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Progress in IS

Rimvydas Skyrius

Business
Intelligence
A Comprehensive Approach
to Information Needs, Technologies and
Culture
Progress in IS
“PROGRESS in IS” encompasses the various areas of Information Systems in theory
and practice, presenting cutting-edge advances in the field. It is aimed especially at
researchers, doctoral students, and advanced practitioners. The series features both
research monographs that make substantial contributions to our state of knowledge
and handbooks and other edited volumes, in which a team of experts is organized by
one or more leading authorities to write individual chapters on various aspects of the
topic. “PROGRESS in IS” is edited by a global team of leading IS experts. The
editorial board expressly welcomes new members to this group. Individual volumes
in this series are supported by a minimum of two members of the editorial board, and
a code of conduct mandatory for all members of the board ensures the quality and
cutting-edge nature of the titles published under this series.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10440

Rimvydas Skyrius

Business Intelligence
A Comprehensive Approach to Information
Needs, Technologies and Culture
Rimvydas Skyrius
Economic Informatics
Vilnius University
Vilnius, Lithuania

ISSN 2196-8705 ISSN 2196-8713 (electronic)

Progress in IS
ISBN 978-3-030-67031-3 ISBN 978-3-030-67032-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67032-0

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

Business has always been an early adopter of advanced management techniques and
technologies, expected to provide significant support to value creation. Over several
decades of the use of digital information technologies in business, however, success
stories have been mixed with disappointments and confusing experience. This can be
especially true for the subfield of business intelligence (BI) activities, where the
expectations and stakes are considerably higher. Most executives and organizations
are well familiar with information technologies, systems, and frameworks for their
use and expected value, but quite often they are uncertain about how to best deploy
them to create this value. This book by professor Rimvydas Skyrius of Vilnius
University in Lithuania, Business Intelligence: A Comprehensive Approach to
Information Needs, Technologies and Culture, summarizes much of what the author
has researched and learned in the field over the years, and presents this experience to
the potential audience of business executives and managers, BI professionals, and
concerned researchers and students who want to take a less technology-oriented
approach to the field.
In the field of business intelligence, fast and tumultuous developments bring
possibilities, expectations, and a good deal of confusion to accompany them. This
book comes at a time when the situation in the field experiences both significant
developments and challenges. The developments are rather visible: large surge of
interest in analytics, fast development of artificial intelligence techniques, and
utilization of global information resources, to name a few. The challenges, however,
are no less visible: despite huge technical advances, many obstacles still remain,
numerous contradictions remain unsolved, and many BI projects fail or do not bring
the promised benefits. As numerous research works and real-life cases show, mere
possession of advanced technology and voluminous information resources is no
longer considered adequate for fulfilling business information needs. This explains
the rising interest in managerial and human issues.
The focus of the book is under-researched managerial and human issues in
BI. The book addresses several important research gaps—relation between BI
maturity and agility, role and features of BI culture, and definition of and relations

v
vi Foreword

between soft assets—attention, sense, and trust. By adopting a user needs-based

aspect in research issues, the book also addresses several important practical needs—
improved match between business and BI activities, insights of higher quality,
improved BI project success rate, and clarity regarding principal sources of BI
value. In addressing the aforementioned issues, the book attempts at reduction of
confusion around these issues. This focus point defines the selected set of topics and
its consistency and coverage. The proposed set of topics attempts to cover the
managerial and human issues that are essential in sense making and insight devel-
opment: positioning of BI in overall informing activities, possible BI dimensions,
information integration issues, management of experience and lessons learned,
relation of BI maturity and agility, features of BI culture, and role of soft BI assets.
The author steps carefully in a rather vague and ill-defined field of managerial and
human issues of BI by relating phenomena to their origins and history, and deliber-
ately leaves technology issues in the background. The author also uses his own
former research, published in numerous previous research papers and conferences, to
give ground to presented arguments.
It may be possible to argue with the author on some statements presented in the
book. For example, the author declares that there exists a distinct BI culture
(Chapter 8), when many sources state that organizational culture and information
culture are significant enough to determine whether the organizational climate is
catalytic for effective informing. On the other hand, if the content of this book
initiates a round of discussions on current business informing issues, the book will
for sure have reached its goal.
Although the author does not attempt to present ready-made rules or recipes for
advanced informing and insight development, I am confident that this book will be
useful to assorted segments of the reader audience: business executives and man-
agers, researchers working on intelligence, analytics, and other contemporary
informing issues, and teachers and students from the academic community, taking
interest in related problems.

