CROP PRODUCTION III

(NURSERY PRACTICES)

Introduction

*Planting materials are either planted directly in a seedbed or indirectly through a nursery bed.

-A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive planting materials.
-A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for raising seedlings or
planting materials before transplanting.
-It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of seedlings to be raised.
-A seedling bed is a special type of nursery bed used for raising seedlings pricked out from the nursery
bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting.
-Pricking out refers to the removal of seedlings from a nursery bed to a seedling bed.
Nursery practices refer to all the activities carried out throughout a nursery life to raise seedlings.

Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop Production

To facilitate the production of many seedlings in a small area.

It is easy to carry out management practices in a nursery than in the seedbed.
It facilitates the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that are easily transplanted.
It ensures transplanting of only healthy and vigorous growing seedlings.
It reduces the period taken by the crop in the field.
Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold to earn income.

Selection of a Nursery Site

Factors to consider;

Nearness to the water source.

Type of soil.-should be well drained, deep and fertile, preferably loam soil.
Topography.-it should be situated on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion through surface run-
off.
Previous cropping.-to avoid buildup of pests and diseases associated with particular plant families,
consider the preceding crops.
Security.-select a site that is protected from theft and destruction by animals.
Protection against strong winds and heat of the sun.-select a sheltered place. i.e. to avoid excessive
evapotranspiration and uprooting seedlings
Types of Nurseries

Categories of nurseries:

· Vegetable Nursery:

Ø They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops.

Ø Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinjals and peppers.

· Vegetable Propagation Nurseries:

Ø They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are transplanted,

Ø The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called bare root nurseries.

Ø Or planted into containers such as pots, polythene bags and others, hence called containerized
nurseries.

· Tree Nurseries:

Ø These are used for raising tree seedlings.

Ø The seedlings can be raised in bare root nurseries or in containerized nurseries.

Nursery Management Practices:

These are the practices carried out in the nursery while the planting materials are growing.
They include:

Mulching. –light mulch should be applied on the nursery bed. It be should be removed on the 4th day
Weed control.
Shading.
Pricking out.
Pests and disease control.
Hardening off
Watering.
Preparation of vegetative materials for planting:
· Cuttings -These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce roots and used as
planting materials.

· Grafting

Ø It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems.

Ø The part bearing the roots is referred to as root stock while the part which is grafted onto the rootstock
is known as scion.

Ø The scion has buds which develop into the future plant.

Ø The ability of the rootstock and the scion to form a successful union is termed as compatibility.

Methods of Grafting

· Whip or tongue grafting:

Ø In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same.

Ø It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and the rootstock is 'pencil' thick.

· Side grafting: In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than that of the scion.

Other types of grafting include;

· Approach grafting,

· Notch grafting

· Bark grafting.

Budding:

· It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant.

· The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood.

· The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock.

· It is held tightly on the stock by tying with a budding tape until it produces a shoot.

Methods of Budding:

· T-budding

· Top budding

· Patch budding.
Importance of Budding and Grafting:
· Plants with desirable root characteristics but with undesirable products may be used to produce
desirable products for example lemon-orange graft.
· They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirable
They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant.
They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way.
They help to shorten the maturity period.
Layering
It is the process by which a part of a plant is induced to produce roots while still attached to the mother
plant.
Once the roots have been produced, the stem is then cut off and planted.
Types of layering;

Marcotting or aerial layering.

Tip layering.
Trench layering.
Compound or serpentine.

Tissue Culture for Crop Propagation

· Tissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants.

· It is based on the ability of plant tissue (or cells) to regenerate other parts of the plant.

· The tissues are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing rapid cell division and are not
differentiated.

· The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to multiply and develop
roots.
The Right Conditions for tissue culture:
Culture medium.
Correct temperature.
Correct light intensity and
Correct relative humidity.
Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation

· It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases.
·It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules.
It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which requires a bigger space.
Transplanting Seedlings
Transplanting of vegetable and tree seedlings are generally the same.
Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month old or have 4 -6
leaves or are about 10-15cm in height.
Before transplanting, the nursery bed is adequately watered 3 - 4 hours before lifting the seedlings.
This ensures the seedlings are lifted easily with a ball of earth around the roots to minimize root damage.
Tree seedlings take a little longer to reach transplanting age compared to vegetable crop seedlings.
The roots are trimmed before lifting the seedlings.
Transplanting should be done at the onset of the long rains to give the young trees a good start.
After transplanting the young trees should be protected from damage by animals for a period of about one
year.

CROP PRODUCTION IV (FIELD PRACTICES I)

INTRODUCTION
Field practices are activities carried out on the field to facilitate proper growth and maximum yield of the
various crops grown.

