
undergoing aerobic respiration. (1)
(Total 4 marks)

Question 8
This question is about plants’ responses towards stimuli.

Copy and complete the sentences by writing the most appropriate word in each space.

Growth in response to the direction of light is called

If the growth is towards light, it is called
as shown by plant
. Plant roots are

_ 0 the plant can

(Total 8 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued

Question 9
a) The passage below describes the process of sexual reproduction.

Use suitable words to complete the sentences in the passage.

Sexual reproduction is the most common method of reproduction for the majority of
larger organisms, including almost all animals and plants.To produce a new
organism, two fuse. This process is known as : (2)

(2)
b) EXTENDED Give one advantage and one disadvantage of:
i) asexual reproduction.
ii) sexual reproduction.
c) i) Label the diagram of the human female reproductive system.

(Total 12 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 10
Flowers are adapted to be pollinated by insects or by the wind.
a) Name the structures of an insect-pollinated flower shown in the diagram below. (10)/

b) Explain how each of the structures is adapted for pollination in

wind-pollinated flowers:

i) petals
ii) stigma
iii) stamens
iv) pollen grains.
(Total 18 marks)

EXTENDED Question 11

This question is about reproduction.

a) The diagram shows a human sperm.

Explain how the sperm is adapted to fertilising a human egg. (4)

b) Explain the roles of hormones in controlling the menstrual cycle and preparing the
uterus for a fertilised egg. (3)
(Total 7 marks)

QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued
Question 12
The food web below shows the relationship
of some of the organisms on a rocky shore.

a) EXTENDED In the food web, state which

OrganisMs are:

i) producers

iii) secondary consumers.

lb) In an ecosystem, the numbers ofcrabs

is severely reduced.
i) State one reason for the reduction of algae seawee
an organism in an ecosystem. (3)

ii) Describe the impact on dog whelks, limpets and gulls in the food web.

c) A student investigated the distribution of a species of brown seaweed and

periwinkles down a rocky shore. Her results are shown here.

Distance below | Distribution of organisms

ne ence on Observed distribution of Density of periwinkles/
seashore/ brown seaweed mean number of
metres periwinkles per m7
Absent 0
Rare 16
Occasional
Abundant
Abundant
Occasional
Rare 12

Suggest two reasons for the distribution of the periwinkles. (2)

(Total 18 marks)

QUESTIONS
EXAM-STYLE
Question 13
Nutrients are cycled in nature.

a) The passage below describes the stages in the carbon cycle.

Use suitable words to complete the sentences in the passage. (9)
from the atmosphere is converted to complex carbon
by the process of . This is often

Plants are then often eaten by

carbon compounds.
The process of

When organisms die, their bodies decay as they are worked on

. Some of the complex carbon compounds are taken into the

b) EXTENDED By what other process does carbon dioxide enter the air? (1)

(Total 10 marks)

EXTENDED Question 14

In an ecosystem, the following measurements were made.

Organism Number in ecosystem | Biomass of organisms/g

Oaktrees | 1 500000
Aphids __ 100000 - 100
Ladybirds | 200 | 10
a) Draw a food chain to illustrate the feeding relationships of the three organisms. (3)
b) EXTENDED In observations of the ecosystem, ladybirds were seen to be fed on by
spiders, and spiders fed on by blackbirds.
i) Draw a food chain to illustrate these feeding relationships. (1)

ii) Explain fully why food chains longer than this are rare. (5)

(Total 9 marks)

QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued

Question 15
The table gives information on how the land area covered by forest has changed
from 1990 to 2005.

Country | Area covered by forest/millions of Area of forest lost

hectares ; from 1990 to
1990 | 2005 2005/%
Bolivia 109.9 DO 46.6
Brazil 851.5 = 477.7
Colombia 113.9 ye 60.7
French Guiana | a0 tt 8.1
Peru i255 68.7
Suriname 16.3 14.8
Venezuela 91.2 47.7

Data from http://rainforests. mongabay.com/deforestation_alpha.html.

a) EXTENDED Calculate the area of forest lost for each country, as a percentage of the
area in 1990. The first one has been done for you.
b) During the time period 1990 to 2005, in which country is there:

i) the greatest deforestation? (1)

ii) the least deforestation? (1)

c) Suggest two reasons for deforestation. (2)
d) List the effects of deforestation. (5)
(Total 15 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS

a) i) Correct.

li) The answers given for

carbon dioxide and This question is about the greenhouse effect and
nitrous oxide are detailed global warming.
and correct.
a) The graph shows the concentration of
For methane, the student greenhouse gases in the air from the
has not appreciated that Year 0 to 2000.
the graph has been drawn 400 1 mee ean
to the scale on the right | |
hand axis, which ranges Beall soe
from 0-2000 ppb. This has - sch tetas | bee
meant that although the @ 390} —— er etre — ;
trends have been =) | J 1400
described, the values of |
methane concentration 8 L ‘ies
are incorrect. S 300 }— |
= + 1000
It is important to check : | ¥Y9D
syed)
Jad
(uoljiq
uol}eyjUadU0D
Jo

scales carefully when e | seat

reading data from graphs. i is Sires Bo Sars
The answer should 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Year
therefore be: -
i) Which greenhouse gas was present in the
‘The concentration of highest concentration in the air in 2000?
methane has shown a
very slow, slight upward Methane
trend from 0 to around
ii) Describe the trends in the changes ofthe
1750, ranging from 650
concentration of each greenhouse
ppb to around 750 ppb:
gas from 0 to 2005.
‘Then after a slight dip, a
The concentratiow of carbow dioxide
steep increase to around
1925 ppb in 2005. has been fairly stable at avound 280

parts per bi iow from O Co- 1600. v

Then, after a dip, & shows w seep

increase to 3 80 ppb in 2005.

The concentration of nitrous oxide has

showw w little fluctuation frow 0 to
around 1800, ranging from 265-275

Pee
 Exam-style questions continued iii) The student has written
a good answer for the
eP WV CASE TO
contribution of the
burning of fossil fuels to
the increase in carbon
dioxide. These all refer to
the burning of fossil fuels,
however, and the student
could have picked up the
second mark by referring
to deforestation.

b) i) The student has picked up

two marks, but for the
How ee human activity contributed to the
third mark, has not
change in the concentration of carbon
mentioned the fact that
dioxide in the air?
sulfur hexafluoride has
the longest lifetime - a
greenhouse gas that’s
tie 7 fm _ 2 ae = 7 —
around for a shorter time
fuely wv transport, hea Ting and cooling,
will make less of a
contribution to the
greenhouse effect.
b) The table gives information on several
greenhouse gases.

Gas Chemical formula Lifetime (years) | Global Warming

Potential*
Carbon dioxide Variable 1
Methane 12 21
Nitrous oxide 114 310
CFC-11 : 45 3800
CFC-12 a 100 8100
Sulfur hexafluoride ; 3200 23 900
*The Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere
relative to that trapped by the same mass of carbon dioxide. A GWP is calculated over a time interval. The values in the
table are for a 100-year time scale.

From: IPCC/TEAP (2005) Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related
to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons {Metz, B., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press.

QUESTIONS
EXAM-STYLE
ii) This is a good answer, but i) Which greenhouse gas contributes most to
the student has not global warming?
mentioned the ‘enhanced Explain your answer.
greenhouse effect’ The
final marking point could Sulfur hexafluoride / @)
have been extended:
‘But increases in
greenhouse gases as a ii) Explain how greenhouse gases result in the
result in human activity is greenhouse effect and global warming.
leading to the enhanced Shortwave vadiatiow from the Suw
greenhouse effect.
‘This is leading to a
significant warming of the
Earth called global
warming:

(Total 18 marks)

QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued
EXTENDED Question 2

Modern technology is used to increase the yields of crop plants.

a) One method used to increase crop yields is to apply fertilisers. List the effects, in
sequence, when nitrates are washed from the fields and pollute water. (4)

b) Pesticides are often applied to crops.

i) Explain why pesticides are applied to crops. (5)

ii) Describe two negative impacts of pollution by one type of pesticide. (2)

(Total 11 marks)

EXTENDED Question 3

This question is about eutrophication. The effect of sewage into a river was monitored
over a number of years. The results are shown in the graphs.

oxygen sewage ;
concentration concentration
—_—
=

fish
of
numbers

in
concentration
units
arbitrary
oxygen Aveuique
eBemas
spun
uolyesusdu00
ul

] | ] Tr ]
2006 2007 2008 2009 2007 2008 2009
Year Year

a) i) Describe the trends in sewage and oxygen concentration between 2006

and 2010. (2)
li) Explain why sewage had this effect on the oxygen concentration in the water. (3)
b) Describe and explain the effects of the changing oxygen concentration on
fish populations. (6)

(Total 11 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS Exam-style questions
a) It is important to identify the Note: The questions, sample answers and marks
states of matter: in this section have been written by the authors
oo as a guide only. The marks given for these
A= gas, B = liquid, C = solid. questions indicate the level of detail required
i) Correct — evaporation in the answers. In the examination, the number
process. of marks given to questions like these may be
different.
ii) Correct — solidifying.
iii) Incorrect — should be ‘AC’ Sample studentanswer
order because ethene is a Question 1
gas, poly(ethene) a solid.
iv) Correct — equation shows a) The
; diagrams show the arrangement of particles
in the three states of matter.
solid > gases
(sublimation). Each circle represents a particle.

SSeS
<

Use the letters A, B, and C to give the starting and finishing states of matter
for each of the changes in the table. For the mark, both the starting state and the
finishing state need to be correct.

i) The formation of water vapour from |

ii) The formation of solid iron from

molten iron
| tii) The manufacture of poly(ethene)
| from ethene
|iv) The reaction whose equation is
ammonium hydrogen chloride(s) — |

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued
b) Answer is ‘liquid’ In the
b) Which state of matter is the least common Periodic Table, at room
for the elements of the Periodic Table at temperature the majority
room temperature? of elements are solids,
a few are gases but only
rebate x u two are liquids — mercury
and bromine.
summarised by the equation: i) Correct — sulfur.

25(s) + 30,(g) + 2H,O(!) — 2H,SO,(\) ii) Incorrect — this is a

Tick one box in each line to show whether the mixture’ of two elements.
formulae in the table represents a compound, an iii) Correct - a mixture of an
element or a mixture.
element (O,) anda

i) 2S(s)
Compound Element
Jal
|Mixture | compound (H,O).
| i,@ iv) Correct — sulfuric acid.
Se Smeg ae ag ee| cal The answers rely on using the
2S | |
HOE30 J | |x State symbols for the
=e 2{9) | : | equation and a thorough
iii) 30,(g) + AA /) knowledge of the terms
2H,0()) 7 elements, mixtures and
iv)2HSO,)) of 2 | Y@ compounds.

(Total 9 marks)
(Tratal OQ mn see )

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS

630
Question 2

This question is about atoms.

a) Choose words from the box to label the diagram of an atom.

proton |neutron electron ion

b) What is the proton number of this atom?

c) What is the nucleon number of this atom?

(Total 5 marks)

Question 3
a) Some elements combine together to form ionic compounds. Use words from the box
to complete the sentences.

Each word may be used once, more than once or not at all.

medium metals non-metals shared

Electrons are
the other element.

The ionic compound formed has a

boiling point.
b) Two elements react to form an ionic compound with the formula MgCl.
(proton number of Mg = 12; proton number of Cl = 17)
i) Give the electronic configurations of the two elements in this compound
before the reaction. (2)

ii) Give the electronic configurations of the two elements in this compound
after the reaction. (2)
QUEST
EXAM-
(Total 10 marks)
 Exam-style questions continued
Question 4

The structures of some substances are shown here:

Answer these questions using the letters A, B, C, D or E.

a) Which structure is methane? (1)

b) Which two structures are giant structures? (1)
c) Which two structures are hydrocarbons? (1)
d) Which structure contains ions? (1)
e) Which two structures have very high melting points? (1)
(Total 5 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 5

Strontium and sulfur chlorides both have a formula of the type XCI, but they have
different properties.

Property a
Strontium chloride Sulfur chloride
Appearance White crystalline solid | Red liquid
Melting point/°C 4
873 | -80
Particles present lons | Molecules
Electrical conductivity of solid Poor Poor
Electrical conductivity ofliquid
[a
| Good J
Poor

a) The formulae of the chlorides are similar because both elements have a valency of 2.
Explain why Group Il and Group VI elements both have a valency of 2. (2)

b) Draw a dot-and-cross diagram of one covalent molecule of sulfur chloride.

Use x to represent an electron from a sulfur atom. Use 0 to represent an
electron from a chlorine atom.

c) Explain the difference in electrical conductivity between the following:

i) solid and liquid strontium chloride (1)

ii) liquid strontium chloride and liquid sulfur chloride. (1)

(Total 7 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions TEACHER’S COMMENTS

The questions, sample answers and marks in this a) i) Correct point marked.
section have been written by the authors as a guide only.
The marks given for these questions indicate the level of ii) Correct explanation. Also
detail required in the answers. In the examination, the correct would be tube
number of marks given to questions like these may be not being vertical when
different. being set up so
precipitate not level.
Sample student answer
iii) Correct response.
Question 1
b) Correct response — also
Solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride
correct is ‘silver nitrate
react together to make the insoluble substance
in excess.
silver chloride.
The equation for the reaction is c) i) Correct reading of ruler.
AgNO,(aq) + NaCl(aq) > NaNO, (aq) + AgCl(s) ii) Answer is 3.9cm?— the
An investigation was carried out to find out how student has misread the
much precipitate formed with different volumes of horizontal axis scale.
silver nitrate solution.
d) i) Correct response.
A student measured out 15 cm? of sodium chloride
solution using a measuring cylinder. ii) Correct — this is the
purpose of the
He poured this solution into a clean boiling tube.
experiment.
Using a clean measuring cylinder, he measured out
2cm? of silver nitrate solution (of the same e) 2 marks have been lost here
concentration as the sodium chloride solution). He because the filtered-off
added this to the sodium chloride solution. precipitate needs to be
washed (1) and ‘dried’ (1)
A cloudy white mixture formed and the precipitate
before being weighed.
was left to settle.
The student then measured the height (in cm) of
the precipitate using a ruler.
The student repeated the experiment using
different volumes of silver nitrate.
The graph shows
the results obtained.

i On

of
Height
/cm
precipitate

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS | | } t
4 6 8 10 12 14
Volume of silver nitrate solution added / cm?
a) i) Onthe graph, circle the point that seems to be anomalous. (1)
ii) Explain two things that the student may have done in the experiment to give this
anomalous result.

iii) Why must the graph line go through (0, 0)?

Cannot
have w precipitate if no silver nitrate added yet. S ()
b) Suggest a reason why the height of the precipitate stops increasing.
No more sodium chlovide
left to react. / (1)

li) Use the graph to find the volume of silver Soliton!

nitrate solution needed to make this soluble salts
amount of precipitate.

d) After he had plotted the graph, the student

decided he should obtain some more results. precipitate of
solid silver
i) Suggest what volumes of silver nitrate chloride iodide
solution he should use.
Betweew6
cw and 10cm Y @)
ii) Explain why he should use these volumes.
Need
to-know exactly where
the graph levely
of FY )

e) Suggest a different method for measuring the amount of precipitate formed.

rater J (1) ee ee nitate ani wetahiey (4)

(Total 13 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued
Question 2
Dilute nitric acid reacts with marble chips to produce carbon dioxide. The equation is
given below:
2HNO, (aq) + CaCO,
(s) — Ca(NO,),(aq) + H,O(I) + CO,(g)

Some students investigated the effect of changing the temperature of the nitric acid on
the rate of the reaction.
The method is:
® Use a measuring cylinder to pour 50cm? ofdilute nitric acid into a conical flask.
© Heat the acid to the required temperature.
® Put the flask on the balance.
® Add 15g (an excess) of marble chips to the flask.
® Time how long it takes for the mass to decrease by 1.00g.
® Repeat the experiment at different temperatures.

The students’ results are shown in the table.

Temperature of acid (°C) | Time to lose 1.00 g (s)

20 93
33 68

a) i) Drawa graph of the results.

ii) One of the points is inaccurate. Circle this point on your graph.
iii) Suggest a possible cause for this inaccurate result.
b) Use the graph to find the times taken to lose 1.00g at 40°C and 60°C.

c) The rate of the reaction can be found using the equation:

mass lost
rate of reaction =
time taken to lose mass

i) Use this equation and your results from b) to calculate the rates of reaction
at 40°C and 60°C.

QUESTIONS
EXAM-STYLE
 ii) What will be the unit for these rates?
iii) State how the rate of reaction changes when the temperature increases.
iv) Explain in terms of particles and collisions why the rate changes when the
temperature increases.
d) Describe how the method could be changed to obtain a result at 5 °C.
(Total 13 marks)

Question 3
The diagram shows the apparatus used to electrolyse lead(II) bromide.

a) The wires connected to the electrodes are made of copper.

Explain why copper conducts electricity.

t
heat

b) Explain why electrolysis does not occur unless the lead(Il) bromide is molten. (2)

(Total 3 marks)

QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued

Question 4

Read the following instructions for the preparation of hydrated copper(I) sulfate
(CuSO,.5H,O), then answer the questions that follow.

. Put 25cm? ofdilute sulfuric acid in a beaker.

. Heat the sulfuric acid until it is just boiling and then add a small amount of
copper(II) carbonate.
. When the copper carbonate has dissolved, stop heating, then add a little more
copper carbonate. Continue in this way until copper carbonate is in excess.

. Filter the hot mixture into a clean beaker.

. Make the hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals from the copper(II) sulfate solution.

The equation for the reaction is

CuCO,(s) + H,SO,(aq) CuSO, (aq) + CO,(g) + H,O(1)

a) What piece of apparatus would you use to measure out 25 cm? of sulfuric acid?

b) Why is the copper(II) carbonate added in excess?

c) When copper(II) carbonate is added to sulfuric acid, there is fizzing. Explain why.

d) Draw a diagram to describe step 4. You must label your diagram.

e) After filtration, which one of the following describes the copper(II) sulfate in
the beaker?

Select the correct answer.

crystals filtrate precipitate water (1)

f) Explain how you would obtain pure dry crystals of hydrated copper(I!) sulfate from
the solution of copper(II) sulfate. (2)

(Total 9 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS

a) The mark would have been The questions, sample answers and marks in this
given for stating that all the section have been written by the authors as a guide only.
elements have the same The marks given for these questions indicate the level of
number of electrons in their detail required in the answers. In the examination, the
outer shell. The student has number of marks given to questions like these may be
gone further and correctly different.
stated that they all have one
electron in the outer shell.

b) i) The correct answer has

been given.
Lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are in
ii) This answer lacks Group | of the Periodic Table.
precision. The mark would
a) These elements have similar chemical properties
be given for either
explaining that the Explain why, using ideas about electronic
reaction produced heat or structures.
that the reaction was
exothermic.
| A : : |Fae ie
theiw outer Mew.
iii) The student has not scored
both marks. Apart from b) Lithium reacts with water to form a solution of
stating that the reaction lithium hydroxide and a colourless gas. During this
would be more rapid than reaction the temperature of the water increases.
that with lithium,
i) What is the name of the colourless
observations have not been
gas produced?
given. The products have
been correctly named but
these are not what you
would observe. Marks ii) Why does the temperature ofthe water increase?
would be given for: fizzing/
effervescence/bubbles i He Vencon
DelWret AGU AM a
(of gas), the sodium floats/ eae a Ae UC AIEN ata Os leedsdt!
moves around on the water,
iii) Describe what you would observe if a small
forms a ball/disappears.
piece of sodium is added to water.
iv) The correct answer and
The sodium formy sodium hydroxide
explanation have been
given. and hydrogew gay wy givew off.

The reactiow would be more rapid

thaw the lithimm reactiow. (2)

 Exam-style questions continued
iv) Caesium (Cs) is another Group | metal.

ls caesium more or less reactive than lithium? Give a reason for your answer.

(Total 6 marks)

Question 2
Use the Periodic Table to help you answer this question.

a) State the symbol of the element with proton number 14. (1)

b) State the symbol of the element that has a relative atomic mass of 32. (1)

c) State the number of the group that contains the alkali metals. (1)

d) Which group contains elements whose atoms form ions with a 2+ charge? (1)

e) Which group contains elements whose atoms form ions with a 1— charge? (1)

(Total 5 marks)

Question 3
Three of the elements in Group VII of the Periodic Table are chlorine, bromine and iodine.

a) Chlorine has a proton number of 17. What is the electron configuration of chlorine? (1)

b) How many electrons will be in the outer shell of a bromine atom? (1)
c) Bromine reacts with hydrogen to form hydrogen bromide. The equation for the
reaction is:

Br,(g) + H,(g) — 2HBr(g)

What is the colour change during the reaction? (1)

(Total 3 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 4

The reactivity of metals can be compared by comparing their reactions with dilute
sulfuric acid. Pieces of zinc, iron and magnesium of identical size are added to separate
test tubes containing this acid.

a) What order of reactivity would you expect? Put the most reactive metal first. (1)

b) Write a word equation for the reaction between magnesium and dilute sulfuric acid. (1)

c) Write a balanced equation for the reaction in b). (1)

d) Name a metal that does not react with dilute sulfuric acid. (1)

e) What other reaction could be used to compare the reactivity of metals? (1)
(Total 5 marks)

Question 5
Look at the list of five elements below:

argon, bromine, chlorine, iodine, potassium.

a) Put these five elements in order of increasing proton number.

b) Put these five elements in order of increasing relative atomic mass.

c) The orders of proton number and relative atomic mass for these five elements are
different. Which one of the following is the most likely explanation for this?

A The proton number of a particular element may vary.

B The presence of neutrons.

C The atoms easily gain or lose electrons.

D The number of protons must always equal the number of neutrons.

d) Which of the five elements in the list are in the same group of the Periodic Table?

e) i) From the list, choose one element that has one electron in its outer shell.

ii) From the list, choose one element that has a full outer shell of electrons.

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued
f) Which two of the following statements about argon are correct?
A Argon is a noble gas.

B Argon reacts readily with potassium.

C Argon is used to fill weather balloons.

D Argon is used in light bulbs. (2)

(Total 8 marks)

Question 6

The table gives some information about the elements in Group | of the Periodic Table.

FaNe Boiling Density | Radius of Reactivity

point (°C) | (g/cm?) atominthe | with water
metal (nm)
Lithium Ost Dy,
Sodium
Potassium 0.235 Very rapid
Rubidium
Caesium i eee
a) How does the density of the Group | elements change going down the group?

b) Suggest a value for the boiling point of rubidium.

c) Suggest a value for the radius of a caesium atom.

d) Use the information in the table to suggest how fast lithium reacts with water
compared with the other Group | metals.

e) State three properties shown by all metals.

f) When sodium reacts with water, hydrogen is given off:

2Na(s) + 2H,O(!) + 2NaOH(aq) + H,(g)

i) State the name of the other product formed in this reaction. (1)
ii) Describe a test for hydrogen. (2)
(Total 11 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS

a) Correct answer, alkenes have The questions, sample answers and marks in this
a general formula of CH, . section have been written by the authors as a guide only.
The marks given for these questions indicate the level of
b) Correct answer, alkenes are detail required in the answers. In the examination, the
unsaturated hydrocarbons. number of marks given to questions like these may be
A and C are alkanes which different.
are saturated hydrocarbons.
c) Correct answer, as this is a
test for an unsaturated
hydrocarbon.
This question is about the following organic
d) Carbon dioxide is correct but compounds:
the other product is water
A CH. B CH C.C_H
and not hydrogen.
a) Which compound belongs to the alkene
e) Correct answer, as the
homologous series?
general formula is CH, .
B
f) i) Correct answer, the
process for breaking down b) Which compound is an unsaturated hydrocarbon?
larger hydrocarbons into
smaller ones is cracking.
c) Which compound will decolourise bromine water?
ii) High temperature is
correct but a catalyst is
also needed.
d) Name two products that are formed when
compound A burns in a plentiful supply ofair.
7 7 and Z 7 5 joke ~y
hyavogen carbow dioxide (2)

e) Write the formula of another hydrocarbon that is

in the same homologous series as compound B.
ae
ht

f) Compound C undergoes the following reaction:

Gers(9) == Cie (git 126g)

i) What is the name ofthis process?

SA AO Ei LP ORS DE
ii) What conditions are needed for this reaction?

