Dr.

Snigdha Samanta
⦿ Series of changes that takes place during the
development of an insect from egg to adult are
collectively known as metamorphosis.

⦿ Metamorphosis is derived from Greek word ‘Meta’ =

Change, ‘morph’ = form or structure.

⦿ Metamorphosis include three developmental

processes namely growth, differentiation and
reproduction which takes place in larval, pupal and
adult stages respectively.
 Types of Metamorphosis
1. Ametamorphosis/Ametabola

2. Hemimetabola

3. Paurometabola

3. Holometabola

4. Hyper metamorphosis/Hypermetabola
The insect hatches from the egg, it
resembles the adult in all the characters
except the small body size, which later
increases, until they reach sexual maturity
with well developed reproductive organs.
e.g.: Apterygotes like silver fish, springtails
⦿ Includes egg, naiad and adult
stages.
⦿ The naiad is very different
from the adult in appearance.
⦿ Wing buds transform in to
fully developed wings in adult.
⦿ Wings develop externally and
hence Exopterygota.
⦿ Pupal stage is absent hence,
development is said to be
direct.
e.g. Dragonfly, damselfly,
stonefly and may fly.
⦿ The young ones are called
nymphs.
⦿ They are terrestrial and resemble
the adults in general body form
except the wings and external
genitalia.
⦿ Their compound eyes and mouth
parts are similar to that of adults.
⦿ Both nymphs and adults share the
same habitat.
⦿ Wing buds externally appear in
later instars.
⦿ The genitalia development is
gradual.
⦿ Later instar nymphs closely
resemble the adult with
successive moults.
⦿ e.g. Cockroach, grasshopper,
bugs, aphids etc..
⦿ The life cycle includes four stages; egg,
larva, pupa and adult.
⦿ Larva differs from the adult both in body
structure and habits.
⦿ Larva has both thoracic and abdominal
legs.
⦿ Sometimes legs may be absent in larva,
where as adult has only thoracic legs.
⦿ Compound eyes are absent in larva.
⦿ Larva undergoes moulting to enter in to
pupal stage from which the adult insect
emerges.
⦿ Wings develop internally, hence
Endoptreygota.
⦿ e.g.: Bees, beetles, butterflies, moths,
flies etc.
This is a peculiar type of development which consists of two or more
types or forms of larvae in the life cycle of insects. In majority of the
cases the first larval instar is campodeiform and the subsequent larval
forms depends on type and mode of life of the larva.
E.g.: In blister beetle (Meloidae: Coleoptera).The first larval instar is
campodeiform followed by scarabeiform larval type.

A-triungulin, B-caraboid stage, C-scarabaeidoid stage, D-coarctate larva, E-pupa, F-adult beetle
⦿ It is the period of arrested growth or development in
the life cycle of the insects during which the
physiological processes like differentiation and
reproduction are suspended.

⦿ Diapause is represented by low rate of metabolism, low

oxygen consumption, low body weight, low body water
content and vitamin deficiency in the blood.

⦿ Diapause may occur in egg, larva, nymph, pupa or adult

stage. For example:

⦿ Egg diapause - Bombyx mori

⦿ Larval diapause- Euproctis sp., Pectinophora gossypiella
⦿ Pupal diapause- Red hairy Caterpillar (Amsacta
albistriga)
⦿ Adult diapause- Mango nut weevil (Sternochaetus
mangiferae)
 Types of Diapause
Diapause is of two types

1. Obligatory diapause: It refers to the stage

of suspended activity of the insect which is
a hereditary character controlled by genes
and is species specific. e.g. egg diapause in
silkworm.
2. Facultative diapause: It is the stage of
suspended activity of the insect due to
unfavourable conditions and with the onset
of favourable condition, the insect regains
its original activity. e.g. Cotton pink
bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella.
⦿ The unfavourable conditions may be biotic or
abiotic.
⦿ Biotic conditions are natural enemies,
population density etc.
⦿ Whereas abiotic conditions are temperature,
rainfall, humidity, photoperiod, type of food
material etc.
⦿ The occurrence of diapause during summer due
to high temperatures is known as “aestivation”
⦿ Where as the period of inactivity during winter
due to low temperatures known as
“hibernation”.
 TYPES OF EGGS
a) SINGLY LAID :

1) Sculptured egg : Chorion with reticulate markings

and ridges

e.g. Castor butterfly.