They include the following:

Crop Rotation

Mulching

R0uting field practices

Crop protection

Harvesting

Crop Rotation

This is the growing of different types on the same piece of land in different seasons, in an orderly
sequence.

Importance of Crop Rotation

· Maximizes use of nutrients and moisture.

· Breaks the life cycle of pests and disease agents.

Maintains good soil structure.

Reduces soil erosion due to adequate soil cover.

· Controls weeds that are specific to certain crops e.g. striga on cereals

Improves soil fertility when legumes are included in crop rotation.

Factors Influencing Rotational Programme

 Growth habits and nutrient req uirements.

Liability to soil erosion.

Crops attacked by the same pests and diseases should not follow one another in the programme.

Availability of capital and market for example beans or peas in legumes.

Mulching

This is the placement of materials such as banana leaves or polythene sheets on the ground next to the
growing crop.

These materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop as they may encourage pest attack.

Importance of Mulching

Reduction of evaporation rate.

Smothers weeds.

Moderation of soil temperature.

Reduction of speed of run offs.

Types of Mulching Materials

Organic mulching materials such as;

Ø Sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulps, rice husks,

Ø Dry grass, banana leaves, dry maize stalk, napier grass.

Inorganic or synthetic materials commonly used are either black or transparent polythene sheets.

Advantages of Mulching

Prevents water evaporation thus maintaining moisture in the soil for crop use.

Acts as an insulator thus modifying the soil temperature.

It helps to control soil erosion.

It controls weeds by suppressing them.

After decomposition organic mulch add nutrients to the soil thus improving its fertility.

Humus produced after the decomposition of organic mulch improves soil structure and the water holding
capacity of the soil.

Disadvantages of Mulching
 It is a fire risk.

Provides a breeding ground as well as a hiding place for pests that finally may attack the crops.

Traps the light showers of rainfall thus lowering the chances of rain drops reaching the soil.

It is expensive to acquire, transport and apply.

ROUTINE FIELD PRACTICES

THINNING

· Removal of excess, weak, damaged or diseased seedlings.

· Allows the remaining seedlings to get enough nutrients and moisture.

It is aimed at obtaining optimum plant population.

Gapping

· Filling the gaps so as to maintain proper plant population.

Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings.

It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plants

Rogueing

This is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant.

The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant.

Pruning

Removal of extra unwanted parts of the plant.

Reasons for pruning are:

To remove old, unproductive or diseased, damaged parts of the plant.

To train plants to take a desirable shape for example formative pruning in tea.

To control crop leave ratio hence avoiding overbearing.

To control diseases and pests for example antestia bugs in coffee.

To facilitate other operations such as spraying, picking and seeding.

To reduce wastage of chemicals applied on the crop.

To remove branches that interfere with traffic, telephone lines and view.
Open up the plant to allow free air circulation and exposure of leaves to sunlight.

Note: Tools used are secateur, pruning saw and pruning knife.

 Earthing-up
 This is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant.
 It is mostly carried out in tuber crops such as Irish and sweet potatoes to improve tuber formation.
 It is also carried out in groundnuts and maize.
 In groundnuts it promotes production of pods while in maize it provides support to prevent
lodging.

Crop Protection

Weed Control

Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted, that is a plant out of place.

Such plants include blackjack, couch grass, thorn apple and Mcdonald's eye.

Such plants should be eradicated or controlled using recommended methods.

Pest Control

Crop pests are living organisms that are harmful to the crops.

They include; insects, nematodes, rodents, thrips and mites.

They cause great damage to crops in the field and stored produce.

Control of Crop Diseases

A disease is any alteration in the state of an organism and functions of a plant or its parts.

Disease causing organisms are known as pathogens.

They include fungi, viruses and bacteria.

Diseases caused by fungi are referred to as fungal diseases while those caused by viruses and bacteria are
referred to as viral and bacterial respectively.

Harvesting

It is the gathering or of the farm produce after maturity.

Time of harvesting depends on:

 Stage of maturity of the crops.

 Use of the crop.
 Tastes and preferences of consumers.
 Weather conditions, hence liability to spoilage.
  Moisture.

Methods of harvesting is determined by:

Scale of farming for example large scale farming machines are used.

Type of crop for example pyrethrum is harvested by hand.

Uniformity in ripening of the crop for example wheat is harvested by use of combined harvester while
coffee is harvested by hand.

Uniformity in height of the crop and size of seed, fruits and flowers.

Financial status of the farmer.

Part of the plant to be harvested.

Post-Harvest Practices

These are the preparations carried out on crop produce before it gets to the consumer. They include;

 Threshing/shelling.
 Drying.
 Cleaning.
 Sorting and grading.
 Dusting.
 Processing.
 Packaging.

STORAGE

Purpose of storage is to;

 Prevent spoilage
 Make the produce available for future use
 To await good market prices.