Rector, University of Economics in Celina M. Olszak, Ph.D.

Katowice, Katowice, Poland
Acknowledgements

This book reflects my beliefs about the informing activities in business that have
formed drop by drop over the last 30 years, starting with decision support, later
moving on to business intelligence, business analytics, and other advanced
informing activities that produce insights for a business user. The important source
of guiding cues for all this time has been the collected empirics targeted at business
information needs—that is, the research interest has been driven much more by
issues of user pull than by issues of technology push. Another source of guidance, no
less important than the empirics, has been the people who talked to me, listened to
my sometimes incongruous and naïve ideas, read my work, and provided advice.
Although I am not able to mention every one of these wonderful people that
provided shoulder in one way or another, I would like to use this occasion to mention
at least those who come to mind in the first place.
First and foremost, I want to express my deepest thanks to the people at Springer
who directly dealt with my book—Dr. Christian Rauscher for believing in my work,
Ms. Sujatha Chakkala and Ms. Rajeswari Sathyamurthy for their patience, meticu-
lous attention to detail, and for maintaining the overall positive background to our
communication, and all the other people at the publisher whom I never met, but
whose solid professionalism was felt all the time.
I also want to use this occasion and thank my numerous colleagues whose support
has been vital over many years. First of all, these are my direct colleagues from the
Department of economic informatics at the Vilnius University, and many ideas have
been first tested among them. My year-long exchange stay with the University of
Illinois at Chicago has been quite a while ago, but the people over there helped a lot
to get our sometimes messy body of knowledge into order and provided guidelines
that stand until now. Special thanks here go to Professors Sharon Reeves, Aditya
Saharia, Aris Ouksel, Yair Babbad, Bronius Vaškelis, and late Irena Baleisis.
Heartfelt thanks go to Dr. Eli Cohen and Elizabeth Boyd of Informing Science
Institute, together with Professors Terence Grandon Gill and Michael Jones, and
Professors Tom Wilson and Elena Maceviciute of Information Research for
supporting my modest findings. I also wish to thank my PhD students and all

vii
viii Acknowledgements

other students for their often-fresh opinion on emerging issues in research. Special
thanks go to Chris Butler for the courage to read my first chapters and perceive them
from the business angle.
Last but not least, I want to thank my family, and in the first place my wife Ruta,
for their support and patience. The time I have spent on preparing this book could
have been given to family, but I had them covering my back all the time; it is largely
their support in making this book come to reality.
Yours sincerely

Rimvydas Skyrius
Contents

1 Business Intelligence: Human Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Novelty and Originality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The Target Audience and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Business Intelligence Definition and Problem Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 The Activities of Business Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 As an Information System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 As a Cyclical Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.3 As a Technology Platform or Technology Stack . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 As a Value Chain of Informing Activities that Covers
Issues from Simple to the Most Complex . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Expected Results and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Difficulty in Evaluating BI Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Advanced Informing and Insights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 Definition of Advanced Informing, Its Positioning
and Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Insights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Business Intelligence Information Needs: Related Systems and
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Information Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Business Intelligence Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Business Intelligence and Related Informing Activities . . . . . . . 35
3.3.1 Business Intelligence and Management Information
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3.2 Business Intelligence and Decision Support . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.3 Business Intelligence and Competitive Intelligence . . . . 40

ix
x Contents

3.3.4 Business Intelligence and Business Analytics . . . . . . . . 43

3.4 Intelligence in Other Domains and Its Relation to BI . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.1 Similarities with Other Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.2 Differences from Other Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Business Intelligence Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1 The Notion of BI Dimensionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Business Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3 Introduction to BI Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 Relations of Business and BI Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.5 BI Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.5.1 Internal and External Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.5.2 Centralized and Decentralized BI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5.3 Question Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.5.4 Functional Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5.5 Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5.6 Initiative: Supply-Driven Versus Demand-Driven . . . . . 69
4.5.7 Velocity: Real Time Versus Right Time . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.6 Tiered Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7 The Encompassing Potential of BI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5 Information Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.1 The Need for Data and Information Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Data Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.2.1 Single Source of Truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.2 Enterprise Information Integration and Enterprise
Application Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.3 Data Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3 The Transition from Data to Information Integration . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4 Information Integration and Sense Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.4.1 Insight Development and Information Integration . . . . . 91
5.4.2 Semantics, Sense Making and Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4.3 IT Tools and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4.4 Heuristic Integration: Dataspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6 Management of Experience and Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.1 Terms and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.1.1 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.1.2 Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.1.3 Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.1.4 Structure and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2 Lessons Learned Theoretical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3 LL Management Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Contents xi

