Chapter 9

 Memory is the component of a computer or system that stores binary data.

 Importance: In computers, memory must be accessed millions of times per second,
making speed and accuracy critical.
 Modern Semiconductor Memory:
 Available in modules with capacities of several gigabytes (GB).
 A gigabyte is equivalent to one billion bytes.

 Operating Principles:
 Despite the large capacity, modern memory modules operate on the same principles as
smaller units.
 For simplicity, smaller units are often used to illustrate memory concepts.
 Bit:
 The smallest unit of binary data.
 Represents a single binary value (0 or 1).

 Byte:
 An 8-bit unit of data.
 Commonly used in many applications for data handling.
 Can be split into two 4-bit units called nibbles.

 Nibble:
 A 4-bit unit, which is half of a byte.

 Word:
 In Memories: A group of bits or bytes that acts as a single entity, stored in one memory
location.
 In Assembly Language: Specifically defined as two bytes (16 bits).
 Cell:
 Each storage element in a memory that can retain a binary value (1 or 0).
 Referred to as a memory cell.

 Memory Array:
 Composed of arrays of cells.
 Each cell's location is identified by specifying its row and column.

 Example of Memory Arrays:

 8 × 8 Array:
 Contains 64 cells.
 Can be viewed as a 64-bit memory or an 8-byte memory.
 16 × 4 Array:
 Represents a 16-nibble memory.
 64 × 1 Array:
 Represents a 64-bit memory.
 Memory Identification:
 Defined by the number of words it can store
multiplied by the word size.
 Example: A 16k × 8 memory can store 16,384 words
of 8 bits each.
 Memory Terminology:
 The number of words is always a power of 2.
 Common practice to approximate this number (e.g.,
16,384 words as 16k).
 Memory Address:
 The location of a unit of data in a memory array.
 2D Array Addressing:
 Each bit’s address is specified by its row and column in
the array.
 Byte Addressing:
 When organized in bytes, the address of a byte is
typically specified by the row alone.
 Personal computers usually have memory organized in
bytes, meaning the smallest addressable unit is eight
bits (1 byte).
 Example of Memory Organization:
 8 × 8 Memory Chip:
 A small memory chip example, with 64 bits or 8 bytes of capacity.
 The address of a byte in the array is specified by both row and column.
 64-Byte Memory Array:
 An expanded version of the 8 × 8 array, organized as a 3-dimensional
array.
 The smallest accessible group of bits remains eight (1 byte).
•Memory Capacity:
•Capacity Definition: The total number of data units (bits or bytes) that can be
stored.
•Examples:
•In a bit-organized memory (e.g., an 8 × 8 array), the capacity is 64 bits.
•In a byte-organized memory, the capacity is 8 bytes, which also equals 64
bits.In larger arrays like the 64-byte memory array, the capacity is 64 bytes.
•Modern Computer Memory:
•Typically consists of multiple gigabytes of internal memory.
•Data is often transferred and stored as 64-bit words, meaning that all bits in
a specific row are accessed simultaneously.
 Memory Addressing, Write, and Read Operations
 Addressing
 The process of accessing a specified location in memory.
 Purpose: Allows data to be put into (write operation) or retrieved
from (read operation) memory.
 Operation:
 Write Operation: Puts data into a specified address in memory.
 Read Operation: Copies data out of a specified address in
memory.
 The address is selected during both operations by the addressing
process.
 Data Bus
 Is a set of lines that transfers data to and from memory.
 Bidirectional: Data can travel in either direction—into or out of memory.
 Byte-Organized Memories:
 The data bus has at least eight lines to transfer all bits of a byte in parallel.