LV OPEN ATW ile cera dE

Total
 Exam-style questions continued
Question 2
The alkanes are a homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons.
a) Say whether each of the following statements about the members of the alkane
homologous series is TRUE or FALSE.
i) They have similar chemical properties.
ii) They have the same displayed formula.
iii) They have the same general formula.
iv) They have the same physical properties.
v) They have the same relative formula mass.

b) Define the following terms:

i) hydrocarbon
ii) saturated.
c) The third member of the alkane homologous series is propane.
i) What is the molecular formula of propane? (1)
ii) Draw the displayed formula of propane. (2)
(Total 10 marks)
Question 3
Many useful substances are produced by the fractional distillation of crude oil.
a) Bitumen, fuel oil and gasoline are three fractions obtained from crude oil.
Name the fractions that have the following properties:

i) the highest boiling point (1)

ii) molecules with the fewest carbon atoms (1)
iii) the darkest colour. (1)
b) Some long-chain hydrocarbons can be broken down into more useful products.
What is the name of this process and how is it carried out? (3)
c) Methane is used as a fuel. When methane is burned in a plentiful supply of air, carbon
dioxide is formed.

i) Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (2)

li) Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. How may it contribute to climate change? —_(2)
(Total 10 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 4

Poly(ethene) is a plastic that is made by polymerising ethene, C,H.,.

a) Which one of the following best describes the ethene molecules in this reaction?
alcohols, alkanes, monomers, polymers, products

b) The structure of ethane is shown below.

Explain, by referring to its bonding, why ethane cannot be polymerised.

c) Draw the structure of ethene, showing all its atoms and bonds.
d) Ethene is obtained by cracking alkanes.

i) Explain the meaning of the term cracking.

ii) What condition is needed to crack alkanes?

iii) Copy and complete the equation for cracking decane, C,H...

CAnk AGA ahr

e) Some oil companies crack the ethane produced when petroleum is distilled.

i) Copy and complete the equation for this reaction.

Chm) eel aye

ii) Describe the process of fractional distillation, which is used to separate the
different fractions in petroleum.

iii) State a use for the following petroleum fractions:

gasoline fraction (1)

lubricating fraction. (1)
(Total 11 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS

Note: The questions, sample answers and marks in a) i) and ii)The first two
this section have been written by the authors as a questions are
guide only. The marks given for these questions straightforward,
indicate the level ofdetail required in the answers. recalling and applying
In the examination, the number of marks given to simple ideas in a
questions like these may be different. familiar situation.Two
marks are given.

b) i) and ii) The student has

handled the
mathematical parts of
The diagram shows a car travelling to the right.
the question correctly.
The arrows represent four forces on the car as
iii) The student almost
it moves.
certainly knew which
The arrows are not drawn to scale. direction the force was
D acting in (forward) but
loses the mark because
‘horizontally’ has two
ae
possibilities — forward
Q-——©) and backward. This is an
Y
B easy slip to make, and
the student might have
a) i) Which arrow represents the weight of the car?
noticed the mistake if
B they had time to check
through their answers.
ii) Which arrow represents the driving force
acting on the car?

b) The horizontal forces on the car are unbalanced.

i) State the equation linking unbalanced force,

mass and acceleration.

F=ma

The car accelerates at 2 m/s? and it has a mass

of 1500 kg.

ii) Calculate the magnitude of the unbalanced

force on the car.

1500 x 2 = 3000

Force 3000 N
 iv) The student has missed tii) Which direction does this force act in?
the point of the Hori Zonta
question. It is still in ies .
part b) and that is the iv) The force provided by the car engine is
clue that the answer is larger than the value you have calculated.
still related to F=ma. Explain why.
The question asks
The car iy speeding up and energy is lost
about forces so the
answer should also to- the surroundings, so-the CHLGANe has to
refer to forces, the as 1 ri pane
calculated value is a give w bigger force: ¢
resultant force made c) A truck tries to keep up with the car as
up from the engine it accelerates.
force — the friction.
The truck falls behind, even though the engine
Instead, the student in the truck provides a bigger force than the
talks about ‘speeding engine in the car.
up’ and ‘energy losses’
which are too vague to Suggest why the truck falls behind.
ain credit here. ae ;
g The truck ty bigger, so it hay to have a
c) ‘Bigger’ is too vague to
gain credit. The student
neededtheto question
mass mention ‘larger
«<ul acceleratiow
- Re because
Gee there nianwill be
linked to F=ma. The more air resistance,

student does then go on

to link force to
acceleration correctly so
gains the second mark.
The third mark is also
gained because the idea
of more air resistance is a.
sensible suggestion (and it
is a Suggest’ question). It
also makes it clearer what
the student meant by
writing ‘bigger’ at the start
of the sentence. Overall,
however, the student
needs be clearer so that
the ideas don't have to be
linked together by the
reader.
 Exam-style questions continued

Question 2
In 2009, Usain Bolt set the world record for 100m at 9.58s.

a) i) State the equation linking average speed, distance moved and time taken. (1)

ii) Calculate the average speed for Usain Bolt’s run.

Give your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.

iii) At some part of the race, Usain Bolt must have run faster than this.

Explain why. (3)

b) At the start of the race, it is counted as a false start when a runner moves before 0.10s
after the starter has fired the starting gun.

Suggest why. (3)

(Total 10 marks)

Question 3

The graph shows how the velocity of a cyclist varies.

(m/s)
velocity

30 50
time (s)

a) Between what times was the cyclist travelling at a constant speed?

b) How can you tell from the graph?

Calculate the acceleration of the cyclist during the first 10s.

Use the graph to find the total distance travelled by the cyclist. (3)
(Total 8 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 4
A student is planning to investigate air resistance.

He makes a number of paper parachutes of different sizes and attaches them one at a
time to a small mass.

parachute

small mass

a) Describe how the student should carry out his investigation.

You should include:

i) what other equipment the student should use

ii) what measurements the student should make

iii) how the student should use his measurements to draw a conclusion. (5)

b) Use ideas about the forces acting on falling objects to explain how a falling object
can reach a terminal velocity. (5)
(Total 10 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued
Question 5
A crane at a building site is lifting a container.
The point labelled C is the centre of gravity of the container.

concrete

mi container

WLLL
The container has a mass of 2000 kg.

a) State the equation linking weight, mass and g.

b) Calculate the weight of the container.

c) Use ideas about moments to explain the purpose of the concrete block.
d)In the diagram, the crane is balanced.
Calculate a suitable value for the mass of the concrete block. (4)

(Total 10 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 6
A student investigates stretching a spring.

The student hangs 100g masses onto the spring one at a time and measures the
length of the spring.

ea

100g
masses

a) Describe how the student should use a ruler to obtain accurate measurements for the
length of the spring. (3)
b) Suggest one safety precaution the student should take during the investigation. —_(1)
The student calculates the extension in the spring for each mass attached.
The table shows the results.

Weight/N
all

i) Draw a graph of these results. (5)

ii) Is there any evidence that the student made a mistake in the measurements?
Explain your answer. (2)
iii) Does the evidence from this experiment support Hooke's law?
Explain your answer. (3)
(Total 14 marks)
QUES
EXAM
 Exam-style questions continued

Question 7
Two students want to find the density of clay.
They each have a sample of clay.

a) State the equation linking density, mass and volume. (1)

The students suggest different methods to find the volumes of their samples of clay.

b) One student shapes his sample of clay into a regular cube shape.

Then he measures the length of the sides.

He finds the volume by doing a calculation with his measurements.

i) How should the student choose his equipment to make his measurement of
volume as precise as possible? (2)

ii) Describe a feature of this method that may lead to inaccurate results. (1)

c) The other student decides to find the volume of her sample of clay using a measuring
cylinder. Describe how she should do this. (4)

d) Describe how the students can use an electronic balance to find the masses of their
samples of clay. (1)

i) If the electronic balance is incorrectly calibrated, how will this affect

their measurements? (1)
ii) How could the students check the calibration of the electronic balance? (2)

(Total 12 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
 ACHER’S COMMENTS
a) i) This isa common Note: The questions, sample answers and marks in
mistake — 0 marks. Any this section have been written by the authors asa
energy source cannot be guide only. The marks given for these questions
indicate the level of detail required in the answers.
used again — once the
In the examination, the number of marks given to
fuel is burnt it cannot be
questions like these may be different.
burnt again! However,
renewable sources can be
replaced over reasonably
short time scales.

li) 1 mark. Different energy resources are used to

b) This will probably score SAR GUANS ShSet tela
1 mark, but it would be a) Some energy sources are renewable.
better if the student
specified ‘Natural Gas’, Lots i) What does ‘renewable’ mean when it refers
of materials are ‘gas, for to energy sources?
example oxygen, but they LSE Rat aries
are not energy sources. gece Be
ii) Give one example of a renewable energy
c) This is likely to score emuireet
3 marks. An advantage
and disadvantage is given The wind.
for both energy sources, A
lb) Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources.
but simply saying ‘makes
pollution’ is too vague and Give one example of a fossil fuel.
‘gives you lots of energy’
really needs to include a Gary
reference to how quickly c) Use your examples from a) and b) to describe
the energy is delivered. advantages and disadvantages of using
d) These are sensible renewable and non-renewable energy sources
responses, given in enough to generate electricity.
detail — 2 marks. Renewone
2 I,J
energy
“ ,
sources
tr 14i7, )
are ary free
Spey
once
Arn
the
4], aR

wind turbine UY made, but it Uy wot always

windy so- you cawt

7 }
abwayy
]
makekp, electricity.
olopctricifvy

Awadvantage of using gay ix that it gives

you loty of energy, but it also- makes

polutiow.
 Exam-style questions continued
d) Less than 10% of the electricity generated in the UK is from renewable
energy sources.
Suggest two reasons, apart from cost, why the UK does not generate more
electricity using renewable energy sources.

(Total 9 marks)

e
Question 2
A car is travelling at 20 m/s and has a mass of 1500 kg.

a) Calculate the kinetic energy of the car in joules when it is travelling at 20 m/s.

b) Write down the work done stopping the car and give the correct unit.

c) If the brakes provide a force of 10000N, calculate the distance required to stop
the car.

d) What happens to the kinetic energy of the car when it stops at the traffic lights? —(2)
(Total 6 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 3
A child climbs to the top of a slide at a playground.

The child has a mass of 30kg and the top ofthe slide is 3.0m above the ground.

a) State the equation linking gravitational potential energy, mass, g and height. (1)

b) Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by the child when he climbs to
the top of the slide. (2)

c) State the link between the gravitational potential energy gained and the work done
by the child. (1)

d)To calculate the power of the child as he climbs to the top ofthe slide, what other
measurement would be needed? (1)

e) The child rides down the slide. Assuming that there are no energy losses, calculate the
speed of the child at the bottom ofthe slide. (4)
(Total 9 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions
Note: The questions, sample answers and marks in
this section have been written by the authors as a
guide only. The marks given for these questions
indicate the level of detail required in the answers. In
the examination, the number of marks given to
questions like these may be different.

Sample student answers

Question 1
This question is about particles.

a)i) Use ideas about particles to explain

why liquids can flow but solids keep the
same shape.

xX (2)

li) Use ideas about particles to explain why a

gas fills its container but solids keep the
same size.

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
b) i) These parts of the b) The photo shows bubbles rising in water.
question are handled well
and score full marks.
li) The student made a good
use of the relevant
equations to make their
argument. This is a
powerful way to answer
questions of this type and
can save a lot of
descriptive writing.

The bubbles increase in volume as they move towards the surface of the water.

i) Explain why the bubbles rise to the surface.

The bubbles ave less dense thaw the water

ii) Explain why the volume ofthe bubbles increases as they rise.

The presure = depth x density xg, / okso- the pressure gety lesy ay the

(Total 11 marks)

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions continued

Question 2
A student investigates the effect of insulation on cooling.
thermometer
hot water

layers of
newspaper
insulation

The student puts some hot water into a beaker and measures the temperature
drop in 20 minutes.

He repeats the experiment using layers of paper as insulation.

His results are shown in the table.

a) Draw a graph of these results.

b) The student concludes that the graph shows that thicker insulation reduces
heat loss.

Is this a correct conclusion from this data?

Explain your answer. (2)

(Total 7 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Question 3
Two experiments are carried out to investigate energy transfer in water.

In Experiment 1, cold water is gently heated at the top of a glass boiling tube. A block
of ice trapped at the bottom remains solid even when the water at the top begins
to boil.

In Experiment 2, cold water is gently heated at the bottom of the tube. Ice at the top
of the tube melts before the water boils.
a) What is the process by which thermal (heat) energy travels through the glass?

b) i) What is the principal process in Experiment 2, which takes the energy from the
water at the bottom to the ice at the top?

ii) Describe how the process in b) i) occurs.

c) Suggest two reasons why the ice in Experiment 1 does not melt, even when the water
at the top begins to boil. (2)
(Total 6 marks)

QUEST
EXAM
 TEACHER’S COMMENTS >

ae The questions, sample answers and marks in this a) i) The question clearly asks for
section have been written by the authors as a guide only. the name of the missing
The;marks given for these questions indicate the level of regions. Writing ‘UV’is nota
detail required in the answers. In the examination, the
name, nor even a recognised
number of marks given to questions like these may be
standard symbol, so it loses
different
a mark. The student must
take care to read the
question carefully and
answer it in the way it is
asked.
l
ne tapie
= Re PS Ly
SNOWS S
ALAC
ne of the regions of the
ere
© PE i ae pect rum. ii) The student should know
————_—_
the different ways to
|Gamnimaa |De
X-rays jal
| Vi
isible ||
Infrared |B |Radio0 | describe the order of the
a) i) Complete the chart by writing the names of
spectrum. Here the answer
the missing regions (A and B) of the spectrum. is given in terms of
increasing wavelength, but
TA| U\ they should also be able to
describe the sequence in
b: MWUCroOwaves
order of frequency and
wane
©asso
ee The table lists the spectrum in what order? possibly in order of
energy.
A. increasing amplitude
B. increasing density b) i) Stating ‘in a hospital’ is too
vague to be a‘situation’ as
C. increasing frequency the question asks.
D. increasing wavelength
ii) Clearly, the student was
aware of the correct
situation — imaging — so
b) i) Describe one situation in which X-rays are useful. should have written this in
WW Aa hospi “ill their answer.

ii) Explain why X-rays are useful in the example c) i) Again, the student has
you have given. not described a situation,
so cannot gain the first
XK -VAVWS CAN bones
7 7 7
SYLOW OVOKEN
mark.

because they will pass through the skin

and flesh al
but there wil be w shadow where the (1)

bones ave

c) 1) Describe one situation in which X-rays can be harmful.

1477 ; 7
Whew they get into your body. _) od
 ii) The student has two valid ii) Describe how X-rays can be harmful and how
points, but there is only one the risks can be reduced.
mark available. The second 2
was for describing how the They caw dam U4e body cells / (1)

risks can be reduced and and cause some celly tor become cancer
the student has failed to
give any response to this.
cols. X
Always read the question d) A remote control for a television uses infrared signals.
carefully and answer each
point required. The human body detects infrared radiation
as heat.
d) ‘Not strong enough’ is too
vague. The correct term Explain why the infrared signal from a television
‘amplitude’ is required here. remote control does not make your skin feel hot.
The second part of the The signal from the remote ix not strong
answer correctly links to
energy and the student enougn to make
7
you
7 7
feel hot x
might have thought a little
further about this, possibly
1] ee, M ae ,
There ix not enougw enerqy toSe burn
fe Ai

then getting the link from

‘strong’ to ‘amplitude’
This part of the question tests
basic definitions and these
should be learned *

thoroughly.

QUEST
EXAM-

661
 Exam-style questions continued
Question 2

The diagram shows some waves on the surface of water in a ripple tank.

a) i) Which letter represents the wavelength of the wave?

ii) Which letter represents the amplitude of the waves?

b) The waves in the water are transverse waves.

i) Give another example of a transverse wave.

ii) Describe the difference between transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
c) A student makes some observation about the waves in the ripple tank.

number
of wovey passing by iw 6 seconds - 10

i) State the equation linking wave speed, frequency and wavelength. (1)

ii) Calculate the wave speed of these waves in m/s. (2)

(Total 8 marks)

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
 Exam-style questions
Note: The questions, sample answers and marks in this section have been written by the authors
as a guide only. The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail required in the
answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like these may be
different.

Sample student answers

Question 1
The table shows the maximum current that can safely pass through copper wires of
different cross-sectional areas.

Cross-sectional Maximum safe

alee
20.0

a)i) The student's answer needs to use correct terminology as given in the question and
state clearly that as the cross-sectional area increases the maximum current increases.

Both sety of numbers are getting bigger X

ii) To get the 2" mark the student's answer needs to show they understand that
more electrons flowing per second means a larger current.

A wie witha larger diameter allows more electrons to move

b)To get both marks the student needs to use the terminology and data given in the
question and state that the oven takes a bigger current than the maximum safe
current of 20A for the 2.5 mm? wire.

A cooker usey w muclv bigger Hececieurrguevi

c) The student's answer correctly gives the working, the numerical answer and the unit.
VY
aie = = a a wie ACD

d) The student's answer needs more detail to get both marks and so should also refer to
the wire overheating.

QUEST
EXAM-
 Exam-style questions
Note: The questions, sample answers and marks in this section have been written by the
authors as a guide only. The marks given for these questions indicate the level of detail
required in the answers. In the examination, the number of marks given to questions like
these may be different.

Sample student answers

Question 1

a) i) and ii) The student has chosen the correct

fuse but the explanation lacks detail and should
also refer to the value of the fuse chosen being
the smallest value above the 1.5 A working
current..

i) Which fuse should be fitted? Choose from 1A, 3A,5A, 13A.

x0 QO)
ii) Explain your answer.

b) To get all 5 marks the student's answer should include a link to the safety of the lamp,
as mentioned in the question. It should include a reference to the lamp switching off
when the fuse melts. (5)

The earth wire hay a very low resistance so if the casing becomes live and w
bigcurrent
flows through itthe fuse
wil melt A@ en

EXAM-STYLE
QUESTIONS
Developing experimental skills
INTRODUCTION
As part your Combined Science course, you will develop
practical skills and have to carry out investigative work in
science. This will either be done as coursework, a practical test
or a written paper, depending on your school.
This section provides guidance on carrying out an investigation.
The experimental and investigative skills are divided into four
parts as follows (each of the four sections carry equal weighting):
1. Using and organising techniques, apparatus and materials
2. Observing, measuring and recording
3. Handling experimental observations and data
4. Planning and evaluating investigations

1. USING AND ORGANISING TECHNIQUES, APPARATUS

AND MATERIALS
Learning objective: to demonstrate and describe appropriate
experimental and investigative methods, including safe and skilful
practical techniques.
Questions to ask:
How shall I use the equipment safely to minimise the risks —
what are my safety precautions?
Y When writing a Risk Assessment, investigators need to be careful to
check that they've matched the hazard with the technique used and
with the concentration of a chemical used. Many acids, for instance,
are corrosive in higher concentrations, but are likely to be irritants or
of low hazard in the concentration used when working in biology or
chemistry experiments.
Y Don't forget to consider the hazards associated with all the
chemicals and biological materials, even if these are very low.
/ In the exam, you may be asked to describe the precautions taken
when carrying out an investigation.
How much detail should I give in my description?
¥ You need to give enough detail so that someone else who has not done
the experiment would be able to carry it out to reproduce your results.
How should I use the equipment to give me the precision I need?
Y You should know how to read the scales on the measuring
equipment you are using. APPAR
TECHNI
ORGAN
USING
MATER
AND
/Y You need to show that you are aware of the precision needed.
 <I Fig. 7.1 The volume of liquid in a measuring
cylinder must be read to the bottom of the
meniscus. The volume in this measuring cylinder
is 202 cm? (ml), not 204. cm?.

EXAMPLE 1
This is an extract from a student's notebook. It describes how she
carried out an experiment to investigate the production of carbon
dioxide by yeast at different temperatures.
What are my safety precautions?

COMMENT
The student has used a data source to look up the chemical hazards.

EXAMPLE 2
This is an extract from a student’s notebook. It describes how she
investigated the motion of an object for which the acceleration is
not constant.
Experimental detail
The student’s method is given below.

DEVELOPING
EXPERIMENTAL
SKILLS
 3 Atthe same time, w stopclock way started.

Precision and accuracy

An example from the notebook is:
The speed measured to the nearest 0.1 em/y.

COMMENT .
The method is well written and detailed. Point 1 could have been
improved if the student had noted the width of the tape used.
The student has appreciated the accuracy that can be achieved using
this method.

2. OBSERVING, MEASURING AND RECORDING

Learning objective: to make observations and measurements with
appropriate precision, record these methodically, and present them in a
suitable form.
Questions to ask:
How many different measurements or observations do I need
to take?
¥Y Sufficient readings have been taken to ensure that the data
are consistent.
¥ It is usual to repeat an experiment to take more than one
measurement. If an investigator takes just one measurement, this
may not be typical of what would normally happen when the
experiment was carried out.
Y When repeat readings are consistent, they are said to be repeatable.
Do I need to repeat any measurements or observations that
are anomalous?
Y An anomalous result or outlier is a result that is not consistent
with other results.
¥Y You want to be sure that a single result is accurate (as in Example3).
So you will need to repeat the experiment until you get close
agreement in the results you obtain.
¥ If an investigator has made repeat measurements, they would
normally use these to calculate the arithmetical mean (or just mean
or average) of these data to give a more accurate result. You calculate RECOR
AND
MEASU
OBSER
 the mean by adding together all the measurements, and dividing by
the number of measurements. Be careful, though: anomalous results
should not be included when taking averages.
Y Anomalous results might be the consequence of an error made in
measurement. But sometimes outliers are genuine results. If you
think an outlier has been introduced by careless practical work, you
should omit it when calculating the mean. But you should examine
possible reasons carefully before just leaving it out.
¥ You are taking a number of readings in order to see a changing
pattern. For example, measuring the speed every 10cm for 60cm
(so six different readings). It is likely that you will plot your results
onto a graph and then draw a line of best fit.
¥ You can often pick an anomalous reading out from a results table (or
a graph if all the data points have been plotted, as well as the mean,
to show the range of data). It may be a good idea to repeat this part
of the practical again, but it’s not necessary if the results show good
consistency.
¥ If you are confident that you can draw a line of best fit through most
of the points, it is not necessary to repeat any measurements that
are obviously inaccurate. If, however, the pattern is not clear enough
to draw a graph then readings will need to be repeated.
How should I record my measurements or observations — is a
table the best way? What headings and units should I use?
V A table is often the best way to record results.
VY Headings should be clear.
V Ifa table contains numerical data, do not forget to include units;
data are meaningless without them.
¥ The units should be the same as those that are on the measuring
equipment you are using.
¥ Sometimes you are recording observations that are not quantities.
Putting observations in a table with headings is a good way of
presenting this information.

EXAMPLE 3
How many different measurements or observations do I need
to take?
A student cut a number of cylinders of tissue from a potato and
weighed them, and recorded the mass of each cylinder. Six dishes were
set up with each dish containing a different concentration of sucrose.
Four potato cylinders were placed into each dish. After one hour, the
cylinders were removed, blotted dry and reweighed. The student then
calculated the percentage change in mass for each cylinder. The results
are shown on the next page.
EXPERIMENTAL
DEVELOPING
SKILLS
 _
li Average Texture of
Percentage change in mass of potato percentage potato
Concentration |cylinders/g change in cylinders
of sucrose/M mass (qualitative)
Experi- Experi- Experi- Experi-
ment | ment 2 ment 3 ment 4
pola 433.7 312 4325 | 42.9 rim

} Slightly soft
Soft

|=19.9 | -20.3
A Table 7.1 Results for Example 3.

EXAMPLE 4
In an experiment to investigate the efficiency of a small motor, the
student has sensibly recorded her results in a table. Notice each
column has a heading and units.
Mass Distance | Useful |Voltage Current |Time to | Electrical
lifted/g — lifted/m | work of in lift the | energy
done/J | motor/V_ motor/A | mass/s_| supplied/J
0.01 1.0
0.03 1.0
0.05 1.0
0.07 1.0
0.09 | 1.0
A Table 7.2 Table of results.

EXAMPLE 5
In another experiment, a student has recorded his results obtained in
an experiment to investigate the strength of an electromagnet as the
current in the coil varies.
variable resistor

RECORD
AND
MEASUR
OBSERV
\
ees < Fig. 7.2 Apparatus for experiment.
 | Number of paper clips held.
erevred

A Table 7.3 Results of experiment.