6.4 Practical LL Management Implementation Cases, Systems and

Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.5 Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.6 Empirical Research on Actual LL Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7 Business Intelligence Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.1 Overview of BI Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2 Data Collection and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.3 Multidimensional Analysis, On-line Analytical Processing . . . . . 154
7.4 Use of Simple Self-Service Tools: Role of Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.4.1 Queries and Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.4.2 Spreadsheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.5 Business Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.5.1 Data Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.5.2 Big Data Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.5.3 Descriptive, Predictive and Prescriptive Analytics . . . . . 163
7.5.4 Augmented Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.5.5 Web Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.6 Modeling and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.7 Text Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.8 Presentation and Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.9 The Role of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.10 Communication and Collaboration Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.11 BI Technology Deployment Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8 Business Intelligence Maturity and Agility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1 The Definitions and Focus of Business Intelligence Maturity . . . 187
8.2 Business Intelligence Maturity Models, Comparison and
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.3 Redefinition of Business Intelligence Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.4 Business Intelligence Agility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.4.1 The Notion of Agility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.4.2 Organizational Agility, Information Agility and BI
Agility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.5 Dynamic Capabilities Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.6 Factors Supporting and Restricting Agility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.7 BI Agility Management Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9 Business Intelligence Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.1 Human Factors in Business Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.2 Relation of Organizational, Information and Business Intelligence
Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
xii Contents

9.3 The Importance of Informing Activities for Organizational

Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.4 The Most Common Features of Business Intelligence Culture . . . 221
9.4.1 The Importance of Information Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.4.2 Record of Lessons and Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.4.3 Creation of an Intelligence Community . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.4.4 Technology Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.4.5 The Environment of Business Intelligence Culture . . . . 228
9.5 Research on Business Intelligence Adoption In Lithuanian
Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10 Soft Business Intelligence Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.1 Common Issues for Soft Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.2 Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.2.1 Importance for BI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.2.2 Important Attention Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.2.3 Attention Management Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.3 Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.3.1 Sense Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.3.2 Sense Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.4 Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
10.4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.4.2 Trust in Elements of Informing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.4.3 Processing Methods and Systems Design . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10.4.4 Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.4.5 Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.5 Relations Between Soft Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.6 Possible Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11 Encompassing BI: Education and Research Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
11.1 The Encompassing Business Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
11.2 Review of the Book Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
11.3 Important Issues in BI Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.4 BI Research Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Chapter 1
Business Intelligence: Human Issues

1.1 Introduction

The stormy and kaleidoscopic development of the field of business intelligence (BI),
mostly attributed to advances in information technology (IT), has created significant
confusion in the area of business informing and an imbalance between IT and human
issues, to the favor of the former. Early in the era of decision support systems,
Feldman and March (1981) have noted a controversy between information engi-
neering, represented by information systems (IS), and information behavior,
represented by intelligence: “some strange human behavior may contain a coding
of intelligence that is not adequately reflected in engineering models”. It is quite
ironic that in the field of business intelligence the dominating emphasis has been
made on information technology as being intelligent, while the intelligent need to be
aware arises from intelligence activities of the people, and this aspect has received a
lot less emphasis. The current book is a modest attempt by the author to reduce this
imbalance.
No rational activity is performed without having information on its environment,
and business activities are no exception. Many sources have stated that information
is an important asset, together with capital, people, competencies, know-how and the
like. However, such statements emerged almost exclusively with the growth and
spread of IT, while information already has been important for centuries. The
specific nature of business information lies in the ability to organize and coordinate
all other assets. This makes information a very special resource overarching other
resources, and therefore possessing special importance. To organize this information
efficiently, information systems are developed that use contemporary information
technology and advanced processing logic to handle information properly. Any
information system is a unity of people and technology; essentially, information
systems are systems of people and relations between people, and technology role
comes after that. Business intelligence is one of such systems that aims at supporting
deeper and more complete understanding of activity and its environment by

