Corse Code MHC00

M.Div. Study material

Subject: History of Christianity in India
Compiled by Rev. P. S. Chittibabu; Department of History of Christianity. MCT

Chapter I. Methodological Issues

CHAI HISTORIOGRAPHY OR POST INDEPENDENT HISTORIOGRAPHY
The Church History Assosiation of India (CHAI) came forward to write a history of History of
Christianity in India from an Indian perspective. The earlier assumption that Christians have a separate
history as “Indian Church History” is both a distortion of Christian History and distortion of historical
facts. Also most of the historical work investigating Indian Christianity projected the Christian Church in
India as an eastward extension of Western ecclesiastical history. According to KajBaago ‘what was
needed was a history that located the Church firmly in the Indian historical context.’ It must describe
Christian history as a real encounter of the Christian gospel with soul of India, Indian culture, the Indian
Philosophy, and the Indian religion. Therefore the CHAI editorial board proposed to write the history of
Christianity from a wider and a contextual perspective. The CHAI proposed following four important
ingredients in writing the proposed six volume history of Christianity in India.
The new perspective adopted the following four dimensions in writing history.
1). The socio-cultural” The history of Christianity in India is viewed as an integral part of the socio-
cultural history of the Indian people rather than as separate from it. The history will therefore focus
attention upon the Christian people in India;
Upon whom they were and how they understood themselves;
Upon the changes which these encounters produced in them and in their appropriation of the changes
which these encounters produces in them and in their appropriation of the Christian gospel as well as in
the Indian culture and society of which they themselves were a part. This history should provide an
insight into the changing identity of the Christian people of Indian through the centuries.
2) The Regional: The socio-cultural approach commits us largely to using regions or even smaller areas
as our basic working units because of regional, or even local, social and cultural diversities in India.
3). The National: The basic frame work of this study will be national. Not only will the common feature
among regional histories in different periods be explored but also all- India developments will be
described so that regional diversities will not obscure national unities. In , the international contactsand
connections of Christians in India are notto be ignored; they are to be seen in relation to the Indian
history of Christianity.
4). The Ecumenical: Christianity rather than any one section of the Christian Church will form the other
basic frame work for study. Denominational diversities will not be ignored or played down. Both
common features of different denominational experiences in each period and region will be explored, and
the growth of the ecumenical movement in India described so that these basic unities may be seen along
with the diversities.
It is expected that this history will become the standard work in the field; that it will make an important
contribution to the current understanding of the histories of India and of Christianity; that this will be the
most up to date reference work for scholars interested in this field.
Soon after Independence two books on the history of Christianity in India were written with the shift
from earlier methodological historiography. The first one was written in 1952, ‘The Cross over India’ by
Rajaiah D. Paul and the other was ‘Christians and Christianity in India and Pakistan (1954) by P.
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Thomas. Paul emphasized the history of the Indian church rather than of foreign missions and the other
mentioned about the role of Indian church in the ecumenical movement. The CHAI’S historiography got
developed more concretely only in the early 1970s. The first attempt to write history of Christianity in
India from Indian perspective was the editorial work by H.C. Permalil and E.R. Hambye titled
‘Christianity in India’. CHAI launched to write a six volume comprehensive history of Christianity in
India and also publishing its journal named The Indian Church History Review, that presents issues of
Christianity in India.