 Address Bus
 Is a set of lines used to select a memory address by placing a binary code
representing the desired address.
 Address Decoding:
 The address code is decoded internally to select the appropriate memory
location.
 In multiple-array memories, separate decoders are used for rows and columns.
 Capacity Dependence:The number of lines in the address
bus depends on memory capacity.
 Examples:
 15-bit address code: Can select 32,768 locations (2¹⁵).
 16-bit address code: Can select 65,536 locations (2¹⁶).
 32-bit address code: Can select 4,294,967,296 locations
(2³²) or 4 GB.
 Write Operation
 Process:
 Step 1: Address code from the address register is placed on the
address bus.
 Step 2: Address decoder decodes the address and selects the
specified memory location.
 Step 3: Memory receives a write command, and the data byte from
the data register is placed on the data bus.
 Step 4: Data is stored in the selected memory address.
 Outcome: The existing data at that address is overwritten by the
new data byte.
 Read Operation
 Process:
 Step 1: Address code from the address register is placed
on the address bus.
 Step 2: Address decoder decodes the address and selects
the specified memory location.
 Step 3: Memory receives a read command, and a copy of
the data byte is placed on the data bus.
 Step 4: Data byte is loaded into the data register.
 Outcome: The data byte remains stored at the original
memory address (nondestructive read).
 Random-Access Memory (RAM)
 A type of memory where all addresses are accessible in equal time and can be
selected in any order for reading or writing.
 Features:
 Read and Write Capability: RAM allows both reading from and writing to any memory
location.
 Volatility: RAM loses all stored data when power is turned off, making it a volatile
memory.
 Usage: Commonly used for temporary data storage during processing.
 Read-Only Memory (ROM)
 A type of memory where data is stored permanently or semipermanently.
 Features:
 Read-Only: Data can be read but not written; there is no write operation like in RAM.
 Random-Access: Like RAM, ROM is also a random-access memory, but traditionally, RAM
refers to read/write memory.
 Nonvolatility: ROM retains stored data even when power is turned off, making it a
nonvolatile memory.
 Usage: Used for storing firmware and critical system data that does not change frequently.
 Read/Write Memory:
 RAM allows data to be both written into and read from any selected address.
 Data can be accessed in any sequence.

 Write Operation:
 When new data is written into a RAM address, it replaces the data previously stored at that
address.
 Read Operation:
 Reading data from a RAM address does not erase or alter the stored data.
 This is known as a nondestructive read, where the content is copied while remaining
intact.
 Usage:
 RAM is typically used for short-term data storage.
 Volatility: RAM cannot retain data once the power is turned off.
 Read/Write Memory:
 RAM allows data to be both written into and read from any selected address.
 Data can be accessed in any sequence.

 Write Operation:
 When new data is written into a RAM address, it replaces the data previously stored at that
address.
 Read Operation:
 Reading data from a RAM address does not erase or alter the stored data.
 This is known as a nondestructive read, where the content is copied while remaining
intact.
 Usage:
 RAM is typically used for short-term data storage.
 Volatility: RAM cannot retain data once the power is turned off.
 Major Categories of RAM:
1. Static RAM (SRAM):
 Storage Elements: Uses latches to store data.
 Data Retention: Can store data indefinitely as long as DC power is
applied.
 Volatility: Loses stored data when DC power is removed.
 Speed: Faster data access compared to DRAM.
 Types:
 Asynchronous SRAM: Operates independently of the system
clock.
 Synchronous SRAM with Burst Feature: Operates in sync with
the system clock and allows for fast data bursts.
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM):
 Storage Elements: Uses capacitors to store data.
 Data Retention: Cannot retain data for long periods without refreshing
(recharging the capacitors).
 Volatility: Loses stored data when DC power is removed.
 Capacity and Cost: Can store more data than SRAM for a given physical size and
cost due to simpler cell design.
 Types:
 Fast Page Mode DRAM (FPM DRAM): Provides fast access to data within a page.
 Extended Data Out DRAM (EDO DRAM): Improves data transfer speed by overlapping
operations.
 Burst EDO DRAM (BEDO DRAM): Enhances EDO DRAM with burst mode for faster data
transfer.
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): Synchronizes with the system clock for improved
performance.
Static RAM (SRAM) Organization and Operation
 Memory Cell Array:
 SRAM cells are organized in rows and columns.
 Each row shares a common Row Select line, while each column connects to data lines that
serve as both input and output (Data I/O).
 Write Operation:
 A nibble (4 bits) is written into a row by activating the Row Select line and placing data
on the Data I/O lines.
 The Write line is activated to store the data in the selected cells.