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

R. Skyrius, Business Intelligence, Progress in IS,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67032-0_1
2 1 Business Intelligence: Human Issues

employing tools and methods of advanced informing. The need for this kind of
systems has been recognized by Nobel prize winner Herbert Simon as early as 1971:
“Designing an intelligence system means deciding: when to gather information
(much of it will be preserved indefinitely in the environment if we do not want to
harvest it now); where and in what form to store it; how to rework and condense it;
how to index and give access to it; and when and on whose initiative to communicate
it to others” (Simon, 1971).
The objective of the book. As stated above, the current book is an attempt to
balance the human and technology aspects of BI to their fair shares. “Fair”, of
course, is a subjective concept in the eye of the beholder, but a certain experience,
spent by the author researching business decision support and BI, has formed a belief
that many troubles haunting BI installations originate from human and managerial
issues. It would be unfair to blame BI technologies, developed by highly creative and
professional people in the software development field, for BI failures. Digital
technology does exactly what it is intended to do, and failure to create expected
value is most likely a result of inflated expectations and inadequate preparations.
Meanwhile, according to Gill (2015), large white spots remain in understanding how
people and organizations perform intelligence. The orientation towards the virtues of
technology has prevailed for a long time and continues to do so, while the direction
towards the understanding of the client and community that are actual users of the
information has been receiving considerably less attention.
There are many other areas where intelligence activities are the axis of the job,
and BI obviously has its roots in informing activities from other fields—scientific
research, political and military intelligence, law enforcement etc. BI is not a new
concept, and deemed by some to be a fading one. Yet, when assessed against its
potential to impact business awareness, coordination and insightfulness, it is not
likely to fade anytime, as the same can be said about any intelligence activities. From
the emergence of the term, the field has been rather confusing and torn apart by
confronting opinions and discussions on terms and boundaries. As a marketing term,
BI may have lost some of its flair, but the need to perform intelligence activities is
not going to disappear. So if this book moves the attention of researchers and
practitioners just a little to the space of human issues in BI, it’s goal will be achieved.

1.2 Novelty and Originality

The book axis joins together several key aspects:

• BI is an activity whose prime feature is the boost of human intelligence potential
by supporting it appropriately with contemporary IT;
• BI is a test-bed for sophisticated IT and avant-garde business applications;
• A prolonged phase of accentuated technology features as the main driver for BI
advancement has introduced an imbalance of attention;
• Human and managerial issues deserve a shift in research approaches;
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 [225] Elphinstone, Caubul, ii. 223.
[226] Thompson, South Africa, ii. 351.
[227] See Bancroft, ii. 454-472, for the penal code of the
Aztecs.
[228] Pinkerton. Froyart, History of Loango, xvi. 581.
[229] Hutton, Voyage to Africa, p. 319.
[230] Pinkerton, xvi. 242, in Merolla’s Voyage to Congo.
[231] Pinkerton. Bosman, Guinea, xvi. 405. For an account of a
savage law suit, see Maclean’s Caffre Laws and Customs, pp. 38-
43.
[232] Maclean, Caffre Laws, p. 34.
[233] Pinkerton, xvi. 259.
[234] Livingstone, South Africa, pp. 621, 642.
[235] Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, i. 285.
[236] Klemm, Culturgeschichte, iii. 334.
[237] Williams, Fiji, p. 250.
[238] Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 378; iv. 423.
[239] Pinkerton, xvi. 690.
[240] Wuttke, Geschichte des Heidenthums, p. 102, speaking
of savage ordeals, says: ‘Wir können nicht sagen, dass ein
monotheistischer Gedanke hier vorhanden sei; die Menschen
glauben an die Gerechtigkeit des Schicksals noch nicht an einen
gerechten Gott.’
[241] Turner, Polynesia, pp. 215, 241, 293.
[242] Klemm, iii. 68.
[243] Wuttke, Geschichte des Heidenthums, p. 103.
[244] Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins, p. 73.
[245] Latham, Descriptive Ethnology, ii. 98.
[246] Klemm, iv. 334.
[247] Maclean, pp. 124, 110.
[248] Klemm, iii. 69.
[249] Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 64.
 [250] Seemann, Mission to Viti, p. 192.
[251] Mariner, ii. 302.
[252] Ellis, iii. 349.
[253] Earle, Indian Archipelago, p. 81.
[254] Pinkerton, xvi. 872.
[255] Ibid., p. 697.
[256] Bowen, Central Africa, p. 305.
[257] Lichtenstein, ii. 48.
[258] Portlock’s Voyage, p. 260, in Bancroft, i. 110.
[259] Cranz, i. 149, 150, 174, 218.
[260] Travels in Australia, ii. 355; and Bonwick, Daily Life of the
Tasmanians, pp. 10, 78-98.
[261] Transactions of Ethnological Society, Prof. Owen, ii. 36.
[262] Transactions of Ethnological Society, ii. 291.
[263] Ibid., i. 264.
[264] Nuova Antologia, Jan. 1876.
[265] Ellis, i. 268.
[266] Mariner, i. 271-7.
[267] These stories are worth reading at length in Grey’s
Polynesian Mythology, pp. 233-246, 296-301. See also pp. 246-
273, 301-313. For a good Zulu love-story see Leslie’s Among the
Zulus, pp. 275-284; and, for a Tasmanian love-legend, Bonwick,
p. 34.
[268] Smiles, Self-help, p. 325; Pennant’s Tour, in Pinkerton, iii.
89: ‘Their tender sex are their only animals of burden.’
[269] Weddell, Voyage to South Pole, 1825, p. 156.
[270] Seemann, p. 192.
[271] Dalton, Bengal, p. 28.
[272] Indian Tribes, v. 131-2.
[273] Rochefort, Les Îles Antilles, p. 544.
[274] Bancroft, i. 110.
[275] Heart of Africa, i. 472; ii. 28.
 [276] The best illustration of this side of savage life, of the
sorrow felt by a bride on leaving her home, occurs in the Finnish
Kalewala, in Schiefner’s German translation, pp. 126-132, 147-
150.
[277] Dobell, Travels in Kamtschatka, &c., ii. 293.
[278] Holderness, Journey from Riga, p. 233.
[279] Hakluyt, i. 360; Pierson, Russlands Vergangenheit, pp.
202, 208.
[280] Marmier, Sur la Russie, ii. 154. ‘Au moment de se mettre
en marche pour l’église, elle soupire, pleure, refuse de sortir. Tous
ses parents essayent de la consoler,’ &c.
P. 149: ‘Rien ne donne une idée plus touchante du caractère du
peuple russe que ces paroles de regret et de douleur que la jeune
fiancée adresse à ses parents au milieu des joyeux préparatifs de
la fête nuptiale.’
[281] Marmier, i. 127, 229.
[282] Cranz, i. 151.
[283] Ibid., i. 146.
[284] Egede, pp. 143-145.
[285] Chambers, Book of Days, ii. 721.
[286] Holderness, p. 234.
[287] Dall, Alaska, pp. 396, 399.
[288] Kolbe, in Medley’s translation, i. 161.
[289] Bowen, Central Africa, p. 303.