2) Elongate egg : Eggs are cigar shaped.

e.g. Sorghum shoot fly.

3) Rounded egg: Eggs are either spherical or globular.

e.g. Citrus butterfly

4) Nit : Egg of head louse is called nit.

 It is cemented to the base of the hair.

 There is an egg stigma at the posterior end, which assists in

attachment.

 At the anterior end, there is an oval lid which is lifted at time of

hatching.
5) Egg with float :

 Egg is boat shaped with a conspicuous float on either

side.

 The lateral sides are expanded.

 The expansions serve as floats.

e.g. Anopheles mosquito.

 EGGS LAID IN GROUPS
1) Pedicellate eggs : Eggs are laid in silken stalks of about
1.25mm length in one groups on plants. e.g. Green lacewing fly.

2) Barrel shaped eggs : Eggs are barrel shaped. They look like miniature
batteries. They are deposited in compactly arranged masses. e.g. Stink bug.
3) Ootheca (Pl. Oothecae) :
• Eggs are deposited by cockroach in a brown
bean like chitinous capsule.

• Each ootheca consists of a double layered

wrapper protecting two parallel rows of eggs.

• Each ootheca has 16 eggs arranged in two

rows.

4) Egg pod :

• Grasshoppers secrete a frothy material that

encases an egg mass which is deposited in
the ground.

• The egg mass lacks a definite covering.

• On the top of the egg, the frothy substance

hardens to form a plug which prevents the
drying of eggs.
Cont…….

5. Egg case :

Mantids deposit their eggs on twigs in a foamy

secretion called spumaline which eventually
hardens to produce an egg case or ootheca.

Inside the egg case, eggs are aligned in rows

inside the egg chambers.

6. Egg mass:
Moths lay eggs in groups in a mass of its body
hairs. Anal tuft of hairs found at the end of the
abdomen is mainly used for this purpose.
e.g. Rice stem borer.

Female silk worm moth under captivity lays eggs

on egg card. Each egg mass is called a dfl
(diseases free laying).
7. Egg raft :

In Culex mosquitoes, the eggs are laid in a compact mass

consisting of 200-300 eggs called egg raft in water.
ootheca Egg raft

Pedicellate eggs

Eggs of beetles
Based on the degree of morphological development and
possession of legs they are classified into four groups –

