1.

Data Structures: Linear and Non-Linear

A. Linear Data Structures

A linear data structure organizes elements sequentially, where each element has a unique
successor and predecessor (except the first and last elements).

Examples:

1.​ Arrays – Fixed-size, contiguous memory storage.​

Example: int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};​

2.​ Linked Lists – Dynamic memory allocation with pointers.​

Example: A linked list of integers: 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5​

3.​ Stacks – LIFO (Last In, First Out) principle.​

Example: A stack storing items: Push 1, then push 2, then pop returns 2.​

4.​ Queues – FIFO (First In, First Out) principle.​

Example: A queue of people waiting: Person 1 -> Person 2 -> Person 3 (Person 1 exits
first).​

5.​ Deques – A double-ended queue that supports insertions and deletions from both ends.​

B. Non-Linear Data Structures

A non-linear data structure does not store data in a sequential manner. Instead, it forms
hierarchical or interconnected relationships.

Examples:

1.​ Trees – Hierarchical structures with parent-child relationships.​

2.​ Graphs – Nodes connected by edges.​

3.​ Heaps – Specialized tree-based structures for priority queues.​

4.​ Hash Tables – Key-value data storage for fast lookups.​

2. Trees and Graph Theory
A. Trees

A tree is a hierarchical data structure that consists of nodes connected by edges. It is a special
type of graph with no cycles.

Key Characteristics:

●​ A tree with n nodes has n-1 edges.​

●​ One node is designated as the root.​

●​ Each node (except the root) has exactly one parent.​

●​ Nodes can have zero or more child nodes.​

Types of Trees:

1.​ Binary Tree – Each node has at most two children.​

2.​ Binary Search Tree (BST) – A binary tree where the left subtree contains smaller
values and the right subtree contains larger values.​

3.​ Balanced Tree – A tree where the height is minimized (e.g., AVL Tree, Red-Black Tree).​

4.​ Heap – A complete binary tree used in priority queues.​

5.​ Trie – Used for string searching (e.g., in dictionaries, autocomplete features).​

Tree Traversal Algorithms:

1.​ Depth-First Search (DFS)​

○​ Preorder (Root → Left → Right)​

○​ Inorder (Left → Root → Right)​

○​ Postorder (Left → Right → Root)​

2.​ Breadth-First Search (BFS)​

 ○​ Also known as Level Order Traversal​

B. Graph Theory

A graph is a collection of nodes (vertices) and connections (edges). Graphs can be used to
model relationships in networks, social media, and navigation systems.

Types of Graphs:

1.​ Directed Graph (Digraph) – Edges have a direction.​

2.​ Undirected Graph – Edges have no direction.​

3.​ Weighted Graph – Edges have weights (e.g., representing distances or costs).​

4.​ Connected Graph – A path exists between every pair of nodes.​

5.​ Cyclic and Acyclic Graphs – Acyclic graphs have no cycles (e.g., Trees are acyclic
graphs).​

Graph Algorithms:

1.​ Depth-First Search (DFS) – Explores as far as possible along each branch before
backtracking.​

2.​ Breadth-First Search (BFS) – Explores all neighbors before moving deeper.​

3.​ Dijkstra’s Algorithm – Finds the shortest path in a weighted graph.​

4.​ Kruskal’s and Prim’s Algorithm – Used to find the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST).​

5.​ Floyd-Warshall Algorithm – Computes shortest paths between all pairs of vertices.​

Example:

For a graph G = (V, E) where V = {a, b, c, d} and E = {{a, b}, {a, c}, {b,
c}, {c, d}}:

●​ Vertices: a, b, c, d​
 ●​ Edges: {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {c, d}​

For DFS, starting from vertex a, you would visit the vertices as a -> b -> c -> d.

3. Computational Geometry
A. Basics of Computational Geometry

Computational Geometry is a branch of computer science that focuses on designing algorithms

to solve geometric problems.

Key Characteristics:

●​ Deals with geometric objects in 2D and 3D space.​

●​ Uses mathematical techniques to solve geometric problems.​

Types of Computational Geometry:

1.​ Combinatorial Computational Geometry – Studies geometric objects and their

arrangements.​

2.​ Numerical Computational Geometry – Involves numerical techniques for solving

geometric problems.​

B. Applications:

●​ Computer Graphics & Gaming – Collision detection, 3D rendering.​

●​ Robotics & Path Planning – Obstacle avoidance, self-driving cars.​

●​ GIS (Geographic Information Systems) – Mapping, shortest path analysis.​

●​ CAD (Computer-Aided Design) – 3D object modeling.​

●​ Image Processing – Shape recognition, object detection.​

Example:
 ●​ Convex Hull Algorithm:​
A convex hull is the smallest convex polygon that contains all the points. It is important
in areas like robotics and pathfinding.​

○​ For a set of points in 2D, you can use the Graham Scan algorithm to find the
convex hull in O(n log n) time.​

4. Network Models
A. Basics of Network Models

A Network Model defines how data is structured, transmitted, and managed in a computer
network. The two primary models are:

1.​ OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model – Standardized into 7 layers.​

2.​ TCP/IP Model – Practical model used for the Internet.​

OSI Model (7 Layers):

1.​ Physical Layer – Deals with raw data transmission.​

2.​ Data Link Layer – Error detection, MAC addressing.​

3.​ Network Layer – IP addressing, routing.​

4.​ Transport Layer – End-to-end communication (TCP, UDP).​

5.​ Session Layer – Manages sessions between devices.​

6.​ Presentation Layer – Data formatting, encryption.​

7.​ Application Layer – Web services, email, file transfers.​

B. Types of Networks

1.​ PAN (Personal Area Network) – Small-scale, like Bluetooth, smart devices.​

2.​ LAN (Local Area Network) – Office, school networks.​

3.​ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – Covers cities, campuses.​

4.​ WAN (Wide Area Network) – Internet-scale networking.​

Network Topologies:

1.​ Bus – Single communication line.​

2.​ Star – Central hub with connected devices.​

3.​ Ring – Closed-loop structure.​

4.​ Mesh – Every device is interconnected.​

5.​ Hybrid – Combination of different topologies.​

C. Applications of Network Models

●​ Internet Communication – Web browsing, video conferencing.​

●​ Cloud Computing – Remote data access and storage.​

●​ Online Banking – Secure financial transactions.​

●​ IoT (Internet of Things) – Smart home automation.​

●​ Cybersecurity – Firewalls, VPNs for secure communication.