Chapter II
I. Origin of Christianity in India
The story of the birth, growth and development of Christianity in India is highly interesting and it has
been a subject of special interest among the church historians. Since a long time, it has been established
that the origin of Christianity in India goes back to a very early date. Most of the church historians are of
the opinion that Christianity was brought to India in the first century of Christian era. The very old
tradition of the Malabar Christian of Kerala is a living monument to prove that origin of Christianity goes
back to a very early date.
Christianity moved its expanding tendency to the Eastward direction as well as to the other directions. It
was this movement that brought Christianity to India by St. Thomas, one of the twelve apostles. It is the
constant tradition of the Christian in Kerala. But unfortunately, we do not have any contemporary
evidence to show that St. Thomas came to India in the first century.
In connection with the origin of Christianity in India certain genuine questions are raised - by whom was
brought to India? By Apostle Thomas or Bartholomew or by both, or by some others? If any of them had
ever been to India to preach the gospel, where did they land? Malabar or North-West India? Was it
possible for anyone to travel to far a place like India from Palestine in that early century? What are the
available evidences to prove that the apostle Thomas came to India?
There are different views regarding the ministry of St. Thomas to India.
1. Scholars like Fr. J. Dahlmann and G. Milne Rae maintained that St. Thomas ministered only in
North India and not in South India.
2. The Syrian scholars E. M. Philip and K.N. Daniel defended the southern apostolate and deny the
apostle’s visit to the north.
3. Some scholars like J.N. Farquhar, Eugene Card and Bishop A.E. Medlycott believe that
St.Thomas visited both the north and the south.
4. Some scholars like Tillemont, James Hough, Sir John Kaye opined that St. Thomas never visited
India. Now this view is not given importance because there was historical documentary evidence
regarding the ministry of St. Thomas in the south.
Though we have no contemporary record of St. Thomas’ work in India, there are some evidences which
indicate that the church in India was founded by St. Thomas.
1. St. Thomas Tradition
The Apostle of the Lord brought the gospel to the coast of South India early in the second half of the first
century of the Christian era, probably in 52 CE and found the church in several places. The reliability of
this tradition has been a matter of much controversy amongst historians and remains so to this day, and
indeed it may continue to be so for all times. However, the coming of the Apostle Thomas to India has
never been a doubt. The three important traditions of the St. Thomas coming in India are discussed
below: a. Malabar Tradition, b. Western Tradition and c. Mylapore Tradition.
a. Indian Tradition/The Malabar Tradition: This tradition was handed down from generation to
generation by words of mouth among the Christians of St. Thomas and to some extends among their non-
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Christians neighbour. According to this tradition, St. Thomas came by sea. He first landed at Cranganore
about the year 52 CE. He is said to have first preached to the Jewish settlers in and around Cochin and
then worked among the Hindus. He converted both among the Jews and the high caste Hindu families in
Cranganore, Palayur, Quilon, and some other places. Then he travelled on the coastal region and founded
churches in seven (7) places. After this he cross over to the Eastern Coast and travelled East ward up to
China – preaching and making conversion. Finally, he returned to India and organized the Christians of
Malabar under some guides (priests) from among the leading families he had converted, and erected a
few places of worship. Then he moved to the Coromandel, and suffered martyrdom on or near the Little
Mount. His body was brought to Mylapore and was buried in a holy shrine he had built. The year of his
martyrdom is believed to be 72 CE. As the tradition goes, Christians from Malabar, West Asia, and even
from China used to go on pilgrimage to Mylapore and venerate the tomb.
b. Western Tradition (Acts of Thomas): This is the first literally evidence for a connection between
Thomas and India. This book (Acts of Thomas) is entirely devoted to St. Thomas. It gives fairly good
accounts of his teachings, works, travelling and his murdered. This is probably a Syrian book and written
about middle of 3rd century at Edessa.
According to this in the divisions of the world among the apostles India felt to the lot of Thomas. He was
reluctant to go saying that he was not able travel on account of the weakness of his body. The Lord then
arranged for Thomas who was as skill carpenter to be sold as a slave to a man called Abban (Habban)
from India, who had come from India in search of carpenter for his king Gundaphorus. The king accepted
Thomas as a skilled carpenter and took him outside the city gates and showed him the place where he
wanted to build a palace. He also gave into his hand coined silver and necessary things for the works. But
Thomas instead building the palace gave away the money to the poor. When the king discovered this, he
was very angry and he shut up both Abban and Thomas in prison. However, Thomas declared that he had
built a palace for the king at heaven. Thereupon, Gad, brother of the king became ill and during his
illness he died but he was brought back to life again. When Gad got back to life, he narrated the beauty of
the palace Thomas had built in heaven for the king. Immediately the king released Thomas from prison
and he received baptism along with his brother. Thomas was allowed to preach the Christian throughout
the country. He then passed on to another kingdom at the invitation of its king, Mazdai. Here too he made
many converts. At last, he was stabbed to death by the king’s order on the top of a hill. Long after this, a
son of the ruler became sick. Mazdai had the tomb of the martyr opened up for the relics to give his son a
healing touch. But to his surprised the bones were found missing, ‘for one of the brethren had taken them
away secretly to the west’ and believed to be buried at Edessa.
c. The Mylapore Tradition: Some historians treated this tradition as a separate one and considered it not
as a part of the Indian tradition. The Mylapore Tradition which is also known as the Coromandel tradition
was given much prominence as separate tradition by the Portuguese. This tradition is rarely mentioned in
most of the historical book related to the Thomas tradition.
According to this tradition, the Apostle after his fruitful ministry in Malabar is said to have gone to the
East coast and preached Christ there. The Brahmins became jealous of his successful ministry and made
attempt on his life. He hid in a cave near the Little Mount. When he was about to be captured, he escaped
through the hole of the roof of the cave and took shelter in the shrine he had built on the top of the St.
Thomas Mount (PharangiMalai in Tamil). While he was clinging on to the stone cross inside the shrine,
his pursuers caught up with him and speared him to death. His disciples took his body and buried him on
the sea shore in San Tome, Mylapore (Chennai).
Evidences and sources in support of St. Thomas tradition
1. Didascalia Apostolorum or the Teaching of the Apostles written in Edessa around 250 A.D.
points to India at the field of activity of Judas Thomas.
2. St. Ephraim a hymn writer of Syria who died in 373 A.D. in his hymn mentions the mission of
St. Thomas in India.

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 3. St. Ambrose of Milan (337-397 AD) identifies St. Thomas with India.
4. Greogory (538-593) bishop of tours in his book “in Gloria Martyrdom” mentions that St. Thomas
was killed in India and his holy remains were taken to Edessa and buried.
5. Marco Polo a Venetian traveller gives an account of his visit to the site of the tomb of St.
Thomas in India in 1292.