1. Oligopod larvae
2. Polypod larvae
3. Apodous larvae.
2. Oligopod Larvae: Have well developed head capsule and
mouthparts are similar to the adult, but without compound eyes.
Thoracic legs are well developed. Abdominal legs and appendages are
absent. It has two (four) sub-types-
1. Campodeiform 2. Scarabaeiform
Body is elongate and
Body is ‘C’ shaped
fusiform
Dorso-ventrally Cylindrical or sub
compressed cylindrical, stout and
with well sclerotized fleshy but poorly
cuticle sclerotized
Prognathous head Hypognathous head
Long thoracic legs Short thoracic legs
Cerci & antennae well
Absent
developed
Inactive (sluggish,
Active burrowing into wood or
soil)
Predatory Phytophagous
Ex: Neuroptera, Trichoptera, e.g.: Scarabidae of
Coleoptera (grub of labybird Coleoptera (grub of
beetle) rhinoceros beetle)
Elateriform larvae:-
Elateriform larvae refer
to a specific type of insect
larva, primarily found in
beetles of the family
Elateridae, commonly
known as click beetles.
Triungulin larvae:- S p e c i a l i z e d t y p e o f i n s e c t l a r v a e
primarily found in beetles in Meloidae
(Blisterbeetle)
it has an elongated body with very well developed legs.
3. Polypod larvae (eruciform): These have well defined
body segmentation. Abdominal legs or prolegs are present.
Antennae and thoracic legs are short; body is cylindrical
and hence often called eruciform larvae. E.g. Larvae of
moths and sawflies.
a) Hairy caterpillar: The body hairs may be dense, sparse or arranged
in tufts. Hairs may cause irritation, when touched. Eg: Red hairy
caterpillar.
b) Slug caterpillar: larva is thick, short, stout and fleshy. Larval head
is small and retractile. Thoracic legs are minute. Abdominal legs are
absent. Abdominal segmentation is indistinct. Larva has poisonous
spines called scoli distributed all over the body. Such larva is also
called platyform larva.
c) Semilooper: Either 3 or 4 pairs of prologs are present.
Prologs are either wanting or rudimentaly in either third or third
and fourth abdominal segments. 5, 6 10th abdominal legs Eg:
Castor semilooper.
d) Looper: They are also called measuring worm or earth
measurer or inch worm. In this type only two pairs of prologs
are present in sixth and tenth abdominal segments. E.g:
Daincha looper.
e) Sphingid caterpillar: Larva consists of a horn on dorsal surface of
8th abdominal segment. Eg: Acherontia styx (Til hawk moth).
4. Apodous Larvae: They are larvae without appendages
for locomotion. Based on the degree of development and
sclerotization of head capsule there are three subtypes.

(i) Eucepalous: Larva with well developed head capsule

with functional mandibles, maxillae, stemmata and
antennae. Mandibles act transversely. e.g. Wriggler
(larva of mosquito) and grub of red palm weevil.
(ii) Hemicephalous: Head capsule is reduced and can be
withdrawn into thorax. Mandibles act vertically.
e.g. Larva of horse fly and robber fly.

(iii) Acephalous: Head capsule is

absent. Mouthparts consist of a
pair of protrusible curved mouth
hooks and associated internal
sclerites. They are also called
vermiform larvae.
e.g. Maggot (larva of house fly).
A. Based on the presence or absence of powerful
mandibles, pupae are of two types-
1. Decticous: Possess relatively powerful mandibles which
are used for escaping of the adult from the cocoon i.e.
to break the cocoon. e.g.: Neuroptera
2. Adecticous: Do not possess the mandibles but with
the help of other appendages, adults escape from the
cocoon. eg: Lepidoptera, Diptera.
B. Based on the attachment on the appendages (or) shape of
the pupae, classified in 3 groups….
1. Exarate: The pupae have appendages which are free
without any secondary attachment to the body. Various
appendages viz., antennae, legs and wing pads are not glued
to the body. They are free. All oligopod larvae will turn into
exarate pupae. E.g.- most of the Coleoptera.
2) OBTECT: Various appendages of the pupa
viz., antennae, legs and wings pads are glued
to the body by a secretion produced during
the last larval moult. Exposed surface of the
appendages are more heavily sclerotised than
those adjacent to body. Eg: moth pupa.
a) Chrysalis: It is the naked obtect pupa of
butterfly. It is angular and attractively
coloured. The pupa is attached to the
substratum by hooks present at the terminal
end of the abdomen called cremaster. The
middle part of the chrysalis is attached to
the substratum by two strong silken threads
called gridle.
b) Tumbler: Pupa of mosquito is called tumbler.
It is an obtect type of pupa. It is comma shaped
with rudimentary appendages. Breathing
trumpets are present in the cephalic end and
anal paddles are present at the end of the
abdomen. Abdomen is capable of jerky
movements which are produced by the anal
paddles. The pupa is very active.

3. COARCTATE: The pupal case is barrel

shaped, smooth with no apparent appendages.
The last larval skin is changed into a case
containing the exarate pupa. The hardened dark
brown pupal case is called puparium.
Eg: Fly pupa.