[290] Elphinstone, Caubul, i. 240.
[291] Latham, Descriptive Ethnology, i. 313.
[292] Herberstein, i. 92.
[293] Pinkerton, Modern Geography, ii. 524.
[294] Seemann, Mission to Fiji, p. 190.
[295] Si J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, pp. 75-76.
[296] Dalton, Bengal, p. 193.
[297] Williams, Fiji, p. 136.
[298] Chambers, Book of Days, ii. 733; Holman, Travels, i. 153.
 [299] Dall, Alaska, p. 415.
[300] Trans. Eth. Soc., i. 98.
[301] Krashenninonikov, Kamtshatka, p. 215.
[302] ‘Beschwerte sich aber die Braut, dass sie den Brautigam
durchaus nicht haben noch sich von ihm erobern lassen wollte, so
musste er aus dem Ostrog fort.’—Steller, Kamtschatka, p. 345.
[303] Lesseps, Travels in Kamtschatka (translated), ii. 93. The
account here given of the Kamschadal marriage customs is from
Krashenninonikov (translated by Grieve), Travels in Kamtshatka,
pp. 212-214 (1764); Steller, pp. 343-349 (1774); Lesseps, ii. 93
(1790). They differ in some minor details.
[304] Burchell, ii. 56.
[305] Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins, p. 200.
[306] Leslie, pp. 117, 196.
[307] Burckhardt, Notes, p. 151.
[308] Lane, Modern Egyptians, i. 217.
[309] Gaya, Marriage Ceremonies (pp. 30, 48, 81), for similar
old customs, interpreted in the same way, formerly in vogue in
France, Germany, and Turkey.
[310] Astley, Collection of Voyages, ii. 240, 273. It is a common
rule of etiquette that, when a proposal of marriage is made, the
purport of the visit shall only be approached indirectly and
cursorily. It is curious to find such a rule among the Red Indians
(Algic Researches, ii. 24; i. 130), the Kafirs (Maclean, p. 47), the
Esquimaux (Cranz, i. 146), even the Hottentots (Kolbe, i. 149).
[311] Pinkerton, vii. 34.
[312] Bancroft, Native Races, &c., i. 389.
[313] Ibid., i. 436.
[314] Ibid., i. 512.
[315] Fitzroy, Voyage of ‘Beagle,’ ii. 152.
[316] Compare Bowen’s Central Africa, pp. 303-304; Gray’s
Travels in South Africa, p. 56; Pinkerton, xvi. 568-569; and
Bancroft, i. 66.
[317] Bowen, p. 104.
[318] Pinkerton, xvi. 873.
 [319] Lichtenstein, i. 263.
[320] Thus Bonwick mentions a custom whereby a woman ‘was
allowed some chance in her life-settlement. The applicant for her
hand was permitted on a certain day to run for her;’ if she passed
three appointed trees without being caught she was free.—Daily
Life, &c., p. 70.
[321] It is also an old custom in Finland, that, when a suitor
tells a girl he has settled matters with her parents, she should ask
him what he has given, and then, declaring it to be too little,
should proceed to run away from him.—Marmier, i. 176.
[322] Delano, Life on the Plains, p. 346. In Notes and Queries,
1861, vol. xii. 414, it is said that in Wales a girl would often
escape a disliked suitor through the custom of the pursuit on
horseback—by taking a line of country of her own.
[323] Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 16, 194,
234, 252, 319.
[324] Bates, Naturalist on the River Amazon, p. 382.
[325] Marsden, Sumatra, p. 269.
[326] Denham, Discoveries in Africa, i. 32-35.
[327] Dobritzhoffer, ii. 97.
[328] Wuttke, Heidenthum, i. 185. ‘Die Guanas in Amerika
begraben ihre Kinder lebendig, besonders die Mädchen, um diese
seltner und gesuchter zu machen.’
[329] Dalton, p. 192.
[330] Colonel Dalton, in Trans. Eth. Soc., vi. 27.
[331] Elphinstone, Cabul, i. 239; ii. 23.
[332] Burnes, Travels to Bokhara, iii. 47.
[333] Trans. Eth. Soc., iii. 348-351, in Oldfield’s Aborigines of
Australia, 1864.
[334] Bonwick, pp. 65-68.
[335] Latham, Desc. Ethn., ii. 159.
[336] Latham, Desc. Ethn., i. 96.
[337] Campbell, Indian Journal, 142.
[338] Journal of Anthropology (July 1870), p. 33; Trans. Eth.
Soc., vii. 236, 242.
 [339] Buchanan, Travels, i. 251, 273, 321, 358, 394; iii. 100.
[340] Sproat, p. 98.
[341] Rochefort, Les Îles Antilles, 545.
[342] Bancroft, Native Races, i. 109, 132.
[343] Macpherson, 65.
[344] Collins (1796), New South Wales, 362, 351-3.
[345] Hunter (1790), Voyage to New South Wales, 62, 494.
[346] Trans. Eth. Soc., i. 217-8, and compare Sir G. Grey,
Travels, &c., ii. 224.
[347] Hunter, 466, 479.
[348] Lecky, Hist. of England in Eighteenth Century, ii. 366.
[349] Bonwick, Daily Life of the Tasmanians, 60.