Requirements for proper store are:

a. It should be clean.
b. It should be well ventilated.
c. It should be raised from the ground to prevent damp conditions.
d. It should be dry.
e. It should be strong to hold crop produce.
f. It should be easy to clean.
g. It should be vermin-proof.
h. It should be secure from theft.
 i. It should be treated against pests such as weevils.

Types of Storage

Traditional storage structures.

Modern storage structures.

Preparation of the Store

Cleaning the store.

Maintenance

Dusting the store with appropriate chemicals.

Clearing the vegetation around the store to keep off vermin.

CROP PRODUCTION V: (VEGETABLES)

Introduction

· A vegetable is any crop that is grown and eaten fresh.

· Vegetables are important both for nutritional and commercial reasons.

· They are categorized on the basis of the part used as food.

· Such parts include;

Ø Leaves,

Ø Stems,

Ø Roots,

Ø Fruits,

Ø Flowers,

Ø Pods

Ø Bulbs.
Vegetables are grouped into the following categories:

· Leaf vegetables for example kales and cabbages.

· Root vegetables for example carrots, beets, radishes and turnips.

· Fruit vegetables for example French beans and okra.

· Stem vegetables for example asparagus, leeks and spring onions.

· Bulb vegetables for example bulbed onions and garlic.

Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)

· Tomatoes are fruit vegetables widely grown in Kenya.

· The ripe fruit may be eaten raw cooked or processed to make tomato sauces, juices and pastes.

Ecological Requirements

· Altitude: 0-2100m above sea level.

· Rainfall: 7S0-1300mm per annum.

· Soils: deep, fertile and well drained.

Varieties

· Fresh market varieties:

Ø Money maker,

Ø Marglobe, hundred fold,

Ø Beefeater,

Ø Hot set,

Ø Super marmande

Ø Ponderosa.

· Processing varieties:

 Ø Kenya beauty,
 Ø San -marzano,
 Ø Roma,
 Ø Heinz 13S0,
 Ø Primabel,
 Ø Rutgers hybrid
 Ø Cal- J.
Nursery Practice

· Choose a site which has not been grown Solanaceae crop in the last three years.

· Nursery beds are raised about 15cm above the ground level.

· Make drills of 20cm apart and 1cm deep drill and cover the seeds.

· Provide shade or mulch material.

· Water twice a day.

· Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting.

Seedbed Preparation

· The land should be dug deeply to control weeds.

Transplanting

· Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-15cmhigh after about one month.

·Holes are made at a spacing of 60cm x 90cm.

· Apply 20gm of DSP in the planting hole.

· Transplant with a ball of soil around the roots.

· Apply mulch around each seedling.

· Transplanting is normally in the evening or on a cloudy day.

Field Maintenance

· Early control of weeds is necessary.

· Top dressing is done after crop establishes.

· Pruning and staking are done to train the plants to grow vertically.

Pests Controls

· American Bollworm

Ø Nature of damage: boring holes on the fruits.

Ø Control: spraying insecticides.

· Tobacco White Fly

Ø Nature of damage: suck plant sap from the underside of the leaf, hence may transmit viral diseases.

Ø Control: Destroy infected plant and spray insecticides.

Disease Control

· Late Blight

Ø Cause: Fungus

Ø Symptoms: dry patches on the leaves and fruits.

Ø Control: use of fungicides, crop rotation and destruction of affected materials.

· Blossom-end Rot

Caused by;

Ø Too much nitrogen in early stages.

Ø Irregular or infrequent watering.

Ø Calcium deficiency.

Ø Control: Apply calcium ammonium nitrate and correction of the above problems.

Harvesting

For canning, fruits should be fully ripe.

For fresh market, fruits should be partially ripe and packed in crates to avoid damage.

The fruits should be graded according to;

Ø Size,

Ø Colour,

Ø Ripeness

Ø Freedom from blemishes.

Cabbage

It is a leaf vegetable related to other brassica crops such as kales, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage and
Brussels sprouts.

Cabbage leaves may be eaten raw in salads, steamed, boiled or cooked in a variety of ways.

The leaves can also be fed to livestock.

Ecological Requirements
Altitude:

Ø Those with small heads: 900-1500m above sea level

Ø Those with Large heads: 1800-2700m above sea level.

Temperature: require cool condition.

Rainfall:

Ø 750-2000mm per annum.

Ø Should be well distributed throughout the growing period.

Soils:

Ø Deep,

Ø Fertile

Ø Well drained.

Varieties

Early maturing:

Ø Brunswick,

Ø Sugar loaf,

Ø Early jersey,

Ø Copenhagen market,

Ø Chinese cabbage,

Ø Celery cabbage,

Ø Cafe splits kool

Ø Gloria, mukuki,

Ø Golden acre .

Late maturing:

Ø Drumhead,

Ø Savoy,

Ø Perfection,
Ø Winningstadt.