COMMENT
In this table of results:
/ the description of each measurement is clear
/ the units are given in each case.

3. HANDLING EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS AND DATA

Learning objective: to analyse and interpret data to draw conclusions
from experimental activities that are consistent with the evidence,
using scientific knowledge and understanding, and to communicate
these findings using appropriate specialist vocabulary, relevant
calculations and graphs.
Questions to ask:
What is the best way to show the pattern in my results? Should
I use a bar chart, line graph or scatter graph?
¥Y Graphs are usually the best way of demonstrating trends in data.
¥Y A bar chart or bar graph is used when one of the variables is a
categorical variable; for example, when the melting points of the
oxides of the Group 2 elements are shown for each oxide, the names
are categorical and not continuous variables.
¥ A line graph is used when both variables are continuous, for
example, time and temperature, time and volume.
Y Scatter graphs can be used to show the intensity of a relationship, or
degree of correlation, between two variables.
¥ Sometimes a line of best fit is added to a scatter graph, but usually
the points are left without a line.
When drawing bar charts or line graphs:
¥Y Choose scales that take up most of the graph paper.
¥ Make sure that the axes are linear and allow points to be plotted
SKILLS
EXPERIMENTAL
DEVELOPING
 accurately. Each square on an axis should represent the same
quantity. For example, one big square = 5 or 10 units; not 3 units.
¥ Label the axes with the variables (ideally with the independent
variable on the x-axis).
Y Make sure the axes have units.
¥ If more than one set of data is plotted use a key to distinguish the
different data sets.
If Iuse a line graph should I join the points with a straight line
or a smooth curve?
¥ When you draw a line, do not just join the dots!
Y Remember, there may be some points that don’t fall on the curve —
these may be incorrect or anomalous results.
¥ A graph will often make it obvious which results are anomalous and so
it would not be necessary to repeat the experiment (see Example 10).
V In biology, if following the biological rhythms of an organism over a
period of time, you should join the data points, point-to-point.
Do I have to calculate anything from my results?
¥ It is usual to calculate means from the data.
Y Sometimes it is helpful make other calculations, before plotting a
graph; for example, you might calculate 1/time for a rate of reaction
experiment in physics or the energy content of food per gram when
burning a sample of food in biology.
Y Sometimes you will have to make some calculations before you can
draw any conclusions.
¥ Investigators also look for numerical trends in data, for example, the
doubling of a reaction rate every 10°C; the doubling of numbers of
microorganisms every 20 minutes.
Can I draw a conclusion from my analysis of the results, and
what scientific knowledge and understanding can be used to
explain the conclusion?
Y You need to use your scientific knowledge and understanding to
explain your conclusion.
Y It is important to be able to add some explanation which refers to
relevant scientific ideas in order to justify your conclusion.

DATA
AND
OBSER
EXPER
HANDL
 EXAMPLE 6
What is the best way to show the pattern in my results?
A student did an experiment to compare the loss of water from leaves
of three different species of tree — apple, hazel and oak.
He measured the mass of 10 leaves of similar size and hung the leaves
ona line. After three hours, he removed the leaves and measured the
masses of the leaves again and calculated the average loss of water in
grams per hour. 0.35
Species Average loss of oy
water/g per hour el
0.20
Apple 0.30 Adc
Hazel 0:05 0.10
Oak 0.01 0.05
of
loss
water/g
hour
average
per =
A Table 7.4 Results. apple hazel
species of tree

A Fig. 7.4 Bar chart showing water loss from

different leaves.

A bar chart or bar graph is used to display the data in this instance, as
the type of leaf is a categoric variable.

EXAMPLE 7
A student carried out an experiment to find out how the rate of a
reaction changes during the reaction. She added some hydrochloric
acid to marble chips and measured the volume of carbon dioxide
produced in a gas syringe. She took a reading of the volume of gas in
the syringe every 10 seconds for 1.5 minutes.
The apparatus she used and the results obtained are shown in Figs 7.5
and 7.6:

volume/cm?
Gas
dilute hydrochloric acid

marble chips
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time/s

DEVELOPING
EXPERIMENTAL
SKILLS A Fig. 7.6 Graph of experimental results.
What is the best way to show the pattern in my results?
¥ If the experiment involves continuous variables, a line graph
is needed.
Straight line or a smooth curve?
¥ The results obtained will either require a smooth curve or a straight line
of best fit. The shape of the results should show you which is needed.
Do I have to calculate anything from my results?
Vv If you have to calculate a quantity you will often be able to do this
by looking at the change in steepness/gradient of the curve.
Can I draw a conclusion from my analysis of the results?
VY You need to write a sentence summarising what you have learned
from yeur investigation.
¥ Make sure that you write a clear statement. You might refer, for
example, to ‘the gradient of the line’ at points 1, 2 and 3 to make
your conclusion even more precise.

COMMENT
A good conclusion will make direct links to scientific knowledge in
relation to the topic.

4. PLANNING AND EVALUATING INVESTIGATIONS

4a Planning
Learning objective: to devise and plan investigations, drawing on
scientific knowledge and understanding in selecting appropriate
techniques.
Questions to ask:
What do I already know about the area of science I am
investigating and how can I use this knowledge and
understanding to help me with my plan?
¥ Think about what you have already learned and any investigations
you have already done that are relevant to this investigation.
Y List the factors that might affect the process you are investigating.
What is the best method or technique to use?
Y Think about whether you can use or adapt a method that you have
already used.
Y A method, and the measuring instruments, must be able to produce
valid measurements. A measurement is valid if it measures what it
is supposed to be measuring.

INVES
EVALU
AND
PLANN
 You will make a decision as to which technique to use based on:
Y The accuracy and precision of the results required; investigators
might require results that are as accurate and precise as possible but
if you are making a quick comparison, or a preliminary test to check
a range over which results should be collected, a high level of
accuracy and precision may not be required.
V The simplicity or difficulty of the techniques available, or the
equipment required; is this expensive, for instance?
¥ the scale, for example, using standard laboratory equipment or on a
micro-scale, which may give results in a shorter time period.
¥ The time available to do the investigation.
¥ Health and safety considerations.
What am I going to measure?
¥ The factor you are investigating is called the independent
variable. A dependent variable is affected or changed by the
independent variable that you select.
¥ You need to choose a range of measurements that will be enough to
allow you to plot a graph of your results and so find out the pattern
in your results.
¥ You might be asked to explain why you have chosen your range
rather than a lower or higher range.
How am I going to control the other variables?
¥ These are control variables. Some of these may be difficult to control.
¥Y You must decide how you are going to control any other variables in
the investigation and so ensure that you are using a fair test and that
any conclusions you draw are valid.
¥ You may also need to decide on the concentration or combination of
reactants.
What equipment is suitable and will give me the accuracy and
precision I need?
¥ The accuracy of a measurement is how close it is to its true value.
V Precision is related to the smallest scale division on the measuring
instrument that you are using; for example, when measuring a
distance, a ruler marked in millimetres will give greater precision
than one divided into centimetres only.
V A set of precise measurements also refers to measurements that
have very little spread about the mean value.
¥ You need to be sensible about selecting your devices and make a
judgement about the degree of precision. Think about what is the least
precise variable you are measuring and choose suitable measuring
devices. There is no point having instruments that are much more
SKILLS precise than the precision you can measure the variable to.
DEVELOPING
EXPERIMENTAL
What are the potential hazards of the equipment and technique
I will be using and how can I reduce the risks associated with
these hazards?
V Inthe exam, be prepared to suggest safety precautions when
presented with details of an investigation.
¥ You can find out about hazards associated with reactants using
CLEAPSS Student Safety Sheets or a similar resource.
Visit www.cleapss.org.uk.

EXAMPLE 8
You have been asked to design and plan an investigation to explore the
motion of a trolley down a ramp. In a previous investigation, you have
investigated such motion using ticker tape so you are familiar with
what happens and the measurements you need to take.
What do I already know?
Previously, you have investigated the motion of a trolley down a ramp.
You know that you can use ticker tape to measure the distance the
trolley travels in a given time.
What is the best method or technique to use?
The technique you used in your previous investigation can be re-used.
You set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

ticker timer

trolley

ESS
Se

A Fig. 7.7 Trolley and ramp apparatus for the investigation.

What am I going to measure?

You are investigating the motion of a trolley down a ramp. You will
measure the length of each five-dot strip of ticket tape with a ruler.
How am I going to control the other variables?
It is important that you decide on the angle at which to set the ramp at
the start. As you have carried out this investigation before, you can look
back and see what angle you used previously and decide whether you
will use the same angle, or increase or decrease it.
What equipment is suitable and will give me the accuracy and
precision I need?
You now know what you will need to measure and so can decide on
your measuring devices. INVES
EVAL
PLAN
AND
 Measurement

Length of ticker tape | Five-dot strips Ruler to measure to

| nearest centimetre
|
|

| |
== |e

A Table 7.5 Suitable equipment for experiment.

Choosing a ruler that can measure to the nearest millimetre would

not be appropriate, as the width of the ticker tape dots is of the order
of millimetres.
What are the potential hazards and how can I reduce the risks?
The hazards are as follows:
¥ trolley and ramp.
These indicate that there are no specific hazards you need to be
aware of.
In terms of the equipment and technique, the major hazard will be the
trolley rolling off the end of the ramp. You can limit this hazard by
putting a buffer at the end of the ramp, as shown in Fig. 7.7.

EXAMPLE 9
You have been asked to design and plan an investigation to find out the
effect of temperature on the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid. In a previous investigation you have
used this reaction so you are familiar with what happens and how the
rate of the reaction can be measured.

4b Evaluating
Learning objective: to evaluate data and methods.
Questions to ask:
Do any of my results stand out as being inaccurate or anomalous?
¥Y You need to look for any anomalous results or outliers that do not fit
the pattern.
¥ You can often pick this out from a results table (or a graph if all the
data points have been plotted, as well as the mean, to show the
range of data).
What reasons can I give for any inaccurate results?
¥ When answering questions like this it is important to be specific.
Answers such as ‘experimental error will not score any marks.
V It is often possible to look at the practical technique and suggest
explanations for anomalous results.
¥ When you carry out the experiment you will have a better idea of
which possible sources of error are more likely.
DEVELOPING
EXPERIMENTAL
SKILLS
A Try to give a specific source of error and avoid statements such as
‘the measurements must have been wrong.
Your conclusion will be based on your findings, but must take into
consideration any uncertainty in these introduced by any possible
sources of error. You should discuss where these have come from in
your evaluation.
Error is a difference between a measurement you make, and its
true value.
The two types of error are:
¥ random error
V systematic error.
With random error, measurements vary in an unpredictable way. This
can occur when the instrument you're using to measure lacks sufficient
precision to indicate differences in readings. Random errors can also
occur when it is difficult to make a measurement.
With systematic error, readings vary in a controlled way. They are
either consistently too high or too low. One reason could be the way
you are making a reading, for example, measuring with a measuring
cylinder at the wrong point on the meniscus, or not being directly in
front of an instrument when reading from it.
What an investigator should not discuss in an evaluation are problems
introduced by using faulty equipment, or by using the equipment
inappropriately. These errors can, or could have been, eliminated, by:
¥ checking equipment
¥ practising techniques before the investigation, and taking care and
patience when carrying out the practical.
Overall was the method or technique I used good enough?
¥ If your results were good enough to provide a confident answer
to the problem you were investigating, the method probably was
good enough.
¥ If you realise your results are not accurate when you compare your
conclusion with the standard result, it may be that you have a
systematic error (an error that has been made in obtaining all the
results). A systematic error would indicate an overall problem with
the experimental method.
If your results do not show a convincing pattern, it is fair to assume
that your method or technique was not precise enough and there
may have been a random error (that is, measurements vary in an
unpredictable way).

INVE
EVAL
AND
PLAN
 If Iwere to repeat the investigation what would I change
or improve?
¥ Having identified possible errors, it is important to say how these
could be overcome. Again you should try and be absolutely precise.
/ When suggesting improvements, do not just say ‘do it more accurately
next time’ or ‘measure the volumes more accurately next time.
VY For example, if you were measuring small lengths, you could
improve the method by using a vernier scale to measure the lengths
rather than a ruler.
¥ Investigations can also often be improved by extending the range
(temperature, time, pH, and so on) over which it is carried out.

EXAMPLE 10
A student was measuring how current varies with voltage. He used the
circuit shown in Fig. 7.8.

switch

1
+

A Fig. 7.8 Circuit used to measure how current varies with voltage.

Do any of my results stand out as being inaccurate

or anomalous?
The student plotted his results on a graph, as shown in Fig. 7.9. An
inaccurate result stands out from the rest, as shown by the circle on
the graph. Given the pattern obtained with the other results, there is
no real need to repeat the result — you could be very confident that the
result should have followed the pattern set by the others. A result like
this is referred to as an anomalous result. It was an error but not a
systematic error.

DEVELOPING
EXPERIMENTAL
SKILLS
 “-
current/A
iS — ol

S —_

0.05

; ae
0 2 6 8
voltage/V

A Fig. 7.9 Graph of results.

What reasons can I give for any inaccurate results?

The possible source of the error is that one of the variables was
noted incorrectly.
Was the method or technique I used precise enough?
You can be reasonably confident that using digital meters for the
current and voltage readings will give you precise measurements.
How can I improve the investigation?
For example, you could take readings after the component has heated
up so that the steady state resistance is noted.

EXAMPLE 11
A student was measuring the height of a precipitate produced in a test
tube when different volumes of lead(II) nitrate solution were added to
separate 15 cm’ samples of potassium iodide solution:

PLAN
INVE
EVAL
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Glossary
Biology biological catalyst A catalyst of reactions inside
living organisms.
biomass The mass of a living organism.
biuret test The test used to indicate the presence
acrosome A bag of enzymes at the front of a sperm of protein in a food sample.
cell that makes it possible for the sperm nucleus to bronchioles The tiny tubes in the lungs that carry
enter the egg cell. air to the alveoli.
active site The space in an enzyme into which the bronchitis A disease of the lungs that produces a
substrate molecule fits. hacking cough as a result of damage to the cilia by
active transport The movement of molecules smoking or infection.
across a cell membrane using energy from bronchus The division of the trachea as it joins to
respiration; movement is often against a the lungs.
concentration gradient.
aerobic respiration Respiration (the breakdown of e re OR ee a se
glucose to release energy) using oxygen. capillary Smallest blood vessel, found within
alimentary canal The tubular part of the digestive every tissue, which exchanges substances with
system, from mouth to anus. the cells.
alveoli The tiny bulges of the air sacs in lungs carbohydrate A large molecule, such as starch or
where gases diffuse between the air in the lungs glycogen, made of many simple sugars.
and the blood (singular: alveolus). carbon cycle How the element carbon cycles in
amino acid The basic unit of a protein. different forms between living organisms and the
amniotic fluid Fluid surrounding the developing environment.
fetus in the uterus. carcinogenic Causes cells to produce cancers,
amniotic sac The tough membrane surrounding the such as some of the chemicals in tobacco smoke.
developing fetus and amniotic fluid in the mother’s carnivore An animal that eats animals.
uterus. carpel The female structure in flowers that contains
amylase An enzyme that digests starch. one or more ovaries and their stigmas and styles.
anther The male part of flower that produces pollen. catalyst A substance that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction, such as an enzyme.
aorta The largest artery, which receives blood from
the left ventricle of the heart. cell membrane The structure surrounding cells
artery Blood vessel that carries blood away from that controls what enters and leaves the cell.
the heart. cell wall A layer of cellulose that surrounds plant
cells, giving them support and shape. Bacterial cells
asexual reproduction Production of young without
also have a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
fertilisation.
atrium (plural atria) One of two chambers of the cellular respiration See respiration.
heart that receive blood from veins and pump it into chemical digestion The breakdown of large
the ventricles. molecules into smaller ones using enzymes.
auxin A plant hormone that controls growth of roots chlorophyll! The green chemical in chloroplasts that
and shoots. captures light energy for photosynthesis.
chloroplast An organelle found in plant cells and
some protoctist cells that can capture energy from
balanced diet The intake of food that supplies all light for use in photosynthesis.
the protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and chromosome A long DNA molecule that is found
minerals that the body needs in the right amounts. in a cell nucleus.
Benedict's reagent Solution that changes colour in cilia Tiny hairs that project from a cell surface and
the presence of reducing sugars, used to test for that move things across the cell surface.
>
c
their presence in a food sample. =a
rv)
ciliated cell A cell that has cilia on its surface. rv)
biodiversity The range of variation in species in (e)
circulatory system The organ system that i
an area. 1)
transports substances around the body.
 combustion Burning, such as that of fossil fuels. Qe a a oe Se
community All the organisms that live in the same effector An organ that responds to the nervous
habitat. system, such as a muscle or a gland.
complementary Being similar but opposite, like egestion The removal of undigested material from
the shape of the space in an enzyme and the shape the body (faeces) (compare with excretion).
of its substrate. egg cell The female sex cell.
concentration gradient The difference in the embryo Developing young, in which cell division
amount of a substance between two areas; diffusion and differentiation are taking place rapidly. The
is usually down the concentration gradient: stage before a fetus.
molecules move from the area of high concentration
emphysema A disease of the lungs caused by
to the area of low concentration. damage to alveoli, which reduces the area for gas
constipation The slow movement of digested food exchange in the lungs.
through the intestines and rectum as a result of
endocrine gland An organ that produces a hormone.
there being too little fibre in the food for peristalsis
to be effective. enzyme A protein that acts as a biological catalyst,
changing the rate of reactions in the body.
consumer An organism that gets its food by eating
other organisms; an animal. epidermis The layer of cells on the outer surface of
a body or organ, such as a leaf.
COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases)
Diseases of the lung that include bronchitis and eutrophication The addition of nutrients to water,
emphysema. which may lead to water pollution.
coronary heart disease Diseases such as angina, evaporation When particles in a liquid (e.g. water)
high blood pressure or heart attack, caused by the gain enough energy to move fast enough and
partial or complete blockage of a coronary artery, become a gas (as in water vapour).
such as by cholesterol. excess More than is needed.
cuticle A waxy layer that covers leaves, particularly
the upper surface, to reduce water loss from the leaf.
faeces The undigested material that remains after
cytoplasm The jelly-like liquid inside the cell that
digestion of food in humans.
contains the organelles and where many chemical
reactions take place. famine Starvation of many people in an area as a
result of extreme shortage of food.
=D) {da etr ont et Braet 39 fat A solid lipid.
decomposer An organism that feeds on dead fatty acid One of the basic units of a lipid, along
plants or animals, or animal waste. with glycerol.
deforestation The destruction of large areas of fertilisation Joining of male and female sex cells.
forest or woodland. fetus The name given to the developing baby in the
denature When an enzyme stops working, which uterus.
may be the result of high temperature or pH change. fibre Plant material that is difficult to digest and
deoxygenated Lacking in oxygen. keeps the food in the alimentary canal soft and
deoxyribonucleic acid See DNA. bulky, aiding peristalsis. Also called roughage.
diffusion The net movement of molecules along a food chain diagram A diagram that shows the
concentration gradient from a region of higher transfer of energy from organism by ingestion.
concentration to a region of lower concentration; it
food web diagram A diagram showing the feeding
is a passive process (it does not require energy).
relationships between organisms in the same
digestion The breakdown of large food molecules community.
into smaller molecules.
fossil fuel Fuel formed from organic material, such
digestive enzyme An enzyme found in the as peat, coal and oil.
digestive system.
double circulation A circulatory system as in
humans where the blood passes through the heart gamete A sex cell.
>
co to be pumped first to the lungs, then returned to gas exchange The exchange of gases between the
<
v)
iva)
the heart to be pumped to the rest of the body. air and the body across a gas exchange surface such
fe)
al as the lungs or a leaf.
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germination The start of plant growth from a seed, increases the observed size of a structure compared
which only occurs when there is the right amount of with its actual size: calculated by multiplying the
oxygen and water and an appropriate temperature. eyepiece magnification with the objective
glycerol One of the basic units of a lipid, along magnification.
with fatty acids. malnutrition Not getting the right amounts and
gravitropism A plant's growth in response to gravity. balance of nutrients and other essential substances
growth The permanent increase in body size and in the diet, including a diet that has too much or too
dry mass of an organism, usually from an increase in little of any of these.
cell number or cell size (or both). mechanical digestion The breaking up of food into
smaller pieces through biting and chewing by teeth.
menstrual cycle The continuous sequence of
haemoglobin The red chemical in red blood cells events in a woman's reproductive organs; each cycle
that combines reversibly with oxygen. of ovulation (ripening and release of an egg) and
heart The organ of the circulatory system that menstruation (shedding of the unwanted uterus
pumps blood. lining) takes about 28 days and is controlled by the
heart rate The number of heart beats in a given hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
time, e.g. beats per minute. metabolism All the reactions that occur inside the
herbivore An animal that eats plants. body that keep an organism alive.
hormonal system The chemical response system mineral (mineral ion) Nutrients that plants and
of the body to changes in the environment. animals need in small amounts, such as nitrates
that are needed for making amino acids.
hormone A chemical substance produced by a gland
resulting in a change in another part of the body. movement The ability to change the position of all
or some of the body.
humidity A measure of the concentration of water
molecules in the air. mucus Slimy liquid that is produced by cells lining
the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
hypha A single thread of fungal mycelium (plural
hyphae). multicellular An organism that has a body which
contains many cells.
x1) es a mycelium A mass of hyphae that forms the body of
immune system The system of the body that protects a fungus.
the body against infection; includes white blood cells.
implantation When the embryo settles into the ©
thickened uterus lining. nerve A bundle of nerve cells.
ingestion The taking of food into the alimentary net movement The sum of all the movements in
different directions, e.g. the movement of all the
canal.
particles being considered in diffusion or osmosis.
insoluble A substance that does not dissolve.
nucleus The organelle in plant and animal cells
eK} : ates dens that contains the genetic material.
kinetic energy The energy carried by moving nutrient cycle How a nutrient cycles between
molecules. living organisms and the environment.
nutrition The taking in of nutrients to the body
@ = ewer ces at acd e seven:
from the environment.
larynx The ‘voice box’ at the top of the trachea,
which produces sounds when air moves through it, 0) aah pat) gai
e.g. when speaking. obesity A condition of the body that has large
leaching The loss of dissolved mineral nutrients in amounts of fat.
soil water as it soaks deep into the ground beyond oil A liguid lipid.
the reach of plant roots. omnivore An animal that eats both plants and animals.
lipase An enzyme that digests lipids (fats and oils). optimum pH The pH at which an enzyme works best.
lipid Molecule made from fatty acids and glycerol. optimum temperature The temperature at which
lungs Organs in the human body where gas an enzyme works best. >
ce
exchange takes place. osmosis The net movement of water molecules <x
)
rv)
through a partially permeable membrane, from a [e)
-{f)- eee ; ae =f
solution that has a higher concentration of water Oo
magnification The amount by which a microscope
 molecules (a dilute solution) to one that has a lower g— ieee) a giv yee) SO Se
concentration of water molecules (a more receptor organ An organ that receives information
concentrated solution). about the environment (such as eye or ear) and
ovary (in plants and hurnans) A structure that responds by stimulating a neurone.
contains egg cells. reproduction The process of creating new
oviduct A tube that carries the egg released from members of a species.
the ovary to the uterus; where fertilisation occurs. respiration The chemical process in which glucose
ovulation When an egg is released by an ovary. is broken down inside the mitochondria in cells,
ovule Female structure in a flower that contains releasing energy and producing carbon dioxide and
one egg cell. water.