 Read Operation:
 The Read line is activated to retrieve the stored data from a selected row, which appears
on the Data I/O lines.
Asynchronous SRAM:
 Operates independently of the system clock.
 In READ mode, data stored in a selected address appears on the data
output lines.
 In WRITE mode, data on the input lines is stored at the selected
address.
•Tri-State Buffers:
 Allow data lines to function as either input or output, connected to the
data bus in microprocessor systems.
 Outputs can be in three states: HIGH (1), LOW (0), or HIGH-Z (open).
 Memory Array Example:
•A 32k × 8 SRAM has 32,768 addresses, each storing 8 bits, totaling 32
kB of memory.
•Address lines are decoded by row and column decoders to access
specific data within the memory array.
 Read Operation:
 WE (Write Enable) is HIGH.
 OE (Output Enable) is LOW.
 Input tri-state buffers are disabled; column output buffers are enabled.
 Data bits from the selected address appear on the data output lines.

 Write Operation:
 WE is LOW.
 OE is HIGH.
 Input tri-state buffers are enabled; output tri-state buffers are disabled.
 Data bits on the data lines are written to the selected address.
Read and Write Cycles
•Read Cycle:
•Address applied for read cycle time (tRC).
•CS and OE go LOW; data appears on the data lines after output enable access time (tGQ).
•Write Cycle:
•Address applied for write cycle time (tWC).
•CS and WE go LOW; data is written after address setup time (ts(A)) and held for data hold
time (th(D)).
•Synchronous SRAM:
•Operates with a system clock, synchronizing all operations with clock edges.
•Flow-through SRAM: No data output register; data flows asynchronously.
•Pipelined SRAM: Has a data output register; data flows synchronously.
•Burst Feature:
•Allows reading or writing up to four sequential locations using a single address.
•Address burst logic generates a sequence of internal addresses based on the initial address and
lowest-order address bits.
 Definition:
 Cache Memory is a small, high-speed memory that stores the most recently used
data or instructions from the larger, slower main memory.
 SRAM is commonly used in cache memory due to its speed, although DRAM can
also be used.
 Purpose:
 To provide faster access to frequently used data and instructions, improving overall
system performance without the high cost of using only fast memory.
 Operation:
 The cache controller predicts which data or instructions the CPU will need next
and loads them into the cache.
 If the prediction is correct, the data is quickly accessible. If incorrect, the CPU has to
access the slower main memory.
•Analogy:
•Cache Memory is like a home refrigerator (cache) that stores frequently used food items for
quick access,
•while the supermarket (main memory) holds all the available food.
•Checking the refrigerator first saves time compared to going to the supermarket.
•Levels of Cache:
•L1 Cache:
•Integrated into the processor chip.
•Very fast but limited in size.
•Known as primary cache.
•L2 Cache:
•May be integrated into the processor or located on a separate chip.
•Larger than L1 cache but slower.
•Known as secondary cache.
•Higher-Level Caches (L3, L4, etc.):
•Some systems include additional caches beyond L1 and L2.
•Disk Cache:
•Used to enhance the performance of hard disks.
•DRAM serves as a cache for slower hard disk drives to speed up data access.
 Fast Page Mode:
 Concept: Allows rapid access to multiple columns within the same row ("page")
by loading the row address once and then toggling CAS for columns.
 Operation:
 Initial Addressing: Load row address with RAS active.
 Column Access: Use CAS to access columns in the selected row. For a 1024-column
memory, CAS must be activated 1024 times to access all columns in a row.
 Refresh Cycles:
 Purpose: Prevent data loss due to charge leakage in DRAM capacitors.
 Types:
 Burst Refresh: Refreshes all rows consecutively at regular intervals (e.g., every 8
ms).
 Distributed Refresh: Refreshes each row at intervals between read/write cycles
(e.g., every 7.8 ms).
 Refresh Methods:
 RAS Only: RAS goes LOW to latch the row address while CAS stays HIGH.
 CAS Before RAS: CAS goes LOW before RAS, activating an internal counter for row
Types of DRAM:
 Fast Page Mode (FPM): Efficiently accesses multiple
columns in the same row.
 Extended Data Out (EDO): Improves speed by keeping
data output active when CAS is not asserted.
 Burst Extended Data Out (BEDO): Adds burst
capability, generating multiple addresses from one
external address.
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): Synchronizes with the
system clock for improved speed and efficiency.
 Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM): Doubles
speed by clocking on both edges of a clock pulse.
•Analogy:
•Cache Memory is like a home refrigerator (cache) that stores frequently used food items for
quick access,
•while the supermarket (main memory) holds all the available food.
•Checking the refrigerator first saves time compared to going to the supermarket.
•Levels of Cache:
•L1 Cache:
•Integrated into the processor chip.
•Very fast but limited in size.
•Known as primary cache.
•L2 Cache:
•May be integrated into the processor or located on a separate chip.
•Larger than L1 cache but slower.
•Known as secondary cache.
•Higher-Level Caches (L3, L4, etc.):
•Some systems include additional caches beyond L1 and L2.
•Disk Cache:
•Used to enhance the performance of hard disks.
•DRAM serves as a cache for slower hard disk drives to speed up data access.
 A ROM contains permanently or semi-permanently stored
data.
 Can be read from the memory but either cannot be
changed at all or cannot be changed without specialized
equipment.
 A ROM stores data that are used repeatedly in system
applications, such as tables, conversions, or programmed
instructions for system initialization and operation.
 ROMs retain stored data when the power is off and are
therefore nonvolatile memories.
 Mask ROM:
•Data is permanently stored during the manufacturing process.
•Cannot be altered or erased once manufactured.
•Used in applications where the data does not change.
 PROM (Programmable ROM):
•Data is electrically stored by the user with specialized equipment.
•Once programmed, it cannot be erased or reprogrammed.
•Available in both MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) and bipolar technologies.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):
 Strictly a MOS device.
 Data can be erased by exposing the chip to ultraviolet (UV) light for
several minutes.
 Can be reprogrammed after erasure.
UV EPROM:
•A type of EPROM that requires UV light for erasing the data.
•Programmed electrically by the user.
•Has largely been replaced by EEPROM.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM or
E2PROM):
•Data can be erased electrically in just a few milliseconds.
•Allows both erasing and reprogramming without removing the chip
from the circuit.
•More flexible and convenient compared to UV EPROM, making it
the preferred choice in modern applications.
Complex Internal Organization:
•Most IC ROMs have a more complex
structure than basic examples.
•The complexity is necessary for higher
capacity and efficient data access.
Operation:
When an 8-bit address code (A0 through
A7) is applied, a 4-bit data word appears
on the outputs.
The chip select lines (CS0 and CS1) must
be LOW to enable the output buffers.
This architecture is typical of IC ROMs
with various capacities.
 Example of a 1024-bit Device with 256 * 4 Organization:
 Logic Symbol:
 Shown in Figure 11–27.
 When one of 256 binary codes (8 bits) is applied to the address lines, 4 data bits appear on the
outputs if the chip select inputs (CS0 and CS1) are LOW.
 256 addresses require 8 address lines.