Nursery Practices

 The beds should be raised, dimension 1 m wide and any convenient length (usually 2-3m in
length).
 Make drills of 15-20cm apart.
 Sow seeds by drilling and cover to a depth of 1 cm.
 Provide shade or mulch material.
 Apply phosphatic fertilizers and mix thoroughly with soil during planting.
 Water twice a day.

Seedbed Preparation

 Cultivation should be done during the dry season so that all the weeds are killed.
 Dig holes at the spacing of 60cm x 60cm.
 Incorporate farm yard manure in the soil.

Transplanting

 Water the seedlings before uprooting.

 Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month that is when they are 1O-15cm in height.
 Select healthy and vigorous seedlings.
 Transplant the seedlings with balls of soil to prevent root damage.
· Plant to the same depth as they were in the nursery.

Field Maintenance

 Apply fertilizers during planting and top dress later.

 Control weeds to reduce competition.

Pest Control

Diamond Black Moth

Ø Damage: Eats the underside of the leaf making windows or holes in the leaf.

Ø Control: Spray recommended insecticides.

Cutworms

Ø Cause: Bacteria

Ø Symptoms: Leaves turn yellow and rotting of the stem giving an offensive odour,

Ø Damage: Attacks the stem at the ground level causing he plant to fall.

Ø Control: Spray recommended insecticides.

Disease Control

Black Rot

Ø Control: Closed season, crop rotation, use certified seeds and spray appropriate chemicals.

Black Leg

Ø Cause: Fungus

Ø Symptoms: Brown to black spots on seedlings and dark canker on the stem.

Ø Control: crop rotation, destroy infected materials.

Harvesting

Cabbages are ready for harvesting 3-4 months after transplanting.

The heads are cut when they are solid and compact.

Harvested cabbages are sold immediately.

Carrots (Daucus carota)

It is a root vegetable grown in the cool areas of Kenya.

It is commonly eaten raw in salads but can also be cooked.

Ecological Requirements

Altitude: 0-2,900m above sea level.

Rainfall:

Ø 750 - 1,000mm.

Ø Well distributed throughout the growing period.

Soils:

Ø It requires deep,

Ø Fine tilth

Ø Well drained soils that are free from obstacles to allow for root expansion.

Temperatures: it requires cool to warm temperatures as very high temperatures result in the production
of pale and short roots.

Varieties

Fresh market varieties for example Chantenay and Nantes.

Canning varieties for example Nantes

Fodder varieties for example Oxhast.

Land Preparation

i. The field should be well dug to a depth of about 20cm.

ii. The soil clods should be broken to give a fine tilth before planting.
iii. Manure should not be applied as it induces forking which reduces the crop quality.

Planting

1. Carrots are planted directly into the main seedbed.

2. Seeds are drilled into rows made 20-30cm apart.
3. The seeds are then covered lightly and the soil pressed down.
4. 90kg/ha of DSP should be applied at planting time in the drills.
5. It should be mixed well with the soils before placing the seeds.

Field Practice

· Thinning -- it is done 2 weeks after germination.

· Weed control- the field should be kept weed free.

· Earthing up should be done while weeding to encourage root expansion ..

Topdressing: after weeding 60kg of nitrogen per hectare should be applied as top dress.

Irrigation - this should be carried out where or when there is not enough rainfall.

Pest Control

Carrots do not have many field pests except the green aphids.

These can be controlled by use of the appropriate pesticides.

Disease Control

Occasionally attached by the mildews especially in wet and humid environment.

Thinning can be done to reduce humid conditions.

Harvesting and Marketing

Carrots are ready for harvesting 3-5 months after planting depending on the variety.

They are lifted from the soil and sold fresh or canned.

Onions (Allium cepa)

Onions are bulb vegetables grown in the warm areas of Kenya.

They are used as a vegetable in salads and for flavouring foods, soups and stews.

Ecological Requirements

Altitude: 0-2, 100m above sea level.

Rainfall:

Ø 1,000mm of rain per year

Ø Irrigation in dry areas .

Soils:

Ø Requires well drained fertile soils

Ø pH of 6.0 - 7.0 .

Temperatures:

Ø Onions are a warm climate crops.

Ø However, some varieties prefer cool conditions.

They require a fairly long dry period for ripening.

Varieties

i. Red creole,
ii. Tropicana hybrid
iii. White creole.

Land Preparation

The land should be well prepared leaving a fine tilth.

Farm yard manure at 40 - 50 tonnes per hectare should be applied and mixed well with the soil.

Planting

Direct: Seeds are drilled in rows 30cm apart and 8cm within the rows. 20kg/ha of DSP fertilizer is used.

Indirect: Seeds are established in the nurseries before transplanting them in rows 30cm apart and 8 cm
within the rows.