oxygenated Containing a lot of oxygen. root hair cell A cell in the epidermis of roots that
has a long extension of cytoplasm, where uptake of
Q------ 5. a substances from soil water occurs.
palisade cell Cells in the upper part of a leaf that
.S = wee Be
contain the most chloroplasts and carry out most of
the photosynthesis in a leaf. secretion The release of chemicals that have been
partially permeable The condition of a membrane made inside the cell into the fluid outside the cell.
that lets some substances pass through but not seed The structure formed from an ovule that
others. contains the plant embryo and food stores.
passive The opposite of active, happening without sensitivity The detection of changes (stimuli) in the
the need for additional energy. surroundings by a living organism, and its responses
pathogen A disease-causing organism. to those changes.
peristalsis The rhythmic muscular contractions of the sexual reproduction Production of new individuals
alimentary canal that moves food from mouth to anus. by the fusion of a male and a female gamete.
phagocytosis To flow and engulf, as when simple sugar A basic sugar unit (e.g. glucose) that
phagocytes engulf pathogens. can join together with other sugar units to make
phloem The plant tissue that carries sucrose large carbohydrates such as starch and glycogen.
through the veins of a plant. soil erosion The washing away of soil as a result of
photosynthesis The process carried out in plant wind and rainfall when there is little vegetation to
cells that makes sugars by combining carbon dioxide hold on to the soil.
and water molecules using energy from light. soluble Dissolves easily in a solvent, such as water.
phototropism Growth of a plant in response to light. specialisation When a cell develops special
physical digestion The breaking up of food features that help it work in a particular way.
particles, such as fats and oils, into smaller pieces specific Limited, usually to one or a few. For
(droplets) by substances in the alimentary canal, example, enzymes are specific because they only
such as bile. work with one or a few similar substrates.
placenta A structure formed by the developing sperm cell Male gamete in animals.
fetus that attaches to the wall of the mother’s uterus spongy mesophyll The layer of cells in the lower
and across which substances are exchanged part of the leaf in which there are many air spaces, so
between the mother and fetus. increasing the internal surface area to volume ratio.
platelet Fragment of a much larger cell that causes stamen The male structure in flowers that contains
blood clots to form at sites of damage in blood vessels. the anther.
pollination The process in which pollen from one starch A complex carbohydrate made from many
flower is transferred to another flower, before glucose units.
fertilisation can take place. starvation Eating too little food to supply the body
producer An organism that produces its own food; with its need for energy and nutrients.
for example, plants using energy transferred from stigma The female structure in flowers to which
light in photosynthesis to produce glucose. pollen grains attach in pollination.
> product A molecule that is formed during a reaction. stimulus A change in the internal or external
oc
<x protease An enzyme that digests proteins. environment that produces a response by an organism.
n
nn
(e) protein A large molecule that is made of many stomata Tiny holes in the surface of a leaf (mostly
=i amino acids joined together. the lower epidermis), which allow gases to diffuse
oO
into and out of the leaf.
style The structure that supports the stigma in a flower. vein (animal) A blood vessel that carries blood
substrate A molecule that fits into an enzyme towards the heart. (plant) See vascular bundle.
molecule at the start of a reaction. vena cava The largest human vein that delivers
sucrose Common sugar that is formed of pairs of blood from the body to the right aorta.
glucose units. ventilation Moving air into and out of the lungs.
synthesis The building of larger molecules from ventricle One of two chambers of the heart that
smaller ones, such as the formation of proteins from receive blood from the atria and pump it out
amino acids. through arteries.
@ wet ae er teat ee vitamin A nutrient needed by the body in tiny
amounts to remain healthy, such as vitamins A, C
target organ An organ that is affected by a hormone. and D.
testis The site of production of sperm in men.
toxic Poisonous.
trachea The tube leading from the mouth to the waste product A product of a chemical reaction
bronchi, sometimes called the windpipe. that is not needed, such as oxygen in photosynthesis.
translocation The movement of dissolved water potential The potential for a solution to take
substances, such as sucrose and amino acids, up more water molecules; it is 0 for pure water and
through the phloem tissue of a plant. has a negative value for solutions.
transpiration Evaporation of water vapour from the water potential gradient The difference in water
surface of a plant. potential between two regions, e.g. in a plant.

trophic level A feeding level in a food chain or food

web, e.g. producer, primary consumer.
xylem vessel A tube formed from dead cells in the
tropism A growth response of a plant as a result of vascular bundles of a plant, which carries water and
the environment. dissolved substances from the roots to the leaves
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and other parts of the plant.

uterus Where a baby develops inside a mother. @ ~ =

zygote A fertilised egg, formed from the fusion of a
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male gamete and female gamete.

vacuole A large sac found in the middle of many
plant cells, containing cell sap.
vagina An elastic muscular tube where sperm is
received from the penis during sexual intercourse.
valve Flaps in the heart, and in veins, that prevent
the flow of blood in the wrong direction.
vascular bundle Tissue that forms the veins in
plant roots, stems and leaves, containing xylem
vessels and phloem cells.

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 chemical reaction A chemical change that
Chemistry produces new substances and which is not usually
easily reversed.
rAy eee e ee roerers relies
5 alee Bee chemical symbol A unique symbol that represents
acid A substance that contains replaceable a particular chemical element.
hydrogen atoms which form H* ions when the acid chromatogram A visible record (usually a coloured
is dissolved in water. It has a pH less than 7. chart or graph) showing the separation of a mixture
activation energy The minimum energy that must using chromatography.
be provided before a reaction can take place. chromatography The process for separating
addition polymer A polymer that is made when dissolved solids using a solvent and filter paper (in
molecules of a single monomer join together in large the school laboratory).
numbers. collision theory A theory used to explain
alkali metal A Group I element. differences in the rates of reactions as a result of
alkane A hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms the frequency and energy associated with the
are bonded together by single bonds only. collisions between the reacting particles.
alkene A hydrocarbon that contains a carbon— combustion The reaction that occurs when a
carbon double bond. substance (usually a fuel) burns in oxygen.
alloy A mixture of a metal and one or more other compound A pure substance formed when
elements. elements react together.
anhydrous Literally means ‘without water — a condensation The change of state from gas to
compound, usually a salt, with no water of liquid.
crystallisation. control variable Something that is fixed and is
anion A negatively charged ion. unchanged in an investigation.
anode A positively charged electrode in electrolysis. covalent bond A bond that forms when electrons
are shared between the atoms of two non-metals.
atom The smallest particle of an element. Atoms
are made of protons, electrons and neutrons.
5B) as = dependent variable A variable that changes as a
boiling The change of state from liquid to gas. result of changes made to value of the independent
variable.
boiling point The temperature of a boiling liquid—
the highest temperature that the liquid can reach desalination The separation of salt from sea water
and the lowest temperature that the gas can reach. by evaporation of the water.
burning The reaction of a substance with oxygen in diatomic Two atoms combined together (for
a flame. example, in a molecule).
displacement reaction A reaction in which one
cc =
element takes the place of another in a compound,
calorimetry A method for determining energy changes removing (displacing) it from the compound.
in reactions or when substances are mixed together. dissociation The splitting of a molecule to form
carbonate A salt formed by the reaction of carbon smaller molecules or, in the presence of water, ions.
dioxide with alkalis in solution. distillation The process for separating a liquid from
catalyst A chemical that is added to speed up a a solid (usually when the solid is dissolved in the
reaction, but remains unchanged at the end. liquid) or a liquid from a mixture of liquids.
catalytic cracking The process by which long-chain
rE) ee
alkanes are broken down to form more useful
short-chain alkanes and alkenes, using high effective collision A collision between particles
temperatures and a catalyst. with enough energy to cause a chemical reaction.
cathode A negatively charged electrode in electrolysis. electrode The carbon or metal material that
cation A positive ion. delivers electric charge in electrolysis reactions.
chemical change A change that is not easily electrolysis The breaking down of a compound by
reversed because new substances are made, passing an electric current through it.
chemical formula The combination of element electrolyte A substance that allows electric current
symbols that represents a compound or molecule. to pass through it when it is molten or dissolved in
GLOSSARY
water,
electron Negatively charged particle with a
negligible mass that forms the outer part of all
halogens The Group VII elements (F, Cl, Br, I, At).
atoms.
homologous series A group of organic compounds
electronic configuration The arrangement of with the same general formula, similar chemical
electrons in an atom, molecule or ion. properties and physical properties that change
element A substance that cannot be broken down gradually from one member of the series to the next.
into other substances by any chemical change. hydrocarbon A compound containing only
endothermic A type of reaction in which energy is hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms.
taken in from the surroundings.
enthalpy change (AH) The heat energy change
when the reactants shown in a chemical equation independent variable A variable that is
react together. deliberately changed in an investigation and, as a
enzyme A chemical that speeds up certain result, causes changes to the dependent variable.
reactions in biological systems, such as digestive indicator A substance that changes colour in either
enzymes that speed up the chemical digestion of an acid or alkali and so can be used to identify acids
food. or alkalis.
evaporation When liquid changes to gas at a intermolecular force The force of attraction or
temperature lower than its boiling point. repulsion between molecules.
exothermic A type of reaction in which energy is intramolecular bond A bond within a molecule.
transferred out to the surroundings. ion A charged atom or molecule.
ionic bond A bond that involves the transfer of
electrons to produce electrically charged ions.
filtrate The clear solution produced by filtering a
ionic compound A compound formed by the
mixture.
reaction between a metal and one or more non-
fossil fuel Fuel made from the remains of decayed metals.
animal and plant matter compressed over millions
ionic equation A chemical equation showing how
of years.
the ions involved react together.
fraction A collection of hydrocarbons that have
similar molecular masses and boil at similar @ sect obits oA tho ee ee
temperatures. liquid The state of matter in which a substance has
fractional distillation A process for separating liquids a fixed volume but no definite shape.
with different boiling points. litmus An indicator that has different colours in
freezing Changing a liquid to a solid. acids (red) and alkalis (blue).
freezing point The temperature at which a liquid
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changes to a solid.
functional group A part of an organic molecule mass number The number of protons and neutrons
which is responsible for the characteristic reactions in an atom (also known as the nucleon number).
of the molecule. melting Changing a solid into a liquid at its melting
point.
melting point The temperature at which a solid
gas The state of matter in which the substance has changes to a liquid.
no volume or shape. metal An element with particular properties
global warming The rise in the average (usually hard, shiny and a good conductor of heat
temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans. and electricity).
greenhouse effect The trapping of long-wave mineral A solid inorganic substance that occurs
radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface by gases naturally.
in the atmosphere. mixture Two or more substances combined without
greenhouse gas A gas that can trap long-wave a chemical reaction — they can be separated easily.
radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface. molecule A group of two or more atoms covalently >
group A vertical column of elements in the Periodic bonded together. oc
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 monomer Small molecules that can be joined in a products The substances that are produced in a
chain to make a polymer. reaction.
proton Positively charged particles in the nucleus of
atoms.
neutralisation A reaction in which an acid reacts proton number (atomic number) the number of
with a base or alkali to form a salt and water. protons in an atom.
neutron Particle in the nucleus of atoms that have
mass but no charge. @Q- ee ee

noble gas Group 0 elements (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, radical An element, molecule or ion that is highly
Rn). They have full outer electron shells. reactive.
non-metal An element with particular properties rate of reaction How fast a reaction goes in a given
(usually a gas or soft solid and a poor conductor of interval of time.
heat and electricity). reactant The substances taking part in a chemical
non-renewable A fuel that cannot be made again reaction. They change into the products.
in a short time span. reactivity series A list of elements showing their
nucleus, atomic The tiny centre of an atom, relative reactivities. More reactive elements will
typically made up of protons and neutrons. displace less reactive ones from their compounds.
nucleon number (mass number) The total number redox A reaction involving both oxidation and
of protons and neutrons in an atom. reduction.
reduction When a substance loses oxygen.
renewable energy Energy from a source that will
ore A mineral from which a metal may be extracted.
not run out, such as wind, water or solar energy.
oxidation state The degree of oxidation of an
retention factor (R,) The distance travelled by a
element.
substance in a chromatography experiment (through
oxidation The addition of oxygen in a chemical the stationary phase) compared to the distance
reaction. travelled by the solvent in the same time (expressed
Q--—---- as a number between 0 and 1).
reversible reaction A reaction in which reactants
particle theory The theory describing the
form products and products form reactants.
movement of particles in solids, liquid and gases.
rusting The chemical reaction in which iron is
period A row in the Periodic Table, from an alkali
oxidised to iron(II) oxide in the presence of air
metal to a noble gas.
(oxygen) and water.
Periodic Table The modern arrangement of the
chemical elements in groups and periods. Sz = sae te ee
periodicity The gradual change in properties of the salt A compound formed when the replaceable
elements across each row (period) of the Periodic hydrogen atom(s) of an acid is (are) replaced by a
Table. metal.
pH scale A scale measuring the acidity (lower than 7) saturated Describes an organic compound that
or alkalinity of a solution (higher than 7). It is a contains only single bonds (C—C).
measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a soapA cleaning agent made from fats or oils using
solution. sodium hydroxide.
photosynthesis A reaction that plants carry out to
shell A grouping of electrons around a nucleus. The
make food.
first shell in an atom can hold up to 2 electrons, the
physical change A change in a substance that is next can hold up to 8.
easily reversed and does not involve the making of
solid The state of matter in which a substance has a
new chemical bonds.
fixed volume and a definite shape.
polymerA large molecule made up of linked
soluble A substance that dissolves in a solvent to
smaller molecules (monomers). Polythene is a form a solution.
polymer made from ethene.
solute A substance that dissolves in a solvent
polymerisation Making polymers from monomers.
producing a solution.
pressure A physical characteristic of a substance
solution This is formed when a substance dissolves
caused by particles of the substance colliding with in a liquid. Aqueous solutions are formed when the
the walls of the container it is in.
GLOSSARY solvent used is water.
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spectator ions Ions that play no part and are Physics
unchanged in a chemical reaction.
state symbols These.denote whether a substance is -€)- 2S ae ee ee eee
a solid (s), liquid (1), gas (g) or is dissolved in acceleration A change in speed divided by the time
aqueous solution (aq). taken to change.
surface area The total area of the outside of an ammeter An instrument that measures electrical
object. current in amperes.
ampere A unit of current measuring the electric
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charge that flows during one second.
thermal decomposition The breaking down of a amplitude The maximum change of the medium
compound by heat.
from normal in a wave. For example, the height of a
titration An accurate method for calculating the water wave above the level of calm water.
concentration of an acid or alkali solution in a angle of incidence The angle between the incident
neutralisation reaction.
light ray and the normal to the surface.
transition metal Elements found between Group II
angle of reflection The angle between the
and III in the Periodic Table. Often used as
reflected light ray and the normal to the surface of
catalysts and often make compounds that have the material.
coloured solutions.
atom A particle of matter. The smallest particle in a
x U} te tent reader IS ah Na aaa bien chemical element.
universal indicator Indicating solution that turns a average speed The distance an object has moved,
specific colour at each pH value. divided by the time taken.
unsaturated Describes carbon compounds that
contain carbon-to-carbon double bonds.
bimetallic strip A metal bar made from two different
@ oerYsstaereee eel iso) seetcetoee dete metals which have different expansion rates.
valency electrons The outermost electrons of an
atom that are involved when the atom reacts with
charge A fundamental property of matter that
other atoms or compounds.
produces all electrical effects. It is equal to
vapour Another term for gas. current X time.
variable A factor that can either be changed in an chemical energy Energy stored in molecules.
investigation or changes as a result of other factors Batteries and fuels contain stored chemical energy.
changing.
circuit breaker A device that breaks a circuit when
viscous The description of a liquid which does not there is an increase in current.
flow very easily (for example, does not flow as
compression The squashing together of particles in
readily as water).
a particular region.
volatile Easily turns to a gas.
conduction The transfer of heat energy through
@ eee cht Ls = a material.
water cycle The processes that cause the conductors, electricity Substances that conduct
movement of water between the Earth’s surface and electricity well.
the atmosphere. conductors, heat Substances that conduct heat
water of crystallisation Water that occurs in very well.
crystals. convection Heat transfer in a liquid or gas — when
particles in a warmer region gain energy and move
into cooler regions carrying this energy with them.
coulomb The unit of electric charge.
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decibel A unit of sound intensity.
density The mass, in kilograms, of a one metre
cube of a substance: mass divided by volume.
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diffraction Waves spreading into the shadow when Q—
they pass an edge. gamma ray lonising electromagnetic radiation
distance-time graph A visual representation of — radioactive and dangerous to human health.
how distance travelled varies with time. gradient The slope of a curve.
double-insulated When a device has a casing gravitational field strength The force of gravity on
that is made of an insulator and does not need a mass of one kilogram. The unit is the newton per
an earth wire. kilogram, and it is different on different planets.
cE ee eae e ae gravitational potential energyA form of stored
energy given by mass x g x height.
earth wire A wire connecting the case of an
electrical appliance, through the earth pin on a =H) cil tite Bete Sis oe)Se ee
three-pin plug, to earth. Hooke’s law The extension of a spring is in direct
echo A reflected sound wave. proportion to the force applied to it, as long as the
elastic strain energy A form of stored energy from force is smaller than the material's elastic limit.
stretching or compressing an object like a spring. hydrometer An instrument used to measure the
electric field A region in which any electrical density of liquids.
charges will feel a force.
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electromagnetic spectrum The ‘family’ of
electromagnetic radiations (from longest to shortest infrared The part of the electromagnetic spectrum
wavelength): radio, microwave, infrared, visible that has a slightly longer wavelength than the visible
light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays. In order of spectrum.
frequency, the order is reversed. They all travel at insulators (of electricity) Substances that do not
the same speed in a vacuum. conduct electricity.
electromagnetic wave A wave that transfers insulators (of heat) Substances that do not
energy — it can travel through a vacuum and travel conduct heat very well.
at the speed of light. internal energy The energy inside an object.
electromotive force The energy per coulomb inversely proportional The relationship between
transferred to the charge carriers by a source of two quantities if one doubles when the other halves.
electrical energy
electrostatic forces Forces due to charged particles. Oo — ade nce Bl n Se
evaporation The change of state from a liquid joule The unit of energy. One joule is the energy
to a gas. needed to push an object through one metre with a
extension The increase in length when something one newton force.
is stretched. Q- a} add eS el 2 de ee eee
Q————- ee ~— kinetic energy The energy of moving objects, equal
fiducial mark A marker used to judge a timing to + x mass x (speed).
point, for example, to decide when a pendulum has kinetic molecular model The theory describing the
completed a full swing. movement of particles in solids, liquid and gases.
force Change in momentum divided by time taken. kinetic theory of gases The idea that all matter is
fossil fuel Non-renewable energy resource such as made of tiny particles. Kinetic describes how the
coal, oil or natural gas. particles interact to produce the behaviour of gases
that we Can measure.
frequency The number of vibrations per second or
number of peaks or troughs that pass a point each @ —_ See ee en
second, measured in hertz (Hz). It is equal to
|/time period. limit of proportionality The extension up to which
Hooke’s law applies when stretching an object, for
friction The force that resists when you try to move example, a spring.
something. It can cause insulators to become
charged. longitudinal wave A wave in which the change of
the medium is parallel to the direction of the wave.
> fuse A special wire that protects an electric circuit.
cc Sound is an example.
<x If the current gets too large, the fuse melts and
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mass The amount of material in an object, further apart than normal.
measured in kilograms. reflection When waves bounce off a mirror. The
microwave Part of the electromagnetic spectrum angle of incidence is the same size as the angle of
with a lower frequency than infrared. reflection.
molecule A small particle of matter, typically refraction When waves change direction because
composed of a small number of atoms bonded they have gone into a different medium. They
together. change direction because their speed changes.
renewable (resource) An energy resource that is
-Q)- — i ern ee ee constantly available or can be replaced as it is used,
newton A unit of force. such as solar power or wind power.
Newton's first law of motion For a body to change resistance The property of an electrical conductor
the way it is moving, a resultant force needs to act that limits how easily an electric current flows
on it. through it. Measured in ohms.
non-renewable (resources) An energy resource resistor A circuit component used to restrict the
that will run out, such as oil or natural gas. flow of current.
normal A construction line drawn at 90° to a resultant force A single imaginary force that is
boundary where a ray of light hits the boundary. equivalent to all the forces acting on an object,
equal to mass x acceleration.
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Ohms law The current flowing through a
component is proportional to the potential series Describes a circuit in which the current
difference between its ends, providing temperature travels along one path through every component.
is constant. short circuit The unwanted branch of an electrical
oscilloscope An instrument used to display circuit that bypasses other parts of the circuit and
waveforms and measure voltages. causes a large current to flow.
speed A measure of how far something moves every
xP} = Seated
second. Average speed = distance travelled/time
parallel Describes a circuit in which the current. taken.
pitch Whether a note sounds high or low to static charge A charge caused by an excess or
your ear. deficiency of, usually, electrons — the charged
potential difference (p.d.) The energy transferred particles are unable to flow and cause a current.
from one coulomb of charge between two points.
@ TsO Oe ae aie s
Measured in volts. Often called the ‘voltage’.
potential energy A form of stored energy. thermal transfer The transfer of heat energy.
power The amount of energy transferred every transverse wave A wave in which the change of
second, equal to work done/time taken. Power can the medium is at 90 degrees to the direction of the
be transferred from somewhere (e.g. a power wave. Light is an example.
station) or to somewhere (e.g. electric kettle). turbine A machine that rotates. It is pushed by the
power rating The energy transferred per second by movement of a fluid such as air or water.
an appliance. @ =i ee ea at
pressure The effect of a force spread out over an ultrasound Sound with a frequency above
area. Pressure is equal to force/area. 20000 Hz, above the range of human hearing.
proportional behaviour Where the two key ultraviolet The part of the electromagnetic
variables are linked by a simple multiplying factor. spectrum that has a slightly longer wavelength than
xR} ed ee tre oD < l the visible spectrum.
radiation Energy, such as electromagnetic rays, that x V) eae: eS, eer eehae Se
travels in straight lines. variable resistor A component with a resistance
radio wave The part of the electromagnetic that can be manually altered. >
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spectrum that has a long wavelength and is used for visible spectrum The part of the electromagnetic <<
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spectrum that can be detected by cells in the eye. 2}
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 virtual image An image that cannot be projected weight The force of gravity on a mass, equal to
onto a screen. mass x gravitational field strength. The unit of
weight is the newton.
volt A unit of voltage. The energy carried by one
coulomb of electric charge. work The energy transferred when a job is done,
voltage A measure of the energy carried by an
equal to force x distance moved in the direction of
electric current. the force.
volume A measure of the space filled by an object, x-ray Part of the electromagnetic spectrum with a
higher frequency than ultraviolet.
usually in ml or m’.

watt A unit of power. One watt is one joule

transferred every second.
wavelength The distance between the same points
of successive waves, for example, the distance from
one crest to the next.

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 Answers: Biology
The answers given in this section have been written by the b) Diagram should be labelled to show nucleus,
author and are not taken from examination mark schemes. cytoplasm and cell membrane.
cell wall, large vacuole, chloroplast
SECTION 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING a) chloroplast
ORGANISMS b) large vacuole
Page 13 c) cell wall

1. a) Any suitable answers for human, such as: Page 25

movement — walking; respiration - combination
of oxygen with glucose to release energy, 1. a) EXTENDED Lining some tubes in animal
carbon dioxide and water; sensitivity — vision; organs, such as the respiratory tract of humans;
growth — increase in height; reproduction — the cilia on the outside of the cells help move
having a baby; excretion — producing urine;
substances along inside the tubes.
nutrition — eating food. EXTENDED In blood; carry oxygen around
Any suitable answers for a specific animal, attached to haemoglobin inside the cell.
such as: ovement — crawling; respiration — EXTENDED Near the tips of plant roots; have
combination of oxygen with glucose to release long cell extensions to increase surface area for
energy, carbon dioxide and water; sensitivity — absorption of materials into the root.
smell; growth — increase in length;
reproduction — producing young; excretion —
. EXTENDED Sperm cells are small, and have a tail
for movement. Mitochondria provide energy for
losing carbon dioxide through respiratory
movement of the tail, and the acrosome contains
surface; nutrition — eating food.
enzymes that digest the egg cell membrane so the
Any suitable answers for a plant, such as: sperm nucleus can enter the egg cell for
movement — growing towards light; fertilisation. Egg cells are large and contain a lot of
respiration — combination of oxygen with cytoplasm to provide nutrients for the fertilised cell
glucose to release energy, carbon dioxide and during the early stages of division.
water; sensitivity - aetecting direction of light;
growth — increase in height; reproduction — Page 26
producing seeds; excretion — diffusion of waste
1. 2mm
products out of leaf for photosynthesis (oxygen)
and respiration (carbon dioxide); nutrition — 2. If you are not using a suitable magnification for the
taking in nutrients from soil and making glucose specimen you are looking at, you may not be able
by photosynthesis. to see what you want to. (It is most useful to start
by focusing at a lower magnification and then
2. movement - to reach best place to get food or
moving up to the magnification you want to use.)
other conditions favourable for growth
respiration — to release energy from food that can 2.5mm
ac tualsize
Z = 700
be used for all life processes
sensitivity — to detect changes in the environment
growth - to increase in size until large/mature
Movement in and out of cells
enough for reproduction
Page 29
reproduction — to pass genes on to next generation
excretion — to remove harmful substances from 1. Any answer that means the same as the following:
body net movement — the sum of movement in all the
nutrition — to take in substances needed by the different directions possible
body for growth and reproduction diffusion — the sum of the movement of particles
from an area of high concentration to an area of
lower concentration in a solution or across a
SECTION 2 CELLS
partially permeable membrane
Cell structure Only particles that are small enough to pass
through the membrane can diffuse. Larger
Page 22
molecules cannot diffuse through the membrane.
1. a) Drawing should be drawn with thin, clear pencil
lines, no crossing out, to show the outline of the ANSW
cell in the photograph and the central shape.
 Page 33 Without enzymes, the metabolic reactions of a cell
would happen too slowly for life processes to
1. EXTENDED Any answer that means the same as
continue.
the following: the net movement of water
molecules from a region oftheir high concentration A substrate is a molecule that an enzyme joins with
to a region oftheir lower concentration. at the start of a reaction. Substrate molecules are
changed to product molecules during a reaction.
a) It is a passive movement of molecules as the
result of a concentration gradient. Page 50
b) Osmosis only considers the movement of water
molecules; diffusion considers the solute molecules. 1. EXTENDED The sequence of amino acids in the
. The strong cell wall prevents more water entering a amino acid chain determines the way the chain will
plant cell than there is space for in the cell (i.e. fold up to make the three-dimensional structure of
when the cell is full of water). The cell wall gives the protein.
cells that are full of water a specific shape, and this
helps to support the plant, keeping it upright.
. EXTENDED The shape in an enzyme into which
a substrate fits closely during a reaction.