 Memory Array Structure:

 Although the 256 * 4 organization implies 256 rows and 4 columns, the actual memory array is a
32 * 32 matrix.
 Row Decoder (Y Decoder):
 Five address lines (A0 through A4) are decoded to select one of the 32 rows.
 Column Decoder (X Decoder):
 Three address lines (A5 through A7) are decoded to select four of the 32 columns.
 The column decoder consists of four 1-of-8 decoders (data selectors).
 Access Time (ta):
 The time interval from when a valid address code is applied to the input lines until valid
output data appears.
 This is a critical performance parameter for ROMs, determining how quickly data can be
retrieved.
 Measurement:
 Access time can also be measured from the activation of the chip select (CS) input to the
occurrence of valid output data, provided that a valid address is already present on the
input lines.
 Typical Timing Diagram:
 Illustrated in Figure 11–29.
 The diagram visually represents the sequence and timing of signals involved in accessing
data from the ROM.
 Programmable ROMs (PROMs) are basically the
same as mask ROMs once they have been
programmed.
 As you have learned, ROMs are a type of
programmable logic device.
 The difference is that PROMs come from the
manufacturer unprogrammed and are custom
programmed in the field to meet the user’s needs.
 Fusing Process in PROMs:
 PROMs use a fusing process to store bits, where a memory link is
either burned open (to represent a '0') or left intact (to represent a
'1').
 This process is irreversible, meaning that once a PROM is
programmed, it cannot be altered.
 Structure of MOS PROM Array:
 Fusible links are placed between the source of each cell's transistor
and its column line.
 During programming, a sufficient current is injected through the
fusible link to burn it open (for a stored '0'). If the link is left intact, it
represents a stored '1'.
 Fuse Technologies in PROMs:
1. Metal Links:
 Made of materials like nichrome.
 Each memory bit is represented by a separate metal link.
 During programming, the link is either blown open by addressing the cell and
forcing sufficient current through it, or left intact.
2. Silicon Links:
 Formed by narrow, notched strips of polycrystalline silicon.
 Programming involves passing enough current through the link to melt it,
causing high temperatures that oxidize the silicon and create insulation around
the now-open link.
3. Shorted Junction (Avalanche-Induced Migration):
 Involves two pn junctions arranged back-to-back.
 Programming involves causing one diode junction to avalanche, leading to
aluminum ions migrating and shorting the junction.
 The remaining junction then acts as a forward-biased diode to represent a data
bit.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
 An EPROM can be reprogrammed after erasing the existing data.
 Uses an NMOSFET array with an isolated-gate structure.
 The isolated transistor gate can store an electrical charge indefinitely.
 Data bits are represented by the presence or absence of a stored gate charge.
 Erasure involves removing the gate charge, typically using ultraviolet (UV) light.
Typical EPROM Operation:
 Logic diagram example in Figure 11–31.
 The device has 2048 addresses (2¹¹ = 2048), each with 8 bits, and tri-state outputs.
 To read memory:
 Output enable (OE) input must be LOW.
 Power-down/program (CE/PGM) input must be LOW.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
 To program or write:A high DC voltage is
applied to VPP.
 OE is set HIGH.
 The data bits are applied to outputs O
through O7.
 The address is selected via inputs A0 through
A10.
 A HIGH level pulse is applied to the CE/PGM
input.
 Programming sequence is shown in the
timing diagram in Figure 11–32.
 Typically programmed using an EPROM
programmer.
Types of Erasable PROMs:
1.EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):
•Can be both erased and programmed electrically.
•Allows for rapid in-circuit reprogramming.
•Two types:
•Floating-Gate MOS: Uses a control gate voltage to store/remove charge on the
floating gate.
•Metal Nitride-Oxide Silicon (MNOS): Another technology for EEPROM.
2.UV EPROM (Ultraviolet Erasable Programmable ROM):
•Recognized by the UV transparent window on the package.
•The isolated gate (floating within an oxide insulating material) is charged or discharged
during programming.
•Erasure is done by exposing the memory array chip to high-intensity UV radiation
through the UV window.
•Erasure typically takes several minutes to an hour.
•Usage Trends:
•UV EPROM is less commonly used now, having been largely replaced by EEPROM due to the
convenience of electrical erasure and reprogramming.
 The ideal memory has high storage capacity, nonvolatility,
in-system read and write capability, comparatively fast
operation, and cost effectiveness.
 The traditional memory technologies such as ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM, SRAM, and DRAM individu ally exhibit
one or more of these characteristics.
 Flash memory has all of the desired characteristics.
 Flash memories are high-density read/write memories (high-density
translates into large bit storage capacity) that are nonvolatile, which
means that data can be stored indefinitely without power.
 High-density means that a large number of cells can be packed into a
given surface area on a chip;
 That is, the higher the density, the more bits that can be stored on a
given size chip.
 This high density is achieved in flash memories with a storage cell that
consists of a single floating-gate MOS transistor.
 A data bit is stored as charge or the absence of charge on the floating
gate depending if a 0 or a 1 is stored.
 Flash Memory Cell Structure:
 The cell consists of a stacked gate MOS transistor, which includes:
 Control Gate: Used to apply the programming and reading voltages.
 Floating Gate: Stores electrons (charge).
 Drain and Source: Facilitate the flow of current.
 Data Storage:
 A '0' is stored when the floating gate holds more charge.
 A '1' is stored when there is little or no charge on the floating gate.
 The presence of charge on the floating gate affects whether the transistor will turn on and conduct
current from drain to source during a read operation.
 Programming Operation:
 Initially, all cells are in the '1' state (no charge on the floating gate) after an erase
operation.
 Programming adds electrons (charge) to the floating gate of cells intended to store a '0'.
 Cells that store a '1' remain uncharged.
 A sufficient positive voltage is applied to the control gate relative to the source during
programming to attract electrons to the floating gate.
 Once programmed, a cell can retain the charge for up to 100 years without requiring
external power.
 Read Operation:
 Involves applying a control voltage to the control gate to determine if the transistor turns
on, based on the charge on the floating gate.
 Erase Operation:
 Removes charge from the floating gate, resetting the cell to the '1' state.
Read Operation:
 Control Gate Voltage:
 A positive voltage is applied to the control gate during a read operation.
 The charge on the floating gate determines whether the transistor will turn on.