Shallow planting is recommended for bulb expansion.

Field Management Practices

ThinningIt is carried out only in the crop that has been directly planted so as to achieve spacing of 8cm
between two plants within the row.
The thinned plants referred to as spring onions are used as vegetables in salads.

Topdressing

Calcium ammonium nitrate at the rate of 250kg per hectare is recommended for topdressing onions.

This is done 3 months after planting.

Pest Control

Onion Thrips:

These cause silvering and withering of leaves from the tips downwards.

They are controlled by spraying with appropriate insecticides such as Diazinon or fenthion.

Disease Control

Purple Blotch and Downey Mildew

· Purple blotch;

Ø Characterized by oval greyish lesions with purple centres on leaves.

Ø This causes leaf curling and die back.

· Downey mildew;

Ø Characterized by brown spores covering the leaves leading to death of the whole plant.

Ø The two diseases are effectively controlled by crop rotation and application of appropriate fungicides.

Harvesting and Marketing

Onions are ready for harvesting 5 months after planting.

When leaves start drying the tops are broken or bent at the neck.

This hastens the withering of the stems.

The bulbs are then dug out and left to dry in a shade for a few days.

Onions are graded according to size and marketed in nets of about 14 -16kgs.
 LIVESTOCK HEALTH I

(INTRODUCTION TO LIVESTOCK HEALTH)

Introduction
Health is the state of the body in which all the organs and systems are normal and functioning normally.

Disease is any deviation from the normal health of the animal.

Importance of Keeping Livestock Healthy:

o Healthy animals give high income due to low treatment costs.

 The productive life span of a healthy animal is longer.
 High production.
 Healthy animals can multiply regularly.
 Healthy animals give high quality products for example eggs.
 Safety of consumers of livestock products.

Predisposing Factors to Livestock Diseases

· These are conditions within or around the animal that make it easy for an animal to contract a
disease.

They include:

· Animal factors such as;

Ø species,

Ø breed,

Ø age,

Ø sex

Ø colour of the animal.

· Environmental factors such as;

Ø chilling,

Ø being rained on,

Ø exposure to hot sun

Ø dampness.

Management factors such as;

Ø poor feeding,

Ø housing

Ø handling

Ø hygiene,

Ø overcrowding .

Signs of ILL-Health in Livestock

· Abnormal behaviour for example separation from the rest of the herd and restlessness.

· Abnormal posture for example limping and lameness.

Alimentary canal disfunction such as blood stained faeces and abnormal defecation, diarrhoea and
dysentery.

Urination: high frequency or too low and having strange colour.

· Skin: rough with scaly skin, blisters on the skin and hair loss.

Causes of Diseases

Pathogenic causes ;

Ø viruses,

Ø rickettsia,

Ø bacteria,

Ø protozoa

Ø fungi.

Physical causes;

Ø fractures,

Ø dislocation,

Ø sprains .

Nutritional disorders for example milk fever.

Chemical causes for example poisoning by agrochemicals.

Categories of Diseases

Notifiable diseases ;
Ø These are diseases which cause high economic losses.

Ø Any case should be reported to the Chiefs, D.O.s, veterinary officers or the police.

Tick-borne diseases - Transmitted by ticks.

Breeding diseases - Transmitted through mating.

Nutritional diseases for example milk fever and bloat.

Parasitic diseases for example ascariosis.

General Methods of Disease Control

Quarantine.

Vaccination.

Control of vectors by use of acaricides and rotational grazing.

Disinfecting the equipment and buildings.

Use of preventive drugs.

Proper feeding of livestock.

Culling of the animals which are carriers/slaughtering the affected animals.

Use of artificial insemination to control breeding diseases.

Proper selection and breeding of animals.

Proper housing and hygiene,

Isolating sick animals.

Appropriate Methods of Handling Livestock

Animals are handled for the following reasons:

When inspecting the animal to ascertain any abnormality or signs of diseases.

When administering any form of treatment such as drenching, injection and mastitis control.

When spraying or hand dressing the animal with chemicals to control external parasites.

When milking the animal.

· When performing some of the management practices such as dehorning, disbudding, castration,
hoof trimming .

When carrying out these activities animals should be restrained in a crush.

Other methods of restraining animals include the use of;

halters, bull ring ropes, lead stick.

LIVESTOCK HEALTH II (PARASITES)

INTRODUCTION
· A parasite is an organism which obtains its livelihood from another organism (host) which suffers
damage.

· Parasitism is the association between a parasite and a host

The effects of parasite on the host animal are:

· Depriving the host of its food.

· Sucking blood.

· Damaging the organs of the host.

· Cause irritation on the skin of the host.

· Destruction of hides and skins.

· Transmission of diseases.

· Cause obstruction in body passages.

General Symptoms of Parasites Infestation:

· Emaciation.