SECTION 3 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES EXTENDED only a substrate with a shape that is

complementary to the shape of the active site can
Page 39 fit into it. So, an enzyme can only work with a
particular shape of substrate.
il: a) fatty acids and glycerol
b) simple sugars Page 54
c) amino acids
ile As temperature increases, the rate of the reaction
Protein is formed from amino acids, carbohydrates
will increase, up to a maximum point (the
from simple sugars; carbohydrates are often made
optimum) after which it decreases rapidly as the
from one kind of simple sugar, proteins from many
enzyme is denatured.
different kinds of amino acids.
. The optimum pH for pepsin is around pH 2, which is
Page 40
very acidic, like the contents of the stomach. The
Ale It is important because many substances dissolve optimum for trypsin is around pH 8, which is more
in it. alkaline, like the contents of the small intestine.
Each enzyme has an optimum pH that matches the
Page 42 environment in which they work, so that they act
ile a) i) An orange-red precipitate would form, most efficiently there.
because glucose is a reducing sugar. ii) The
solution wouldn't change colour as there is no Page 55
starch present.
1. a) EXTENDED The cooler molecules are, the
b) i) There would be no change in colour because slower they move. So, the longer it takes for the
sucrose and the starch in wheat flour are not enzymes and substrate molecules to bump into
glucose (reducing sugar). ii) The solution would each other and the substrate to fit into the
turn blue-black because of the starch in flour. active site. Therefore, the cooler the
Crush the walnut using a mortar and pestle, then: temperature, the slower the rate of reaction.
a) mix part with ethanol, decant the liquid and add EXTENDED As temperature increases, the
water, if the mixture turns cloudy, then fat is atoms in the enzyme vibrate more. This changes
present the shape of the active site, making it more
b) mix part with water to form a solution, add a difficult for the substrate to fit into the active site
few drops of biuret solution — if protein present, and so slowing down the rate of reaction.
a blue ring forms at the surface, which Eventually, the atoms vibrate so much that the
disappears to form a purple solution shape of the active site is destroyed and the
enzyme is denatured.
SECTION 4 ENZYMES
2. EXTENDED Ata pH above and below the
Page 49 optimum of pH 2, the shape of the active site is
1. A substance that speeds up the rate of reaction but
changed as the interactions between the amino
acids in the enzyme are affected by the pH. This
remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.
makes it more difficult for the substrate to fit into
2.
ANSWERS Achemical that is found in living organisms that the active site, so the rate of reaction slows down.
acts as a catalyst.
SECTION 5 PLANT NUTRITION . EXTENDED Thin broad leaves, chlorophyll in
cells, veins containing xylem tissue that transports
Page 62 water and mineral ions to the leaves and phloem
Ue chlorophyll tissue that takes products of photosynthesis to other
carbon dioxide + water ———» glucose + oxygen parts of the plant, transparent epidermal cells,
light energy palisade cells tightly packed in a single layer near top
- Without light, photosynthesis cannot take place in of leaf, stomata to allow gases into and out of leaf,
plant cells. spongy mesophyll layer with large internal surface.

ee chlorophyll EXTENDED A large surface area helps to maximise

a) EXTENDED 600, + 6H,O ——» C,H,,0.
a 2G + 60,
the rate of diffusion, in this case diffusion of carbon
light energy dioxide into cells for photosynthesis and oxygen
out of cells so that it can be released into the air.
b) EXTENDED Labels should show: CO, from
air, H,O from soil water, C.H,,O, used in cells for . EXTENDED It allows as much light as possible to
respiration or converted to other chemicals for pass through the epidermal cells to reach the
use in cells, O, released into air if not needed in palisade cells below, where there are chloroplasts.
respiration.
Page 69
. EXTENDED Most organisms other than plants
1. Plants make their own foods and need to convert
get their energy in chemical form from the food
the carbohydrates made by photosynthesis into
that they eat. That energy was originally converted
other substances, such as proteins, which contain
from light energy to chemical energy during
additional elements.
photosynthesis in a plant cell and then transferred
as chemical energy along the food chain. a) Nitrogen is an essential element for making
substances other than carbohydrates, such as
Page 64 proteins.
Magnesium is needed to make chlorophyll,
‘le Test the leaf of a variegated plant for starch. Starch
which is the green substance in plants.
is only produced in the green parts of the leaf,
where there is chlorophyll, so only the green parts EXTENDED Stunted growth: because
of the leaf photosynthesise. without proteins, the plant cannot make new
Heat in a water bath, keeping the ethanol away cells and will not grow well.
from open flames, such as from a Bunsen burner, EXTENDED Without enough magnesium the
because ethanol gives off flammable fumes. plant will not be able to make enough chlorophyll,
so it will lose the green colour and become yellow.
Page 66 Any magnesium in the plant is transported to the
new leaves, so that photosynthesis can continue
1. a) As light increases, so rate of photosynthesis
there for making food for growth.
increases.
b) As temperature increases, the rate of SECTION 6 ANIMAL NUTRITION
photosynthesis increases up to a maximum,
after which it decreases rapidly. Diet
As light increases, more energy is supplied to Page 78
drive the process of photosynthesis.
1. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
As temperature increases, up to the maximum
2. Carbohydrates from pasta, rice, potato, bread,
the particles in the reaction including enzymes
wheat flour; proteins from meat, pulses, milk
are moving faster and bump into each other
products, nuts; fats from vegetable oils, butter,
more. Above the maximum the rate of
full-fat milk products, red meat.
photosynthesis decreases because the enzymes
that control the process start to become . Vitamins, minerals, water and fibre.

denatured. 4, Vitamins and minerals are needed for maintaining

the health of skin, blood, bones, etc. Water is
Page 68
needed to maintain the water potential of cells.
1. Any four from: cuticle, epidermis, spongy Fibre is needed to help digested food to move
mesophyll, palisade mesophyll, xylem. easily through the alimentary canal.

ANSW
 Page 82 Egestion is the removal of undigested food from
the alimentary canal — food that has never crossed
Te Any answer along the lines of: different people need
the intestine wall into the body. Excretion is the
different amounts of energy every day; for example,
removal of waste substances that have been
active people need more than people who are seated
produced inside the body.
for much of the day; men have a larger average body
mass than women so will need more energy to Peristalsis caused by contraction of the circular
support that extra tissue; some groups of people muscles of the alimentary canal, followed by
need more of a particular group of nutrients than relaxation as the longitudinal muscles contract.
others, e.g. pregnant women need additional iron.
Food that contains more energy than the body uses
Digestion
is converted into body fat, leading to obesity, which Page 86
is associated with many health problems. A diet
that is too low in energy leads to health problems ie Chemical digestion uses chemicals (enzymes) to
help break down large food molecules into smaller
as a result of low body weight.
ones. Mechanical/physical digestion is the chewing
a) Obesity is caused by a diet that contains too
by the teeth to break large pieces of food into
much energy, and is associated with many
smaller ones before swallowing, or the breaking up
diseases,
of large fat droplets into smaller ones by bile.
Starvation is a diet too low in energy and/or
Page 88
nutrients, leading to health problems from
deficiency diseases or breakdown of muscle T EXTENDED The digestive enzymes break down
tissue for energy. food molecules that are too large to cross the wall
of the small intestine into smaller ones that can be
Constipation is caused by too little fibre in the
absorbed across cell membranes and so enter the
diet and may lead to diseases such as bowel
cancer and diverticulitis.
body. If we did not have enzymes, we would not be
able to absorb many nutrients from our food.
Alimentary canal
oo
Page 85 ED glucose
a Sketch should show the following labels correctly
5 XTENDED The acid increases stomach acidity,
attached to organs shown on the diagram:
providing the right conditions for enzymes that
¢ mouth, where food is broken down by physical digest food in the stomach.
digestion (chewing) and amylase enzyme starts
digestion of starch in food
SECTION 7 TRANSPORT
oesophagus moves food from mouth to
stomach by peristalsis Transport in plants
stomach, where churning mixes food with
Page 98
protease enzymes and acid to start digestion of
protein molecules Ti: In vascular bundles that form veins throughout the
roots, stems and leaves.
small intestine, where alkaline bile neutralises
the acid chyme and enzymes from pancreas Xylem vessels are long continuous tubes formed
complete digestion of proteins, lipids and from dead cells, which allow water and dissolved
carbohydrates, and where digested food substances to pass easily through the plant.
molecules are absorbed into the body Phloem cells link together to form continuous
large intestine, where water is absorbed from phloem tissue in the vascular bundles. They carry
undigested food dissolved food materials, such as sucrose and
amino acids, from the leaves where they are formed
rectum, where faeces are held until they are
egested through the anus to other parts of the plant that use them for life
processes or where they will be stored.
liver, where bile is made
gall bladder, where bile is stored until needed Page 100
pancreas, where proteases, lipases and amylase 1. It enters through the root hair cells, moves through
which pass to the small intestine the root cortical cells to the xylem in the centre of
the root. It moves through the xylem up the
stem and into the leaves. In the leaves, it
ANSWERS moves out of the xylem into the spongy
mesophyll cells.
 Place a stem of a plant in water containing food Page 109
colouring. The colour will travel through the xylem
1. EXTENDED Resting heart rate varies widely due
with the water, and show where the xylem is in the
to many factors, including age, health and fitness,
stem, leaves and flowers.
so a single value for the average is too limited.
Page 103 As level of activity increases, so heart rate increases.
Evaporation from the surfaces of a plant, EXTENDED Heart rate increases with exercise so
particularly from the stomata of a leaf into the air. the blood can circulate faster round the body,
Diagram should include annotations like the delivering oxygen and glucose to muscle cells for
following, at the appropriate point: water the increased rate of respiration to generate the
molecules evaporate from surfaces of spongy energy needed for contraction. It also removes
mesophyll cells into air spaces; water molecules waste carbon dioxide from muscle tissue more
from air spaces move into and out through rapidly to prevent it building up and affecting cells.
stomata into the air — diffusion (net movement)
usually from inside leaf to outside; osmosis causes Page 111
water molecules to move from xylem into
1. EXTENDED To supply the oxygen and glucose
neighbouring leaf cells, and then from cell to cell
needed for the heart muscle cells to respire and to
until they reach a photosynthesising cell or a
remove waste carbon dioxide.
spongy mesophyll cell; transpiration is the
evaporation of water from a leaf. smoking, diet containing a lot of saturated fat,
Closing stomata reduces diffusion of water stress, genetic factors
molecules out ofthe leaf. At night, oxygen is not
needed for photosynthesis, so keeping stomata Eat a diet that is relatively low in saturated fat, don't
open would lose water unnecessarily. smoke and try to control stress and the effects that
it has on behaviour.
a) When temperature is higher, particles move
faster, so water molecules will diffuse out of the Page 114
leaf more quickly.
1. a) renal arteries b) aorta c) pulmonary veins
b — When air humidity is high, there is a high
76 Arteries are large vessels with thick, elastic
concentration of water molecules in the air.
muscular walls; capillaries are tiny blood vessels
So, more water particles will move from the
with very thin walls that are often only one cell
air through the stomata into the leaf while
thick; veins are large vessels with a large lumen and
water particles are moving out of the leaf into
valves to prevent backflow of blood.
the air. This means the rate of diffusion will
be lower. EXTENDED The walls stretch as blood enters
then slowly relax as the blood flows through,
Transport in mammals balancing out the pressure so that the change in
Page 105 pressure is reduced.

1. To pump blood around the body Page 116

2. Valves in the heart and veins
1.
3. EXTENDED Blood passes twice through the
heart for every once round the body — there are plasma carries dissolved
effectively two separate circulations of blood from substances, such as carbon
the heart. dioxide, glucose, urea and
hormones; also transfers
Page 107 heat energy from warmer
to cooler parts of the body
1. left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right
ventricle
2. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins white blood cell protects against infection
carry blood towards the heart. platelet causes blood clots to form
3. EXTENDED vena cava, right atrium, right when a blood vessel is n
cc
damaged
ventricle, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, left
Lu
=w
atrium, left ventricle, aorta
z=
<
 2. EXTENDED The biconcave disc shape increases 3° EXTENDED There is less oxygen in expired air
surface area to volume ratio, so rate of diffusion of than inspired air because oxygen in the body is
oxygen into and out of a cell is maximised. used for respiration. There is more carbon dioxide
Haemoglobin inside the cell binds with oxygen in exhaled air than inhaled air because the body
when oxygen concentration is high and releases produces carbon dioxide in respiration. There is
oxygen when oxygen concentration is low. The cell more water vapour in exhaled air than inhaled air
has no nucleus, so there is as much room as because water molecules evaporate from the
possible for haemoglobin. The cell has a flexible surface of the alveoli due to warmth of the body.
shape so can squeeze through the smallest
capillaries and reach all tissues.
. EXTENDED More exercise means more carbon
dioxide is produced from an increased rate of
respiration. Carbon dioxide is a soluble acidic gas so
SECTION 8 GAS EXCHANGE AND causes the body tissues and blood to become more
RESPIRATION acidic. A change in pH can affect many enzymes
and so affect the rate at which life processes are
Gas exchange carried out in the body. Slowing down the rate of
life processes may harm the body.
Page 128
Page 132
Ue EXTENDED Exchange of gases between the
body and the environment is by diffusion. Lc Bronchitis — hacking cough caused by build-up of
Organisms need plenty of oxygen for respiration to mucus in tubes of lungs as a result of damage to
provide energy for all life processes, and need to cilia; emphysema — shortage of breath due to
get rid of the waste carbon dioxide. So a rapid rate breakdown of walls ofalveoli so there is a smaller
of diffusion supports a higher rate of respiration surface area for gas exchange in the lungs.
and all the other processes in the body. . Nicotine is addictive, which makes smoking difficult
. The trachea carries air from the mouth down to the to give up; carbon monoxide replaces oxygen on
lungs; the bronchi (the two large divisions of the haemoglobin, reducing the amount of oxygen that
trachea as it reaches the lungs) are supported with blood can carry.
rings of cartilage to prevent collapse during
Respiration
breathing; the bronchioles (the fine tubes in
the lungs) carry the air to the alveoli; the alveoli (the Page 135
bulges of the air sac) have a large surface
1. a), b) and c):
area and are very thin for efficient diffusion of gases.
glucose (from digested food from alimentary
. EXTENDED Sketch similar to Fig. 8.4, with canal) + oxygen (from air via lungs) —-» carbon
annotations showing: thin lining of alveolar wall dioxide (excreted through lungs) + water (used in
and wall of capillary allows rapid diffusion; high cells or excreted through kidneys) (+ energy
concentration gradients for gases between blood (transferred to other chemicals in cell processes))
and air in alveolus due to continuous blood flow d) glucose replaced by fats from hump, and very
through capillary and ventilation of alveolus little water excreted through kidneys
(lungs); large area of contact between capillary and
2. inside cells
alveolus, maximising area over which diffusion can
occur. Any three from: muscle cells for contraction, synthesis
of new molecules, such as proteins, for growth, active
. EXTENDED The mucus traps particles and transport across cell membranes, passage of nerve
microorganisms that are in the air breathed in, and impulses, maintenance of core body temperature.
the cilia move the mucus and anything trapped in it
up out of the lungs to the throat, where it can be 4. EXTENDED C.H,,0,
6 1276
+ 60, —» 6C0, + 6H,O
swallowed. This protects the lungs from damage
and infection. SECTION 9 COORDINATION AND
RESPONSE
Page 131
1. The percentage of oxygen is less in exhaled air than Hormones in humans
inhaled air. The percentage of carbon dioxide is Page 144
greater in exhaled air than inhaled air. The
percentage of water vapour is higher in exhaled air 1. a) Achemical messenger in the body that
than inhaled air. produces a change in the way some cells work.
ANSWERS
. As level of exercise increases, rate and depth of b) A gland that secretes hormones.
breathing increase.
 c) An organ that contains cells that are affected Page 160
by hormones.
1. Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a stamen
. When faced with attack, or when suddenly to a stigma. Fertilisation is the fusion of the male
frightened. gamete with the female gamete to form a zygote.
It prepares the body for action by increasing the . Any three from: wind-pollinated flowers usually
amount of oxygen and glucose delivered to small, no colour (white), make masses of
muscle cells for rapid respiration, and improving lightweight pollen. Insect-pollinated plants usually
vision. large, may be brightly coloured, produce nectar
and sometimes scent, make small amounts of larger
Tropic responses pollen grains.

Page 147 3. a) EXTENDED Can make less pollen; less waste

A growth response of a plant to a stimulus. of pollen as insects more likely to deliver pollen
to flower than random distribution in wind.
a) Shoots grow towards light.
b) If the insect species die out, the plant will not
b) Roots grow in the direction of the force ofgravity.
get pollinated.
. EXTENDED Auxin is produced in the tip of the
growing shoot and diffuses down the shoot. Page 163
Auxin on the bright/light side of the shoot moves
1. When the embryo in a seed starts to grow,
across the shoot to the darker side as it diffuses
splitting the seed coat and increasing in size and
down the shoot. Cells on the dark side of the
complexity.
shoot elongate more than the cells on the light
side of the shoot, so the shoot starts to bend . a) Seeds need a supply of oxygen for growth,
as it grows so that the tip is pointing towards although they may be able to start germination
the light. using anaerobic respiration.
Seeds need water for germination and will not
germinate in dry soil.
SECTION 10 REPRODUCTION
Seeds need warmth for germination, although
Asexual and sexual reproduction the amount of warmth they need may depend
on where they naturally grow. Seeds from plants
Page 154 that live in colder areas may need a period of
1. Reproduction without the fusion of gametes, using deep cold before they will germinate. Seeds
a cell from only one parent. from plants that live in areas prone to fire may
Binary fission is where the genetic material is not germinate until after a fire.
copied and the cell splits in half. Only one cell is
involved and there is no fusion of parent cells Sexual reproduction in humans
before division.
Page 165
Page 154 1. Sketch should be similar to Fig. 10.17. Labels and
1. a) The fusion of amale gamete and a female annotations as follows:
gamete to produce a zygote. e testes, where sperm (male gametes) are
b) The production of offspring from two parents as produced
a result of fertilisation. sperm duct, which carries sperm to urethra
prostate gland and seminal vesicles, which
Sexual reproduction in plants produce liquid in which sperm swim
Page 156 penis, which when erect delivers sperm into
1. Stigma, where pollen grains attach; style, which vagina of female
supports the stigma; ovary, which surrounds and urethra, the tube that carries sperm from sperm
protects the ovule, inside which is the female gamete. ducts to outside the body.
. Stamen, which includes an anther that contains . Sketch should be similar to Fig. 10.18. Labels and
pollen grains, inside which are the male gametes; annotations as follows:
filament, which holds the anther above the flower © ovaries, where egg cells form
to help with shedding of pollen.
e oviducts, which carry the eggs to the uterus and
where fertilisation by sperm takes place ANSW
 uterus, where embryo implants into lining and . The Sun provides light energy, transferred as
fetus develops chemical energy to build plant tissue, which is then
transferred as chemical energy through all other
cervix, base of uterus where sperm are
organisms in the ecosystem.
deposited during sexual intercourse
A food chain shows the relationship between one
vagina, where penis is inserted during sexual
producer, one herbivore, the carnivore that eats the
intercourse.
herbivore, and so on.
3. EXTENDED A food web shows the feeding relationships
between all the organisms living in an area.
a) Food webs help us to understand the
relationship between organisms in an area, and
can help us predict what might happen to the
organisms as a result of a change to the
numbers thousands in ovary | >100 million
ecosystem.
but usually only produced each
one released each | day It can be difficult to organise the information in
month a food web because some organisms feed at
many trophic levels, and it may not be possible
mobility } unabletomoveon | self-propelling to include all organisms (e.g. decomposers) on a
its own with tail food web because of space for the drawing.

Page 168 Page 183

1. a) The cell produced by fusion of amale gamete
Uc EXTENDED Energy in light from Sun (gain) >
and female gamete.
some reflected, some passes straight through, some
b) Formed from the division of cells in the wrong wavelength (losses) > energy in light
zygote — until distinctive structures are obvious, transferred to chemical substances during
such as limbs, when it becomes a fetus. photosynthesis > energy transferred to environment
c) Developing baby in the uterus (womb), from from photosynthetic reactions and from respiration
about 3 months after fertilisation. by heating (losses) > energy stored in plant biomass.
In an oviduct.
. EXTENDED Energy stored in food (gain) >
In early stages, rapid cell division, and energy in undigested food lost, transferred to
differentiation of cells to produce the main environment in faeces (loss) > energy stored in
structures; later, development of nervous system absorbed food molecules transferred to energy in
and movement; increase in size and weight. waste products, such as urea in urine, and
. EXTENDED Provides nutrients from mother’s transferred to the environment (loss) > energy
blood and carries waste to mother’s blood to be released in respiration transferred by heating to
excreted. environment (loss) > energy stored in animal
biomass.
SECTION 11 ORGANISMS AND THEIR
. EXTENDED Notall the energy gained is stored
ENVIRONMENT in new tissue in the organism. When the next
trophic level feeds on the previous level, only the
Page 180
energy stored in the body tissue is available to it.
Te Producer: an organism that produces its own food
from simpler materials, e.g. plants making
SECTION 12 HUMAN INFLUENCES ON
carbohydrates in photosynthesis.
ECOSYSTEMS
Consumer: an organism that gets its food from
eating other organisms, e.g. animal. Page 193

Herbivore: an animal that eats plants. il a) Respiration releases carbon dioxide into the
Carnivore: an animal that eats other animals. atmosphere from the breakdown of complex
carbon compounds inside organisms.
. EXTENDED Decomposer: an organism that gets
b) Photosynthesis fixes/converts carbon dioxide
its food from dead plants and animals or waste
from the atmosphere into complex carbon
material, such as some fungi and bacteria.
compounds in plant tissue.
Trophic level: the feeding level ofan organism
ANSWERS
within a food chain or food web.
 c) Decomposition decays/breaks down dead plant b) Soil washed away and nutrients leached from
and animal tissue by decomposers, releasing soil by increased water flow through ground, so
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during decreasing soil fertility.
respiration. Increases carbon dioxide concentration as less
2. a) carbon dioxide b) complex carbon carbon dioxide taken from air through
compounds, ¢) complex carbon compounds photosynthesis and stored as wood.
2. The addition of nutrients to water.
Se EXTENDED Combustion increases the carbon
dioxide concentration in the atmosphere more Run-off of fertiliser into water as a result of heavy
rapidly than natural processes such as respiration. rainfall; leaching of soluble nutrients in fertiliser
Deforestation removes trees, so this reduces the through soil into water systems.
amount of oxygen taken from the atmosphere for Eutrophication leads to the rapid growth ofalgae
photosynthesis and increases the amount of and other microorganisms, which remove large
carbon dioxide released if the forest is burnt. So this amounts of oxygen from the water for respiration.
can rapidly change the oxygen/carbon dioxide This does not leave enough oxygen in the water for
balance in the atmosphere near the forest. the fish, so they die.