 Stored Data Representation:

 Stored '1':
 If a '1' is stored, the control gate voltage is sufficient to turn on the transistor, allowing current to flow from drain
to source.
 The presence of current indicates a '1'.
 Stored '0':
 If a '0' is stored, the negative charge on the floating gate opposes the control gate voltage, preventing the
transistor from turning on.
 The absence of current indicates a '0'.

 Voltage Opposition:
 The charge on the floating gate acts as a voltage source opposing the control gate voltage.
 For a stored '0', this opposition prevents the control gate voltage from reaching the turn-on threshold.
Erase Operation:
 Charge Removal:
 During erasure, charge is removed from all memory cells.

 Voltage Application:
 A positive voltage is applied to the transistor source relative to the control gate, opposite
in polarity to the programming operation.
 This voltage attracts electrons from the floating gate, depleting it of charge.

 Reprogramming:
 Flash memory must be erased before it can be reprogrammed.
 Array Access:
 The simplified array structure shows that only one row line is accessed at a time.

 Current Flow in Bit Lines:

 Stored '1':
 When a cell with a stored '1' is accessed, the transistor turns on, causing current flow through the
bit line, creating a voltage drop across the active load.
 This voltage drop is compared to a reference voltage in a comparator circuit, producing an output
level indicating a '1'.
 Stored '0':
 If a '0' is stored, there is little or no current in the bit line, resulting in an opposite level on the
comparator output.
 Compact Storage Medium:
 Utilizes flash memory technology in a small physical
form, typically smaller than a stick of chewing gum.
 Available in capacities up to 64 GB and often includes a
PC card adaptor.
 Ideal for use in small digital electronics like laptops and
digital cameras due to its compact design.
Flash vs. ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM:
 ROM (Read-Only Memory):
 High-density, nonvolatile, but once programmed, the contents cannot be altered.
 Programming ROM is time-consuming and costly.

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):

 Can be reprogrammed without removal from the system, but has a more complex cell structure
leading to lower density and higher cost per bit compared to ROM and EPROM.
 UV EPROM (Ultraviolet Erasable Programmable ROM):
 High-density, nonvolatile, but requires removal from the system and exposure to UV light for
erasure and reprogramming.
 Flash Memory:
 Can be easily reprogrammed in the system, similar to EEPROM but with higher density due to
single-transistor cells.
 Nonvolatile, like ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM, allowing data to be stored indefinitely without
power.
•Flash vs. SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory):
•SRAM:
•Volatile READ/WRITE memory requiring constant power to retain data.
•Often used with battery backup to prevent data loss, but indefinite data retention is
not guaranteed due to potential battery failure.
•SRAM cells are low-density, consisting of several transistors arranged as a flip-flop.
•Flash Memory:
•Nonvolatile READ/WRITE memory with much higher density than SRAM.
•Does not require constant power for data retention.
•.
•Flash vs. DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory):
•DRAM:
•Volatile, high-density READ/WRITE memory requiring constant power and frequent refreshing of data.
•DRAM cells consist of one transistor plus a capacitor, which contributes to
lower density compared to flash memory.
•Often used with backup storage like hard disks
 Flash Memory:Higher density than DRAM, with cells consisting of only one transistor.

 Does not require refreshing and consumes much less power.

 Can be used as a hard disk replacement in various applications.

 USB Flash Drive Structure:
 Consists of a flash memory connected to a standard USB connector.
 Housed in a small case, typically about the size of a cigarette lighter.
 Plugs into a personal computer's USB port and draws power from the computer.

 Storage Capacity:
 USB flash drives are rewritable and have storage capacities ranging up to 512 GB, with common capacities
ranging from 2 GB to 64 GB.
 Storage capacities are constantly increasing as technology advances.

 USB Connector Types:

 USB A-Type Connector:
 Standard connector used for connecting to computers.
 USB B-Type Connector:
 Used for peripherals like printers, with a different shape and physical pin configuration.

 USB Icon:
 The USB icon, often found on devices and ports, indicates the connection point for USB devices.