· Pot bellied condition.

· Swellings in the jaw or other areas.

· Rough hair or rough coat.

· Anaemia.

· Diarrhoea.

· Presence of worm segments and blood stains in the defecation.

Types of Parasites

There are two types of parasites:

· External (ecto-parasites

· Internal (endo-parasites)
External parasites are;

· ticks, · tsetse flies, mites, lice, · fleas keds

Life Cycle of tick

· Eggs are laid in cracks on the ground.

· They hatch in 4-6 weeks into larvae which climb on the grass waiting for a passing animal.

One-Host Tick

· This requires one host to complete its life cycle.

· Example: blue tick (Boophilus decoloratus).

· Preferred sites: face, neck, dewlap and side of the body.

· Disease transmitted: Redwater and anaplasmosis.

Two-Host Tick

· This requires two different hosts to complete its life cycle.

· Example: The red legged tick (Rhipicephalus everts)

· Preferred sites: Ears, anus, udder and the tail.

· Disease transmitted: Redwater and east coast fever.

· Example: Bont legged tick (amblyomma spp.)

· Preferred sites: Udder, scrotum and tail switch.

· Disease transmitted: Sweating sickness.

Three-Host Tick

· This requires three hosts to complete its life cycle.

· Example: The brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus)

· Preferred sites: Ears, tail switch and around the eyes.

· Disease transmitted: East coast fever and redwater.

Bont tick transmit heartwater (amblyomma spp.)

Control of Ticks
 o Dipping/spraying/hand dressing with acaricides.
 Rotational grazing.
 Ploughing the land to break the life cycle.
 Hand picking and killing.
 Fencing of the grazing fields to keep off other animals including wild game.
o Burning of grass to kill them in various stages.

Endo-parasites (internal Parasites)

· Endoparasites are helminths.

They can be divided into:

Platyhelminthes/flatworms which include;

Ø Trematodes (flukes

Ø Cestodes (tapeworms).

Nemato-helminthes/nematodes. E.g Roundworms.

General Symptoms of Helminthiasis

Diarrhoea which foul the anal and tail region.

Dullness.

Anaemia.

Big stomach (pot bellied condition).

Presence of worm segments in faeces.

Coughing.

Trematodes (Liver Fluke)

There are two species of flukes:

Ø Fasciola gigantica

Ø Fasciola hepatica.

Fasciola hepatica is more common.

It is commonly found in the liver and bile duct of cattle, sheep and goats.

Liver fluke is a problem in marshy and low lying wet areas.

Life Cycle of the Liver Fluke

· Adult fluke in the liver of the primary host lays eggs.

· Eggs pass through the bile duct into the small intestines and are passed out in faeces onto the
pasture.

· Under moist conditions, they hatch into a miracidium larva which swims about in search of a
secondary host (fresh water snails).

In the snail, it develops through sporocyst, redia and cercaria.

· When it leaves the snail, the cercaria gets encysted on vegetation and becomes metacercaria.

This is swallowed by the primary host with grass.

The young fluke migrates into the liver through blood vessels when it matures.

Control of Liver Fluke

Keep livestock off marshy areas near the rivers/streams/lakes and dams.

Drench affected animals.

Drainage of swampy areas.

Eradicate the intermediate host by use of molluscicides.

Provide water to livestock in elevated troughs.

Tapeworms

There are many species of tapeworms

Eexample;

Taenia solium

Taenia saginata.

The adults live in the small intestines of man (the primary host).

The intermediate host of Taenia solium is pig .

The intermediate host of Taenia saginata is cattle.

Life Cycle of Tapeworm

· Adult tapeworms live in man's intestines where it lays eggs.

· Eggs are passed out with faeces,

· Then they develop an outer covering known as onchosphere.

The eggs are swallowed by intermediate host.

The outer covering is digested and the young worm emerges.

This bores into the blood vessels and is carried to specific muscles such as the tongue, heart, thigh
muscles.

It develops into an encysted form called bladder-worm.

When the animal is killed and meat is eaten raw or in an inadequately cooked form, man gets infected by
the bladder-worm.

In man, the bladder-worm evaginates and attaches itself onto the intestinal wall where it develops into an
adult.

Control of Tapeworms

· Meat should be well cooked before eating.

Use of drugs in primary host.

Meat inspection by meat inspectors/ veterinary officers.

Use of pit latrines by man.

Nematodes (Roundworms)

Common ones are;

Ascaris suum (pig roundworms),

Ascaris lumbricoides found in man and sheep

Haemonchus contortus found in sheep, cattle and goats.

Roundworms are common in warm areas especially in areas where the standards of hygiene and
sanitation are low.

Nature of Damage

Damage is done to the liver and lung tissues as they migrate in the body.

Suck out blood.

Deprive the host of food.

Control of Roundworms

Use of drugs.