Page 197 EXTENDED Sewage added to water > adds

nutrients to water = eutrophication > plant and
1. a) EXTENDED Changes the amount of water
microorganism growth rate increases > respiration
transferred from soil to air through transpiration, so
rate of microorganisms increases, removing
more water remains in soil and enters rivers.
dissolved oxygen from water > less dissolved
oxygen for other organisms, which die = water
pollution.

ANSW
 Answers: Chemistry
The answers given in this section have been written by Atoms, elements and compounds
the author and are not taken from examination mark
schemes. Page 224
1. Inacompound the elements are chemically
combined together. In a mixture, the elements or
SECTION 1 PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY components are not chemically combined together.
The particulate nature of matter Page 229
Page 205 1. The electron has the smallest relative mass.
LEA 2. Atoms are neutral. The number of positive charges
2. Only the solid state has a fixed shape. (protons) must equal the number of negative
3. Fine sand will pour or flow like a liquid; it takes the charges (electrons).
shape of the container it is poured into (although . a) The nucleon number is 27.
under a microscope you would see gaps at the b) 14 neutrons
surface of the container).
Page 230
page aoe 1. a) Magnesium has two electrons in its outer
. The particles in a solid vibrate about a fixed point. electron shell.
. The particles are held together the most strongly in b) It is in Group Il.
solid water (ice).
3. a) Aluminium
Evaporation is the process that occurs when
faster-moving particles in a liquid escape from the
liquid surface.
. Melting is the name of the process when a solid
changes into a liquid.

Page 210
All elements contain atoms. b) Calcium
. Methane contains one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms.
This molecule is made up of6 carbon atoms,
12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms.
. Anion isa charged particle and an atom is neutral.

Experimental techniques
3. The noble gases have full outer electron shells or
Page 216 have eight electrons in their outer electron shells
1. A baseline drawn in pencil will not dissolve in the and so do not easily lose or gain electrons.
solvent.
If the solvent were above the baseline the lons and ionic bonds
substances would just dissolve and form a solution Page 236
in the beaker.
. The dye may be insoluble in the solvent.
. EXTENDED R= 1.7/10=0.17
Page 219
A solvent is a liquid that will dissolve a substance
(solute).
If a substance is soluble in a solvent it dissolves in
ANSWERS that solvent.
Distillation
Boiling points
2. EXTENDED . EXTENDED

S ae
sh EXTENDED Both phosphorus and oxygen are
non-metals. (A metal is needed to form an ionic
bond.)

Page 239
1. EXTENDED The ions are held together strongly
in a giant lattice structure. The ions can vibrate but
cannot move around.
. EXTENDED Sodium chloride is made up of
singly charged ions, Na* and Cl, whereas the
magnesium ion in magnesium oxide has a double
charge, Mg**. The higher the charge on the positive
Page 247
ion, the stronger the attractive forces between the
positive ion and the negative ion. 1. EXTENDED The intermolecular forces of
attraction between the molecules are weak.

Molecules and covalent bonds 2. No. There are no ions or delocalised electrons present.

Page 245
Stoichiometry
i
Page 253
1. a) KBr
b) CaO
c) AlCl,
d) CH,
- a) Cu(NO,),
2. EXTENDED b) Al(OH),
c) (NH,),SO,
d) Fe,(CO,),

. a) EXTENDED 2Zncl,
b) EXTENDED cr.0,
c) EXTENDED Fe(OH),

Page 257
1. a) 2Ca+O,(g) > 2CaO(s) ANSW
 b) 2H,S(g) + 30,(g) > 2S0,(g) + 2H,O()) ii) A 10°C rise would be expected.
The same
amount of energy is transferred to double
c) 2Pb(NO,),(s) > 2PbO(s) + 4NO,(g) + O,(g)
2
the volume of water.
. a) EXTENDED S(s)
+ 0,(g) > SO,(g) 3. The group of students using the metal should get
b) EXTENDED 2Mo(s)
+ 0,(g) >»2MgO(s) more accurate results.
The metal conducts the heat
from the fuel to the water better than glass does.
c) EXTENDED cu0(s) + H,(g) > Cu(s) + H,O(!)
Page 279
Page 259 1. The reaction is endothermic.
1. a) EXTENDED 2C.H, (g) + 150,(g) > 10CO,(g) 2. The activation energy.
+ 10H,O(!) 3. EXTENDED
b) EXTENDED Fe.0.(s)
+ 3CO(g) > 2Fe(s) +
3C0,(g)
methane +
c) EXTENDED 2kMn0,(s) + 16HCI(aq) > 2KCI(s) oxygen
+ 2MnCl,(s) + 8H,O(!) + 5CI(g)
882kJ
Energy
carbon dioxide
SECTION 2 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY + water

Electricity and chemistry

Course of reaction
Page 268
1. The breaking down (decomposition) of an ionic . EXTENDED
compound by the use of electricity.
2. The positive electrode is the anode.
3. The substance must contain ions and they must be
free to move (in molten/liquid state or dissolved in
water). +120kJ

>
od)
Page 272 i
oO
cS
Ww
1. a) An inert electrode is an unreactive electrode; it
will not be changed during electrolysis.
b) Carbon is commonly used as an inert electrode
(Platinum is another inert electrode).
ape eae we ese es eS =

. a) Lead and chlorine.

b) Magnesium and oxygen.
Course of reaction
c) Aluminium and oxygen.
Reaction A
Chemical energetics
Page 276
1. A reaction that releases heat energy to the
surroundings.
2. Areaction that absorbs energy from the
surroundings. >
oO)
3. Polystyrene is a very good insulator and so very
=
o
jae
uw
little energy is transferred to the surroundings.

Page 277
1. Ahigh proportion of the energy
released transfers to the surrounding air.
2. a) Weighing the spirit burner before and after
ANSWERS burning the fuel. Course of reaction
b) Ethanol 29; Paraffin 33; Pentane 25; Octane 40.
>|
=) Reaction B
i) Octane
~
Page 282 Redox reactions
1. The sign indicates whether the reaction is
Page 301
exothermic (negative sign) or endothermic
(positive sign). 1. Reduction is the loss of oxygen or the gain of
electrons.
. EXTENDED Energy is needed to break bonds.
- a) +2
~ EXTENDEDin an endothermic reaction more b) +3
energy is needed to break bonds than is recovered
c) +7
on forming bonds.

Rate of reaction Acids, bases and salts

Page 288 Page 305

1. Ina physical change no new substances are made. 1. Both solutions are alkalis. Solution A is a weakly
In a chemical change at least one new substance alkaline whereas solution B is a strongly alkaline.
is made. Page 310
. The apparent change in mass is often because a gas 1. Asaltis formed when a replaceable hydrogen ofan
has been either a reactant or a product (and is lost acid is replaced by a metal.
from the reaction vessel).
2. Sulfuric acid
. EXTENDED The particles must collide; there Potassium chloride will be soluble in water (as are
must be sufficient energy in the collision (to break
all potassium salts).
bonds).
4. Calcium nitrate
. EXTENDED An effective collision is one which
results in a chemical reaction between the colliding Neutralisation is the reaction between and acid and
particles. an alkali or base to form a salt and water.

. EXTENDED Student's diagram like Fig. 2.19. It is

identification of ions and gases
an energy barrier. Only collisions that have enough
energy to overcome this barrier will lead to a Page 317
reaction.
1. a) Awhite precipitate, which does not dissolve in
excess sodium hydroxide solution.
Page 291
b) A white precipitate, which does dissolve in
A gas syringe will measure the volume of gas
excess soldium hydroxide solution.
produced accurately.
. Add sodium hydroxide solution. Fe** produces a
EXTENDED No gas is being produced — the
green precipitate; Fe** produces a reddish-brown
reaction hasn't started or it is finished.
precipitate.
. EXTENDED The quicker reaction will have the
steeper gradient. Page 320
1. Add dilute sodium hydroxide and heat. An alkaline
Page 295 gas (turns red litmus paper blue) indicates the
The units of concentration for solutions are mol/dm’. presence of an ammonium compound.
. EXTENDED The particles are closer together and . a) Carbon dioxide
there are more of them, so there will be more b) Bubble the gas through limewater. A white
(effective) collisions per second. precipitate forms.
EXTENDED increasing the temperature means . The Fe** ion is present in solution X.
the particles have more (kinetic) energy. So more of . The Cl ion is present in solution Y.
the collisions will have energy greater than or equal a)
to the activation energy and there will be more
effective/successful collisions per second. Name of cation Colour of precipitate
Zinc/lead white
Page 296
Magnesium/calcium white
1. Acatalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a
Copper(Il) blue
chemical reaction.
lron(Il) green/turns brown slowly
lron(lll) rust brown/orange ANSW
 b) HCl is added to remove any carbonate ions that . They have one electron in the outer shell.
may be present. 3. They are soft to cut (also have very low melting points).
Plan needs to check for testing of both anion and EXTENDED The melting point of rubidium will
cation for each sample and should include practical be less than that of sodium. Melting points
instructions. decrease down the group and rubidium is below
e Blue compound sodium in the group.
e Test for copper(II) — sodium hydroxide: result . EXTENDED The potassium atom is larger than
blue precipitate the lithium atom so the outer electron is further
Cu?*(aq) + 20H (aq) >» Cu(OH),(s) from the attraction of the nucleus and can be more
Test for sulfate — hydrochloric acid/barium easily removed. Potassium is more reactive than
chloride: result white precipitate lithium because of the distance of the outer
electron from the nucleus.
Ba**(aq) + SO* (aq) > BaSO,(s)
White compound Page 336
Flame test for Na* — yellow He Sodium oxide is white.
Test for carbonate — add dilute acid — Ze Hydrogen. The solution formed is potassium
effervescence/carbon dioxide evolved — turns hydroxide.
limewater milky
. The compounds are soluble.
CO,”
(s) + 2H*(aq) > H,O(I) + CO.(g)
- a) EXTENDED Rubidium will have a lower
Page 321 melting point.
1. Ammonia . a) EXTENDED A group is a vertical column of
2. Oxygen elements having similar chemical properties
because of their outer shell electronic structure.
3. Chlorine
b) EXTENDED ithium, sodium, potassium
SECTION 3 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY c) EXTENDED All the elements in Group | have
one electron in the outer shell.
The Periodic Table
d) EXTENDED The reactivity of these elements
Page 328 depends on the ease with which the outer
1. a) 20 electron is lost. One electron can easily be lost
to form positive ions. The ease with which it can
b) The proton number is the number of protons
be lost increases down the group because the
(which equals the number of electrons) in an
electron is less tightly held in the atom and
atom of the element. Calcium atoms have
therefore reactivity increases down the group.
20 protons and 20 electrons.
c) Group II
Group VII elements
d) Period 4
e) Calcium is a metal. Page 343
2. The halogens le Seven electrons in the outer shell.

3. The halogens are non-metals. 2: The atoms need to gain only one electron to
achieve a full outer shell.
Page 330 . Chlorine molecules are made up of two atoms
. EXTENDED Aluminium has 3 electrons in the combined/bonded together, Cl..
outer shell. . EXTENDED Solid. The trend down the group is
. EXTENDED Oxygen will form an O* ion (the gas, liquid, solid.
oxide ion) with a 2- charge.
. EXTENDED Adisplacement reaction involves
: EXTENDED Fluorine (F) one Group VII element being reduced (gaining
electrons) and one being oxidised (losing electrons).
. EXTENDED Barium (Ba)

Pages 345
Group | elements
1. Chlorine kills any bacteria that might be present in
Page 334 the water.
ANSWERS PX lodine
1. They react with water to form alkaline solutions.
3. EXTENDED The non-stick surfaces on pans/ 4. The element added in the alloy disrupts the rows of
frying pans. aluminium atoms making them less likely to slide
over each other when under strain.
4. a) EXTENDED
Pages 361
lo No. Copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity
Cl—Cl series.
2. EXTENDED 2kK(s) + 2H,O(!) > 2KOH(aq) + H,(g)
3. No. Carbon is below magnesium in the reactivity
series.
4. EXTENDED wMo(s) + PbO(s) » MgO(s) + Pb(s)

Pages 364
1. EXTENDED Iron ore (hematite), coke and
limestone.
EXTENDED Ironilil) oxide

b) EXTENDED Chlorine is a more reactive EXTENDED Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,

halogen than bromine. Chlorine will displace nitrogen (from the air).
bromine from a solution of a bromide ions. 4. EXTENDED 2Fe.0.(s) + 3C(s) > 4Fe(s) + 3CO,(g)
(Chlorine will oxidise bromide ions to bromine.)
Observations: chlorine water is pale green. Air and water
When this is added to a colourless solution of
potassium bromide the resulting solution will Pages 372-373
turn orange due to the presence of bromine. 1. Anhydrous means without water (water of
ui iy) — EXTENDED The reactivity offluorine is due crystallisation).
to its electronic structure 2,7. Fluorine needs to 2. Cobalt(|l) chloride will change from blue to pink.
gain only one electron to form a fluoride ion.
a) The first filter is coarse gravel. The second filter is
This is very easy because of its small size and
fine sand.
large attractive force of the nucleus.
b) Chlorine is used to kill bacteria.
b — EXTENDED Both chlorine and iodine are less
4. a) Nitrogen is 78%.
reactive than fluorine. Fluorine could only be
displaced from fluoride ions by a more reactive b) Carbon dioxide is 0.04%.
halogen. As there are no halogens that are more
reactive than fluorine, fluorine will not be Pages 376
displaced from fluoride ions. 1. a) Methane is the major component of natural gas.
It is also produced by decaying vegetable
Transition metals and noble gases matter and by ruminant animals such as cows.
b) Carbon dioxide is another greenhouse gas.
Page 349
1. No. Copper is very unreactive — it is below Page 378
hydrogen in reactivity series. 1. Ina limited supply ofair, carbon will form carbon
2. a) FeSO,(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) * Fe(OH),(s)+ monoxide.
Na,SO,(aq) 2. a) copper(il) carbonate + sulfuric acid > copper(I!)
b) Green sulfate + carbon dioxide + water
b) EXTENDED cuc0,(s) + H,SO,(aq) > CuSO, (aq)
Metals + CO,(g) + H,0()

Page 357 3. a) calcium carbonate — calcium oxide + carbon

dioxide
1. Amalleable metal can be hammered into shape.
b) EXTENDED caco.(s) > CaO(s) + CO,(g)
2. Analloy is a mixture of ametal with one or more
4. Rust is iron(IIl) oxide/hydrated ironiIII) oxide.
other elements.
Covering in grease, painting, plastic coating,
3. Cupronickel is used for making coins.
coating with a metal will all stop air and water ANSW
getting into contact with iron.
~
So
 SECTION 4 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Alkanes
Fuels Page 396-397

Page 387 1. a) Acompound that has no C=C double bonds.

b) A compound containing hydrogen atoms and
. The supplies of petroleum are limited — it takes
millions of years for crude oil to be formed.
carbon atoms only.

. Natural gas or methane. It is trapped in pockets Be te}) (Gdn

Se ow

above the oil. b) Carbon dioxide and water.

- Small chain of carbon atoms.
4. Long chain of carbon atoms. Page 397
5. These fractions readily form a vapour. 1. Carbon dioxide and water are formed when
propane burns completely.
Page 389 . To undergo complete combustion there must be a
1. Ethene isa member of the alkene homologous plentiful supply of oxygen (there must also bea
series. source of ignition).
2. The fractional distillation of crude oil produces a
high proportion of long-chain hydrocarbons, which Alkenes
are not as useful as short-chain hydrocarbons.
Page 402
Cracking converts the long-chain hydrocarbons
into more useful shorter chain hydrocarbons. 1. It contains at least one C=C double bond.
. EXTENDED The conditions required for cracking 2. The manufacture of polymers (polyethene).
oil fractions are a temperature of between 600 and
700°C and a catalyst of silica or alumina.

ANSWERS
 Answers: Physics
The answers given in this section have been written by Mass and weight
the author and are not taken from examination mark
Page 427
schemes.
1. Mass is how much material is present in an object;
SECTION 1 MOTION weight is the force on the object due to gravity.
2. 600N
Motion
3. 50kg
Pages 415
1. 10000/15 x 60 = 10000/900
= 11.1 m/s. Density
72, DSA Page 432
3. 3000s =50 minutes
1. a) Volume=2cm x 4cm x 55cm =40cm?

Page 416 b) Density = mass/volume = 312. g/40 cm? =

7.8g/cm?
1. The straight line will have a positive gradient for
moving away, and a negative gradient for moving . The bread contains more air spaces, making the
towards. overall density less.

- Agrapn will have axes which are labelled properly

Effects of forces
with a scale, plotted data points and the best line.
A sketch graph is drawn to illustrate the main shape Page 438
of the line. Only key values such as where the line 1. a) A force can change the speed of an object, the
changes direction, will be given on the axes. shape ofan object and the direction the object
. Your graph is likely to be a curve, as shown in is moving in.
Fig. 1.8. b) Any three from: gravitational, electric, magnetic,
(electromagnetic), strong nuclear force.
Page 417
- a) Gravity
1. EXTENDED 10m/s?
b) The mass of objects and the distance between
2. EXTENDED -151m/s? their centres.
. Inanucleus.
Page 418
4. Electromagnetic
1. a) Athlete: 8m/s. Fun runner: 6.25 m/s.
b) Athlete: horizontal line at 8m/s, starting at Os Page 445
and finishing at 50s. Fun runner: horizontal line 1. EXTENDED 0.01N
at 6.25 m/s, starting at Os and finishing at 64s.
2. EXTENDED 0.2N/cm or 20N/m
Page 419
3. EXTENDED 20cm
1. EXTENDED The acceleration is the gradient of
the graph. Page 447
. EXTENDED The distance travelled is the area 1. No resultant force so stationary or constant
under the graph. speed.
. Resultant force speed or direction of motion will
- a) EXTENDED Athlete A: 8 m/s, athlete B:
change.
6.25 m/s.
3. The gymnast’s weight.
b) EXTENDED Athlete A: horizontal line at
8 m/s, starting at Os and finishing at 50s. Athlete Page 448
B: horizontal line at 6.25 m/s, starting at 0s and
1. Walking, driving — if there is no friction, you skid.
finishing at 64s.
2. Where energy is transferred to thermal energy
_ EXTENDED Area under speed-time graph is the which is lost to the surroundings.
same, i.e. 8m/s X 505 = 6.25 m/s x 64s.

EXTENDED 45m ANSW

 Pressure 3. a) EXTENDED Electrical

Page 452 b) EXTENDED Kinetic

For the pin, the force is concentrated over a smaller c) EXTENDED Sound, heat
area — there is a greater pressure.
. EXTENDED Pressure = force/area = 100 N/0.2 m? Power
= 500Pa Page 475
. EXTENDED s80Nn 1. The man has twice the weight, so the force is
. EXTENDED 1.28m? double, but the time is the same.
. The machine transfers energy at a great rate.
SECTION 2 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER . EXTENDED The watt (W).
Work . EXTENDED 240w
Page 460 . a) EXTENDED 2940).
5 72530). b) EXTENDED 49w.
. 500N
Energy resources
5 tei0))
oe OT)
Page 483

. 400N 1. Light to electric.

. EXTENDED 8.45 x 1017/8 x 10°N = 1.06 x 10°N 2. Kinetic to electric.
3. Fuelis burned and steam is produced in a boiler.
a) EXTENDED The shuttle does a series of
The steam turns a turbine. The turbine drives a
manoeuvres before landing to get rid of the
generator. The generator produces electricity.
excess energy.
The electricity is supplied to homes, industry, etc.
b) EXTENDED 1650°C. The shuttle is covered In certain parts of the world, water forms hot springs
with ceramic insulating materials designed to that can be used directly for heating. Water can also
protect it from this heat. The materials include: be pumped deep into the ground to be heated.
reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) on the wing
surfaces and underside; high-temperature black
surface insulation tiles on the upper forward SECTION 3 THERMAL PHYSICS
fuselage and around the windows; white Nomex
blankets on the upper payload bay doors, Simple kinetic molecular model of matter
portions of the upper wing and mid/aft
Page 491
fuselage;
low-temperature white surface tiles on the 1. It increases — either as faster and larger vibration in
remaining areas. solids or as faster translational and vibrational
motion in liquids and faster translational motion
Energy in gases.
Page 465 . Compressing a gas pushes the particles closer
1. EXTENDED 100) together; in a liquid they are already close to each
other and will repel if pushed closer.
2. EXTENDED 4) - a) The particles are closely packed together ina
regular arrangement in a solid.
Page 467
b) The particles are closely packed together in an
1. Gravitational kinetic > gravitational irregular arrangement in a liquid.
2. Springs
c) The particles are widely spaced in an irregular
3. Bonds between atoms arrangement in a gas.
. The volume of a gas depends on the shape of the
Page 468
container.
1. EXTENDED Energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transferred from one form to another. Page 492
2. EXTENDED Electrical energy changes to light 1. The molecules are always moving about and spread
ANSWERS
energy and heat. out throughout the container.
2. Since volume is inversely proportional to pressure, Page 507
increasing pressure means decreasing volume.
1. The particles are free to move.
3. The mass of the gas must remain constant (that is,
no particles move in or out of the system). The 2. EXTENDED warm air expands, which makes it
temperature must be measured using the Kelvin less dense. Less dense air floats up above more
scale. The gas must be ideal (not liquefy or solidify). dense (cooler) air.
Page 493 Heat some potassium manganate(VIl) crystals in
water or show convection currents using smoke in air.
1. EXTENDED Higher temperature, increased flow
of air across the surface, larger surface area. Fibres in the insulation create air pockets. This
restricts the movement of the air and so convection
EXTENDED smaller surface area, so rate of currents cannot form.
cooling slower.
Page 509
Matter and thermal properties 1. It can travel through a vacuum.
Page 500 2. Ahot object.
Metals expand at different rates as their tempera- 3. Two from: temperature, type of surface, area of
tures rise. So if strips of two metals are bound surface.
closely together, and are warmed, they bend as one . EXTENDED The dull, black side.
metal expands more than the other.
. EXTENDED B because it is at a higher
The atoms vibrate more as the temperature goes
temperature than A.
up. So, even though they stay joined together, they
move slightly further apart, and the solid expands a Page 511
little in all directions.
1. Convection
Unlike other liquids, when its temperature falls
2. The top of the room.
below 4°C, water begins to expand again, and
becomes less dense. 3. a) Vacuum has no particles to connect.
First, we don't have to allow the gas to expand if it b) Vacuum has no particles to form convection
gets hotter; if we put it in a sealed container then currents.
we can just allow the pressure to increase instead. c) Silver surfaces reflect the energy and do not
Second, if we do allow a gas to expand, then it will absorb or emit it.
increase in volume much more than solids or . The flask reduces energy transfer in both directions,
liquids do as it gets hotter. Between 0°C and 100°C so hot drinks do not lose their energy and cold drinks
it will expand by a third, so 300. cm? of gas will are not warmed by energy entering from outside.
become 400 cm’.
Page 514
Thermal processes 1. More than half the energy wasted is through these
Page 506 two features.
1. They contain released electrons that can move Trapped air in the walls, roof, windows, etc.
freely and transfer energy. . Airis abad conductor (good insulator) so keeping a
There are no particles in outer space to transfer layer near the body reduces heat loss by
energy by colliding with each other. conduction. Keeping the layer trapped reduces
heat loss by convection.
Vibrations of the particles are passed on through
the bonds between the particles. In hotter climates, you may want to lose heat, so
loose clothing allows the air to move and transfer
Some wax is put on one end of a metal rod. The
heat away from the body.
other end of the metal rod is heated until the wax
on the other end melts.
SECTION 4 PROPERTIES OF WAVES,
. EXTENDED Use petroleum jelly to attach
drawing pins at regular distances along the copper INCLUDING LIGHT AND SOUND
strip. Heat one end of the strip and measure the
General wave properties
time it takes for each drawing pin to fall off. Plot a
graph of time until the drawing pin falls off against Page 523
distance from the point that is being heated. 1. a) The waves travel by vibrations in the direction of
travel of the wave. ANSW
 b) The waves travel by vibrations at right angles to Sound
the direction oftravel of the wave.
Page 550
. a) The distance between consecutive peaks or
troughs of the wave. 1. Longitudinal

b) The number of peaks/troughs that go past each 2. EXTENDED small differences in air pressure.
second. 3. 20-20000Hz
c) The size of the vibrations. 4. Sound with frequencies above the range for human
15m hearing.
4. Energy 5. Asound source and two microphones are arranged
in a straight line, with the sound source beyond the
first microphone. The distance between the
Page 525
microphones (x), called microphone basis, is
1. EXTENDED The density of each medium. measured. The time of arrival between the signals
(delay) reaching the different microphones (t) is
Light measured. Then speed of sound = x/t.
Page 532
1. The light from the bottom of the pond is refracted SECTION 5 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
away from the normal as it leaves the pond, so it
Electric charge
enters your eye at a shallower angle. Your brain is
fooled into thinking this shallower angle is the true 60
angle of the bottom of the pond and so the pond
1. You are the insulator. You will have rubbed
looks shallower than it really is.
electrons either onto or off yourself, perhaps by
. Being more dense than air, the carbon dioxide in sliding your feet over a carpet. The metal handrail is
the balloon will slow down the sound wave. This a conductor — when you touch it, it allows the
will tend to focus the sound together, like a lens. (A electrons to move to restore the balance and this is
balloon filled with hydrogen will do the opposite.) what you feel as a shock.
2. The key idea is friction —- water droplets rubbing
Electromagnetic spectrun against each other, bits of dust, etc. Although water
is a conductor, in a cloud it is isolated from the
Page 540
ground so the charge can build up.
ib 3x Woh ins
Pade 56