[350] Rochefort, Les Îles Antilles, 545. ‘Ils ne prenaient pour
femmes légitimes que leurs cousines, qui leur étoyent aquises de
droit naturel.’ Compare Burckhardt’s Notes on the Bedouins, 64:
‘A man has an exclusive right to the hand of his cousin;’ not that
he was obliged to marry her, but without his consent she could
marry no one else.’
[351] Rochefort, Les Îles Antilles, 460. ‘Il est à remarquer que
les Caraibes du continent, hommes et femmes, parlent un même
langage, n’ayant point corrumpu leur langue naturelle par des
mariages avec des femmes étrangères.’ (1511.)
[352] Humboldt, personal narrative, vi. 40-43.
[353] See chapter on Carib language in Les Îles Antilles, 449,
and collection of words, where those used exclusively by either
sex are marked with an H and F (Hommes et Femmes)
respectively.
[354] Maclean, 95.
[355] Leslie, 177.
[356] Du Tertre, Hist. Gén. des Antilles, 378.
[357] Transactions of Ethnological Society, i. 301-3.
[358] Bonwick, Daily Life of the Tasmanians, 188, 206. The
author suggestively calls attention to the similarity of this legend
to the Hindu legend of Indra, who delivers the lovely Apas from
the monster Vitra in the dark cavern of Ahi, a legend which has
been taken to mean the fire-god who destroys the dark storm
cloud that chases and maltreats the fleecy maidens of the sky.
[359] Bleek, Hottentot Fables, 67.
[360] Bleek, Bushman Folk-lore.
[361] Egede, 209.
[362] Cranz, i. 213.
[363] Gill, 40-2.
[364] Dall, Alaska.
[365] Sproat, p. 182.
[366] Casalis, Les Basutos. With this story Grimm compares a
German one, Kinder und Hausmärchen, i. 172.
[367] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, ii. 229-30.
[368] Gill, 88-98.
[369] Mrs. Cookson, Legends of the Manx, 27-30.
[370] Wolf, Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie, i. 2.
[371] Algic Researches, ii. 216.
[372] Kelly, Indo-European Traditions, 78. See the German
version of the tale in Grimm’s Hausmärchen, ii. 394.
[373] Köhler, Weimarische Beiträge zur Literatur, Jan. 1865.
[374] Schirren, Wandersagen der Neuseeländer, 31, 37-39.
[375] Grimm, Hausmärchen, i. Pref. 53.
[376] See the different versions in Mr. Tylor’s Early History of
Mankind, 344.
[377] Cox, Aryan Mythology, ii. 173.
[378] Algic Researches, ii. 1-33.
[379] Aryan Mythology, ii. 85.
[380] Algic Researches, ii. 34.
[381] Wilson, Vishnu Purana, 394-5.
[382] Fiske, Myths and Myth Makers, 97, and Cox, Aryan
Mythology, ii. 282.
[383] Transactions of Ethnological Society, ii. 27.
[384] Algic Researches, i. 67.
 [385] Bleek, Hottentot Fables, Pref. xxv.
[386] Bonwick, Daily Life of the Tasmanians, 148.
[387] Algic Researches, ii. 40.
[388] Travels in Australia, i. 261.
[389] Schoolcraft, Algic Researches, i. 41.
[390] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 409.
[391] D. Leslie, Among the Zulus, 168.
[392] Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, Part i. 5.
[393] Algic Researches, i. 122-8.
[394] Bancroft, Native Races, iii. 526.
[395] Bonwick, Daily Life of the Tasmanians, 182.
[396] Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, Part i. 122-3.
[397] Pinkerton, xvi. 689.
[398] Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales, i. 152.
[399] Leslie, 81, 98.
[400] Ibid. 79.
[401] Ibid. 169.
[402] Appleyard, Kafir Grammar, 13.
[403] Mrs. Cookson, Legends of the Manx, 23.
[404] Prof. Max Müller, Science of Language, ii. 444.
[405] Steller, 253-4.
[406] Léouzon le Duc, La Finlande, 51, 87. ‘À dire vrai, tous les
dieux de la mythologie finnoise ne sont que les magiciens.’
[407] Bancroft, v. 23.
[408] Brinton, Myths of the New World, 164.
[409] Vishnu Purana, 575.
[410] Schirren, 144. Maui wird im Meere geformt, von einem
Fisch verschluckt, mit diesem ans Land geworfen und
herausgeschnitten. Der Fisch ist die Erde welche die Sonne zur
Nacht verschlingt; der Himmel im Osten befreit die Sonne aus der
Erde.
[411] Bancroft, v. 23.
 [412] Brinton, 180.
[413] Waitz (Anthropologie, iv. 394, 448, 455) adopts the view
of the human origin of Viracocha.
[414] Bleek, Hottentot Fables, 75.
[415] Schiefner, Kalewala, 129. In the lamentations over an
approaching marriage, an old man says to the bride:

‘Seinen Mond nannt’ dich der Vater,

Sonnenschein nannt’ dich die Mutter,
Wasserschimmer dich der Bruder,’ &c.

[416] Fiske, 35, 76.

[417] Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, ii. 326.
[418] Steller, 279.
[419] Williams, Fiji, 204.
[420] Rink, Tales, &c. of the Esquimaux, 90.
[421] Algic Researches, ii. 226.
[422] Hiawatha, Canto xxi.
[423] Steller, 267. ‘Die Italmanes geben nach ihrer ungemein
lebhaften Phantasie von allen Dingen Raison, und lassen nicht das
geringste ohne Critic vorbei.’ Yet they had neither reverence nor
names for the stars, calling only the Great Bear the moving star,
281.
[424] Travels in Australia, i. 261, 297.
[425] Thompson, South Africa, ii. 34.
[426] Aubrey’s Miscellanies, 197.
[427] Those who doubt the existence of much popular
superstition in this century may judge of the amount and value of
the evidence by referring to the following books: 1. All the
volumes of Notes and Queries, Index, Folk-Lore. 2. Harland and
Wilkinson, Lancashire Folk-Lore, 1867. 3. Henderson’s Notes on
the Folk-Lore of the Northern Counties of England and the
Borders, 1866. 4. Kelly’s Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition
and Folk-Lore, 1863. 5. Stewart’s Popular Superstitions of the
Highlanders of Scotland, 1851. 6. Sternberg’s Dialect and Folk-
Lore of Northamptonshire, 1851. 7. Thorpe’s Northern Mythology,
1851. 8. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, 1861. 9.
Koehler, Volksbrauch im Voigtlande, 1867. 10. Bosquet, La
Normandie Romanesque, 1845.
[428] Origin of Civilisation, 33.
[429] Ibid., 23.
[430] Hammerton, Round my House, 254.
[431] Holderness, Journey from Riga to the Crimea, 254.
[432] Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, ‘Aberglaube,’ cases 576,
664, 698, 898. These practices, even if no longer existent, throw
light upon those that still are.
[433] Amélie Bosquet, La Normandie pittoresque, 217.
[434] Fletcher, Russe Commonweal, 78.
[435] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 419.
[436] Kane, 216.
[437] Williams, 248.
[438] Brett, Indian Tribes of Guiana, 369.
[439] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, 111-114.
[440] Cook, vi. 192.
[441] Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, ii. 328.
[442] There are several derivations for Beltane or Bealteine: 1.
From Baal or Belus, the Phœnician god, the worship being
supposed to be of Phœnician origin; 2. from Baldur, one of the
gods of Valhalla who represented the Sun; 3. from lá = day, teine
= fire, and Beal = the name of some god, but not Belus; 4. from
Paleteine, Pales’ fire, the worship being identified with that of the
Roman goddess Pales, who presided over cattle and pastures,
and to whom, on April 21, prayers and offerings were made. At
the Palilia shepherds purified their flocks by sulphur and fires of
olive and pine wood, and presented the goddess with cakes of
millet and milk, whilst the people leaped thrice through straw
fires kindled in a row. Yet we should probably be right if we
connected the Palilia and the Beltanes, not as directly borrowed
one from the other, but as co-descendants from one and the
same origin.
Mr. Forbes-Leslie speaks of Beltane fires as still to be seen in
1865. The Beltane feast proper was on May-day, but the word
was also applied to fires kindled in honour of Bel on other days,
as on Midsummer Eve, All Hallow-e’en, and Yeule, now Christmas.
(Early Races of Scotland, i. 120-1.)
[443] Stewart, Popular Superstitions of the Highlanders, p. 149.
[444] Bancroft, iii. 701.
[445] Kolbe, Caput bonæ Spei, ii. 431-2, and Thunberg, in
Pinkerton, xvi. 143. Kolbe gives a picture of the practice.
[446] Kerr, Voyages, i. 131.
[447] Catlin, ii. 189.
[448] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, iii. 228.
[449] Latham, Desc. Ethn., i. 141.
[450] Jones, Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 21, and
Schoolcraft, I.T., v. 267.
[451] Lancashire Folk-Lore, p. 63.
[452] Sir W. Betham, Gael and Cimbri: 1834. ‘The branches of a
tree near the Stone of Fire Temple in the Persian province of Fars
were found thickly hung with rags, and the same offerings are
common on bushes round sacred wells in the Dekkan of India
and Ceylon.’ (Forbes-Leslie, Early Races of Scotland, i. 163.)
[453] Schiefner, Introduction to Sjögren’s Livische Grammatik.
St. Petersburg, 1861.
[454] The instances of Esthonian superstitions are taken from
Grimm’s collection in the Deutsche Mythologie. Their date is 1788.
The same interest attaches to them from an archæological point
of view, whether they exist still or have become extinct.

The End.
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