Rotational grazing.
Use of proper stocking rates to avoid overgrazing.

Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines.

Livestock Production III (Nutrition)

Introduction
Animals are fed for the purpose of production and body maintenance.

The edible material given to animals is called food.

It is digested, absorbed and· utilized in the body.

Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances contained in the food materials.

Components of Food material

 water,
 protein,
 carbohydrates,
 fats and oils,
 vitamins
 mineral salts.
 Water

Sources

Free water (through drinking)

Bound water (contained in feeds).

Metabolic water (obtained from oxidation of food).

Functions

Regulates body temperature.

Transport agent in the body.

Universal solvent in the body.

Gives shape to the cells (turgidity).

Acts as a lubricant.

Acts as constituent of body fluids.

Factors Determining the Requirements of Water by Livestock

Production level.

Amount of dry matter eaten.

Temperature of the surrounding area.

Type of animal.

Type of food eaten.

Protein

Sources:

· Groundnut cakes,

· cotton seed cakes,

· fish meal,

· meat meal.

Functions:

· Growth of new tissues.

Repair of worn out tissues (body building).

Synthesis of antibodies.

Synthesis of hormones and enzymes.

Production of energy during starvation.

Digestion of Proteins

In non-ruminants, protein digestion takes placed in the stomach.

· Food is subjected to mechanical breakdown through chewing into small particles.

· Protein is acted on by enzymes to turn into amino acid which is assimilated into the bloodstream.

In ruminants, protein digestion initially takes place in the rumen.

· Food is acted on by micro-organisms into microbial protein.

·Later, enzymatic action takes place in the "true stomach" or abomasum where proteins are broken down
into amino acids which are then assimilated into the bloodstream.

Carbohydrates

Sources:
· Cereals,

· tubers

· commercially mixed feeds.

Functions:

Supply energy and heat to the body.

Excess is stored in form of fat for insulation of the body.

Digestion of Carbohydrates

In non-ruminants;

Ø carbohydrate feeds are broken down by chewing into small particles.

Ø Then enzymatic action further breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, fructose and galactose which
are then assimilated into the bloodstream.

In ruminants;

Ø mechanical breakdown of carbohydrate feeds is followed by microbial activities which break down
cellulose into volatile fatty acids.

Ø These are absorbed through the rumen walls.

Ø Some carbohydrates are broken down by enzymatic action in the "true stomach" or abomasum.

Fats and Oils

Sources:

Cotton seeds,

soya beans

groundnuts.

Functions:

Supply energy and heat to the body.

Excess is stored as fat adipose tissues.

Source of metabolic water in the body.

Required for the development of neural system.

Insulator in the body.

Digestion of lipids in Ruminants

· Fats are hydrolysed in the rumen into fatty acids and glycerol.

· Others are fermented into propionic acid,

· The shorter chains are passed to the true stomach where enzymatic action takes place.

Vitamins

Sources

· Green materials,

· dried grass

· fish liver oil.

Functions:

· Protects the body against diseases.

· Regulate the functions of all parts of the body.

It acts as a co-enzyme in the body.

Examples:

Vitamin A, vitamin B2, vitamin C, vitamin E vitamin K.

Minerals

Sources:

Salt licks, · bone meal, legumes ,cereals.

Functions:

Form part of the tissues such as bones and teeth.

Work together with the enzymes.

Act as acid -base balances.

Act as electrolyte in the body.

Regulate osmotic balance in the body.

Examples:

· Calcium, · phosphorus, magnesium, · iron, iodine, sodium chlorine.

Ø Calcium and phosphorus -

· Needed for teeth and bone formation.

· Lack of these minerals leads to rickets, osteomalacia.

Ø Lack of iron leads to anaemia.

Classification of Animal Feed

This is based on nutrient composition:

Roughages.

Concentrates.

Feed additives.

Roughages

Are feeds of low available nutrients per unit weight and high fibre content.

Examples:

· Dry roughages,

· succulent roughages,

· residues from agricultural by products and conserved materials.

Characteristics

Low level of available nutrients.

· Have high level of calcium especially legumes.

Good source of vitamin A.

Have high fibre content.

Concentrates

Are feeds of high available nutrients per unit weight.

Examples:

· Maize germ and bran,

· malt extract,

· milk products,
· soyabeans

· oil seed cakes,

· meat meal,

· bonemeal

· bloodmeal.

Characteristics

Low fibre content.

Feed content is consistently high.

High digestibility of the feed.

High in nutrient content.

Feed Additives

These are substances added to the feed to increase;

· palatability,

· medication

· or hormones to make animals produce more.

There are two types:

· Nutritive additives, such as mineral licks (maclick).

·Non-nutritives additives, such as;

Ø medicants (coccidiostats),

Ø Stilboestrol (used in beef animals)

Ø oxytocin (to increase milk let down).