2. X-rays
1. Electrons are extremely small and negatively
3. Gamma, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwaves.
charged. Electrons are also around the outside of
Page 543 atoms. These key ideas make it much easier for
electrons to be moved about (than the positively
1. Gamma rays, which as you see in Fig. 4.31, are the
charged parts of the atom) to account for all the
electromagnetic waves with the shortest wave-
electric effects we know.
length, and therefore the greatest frequency and
energy, are produced by radioactive nuclei; X-rays, 2. The electron clouds in your feet repel the electron
which have the next highest energy radiation after clouds in the floor. The force of repulsion is easily
gamma on the electromagnetic spectrum, are enough to stop you falling through.
produced when high-energy electrons are fired ata 3. a) Polythene rod should be negatively charged
metal target. and cloth positively charged. Perspex rod
should be positively charged and cloth
2. By exciting the atoms in a mercury vapour.
negatively charged.
3. A photograph taken to show the infrared radiation
b) They will be equal and opposite.
given out from objects.
. Water particles in food absorb the energy carried
by microwaves. They vibrate more, making the food Current, potential difference and
much hotter. Microwaves penetrate several electromotive force (e.m.f.)
centimetres into the food and so speed up the
p IgE 566
cooking process.
1. a) EXTENDED 15c
ANSWERS b) EXTENDED 20c
 c) EXTENDED 92c Each appliance can be designed to work with mains
voltage supply; appliances can be switched on and
d) EXTENDED 45c off individually.
2. EXTENDED 0.54 1220
3. EXTENDED 120; EXTENDED 88.1kQ

Resistance Electrical energy

Page 570 Page 593
ils TOW 1. EXTENDED 220w
Ps (OO)
2. EXTENDED 12v
Page 575 3. EXTENDED 0.11A
1. The longer the wire, the further the electrons have
Page 594
to travel through the wire.
2. The thicker the wire, the more routes electrons Uo EXTENDED No, because the voltage is not high
have to travel through the wire. enough from the mains.
EXTENDED 2160)
3. a) EXTENDED 3r
EXTENDED 3.3A
b) EXTENDED 173k, or R/3
EXTENDED 218s
SECTION 6 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS Vi
oly EXTENDED
Baise 12v
Series and parallel circuits
Dangers of electricity
Page 586
Page 600
1. There is no current when the circuit is not
complete. ile Brown wire: live, connected to fuse. Blue wire:
neutral wire. Green and yellow wire: earth wire.
2. In parallel each bulb takes the same energy from
the battery, so the battery has to deliver twice as It melts if the current gets too high.
much energy as it would if the bulbs were in series, . The student should not choose the ‘nearest’ fuse,
where its energy is shared. but the ‘nearest above’ If the appliance requires 6A,
3. Can be switched on and off independently. the 5A fuse will melt when the appliance is used.

4. a) Inseries dimmer because battery energy shared The earth connection needs to be a low resistance
between two bulbs; b) in parallel full energy of path. This means that, in the event of a fault
battery given to each bulb. occurring, a high current will pass through the wire
and this will melt the fuse (or trip the circuit
Page 589 breaker).
1. Itis the same. The casing cannot become live because it is not a
conductor.

ANSW

i)
=
 Index
bronchioles 125—6
Biology AOriimgiOa—oO li eel
aquatic ecosystem 195—6 bronchitis 131
absorption 82
arteries 106, 112-13
accuracy 674
coronary 106, 109-10, 111 camels 134
acrosome 24, 165
artificial cells 20 cane toads 179
active site 90, >1=2
asexual reproduction 153—4 capillaries 112-13
active transport 68, 99
atoms 42 carbohydrates 38, 77
adaptations
atria 105-6 see also starch; sugar
desert conditions 94, 134
auxins 146—7 carbon 38
human gametes 164
carbon cycle 191-2, 194
photosynthesis 67—8
bacteria carbon dioxide
adrenal glands 141, 143
adrenaline 141—2, 143 binary fission 153 atmospheric 191—3
aerobic respiration 133—4 in food chains 177 in the blood 114-15
AIDS 168 balanced diet 78—9 increase in concentration
air, inspired and expired bar charts 670-1, 672 130-1
128-9 bees 160 in inspired and expired air
alrsacsy! 20m 132 Benedict's reagent 40-1 128-9
algal bloom 197 bile 83 in photosynthesis 61, 64
alimentary canal 80, 82—5 binary fission 153 from respiration 134
alveolni23 126-7 biodiversity 195 test for 128
damaged 132 biological catalysts see carbon monoxide 132
Amazon Basin 96, 193, 195 enzymes carcinogens |32
amino acids 36, 39, 77 biological molecules 36—44 carnivores 176
from digestion 86—7 see also enzymes carpels 155-6
and pH 54 biomass 181 catalysts 48-9
amniotic fluid 166 biuret test 41 see also enzymes
amniotic sac 166 blood 94, 114-16 categorical variable 670
ammyjasers 77507 lS flow through the heart 106 cell membrane 19-20, 26
86-7 oxygenated and partially permeable 28, 30
anaemia 77, 116 deoxygenated 105 cell wall 19-20, 31
angina 109, 132 substances carried by 114 cells 16-35
animal cells 19-20 blood glucose concentration animal 19-20
animals 145 artificial 20
energy losses in 181—2 blood pressure 104 diffusion in 28
in food chains 176 in different blood vessels investigative skills 21, 32
in food webs 177-8 ih specialisation 22
nutrition in 74—92, 174, high 80, 109 structure 19-26
181-2 blood tests 116 transport in 16, 26—35
transport in 104—16 blood vessels 104, 106, see also plant cells; specific
see also human 111-13 cells
anomalous results 667, 676 breathing 126, 133 cellular respiration see
anthers 155, 157-8 control of rate 131 respiration
antibodies 116 exercise effects on 129-30 chemical digestion 85—7
x<
im anus 83—4 in and out 125412929 chemical reactions 13,55,
(a)
bronchi 125—6 194
=
chlorophyll 20, 61, 63—4 deoxygenated blood 105 efficiency 182
chloroplasts 19-20, 23, dependent variable 674 environment
67-8 desert conditions 94, 134 human impact on 172
cholesterol 80, 109-10 diabetes 116 living organisms and
chromosomes 20 diet 174-86
cilia 22-3, 126 balanced 78-9 enzymes 46—57
ciliated cells 22-3 essential nutrients 77—8 action of 49-50
circulatory system 94, 104, and heart disease 80, 110, denatured 50, 87
ipikl 12] digestive 47-8, 83, 86-7
coal 191 schedule for athlete 91 investigative skills 52
colon 83 diffusion 27-9, 113 and pH 53-4, 130
combustion 191, 194 gas exchange 124, 127 and temperature 50—2
effect or-19233 digestion 82 epidermis 67—8
food 81, 182 chemical 85—7 epithelial cells 23
community 195 mechanical 85 errors.67/7
complementary shapes of proteins 54, 86-7 essential nutrients 77-8
A9—50 digestive enzymes 47-8, 83, ethanol 41-2
concentration 86-7 ethnicity, and heart disease
blood glucose 143 digestive system 83-4 110
carbon dioxide | 30-1 double circulation 104 eutrophication 195-7
in solutions 30-1 duodenum 83 evaporation 100
concentration gradient excretion 13, 82
27-8, 30 ecosystems exercise
in gas exchange 127 global 175 effects on breathing
and transpiration 101 human impact on 129-30
constipation 82 188-200 and heart disease 110
consumers 176 effector 144 and heart rate 107—9
continuous variables 673 egestion 82 expired air 128-9
COPD (chronic obstructive egg cells 23-4, 164-6 extinction, in Hawaii 180
pulmonary disease) elements 42 eyepiece, magnification
131-2 in the human body 38 25=6
coronary arteries/veins 105, embryo 166
109-10, 111 emphysema 131-2 faeces 82, 83
coronary heart disease 80, endocrine glands famine 82
109-10, 121, 132 142-3 fatsBO rien
cuticle 67 energy saturated 80, 110, 121
cytoplasm 19-20, 24, 31 daily requirements 79 test for 41-2
in food chains 177 fatty acids 39, 86
daily energy requirements from food combustion 81 female
12) kinetic 51 daily energy requirements
decomposers 176, 191 losses from plants 181 ao
deficiency diseases 77, 82 losses in animals reproductive system 164
deforestation 60, 189-90 181-2 fertilisation (humans) 166
biodiversity loss 195 from respiration 133-5 fertilisation (plants) 154
effect of 192-3 Solarili/o9151 fertilisers 195—6
and the water cycle 194 energy transfer 183 fetus, development of
x<
denatured enzymes 50, 87 in biological systems 181 166-8 ir
Qa
=
 fibre (roughage) sak77, 82, 84 Hawaii, extinction in 180 germination 162—3
flagellum 164—5 hazards 675 photosynthesis 65
‘flight or fight’ 142, 143 heart 94, 105-6 seedling growth 145
flowers 61 see also coronary heart transpiration 102
pollination 156—60 disease iodine test 40, 51, 53, 63
structure of 155-6 heart rate 107-9 ITON w/e 22
food chains 175-7, 183 herbivores 176
human impact on 178-80 high blood pressure 80, 109 kidney failure 29
food molecules HIV 168 kinetic energy 51
combustion 81, 182 hormonal system 142, 144
soluble and insoluble 85 hormones 141—4 lactase 87
tests for 40-2 auxins 146—7 lactose 87
food webs 177-8, 183 carried in the blood large intestine 83—4
human impact on 178—80 114-15 larynx 125
fossil fuels 191, 193 in humans 142—4 leaching 194
fungi 176 human leaves 61, 97-8
reproduction 153 circulatory system 94, 111 adaptations for
digestive system 83—4 photosynthesis 67—8
gall bladder 83-4 elements in the body 38 stomata 17,33;i67-S3h 00
gametes (sex cells) 23-4, gametes 23—4, 164-6 structure 66—7
154-5, 164-6 hormones in 142—4 transpiration |QQ—2
gas exchange 122—32 organs in 18 light
effective surface for 125 respiratory system 125—7 energy from the Sun 175,
site of 127 sexual reproduction 163-8 181
see also carbon dioxide; human impact in photosynthesis 61, 63, 65
oxygen on ecosystems 188—200 and plant growth 145—6
gelatin 52 on the environment 172 light microscope 21, 25-6
genes, and heart disease 110 on food chains and webs limewater 128
germination 160—3 178-80 line graphs 670-1
gestation 166—7 humidity, and transpiration line of best fit 668
global warming 193 rate 101=2 lipases 50, 86
glucose 38 hydrochloric acid 87 lipids 39
in the blood 116, 143 hydrogen 38 digestion 86
from digestion 86-7 hypha 153, 176 see also fats
from photosynthesis 61—2 liver 83-4
in respiration 133—4 ileum 83 living organisms
test for 40-1 immune system 115 characteristics 10-15
glycerol 39, 86 implantation 166 and the environment
goats 179 independent variable 674 174-86
goblet cells 125 ingestion 82 see also animals; plants
graphs 670-3 insect pollination 157—60 lung cancer 132
eraticule 26 insoluble molecules 85 lungs 124, 125-6
gravitropism 145, 147 inspired air 128—9
growth 12 investigative skills magnesium 68—9
guard cells 33 ceellss21)32 magnification 21, 25—6
enzymes 52 male
xLu haemodialysis 29 exercise 108-9, 130
a daily energy requirements
= haemoglobin 23, 115 food combustion 81 79
 reproductive system 163—4 organs 18 physical digestion 85
malnutrition 74, 80, 82 receptor 144 placenta 167-8
mammals, transport in target 142 plant cells 19-20
104-16 osmosis 29-31, 62 inside a leaf 67
marine food chain 178—9 in plant cells 30-3 investigative skills 32
mechanical digestion 85 outliers 667, 676 osmosis in 30—3
menstrual cycle 164, 165—6 ovary (flower) 155-6 plants
metabolism 48—9 ovary (human) 164 anatomy 6]
mineral ions 68—9, 97, 99 overfishing 178-9 asexual reproduction
minerals, in the diet 77 oviducts 164, 166 153-4
mitochondria 19, 24 ovulation 165-6 energy losses from 181]
molecules see biological ovules 155-6 in food chains 176
molecules; food molecules oxygen 38 in food webs 177-8
movement |2 diffusion 28 mineral deficiencies 69
net 27 and germination 162 mineral requirements 68
see also transport in inspired and expired air nutrition in 58-73
Mucor 153 128-9 sexual reproduction in
mucus 23, 125-6 from photosynthesis 61, 151, 154-63
mycelium 153 64—5 transport in 94—103
in respiration 134 tropisms 144—7
nectaries 157 transport 23, 114-15 see also flowers; leaves;
nervous system 144 oxygenated blood 105 photosynthesis; roots
net movement 27 plasma 115
nicotine 132 palisade mesophyll cells 23, platelets 115-16
nitrogen 68—9 67-8 pollination 154, 156-60
nucleus 19—20 pancreas 83—4, 86 wind and insect 157—60
nutrients 75 partially permeable polysaccharides 38
cycles 191 membrane 28, 30 potassium permanganate(II)
essential 77—8 particle nature of matter 27, Jai
eutrophication 195—7 Somes potometer 102
in the soil 194 passive process 28, precision 674
nutrition 13 Be NO pregnancy
in animals 74—92, 174, pathogens 115 diet in 79
18 l—2 peat 191 and smoking 132
malnutrition 74, 80, 82 penis 163—4 primary consumers 176
in plants 58-73 pepsin 53—4 producers 176—7
see also diet peristalsis 83—4 product (of a reaction)
pests 179 49-50, 86
obesity 79 petals 1559157 productivity 175
objective, magnification pH 53-4, 130 proteases 46, 50, 52, 54,
25-6 optimum 53 86-7
oesophagus 83—4 phagocytosis 116 proteins:5 6,39 2/7
oil (fuel) 191 phloem 67-8, 97 digestion 54, 86-7
oils (food) 39 photosynthesis 20, 61—8 test for 41
see also fats equations 61 see also enzymes
omnivores 177 investigating 63—5 pulmonary arteries/veins
optimum pH 53 leaf adaptations for 67-8 isis x<
uu
fa)
optimum temperature 50-1 phototropism 145—6 pulse rate 107, 108 2
 rabbit population 172 sexually transmitted tertiary consumers 176
rainforest 60, 96, 175, 190 infections (STIs) 168 testes 163
biodiversity 195 simple sugars 38 trachea 125-6
random errors 677 small intestine 83—4 translocation 97
receptor organs 144 smokine 3a 1Opi Sle transpiration |00—2
rectum §3—4 soil erosion 194 transport
red blood cells 21, 23, 26, solar energy 175, 181 active 68, 99
115-16 soluble molecules 85 in cells 16, 26—35
diffusion in 28 solutions, concentrations in in mammals 104-16
renal arteries/veins 30-1 oxygen 23, 114-15
et specialisation, cells 22 in plants 94-103
reproduction 12, 150-71 sperm 23-4, 163, 164-6 substances in the blood
asexual 153—4 spirometer 129 114-15
see also sexual spongy mesophyll 67-8 tree rings 98
reproduction spores 153 trophic level 176, 178,
reproductive system Stamenicuo 6 182—3
female 164 starch 48, 62 tropisms 144—7
male 163-4 digestion 86—7 trypsin 53
respirations |e 16 Pl 2eaka4. test for 40, 51, 53, 63 tubers 153—4
133-5 starvation 80, 82
aerobic 133-4 stem cells 22 ultrasound scans 167
see also breathing stems 61,97-8 umbilical cord 167
respiratory surface 127 stigma 155-6, 157-8 urea 83, 114-15
respiratory system 125—7 stimulus 144 urethra 163—4
rickets 77 stoichiometry 62, 135 uterus (womb) 164, 166
root hair cells 24, 99 stomach 83-4, 86, 87
roots 61, 97-8 stomata 17, 33, 67-8, 100 vacuole 19—20
gravitropism 147 style 155-6 vagina 164
water passage through 99 substrate 49-50, 51—2, 86 valves 105—6, 113
Sucroseso, 62,97 variables 670, 673—4
saliva 48, 83 sugar vascular bundles 67-8, 97—8
salivary glands 83, 86 simple sugars 38 veins (blood vessels) 106,
saturated fats 80, 110, 121 solution 27, 30 112-13
scatter graphs 670 see also glucose; sucrose coronary 106, 109, 111
secondary consumers 176 surface area to volume ratio veins (plant) 97-8
secretion 86 124 vena cava 105-6, 111]
seedlings, growth of 145-6 symbol equation 61, 134 ventilation see breathing
seeds 154 synthesis 133 ventricles 105—6
germination 160—3 systematic errors 677 vitamins 77
semen 163
sensitivity 12, 144 tables 668-70 washing products 46
sepals 155 target organs 142 waste products
sex cells (gametes) 23-4, teeth 85 in the body 29, 82
154-5, 164-6 temperature from photosynthesis 61
sexual intercourse 164, 166 and enzymes 50—2 water 40
sexual reproduction 154 and germination 161, in the diet 78
x<
Lu in humans 163-8 162-3 diffusion in 27
a
= in plants 151, 154-63 and transpiration rate 101—2 eutrophication 195—7
 and germination 162 alkanes 388, 394-9 black ink 214—15
in inspired and expired air combustion 282, 396—7 blast furnace 362—4
128-9 molecular structures 395 boiling 206, 207
in osmosis 29—30, 3] properties 396—7 boiling point 206, 207
in photosynthesis 61 alkenes 388, 400—5 alkanes 395
from respiration 134 properties 402 alkenes 401
transpiration 100—2 reactions 401 covalent compounds 247
transport in plants structure 401 in fractional distillation
D7NTOO alloys 354-6, 357, 377 218-19
transport in the blood aluminium 230, 357, 365 hydrocarbons 385-6
114-15 aluminium fluoride 236 ionic compounds 237-9,
uptake in plants 99 americium 330 247
water cycle 194 ammonia, identifying 321] bonds
water potential 30 ammonia solution 317 covalent 242—6
water potential gradient 30 ammonium ions 318 double 244-5,
waves, properties 13, 25, 62, anhydrous salts 307 400-2
158 anions 318—20 intramolecular 246
white blood cells 21, anode 267-7 | lonie2 37
115-16 anomalous results 667, 676 boron 228, 230
wind pollination 157—9 aqua regia 31 | brass 354
word equation 61, 81, 134 aqueous solutions 304 bromine 340
argon 230, 350 properties 34]1—4
xylem 67-8, 97-9 astatine 340 uses 344
atomic number 228 bromine water 401, 402
yeast 46 atomic structure 226 bronze 354, 357
across a period 327 burning see combustion
ZTS0ten lps. "06 first 10 elements 228 butane 282, 388
atomic theory 225 butene 401
atoms 209
Chemistry
diagrams 226, 235-6 caesitim. 2598337
accuracy 674 calcium 230
diatomic 254
acid rain 310 electron arrangement in ions 315-16
ACIS) 0 a3 5=0, calcium carbonate 288-90,
226-7
310-11
foreign 356 2936576
acidity in soil 305-6 monoatomic 350 calcium hydroxide 253, 305,
metal reactions with 359 sub-atomic particles 225, 376
salts from 308-10 229 calorimetry 276, 280
see also hydrochloric acid; carbon 228, 230
sulfuric acid balancing equations 256—9 coal 384, 390
activation energy 278, 287 bar charts 670-1, 672 coke 362-4
addition polymerisation bases 303 forms of 203
401-2 salts from 308-9 carbon dioxide 209, 376—7
air, components of 372 beryllium 228, 230 atmospheric 373—4
air pollution 369, 373, 379 biogas 375 identifying 321
alkali metals see group I biological molecules 224, molecule 244—5
elements 2 S9oo4, preparation 376—/
alkalis 303, 311 bitumen 385, 387 reduction 363—4 x<
rr)
salts from 308—9 fa)
é
 carbon monoxide 363—4, uses 344 copper(II) chloride
3732597 chloroethene 402 311-12
carbonates 308-9, 318-19, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) copper(II) hydroxide 216,
S47 344, 373 260
see also calcium carbonate; cholesterol 402 copper(II) sulfate 252, 307,
sodium hydrogen chromatogram 214-15 mula 3740)
carbonate chromatography 214—16 covalent bonds 242-6
catalysts 296, 348-9 climate change 371 covalent compounds 246—7
catalytic cracking 387-9, coal 384, 390 cracking, catalytic 387-9,
400 cobalt(II) chloride 370 400
categorical variable 670 coke 362—4 crude oil see petroleum
cathode 267-7 | ‘cold packs’ 283 crystallisation 309-10
cations 315-18 collision theory 287, 291 water of 307
charcoal 376 colour crystals
charge cyclohexane layer 343 ionic 239
on ions 328—9 group VII elements 340 molecular 246
sub-atomic particles 225 indicators 304 salts 307
chemical bonds see bonds ions ina flame 316 cupronickel 354
chemical change 223, 258, transition metal cyclohexane 343—4
DOSP2os compounds 349
see also chemical reactions ‘combining powers’ of Dalton, John 225
chemical equations elements 251, 252 decane 388
254-5 combustion dependent variable
balancing 256-9 alkanes 282, 396-7 290, 674
half-equations 269 alkenes 402 desalination 217-18
ionic 259-60, 317 fuels 276-7, 281-2, 373 diatomic elements 254
chemical formula 250-1 hydrocarbons 386 diesel 385, 387
alkanes 395 incomplete 397 displacement reactions
alkenes 401 methane 255, 396—7 341-2, 359
ionic compounds 253 molar enthalpy of 282 investigative skills 361
simple compounds 251-3 compounds 223, 225 reactivity series and 360
chemical reactions 234 covalent 246-7 dissociation 270
energy changes in 275-8, simple 251-3 distillation 217-18
280-3 see also ionic compounds fractional 218-19, 385-6,
rate of 286-99 concentration 387
reversible 270 hydrogen ion 304 dot-and-cross diagrams
see also displacement and reaction rate 235-6, 243-5
reactions; rate of 291-4 double bonds 244-5, 400-2
reaction condensation 207
chemical symbol 228, 230, in distillation 217-19 ecosystems, human impact
254 conductivity see electrical on 306, 379
state symbols 204, 254-5 conductivity; heat effective collision 287
chloride ion 237, 319-20 conductivity electrical cell 267
chlorine 230, 340 conservation laws 258 electrical circuit 267-8, 357
dot-and-cross diagram 235 continuous variables 673 electrical conductivity 224,
group I| reactions with 335 control variables 290 BDA
x<
Wu identifying 321 copper 356 covalent compounds 247
a)
= properties 341—4 ions 316-17 ionic compounds 238, 247
electrodes 267-71 evaporation 206, 207, natural gas 375, 384, 390,
electrolysis 266-7, 362, 365 309-10 394
conditions for 267—8 exothermic reactions 275-6, noble 227-8, 329, 350
dilute sulfuric acid 271 231-2 particles in 205-6
molten lead(II) bromide enthalpy change in 278 gasoline 385, 387
268-9 experimental techniques gastric acid 31]
predicting products of 272 213-21 gemstones 239
sodium chloride solution extraction, metals 359, global warming 371, 374
269-71 362-5 glucose 296
electrolytes 267 golde5G15 62.365
electronic configuration fats 402-3 graphs 670-3
227-8, 230 fermentation 296 greenhouse effect 374
in covalent bonds 242-5 filtrate 310 greenhouse gases 373-4,
in ions 237 filtration 216-17, 310 37)
electrons 225 flame tests 315—16 group | elements 227,
arrangement in atoms fluorine 228, 230, 340, 333-9
226—7 344-5 compounds 336
outer shell, and group foreign atoms 356 properties 334—5,
number 328 formic acid 311] 349
elements 209, 223-4, 225 formula see chemical reactivities 329,
classification in the formula 333-4
Periodic Table 327-8 fossil fuels 373, group VII elements 227,
combining powers of 251, 384-5 340-7
Sy) dilemma 389—90 properties 341—4
diatomic 254 fractional distillation reactivities 329, 340-1
first 10 in the Periadic 218-19, 385-6, 387 uisesio 440
Table 228 fractionating column group VIII elements 227-8,
first 20 in the Periodic 218=19, 385 32 2 0)
Table 230 fractions 385 group number
reactivities of 329 cracking 387-9 and combining power 251
see also groups francium 337 and outer shell electrons
endothermic reactions freezing point 207 328
275-6, 282-3 fuels 384—93 and their ions 329
enthalpy change in 278 combustion 276-7, sroups 327-8
energy change 223 281—2; 373
in chemical reactions functional group 395 half-equations 269
275-8, 280-3 halogens see group VII
energy level diagrams 278, gallium 330 elements
20| gas pressure 208 hazards 675
energy resources 279 gases 204—5 heart disease 402
energy transfer 279, 379 biogas 375 heat conductivity
enthalpy change 277-8 change of state 224, 357
enzymes 296 207-8 heat energy 207
equations see chemical greenhouse’ 373-4, 375 heavy oils 385, 387
equations identifying 321 helium 228, 230, 350
errors 677 ionised 208 liquid 208
ethane 244, 282 measuring volume of hematite 362—4 ~<
uu
a}
ethene 245, 401—2 288-90 heptane 386 2
 hexane 282 ionic bonds 237 lithium 228, 230,
homologous series 395—6, ionic compounds 234 S20835/
400 chemical formulae 253 compounds 336
hydrocarbons 385-6, 395 properties of 237-9, ions 237, 316
saturated 395 247 properties and reactions
unsaturated 400 ionic crystals 239 334-5
see also alkanes; alkenes ionic equations 259-60, 317 litmus 304
hydrochloric acid 303, 305, ionised gases 208 living organisms,
S10 ions 209, 234 characteristicss2537207;
reactions charges on 328-9 306
choice of method 31 1—12 in electrolysis 267—7 1
CO, preparation 376 electronic configuration magnesium 230
energy changes 275-6, OT, ions 37 oe
280 formation 234—5 reactions 275—6, 280,
rate of 288-90, 29 1—4 formation from 291-2
hydrogen 228, 230 metals 359 magnesium oxide 236, 238,
identifying 321 identifying 315-20 251-2
molecule 243 spectator 259-60 mass
properties and structure see also individual ions change in 223
246 iron 356 measurement 214
hydrogen chloride 244 as catalyst 349 measuring change in
hydrogen ion concentration extraction 362—4 288-90
304 ions 316 sub-atomic particles 225
rusting 377—8 mass number 228
ice 204206 iron ore 362—4 matter
incomplete combustion 397 particle nature of 204-12
independent variable 290, kerosene 385, 387, 388-9 states of 204-8
674 kinetic energy 294 structure of 223—4
indicators 304, 309 krypton 350 measurement 214, 2
inert electrode 267-9 melting 204, 207
inorganic chemistry 324-8] Large Hadron Collider melting point 206, 207
intermolecular forces 246, 220 covalent compounds
244. 306 lattice structures 237, 239 246-7
intramolecular bonds 246 lead 356, 365 ionic compounds 237-9,
investigative skills lead(I1) bromide 268-9 247
cracking oil fractions lightning 208, 283 metals and non-metals 224
388-9 limestone 305, 362-3 Mendeleev, Dmitri
displacement reactions limewater 318, 321, 3 76 5265550
361 line graphs 670-1 mercury 356
energy changes in line of best fit 668 metal ions 315—17
reactions 280 liquefied petroleum gases metal oxides 364
group VII elements 343—4 (UPGsisssn3gss see also individual metal
making salts 312 liquid crystals 208 oxides
rate of reaction 293—4 liquid helium 208 metalloids 357
rusting 377—8 liquids 204-5 metals 223, 353-68
iodine 340 change of state 207 electron transfer from
x
ui properties 341—4 particles in 205—6 235-6
a
= uses 344 purifying impure 217—19 extraction'359°362—5
 group VII reactions with electron transfer to fractional distillation
342 235-6 385-6
ions formation 359 properties of 224 pH, soil 306
properties of 224, 354—7 reactivities 329 pH scale 304
reactivities 329, 362 see also group VII elements phosphoric acid 305
reactivity series 358-6] non-renewable fuels 384, phosphorus 230
recycling 365 389 photosynthesis 283
salts from 308-9 nucleon number 228 physical changes 223, 283
structure 355 nucleus 225 physical chemistry
transition metals 327, 264-323
348-9 octane 386 plasma 208
see also group | elements ores 362-3 plastics 242, 400
methane 243, 282, 375 organic chemistry 382—405 poly(chloroethene) 402
atmospheric 373 outliers 667, 676 poly(ethene) 401-2
combustion 255, 396—7 oxidation 236, 300—1, 360 polymers 401]
oxygen reaction 256 oxidation states 301 potassium 230, 337
methanol 244 oxygen 228, 230 compounds 336
minerals 362 group | reactions with 335 ions 316
mixtures 223 identifying 321 properties and reactions
molar enthalpy of metal reactions with 358 334-5
combustion 282 methane reaction 256 potassium nitrate 252,
molecular crystals 246 256-7
molecular structure 222, paper chromatography precision 674
595 214-16 pressure, gases 208
molecules 209 paraffin 385, 387, products 254, 256
biological 224, 258, 394 388-9 predicting, from
formation 242—6 particle accelerator 229 electrolysis 272
monoatomic 350 particle nature of matter propane 282
monomers 401 204-12 propene 388, 401
particle size 295-6 proton number 228, 230,
naphtha 385, 387 particles 209 326-7
natural gas 375, 384, 390, in solids, liquids and gases protons 225
394 205-6, 355 purification, methods of
neon 228, 230, 350 sub-atomic 225, 229 216-19
neutral solution 304 pentane 282 purity, criteria of 214-16
neutralisation 213, 308-9, pentene 401
al Periodic Table 326-32 quicklime 305
neutrons 225 arrangement of 326
Newlands, John 326 charges on ions and 328-9 radicals 252=3
nitrate ion 319, 361 element classification balancing equations 256-7
nitric acid 305, 311 327-8 radon 350
nitrogen 228, 230 first 330 rainfall 371
molecule 245 first 10 elements 228 random errors 677
nitrogen oxide 283, 373 first 20 elements 230 rate of reaction 286—99
noble gases 227-8, 329, 350 periodicity 227 factors affecting 291-6
non-metals 223 periods 227, 327 monitoring 288—90
petroleum 384, 390 speed and time 288 xLu
covalent bonds between a
242-6 composition 387 reactants 254, 256 =
 reactivities structure and properties tables 668-70
elements 329 237-8, 239 tap water 371-2
group | elements 329, sodium hydrogencarbonate temperature
333- 275-6, 280 global warming 371, 374
group VII elements 329, sodium hydroxide 303, measurement 214
340-1 316-17 and reaction rate 294—5
metals 329, 362 sodium thiosulfate 293—4 thermal decomposition 377
reactivity series 358-61 soil, acidity in 305—6 thermometers 214
recycling 365 solder 354 time, measurement 214
redox reactions 300—2, 360 solids 204—5 tin 356
see also oxidation; change of state 207 titration 2155309
reduction particles in 205-6, 355 transition metals 327, 348—9
reduction 236, 300-1, 360 purifying impure 217 triple bonds 245
carbon dioxide 363-4 testing for anions in
metal ores 362, 364, 365 318-19 universal indicator 304
renewable energy 375, 390 solubility 217 unsaturated fats 402—3
retention factor 216 covalent compounds 247 unsaturated hydrocarbons
reversible reaction 270 ionic compounds 238, 247 400
rubidium 337 salts in water 307
ruUSuMoa7 (Oo solutes 216-17 valency electrons 226
solutions 216—17 vanadium(V) oxide 349
salt 217-18 aqueous 304 vapour 207
see also sodium chloride testing for anions in water vapour 204, 206,
salts 303, 306-12 319-20 mlefe hee
anhydrous 307 solvents 216-17 variables 290, 670, 673-4
making 307-10, 311-12 spectator ions 259-60 viscosity 385
saturated fats 402—3 stainless steel 354, 377 volatility 247, 386
saturated hydrocarbons 395 state symbols 204, 254—5 volume, measurement 214,
scatter graphs 670 states of matter 204-6 288-90
separation, methods of changes of 207-8
216-19 steel 354, 356, 357, 365 water
shells 226, 328 stainless 354, 377 aqueous solutions 304
silicon 230, 357 stings 311 chemical test for 370
silver 356, 365 stoichiometry 250-63 dissociation 270
simple compounds 251-3 sub-atomic particles 225, group | reactions with 335
single bonds 243-4 peo group VII reactions with
sodium 230, 337 sulfate ion 319 342
compounds 336 sulfur 230 metal reactions with
dot-and-cross diagram 235 sulfur dioxide 373 358-9
1Ons23 77016 sulfuric acid 305, molecule 209, 243
properties and reactions 310-11 from seawater 217-18
334-5 electrolysis 271 solubility of salts in 307
sodium chloride 234, 306—7 reactions 31 | states of 204, 206
dot-and-cross diagram 235 superfluids 208 tap water 37 |—2
electrolysis 269-7 | surface area 295-6 treatment 372
formula 253 systematic errors 677 water cycle 371-2
x
uu
a
=
water of crystallisation 307 balanced forces 445-6 minimising 513—14
water vapour 204, 206, 369, Darchartss6 /0212672 from radiators 509-10
S72, batteries 465, 581 convection currents 429,
word equation 254—5 series and parallel circuits 504,507,510
585 converging (convex) lens
xenon 350 bimetallic strips 498-9, 501 Do o-6
boiling 494 coulomb 565, 567
yeast 296 boiling point 494 current see convection
water 501 currents; electric current
zinc ions 316 bonds 465
zinc sulfate 311 Boyle's law 492 dams 480, 482
bridges, expansion joints danger see hazards
497, 498 deceleration 416, 419
Physics decibels 549
absorbers of radiation 508 camera 536 delta notation 464
acceleration 416-17 cancer 541-2 density 429-35
from a speed—time graph carpets 513 definition 429-30
418, 420 cars irregular object 433-4
accuracy 408—10, 674 acceleration 416 of a liquid 432
air, speed of sound in 548, fuel used 462 regularly shaped object
549 speed 413, 414 430-2
air flow, and evaporation rate speed variation dependent variable 674
493 418-19 diffraction 524
air resistance 448 categorical variable 670 displacement-—time graph
aircraft, forces on 446 cavity wall insulation 513 Del
alcohol (ethanol) 498, 501 celluloid 441 distance
ammeter 565, 572, 581, 586 Celsius scale 501 astronomical 539
amperes (amps) 565 chemical energy 465 power and work done 474
amplitude 521-2, 550-1 chemical reactions 470, 565 speed and time 414-15
angle of incidence 524, circuit breakers 599-600 from a speed—time graph
529-30, 532 circuit diagrams 580-3 418-20
angle of reflection 524, clothing, mountaineers 514 work and force 458—9
529-30 coal 478 distance—-time graph 415—16
angle of refraction 532 compression 437, 521, 548 distribution box 599
anomalous results 667, 676 condensation 494 DNA damage 543
antistatic wrist straps 562 conduction 504—6 double glazing 513
area minimising > Bimpls=I4 double insulated 599
cross-sectional, of conductors 558-9, 582 draught excluders 513
conductor 573 resistance, length and ductility 582
force and pressure 45 1—2 cross-sectional area
astronomical distances 539 DTS earplugs 549
atoms 489-9] superconductors 574 Earth
average speed 414 thermal 504—5 density 429
conservation of energy energy transfer 467
Baekeland, Leo Hendrik 468-70 gravitational field strength
44] continuous variables 673 426—/
Bakelite 441 convection 506—7 oravity 437 x<
Wu
a
=
 earth wire 598, 599 free movement of 505 field strength, gravitational
echoes 551-3 sea of 558-9 426-7
elastic behaviour electrostatic forces fluorescent tubes 541—2
440, 442 437-8 focal length 533, 535
elastic energy 465 electrostatics 559-61 force 436—50
elastic limit 442 hazards of 562 adding 439-40
elastic potential energy 463 electroweak force 438—9 area and pressure 45 1—2
electric charge 558-63, emitters of radiation 508 balanced 445—6
565-6 energy 462—72 definition 436
electric circuits 579-601 in chemical reactions 470 effects of 437
circuit diagrams 580—3 conservation of 468—70 electromagnetic
see also parallel circuit; different forms of 465—6 437, 438
series circuit see also specific forms of electromotive 566
electric current 564—6 energy electrostatic 437-8
energy, voltage and time energy resources 477-85 and extension 440—4
393-4 energy transfer 463, 466-7 four fundamental 438—9
in a parallel circuit 587 consequences of 509-11 investigative skills 443—4
ratings 599 and conservation 468 resultant 439-40, 446
in a series circuit 586 Earth's 467 unbalanced 446—7
voltage and power 593 insulation reducing 513 work and distance 458—9
voltage and resistance investigative skills 512 force—extension graph
369-73 and power 473-4 440-2
voltage—current graph 571 by waves 522 fossil fuels 478
electric field 560 and work done 458—60 frequency 522, 523
electric iron 499 environmental impact 482 in the electromagnetic
electric kettle 473, 592, 593 equation triangle spectrum 539—40
electrical energy 462, charge, current and time radio waves 542
465-6, 468, 592-6 566 sound 549, 550-1
current, voltage and time force, pressure and area friction 437, 439, 448
593—4 452 charge by 559
electricity 557 Hooke’s law 444 and work done 460
dangers of 595-601 power, current and voltage fuels
generation 478, 480, 482 B23 cars using 462
measuring 567 speed, frequency and chemical energy 465
electromagnetic force 437, wavelength 523 fossil fuels 478
438 voltage, current and fuse 581, 598-9
electromagnetic radiation resistance 569
541-3 work done, power and gamma rays 540, 541
electromagnetic spectrum time 474 gas pressure 500
507, 538-46 errors 677 gases 488—9
order of 539-40 evaporation 493—4 convection 506—7
electromagnetic waves 521, expansion, thermal 497-500 molecular model
DO, 0a9 extension 440—4 489-92
electromotive force (e.m.f.) force—extension graph natural gas 478
566 440-2 thermal expansion 497,
electrons 499-500
x<
Ww electrostatic charge and fiducial mark 410 generator 478, 581
a
= 559-60 field lines 560 geothermal power 48 1
gold 430 internal energy (heat) 466, light waves 519, 521, 528-9,
gradient 415, 441 467, 468 Doe
graphs 670-3 inverse proportionality 492, lightning 562
displacement-time 551 D3 limit of proportionality 440,
distance-time 415-16 investigative skills 441, 444-5
force—extension 440-2 density 431-2 line graphs 670-1
speed—time 417-20 energy transfer 512 line of best fit 668
voltage—current 57| motion 421 liquid helium 574
gravitational field strength plane mirror image 531 liquid-in-glass thermometer
426-7 pressure 453 50]
gravitational potential energy resistance 572 liquid nitrogen 574
463-4, 465, 469 speed of sound 553 liquids 488-9
gravity 437-8 spring extension 443—4 convection 506—7
wind power 479 density of 432
hazards 675 irregular object, density evaporation 493—4
electricity 595-601 433-4 molecular model
electrostatics 562 439-90
radiation 541-3 joules (J) 593-4 speed of sound in 548,
heat (internal energy) 466, 349
467, 468 Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike thermal expansion 497—9
helium 574 574 see also water
Hooke’s law 441-3 kinetic energy 462, 463, live wire 598, 599
equation triangle 444 465-6, 505 loft insulation 513
Hudson River incident 433 conversion 468—9 long-sightedness
Hyatt, John Wesley 441 kinetic molecular model 533-4
hydroelectric power 480 489-90) longitudinal waves 466,
hydrometer 432 kinetic theory of gases 520-3, 548
Hypatia 432 490-2 loudness 550-1

ice 499 lamps 581, 585 Maglev train 409, 457, 574
melting point 501 Large Hadron Collider magnifying glass 535-6
image 438-9, 574 malleability 447
finding position of 530-1, lateral inversion 529, 530 mass 426—7
534-6 length and spring extension
real 534-5 conductors, and resistance 441-4
virtual 529, 530, 535-6 a3 volume and density
incidence, angle of 524, tocall538753> 429-32
52930, 532 measurement 408—9 matter
incident rays 530 lens, converging 533-6 molecular model 489-92
independent variable 674 Leslie’s cube 508 particle nature of 494
information transfer 522 light 528-37 states of 488-9
infrared radiation 507-9, investigative skills 531 measurements
540, 542 reflection of 528-31 making 408-12, 413
insulation refraction of 531—2 temperature 501
electrical 598—600 visible 528, 539-40 measuring cylinder 409-10,
in a house 513 white 539 434
light bulb 468, 592 medium (substance) 522, xLiu
insulators 558—9 a
thermal 504—5 light energy 466, 468 524-5, 548 =
 melting 494 parallel circuit 565, proportional behaviour 442
melting point 494 584-9 | protons 559-60
ice 0! combining resistors 587—8 pulling 436—7, 439
meniscus 409 current in a 587 pushing 436-7, 439, 445
mercury 501, 574 resistance and 567, 573
metals Parkes, Alexander 440 radar 542
conductors 558-9, 582 Parkesine 440 radiation 507-9
expansion 498-9 particle accelerators 438-9, absorbers and emitters 508
properties 447, 582 574 uses and hazards 541—3
thermal conductivity particle nature of matter 494 radiators 509-10
505-6 pascals (Pa) 451-2 radio waves 521, 539, 540;
microphone 550 pendulum 410, 463, 468 542
microwaves 540, 541, 542 periscope 530 radiotherapy 541
miniature circuit breakers photographic film 441 railway track 497-8
(MCBs) 599 phototropism 540 random errors 677
molecular model 489-92 pistons 500 rarefaction 521, 548
molecules 491 pitch 550 ray diagrams 529-31, 534-6
Moon, gravitational field plane mirror 529-3] reaction time 410
strength on 427 plane surface, reflection at a real image 534—5
motion 413-25 524 reflected rays 530
graphs summarising 415 plasma 488 reflection 524
investigative skills 421] plastic behaviour 440 of light 528-31
Newton's first law of 446 plastics refraction 524-5
see also speed beginnings of 440-1 in a converging lens 533
mountaineers, clothing 514 as insulation 598 light 531-2
MRI scanning 574 potassium manganate (VII) refrigerators 493
507 regularly shaped object,
natural gas 478 potential difference (p.d.) density 430-2
neutral wire 598 see voltage renewable sources 478, 480
neutrons 559-60 potential energy 462-4, 465 residual current circuit
Newton's first law of motion conversion 468—9 breaker (RCCB) 600
446 power 473-6 resistance 558—9, 569-77
newtons (N) 426, 437 current and voltage 593 air resistance 448
nitrogen 491, 574 sources of 477, 479-82 investigative skills 572
non-renewable sources 478 power rating 592 measuring 570-1]
normal 529-30, 532 power station 466, 478 parallel and series circuits
nuclear energy 465 hydroelectric 480 267,043
nuclear fission 48| nuclear 48] resistorspel pater |
nuclear fusion 48] precision 674 combining 587-8
nuclear power station 48 | pressure 451—5 resultant force 439-40, 446
gas 500 ripple tank 524
ocean (sea) waves 519, 522 investigative skills 453 River Severn Barrage 482
Ohm’s law 569, 571 measuring 45 ]—2 rocket 489
oil 478 standard atmospheric 501 rulers, using 408-9
oscillation 410, 463, 468 principal axis 533,
oscilloscope 550, 581] 334-5 safety see hazards
*<
uu outliers 667, 676 principal focus 533, 534-5 satellites 427, 542
(a)
=
scatter graphs 670 wave vibrations 520—] measurement 410, 413
series circuit 565, 584-9] spring constant 444 power and work done
combining resistors 587—8 SQUID (superconducting 473-4
current in a 586 quantum interference speed—time graphs
resistance and 567, 573 device) 574 417-20
short circuit 600 standard atmospheric time period 522
short-sightedness 534 pressure 501 torch, circuit diagram 580
significant figures 469 states of matter 488-9 tracers 54|
skin cancer 542 static charge 561] trampolining 446-7
snowmobile 451, 452 stopwatch 410, 413 transpiration 494
solar cells 466, 480 strain energy 465 transverse waves 520—3
solar energy 467, 477, stretching see extension triple point of water 486
480-1 strong nuclear force 438—9 turbine 478, 479
solidification 494 superconductors 574
solids 488 surface area, and UHF (ultra-high frequency)
conduction in 505—6 evaporation rate 493 542
molecular model 489-90 sweat 493 ultrasound 548
speed of sound in 548, switches 581, 585 ultraviolet radiation 540,
549 symbols, circuit 581 541-2, 543
thermal expansion 497—9 systematic errors 677 unbalanced forces
sound 547-55 446-7
definition 547-8 tables 668—70
and human hearing 548 temperature vacuum flask 510-11
investigative skills 553 and evaporation rate 493 variable resistor 572, 581
see also speed of sound measurement of 501 variables 670, 673—4
sound waves 466, 521, 524, and radiation emitted 509 VHE (very-high frequency)
ote and states of matter 489 342
display of 550 thermal conductors 504—5 vibrations 547-8
patterns 551] thermal! expansion 497—500 wave 520-1]
properties 548 thermal insulators 504—5 virtual image 529, 530,
speed 413 thermal processes 504—17 335-6
calculating 414—15 thermal transfer 506 visible light 528, 539-40
electromagnetic waves 539 thermogram 507, 542 visible spectrum 539-40
speed—time graphs 417—20 thermometer 498, 501 voltage 566—7
wave 522, 523 thermostat 501 current and power 593
speed of sound three-pin plug 598 current and resistance
in air, liquids and solids ticker timer 421 369-73
548, 549 time energy, current and time
measuring 549 current and charge 566 593-4
measuring by echo method displacement—time graph voltage—current graph 571
552-3 Sey VOltimetets. 6 7950 /2500.lp
spring distance and speed 586
elastic potential energy 414-15 volts 566
463 distance-time graph volume 429
extension 441—4 415-16 mass and density 429-32
limit of proportionality energy, current and voltage measurement 410
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 water waves 518-55 white light 539
boiling point 501 electromagnetic 521, 528, wind power 477, 479
molecule 49] 339 wire
properties of 499 energy and information earth, live and neutral 598,
triple point of 486 transfer 522 ae)
water power 482 longitudinal and transverse extension 440
water waves 519, 522, 466, 520-3, 548 resistance, length and
924-5 speed, frequency and cross-sectional area 573
watt (W) 592 wavelength 523 work 458-61
wavelength 521-2, 523 see also specific types of power and time 473-4
in the electromagnetic wave
spectrum 539—40 weak nuclear force 438 X-rays 540, 541
water wave 524—5 weight 426-7

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t Camb “due 0653ce for examination from 2019 and is written
1 of experienced teachers and examiners.
Develop your seience skills with investigati
Take your knowledge further by looking at real-life uses of science in the ‘science in
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Deepen your understanding of connection: jences with our new
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Practise your exam tech
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Check you have covered tt
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Lay te

Combined Science
Teacher Guide
ISBN 9780008191535

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