Functions

Stimulate growth and production.

Improve feed efficiency.

Prevent disease causing organisms.

Compounded Feeds
These are the feeds prepared and mixed by use of machines.

These feeds can be round, pelleted, pencils, cubes or mash.

Poultry feeds can be categorized as:

· Chick mash having 20% D.C.P. given to chicks.

· Growers mash having 16% D.C.P. given to growers.

· Layers mash having 12-15% D.C.P. given to layers.

Meaning of terms used to express feed values

Nutritive ratio (NR):

Ø Is the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fats.

Ø In young animals 1:3:6

Ø In old animals 1:8.

· Crude protein (C.P): Is the total amount of protein contained in a feed.

Digestible Crude Protein (D.C.P): Is the portion of crude protein which an animal is capable of digesting.

Crude Fibre (C.F.):

Ø Is the total amount of fibre contained in a feed.

Ø It is mainly lignin and cellulose.

Digestible Fibre (D.F.): Is the portion of the total fibre contained in a feed which an animal is capable of
digesting.

Dry Matter (D.M.): Is the material left in a feed after water has been removed.

Starch equivalent (S.E.): Is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy as 100kg of that feed.

Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.): Is the sum of all the digestible organic nutrients such as fats,
proteins, carbohydrates and fibre.

Computation of Livestock Rations

· Ration:

Ø Is the amount of food that will provide essential nutrients to an animal in a 24 hour period

Ø to enable that animal to meet its maintenance and production requirements.

· Balanced ration:
Ø Is the ration that contains all the essential nutrients in required amounts and in the right proportion.

· Maintenance ration:

Ø is the portion of a feed required by an animal to continue with the vital body processes with no loss or
gain in weight.

· Production ration:

Ø Is the feed required by animals over and above maintenance ration to enable the animal to produce;

Ø for example; milk, eggs, wool, grow in size, perform work, reproduce and fatten

Steps in ration formulation

Finding out the animal's feed requirement based on body weight.

List all the available feeds, with their nutrient composition and their prices.

Calculate the amount of ingredients required in the ration to meet the animals needs.

Methods used in ration formulation

o Trial and error method

o Pearson’s square method
o Graphical method
o Linear programming(use of computers)

Examples;

Mix a Pigs ration 22% protein using soya bean meal 40% DCP and maize meal containing 8%DCP.

Soya bean meal (14 *100)=43.75kg

32

Maize meal (18*100=56.25kg

32

Digestion and digestive systems

Digestion is the process through which food is broken down into small particles in the alimentary canal
ready for absorption into the blood stream.

Digestion of food in livestock takes place in three stages;

Mechanical breakdown and chewing

Microbial breakdown by bacteria and protozoa in the rumen of ruminants

Chemical breakdown by enzymes.

Rumen

Breakdown of food by micro-organisms and also stores food.

Synthesis of vitamin B-complex.

Synthesis of amino acids from ammonia gas.

Proteins are broken to peptides and amino acids.

Carbohydrates are broken to volatile fatty acids.

Reticulum

Separates large food particles from the small particles.

Retains foreign materials such as stones, hard wood and sand.

Omasum

· Breaks up food by grinding.

Reduction of water content from the feed stuff.

Abomasum:

Enzymatic digestion takes place here ..

Contains some microbes which digest cellulose.

Breaks up food by grinding.

It is also found in non-ruminants.

Comparison Between Digestion in Ruminant and Non-ruminants

Differences

Ruminants

Non -ruminants

l.

Chew the cud.

l.
Do not chew the cud.

2.

Have four stomach chambers-thus

2.

Have one stomach chamber

polygastric.

- thus monogastric.

3.

Regurgitate food.

3.

Cannot regurgitate food once

Can digest cellulose. Have

swallowed.

micro-organisms in the rumen Have no micro-organisms that digest cellulose. in the stomach hence
cannot Have no Ptyalin in saliva hencdigest cellulose except thosno enzymatic digestion in the mouth.
animals with micro-organisms

Most digestion and absorption takesin the caecum place in the rumen.

Have Ptyalin in the saliva hence Have alkaline saliva due to presence enzymatic digestion starts in the
mouth of ammonia.

6.

Most digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestines.

The saliva is neutral pH.

Functions of the Parts of Poultry

· Crop:

Ø Storage of food.

Ø Softening of food by secretions from small glands in the walls.

Proventriculus: Enzymes start the breakdown of food.

· Gizzard:-Crushes and grinds the coarse food (has small grit and gravel).
Comparison Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants

Similarities Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants

Digestion in young ruminants is similar to that in non-ruminants as they do not have a developed rumen-
reticulum complex.

Final protein digestion takes place in the small intestines in both cases.

Water absorption takes place in the colon in both ruminants and non ruminants