2. The Syrian Connection

The church in India which is generally believed to be founded by St. Thomas is alleged to have suffered,
in course of time, a decline. After the death of the Apostle Thomas, India and also Malabar were without
a preacher and leader, apart from the priests ordained by St. Thomas. After ninety-two years, India and
Malabar became without priests, having only believing men and women. But it was reconstituted by
groups of Christians who came from Persia.
The Persian church also called as the East-Syrian Church, it is the present church of modern Iraq and
Iran. It is beyond doubt that some kind of relation between the Christians of India and the church of
Persia existed from very early centuries. The stories of Bishop David of Basra and Bishop John are
perhaps pointers to that relation.
In around 295-300, Dudi (David), Bishop of Basra, left his See and came to India, where he evangelized
many people. It is not told how long Bishop David lived in India; which part of the country he visited or
whether he founded Christianity there. It is most natural, in view of later history, to suppose that he went
with the intention of visiting Christian communities. Moreover, among the bishops who signed the
decrees of the first General Council of the Church at Nicaea in 325, was John of Persia, who signed
representing churches in the whole Persia and Great India. It was an indication that there were Christians
in India at that time, and they were under the jurisdiction of a bishop in Persia because it is recorded that
Bishop John was a Persian.
The connection of Indian Christianity with the church of Syria (East Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia) is
further tied up because the Syrian Church of Malabar has traditions of at least two considerable
immigrations of influential people from those countries, who settled down in India and did much to
revive and strengthen the church in India.
a. 1st Immigration (Thomas of Cana): The first of these immigrations is commonly ascribe to the 345,
and is said to have consisted of between three and four hundred families – men, women and children
including some clergy, under the leadership of Thomas, who is popularly known as Thomas of Cana.
Thomas of Cana and the Persian Christians who had come with him allegedly played a great role in the
organization and building up of the church and community of Cranganore and apparently exerted a very
great influence in the whole Christian community in Kerala. They also built a town. The town built by
the Syrian settlers was supposed to be the Christian quarter of Cranganore, which was called
Mahadevarapatnam. To this day there is among the Syrian Christians - a social distinction, which is said
to have originated in this settlement between those who intermarried with Indians and those who did not.
The former – called Northists (Vadakumbagar) are the more numerous forming (the major portion of the
Syrian community). The latter – called Southists (Thekkumbagar) are a small group, who claimed to be
the direct lineal descendants of Thomas of Cana. They do not intermarry with Northists.
b. 2nd Immigration: The second immigration is dated in the year 823, when a number of Christians from
Persia, led by Marwan Sabrisho (or Marwan Sapir Isoor Mar Sapir Iso) with two bishops – Mar Sapor
and Mar Parut.
Marwan Sabrisho is generally believed that he was a Syrian Merchant if not at the same time a
missionary, who was invited to settle down in Quilon. It is believed that the Tarisa Church (Tarisapally)
of Quilon was built by him. Sapor and Parut are presented by tradition as brothersans saints. They are
considered responsible for the welfare of the church and community of Quilon. It is also believed that
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from Quilon, they went to Cranganoreans then to Ceylon (Sri-Lanka). The tradition says that they
brought from Ceylon big logs of wood to Quilon and made use of them in building a church on some
land they obtained from the king of the place. They preached and converted many to Christianity and
they both died and were buried in Quilon.
The Syrian connection with the Malabar Christians is now closely pointed due to these immigrations.
According to E.M. Philip, it was from the settlement of Thomas of Cana that the Malabar Christians were
called Syrians. Down to the present century Syrian Christians were officially considered as belonging
either to Cranganore or to Quilon.

c. St. Bartholomew Tradition: Eusebius of Caesarea and St. Jerome discusses about apostolate of St.
Bartholomew in India. Both the writers refer to the visit of Pantaenus to India in the second century.
According to Eusebius, Pantaenus is said to have gone among the Indians, where he discovered the
gospel of Matthew. According to the tradition, Bartholomew one of the disciples of Jesus Christ had
preached to them and left the writings of Matthew in Hebrew language. According to St. Jerome,
Demetrius, bishop of Alexandria sent Pantaenus to India at the request of legates of that nation. In India,
Pantaenus found that Bartholomew one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ, had preached and left the
copy of Matthew gospel. Pantaenus carried the gospel when he returned to Alexandria.

d. The Social Status of the Malabar Christians

While describing the Malabar tradition on the apostolate of St. Thomas it has been pointed out that it
maintains the majority of the people converted by the Apostle were Brahmins and persons of other high
caste. Some of the Christians of St. Thomas, who lived from Quilon to Palur, a place in the kingdome of
the Samorim and who persevered in the faith were of the same caste as the kings of Cochin.
The Tarisapally copper plates contain grants and privileges given by Ayyanadikal, king of Venad, to the
so called Tarisha Church (Tarisapally) of Quilon which was built by Morwan Sabrisho. The plates
contain details of grants to the Tarisha Church/Christian community. The church was given land. Among
the various concessions given to the Christians – one was the exemption from the one-sixtieth duty on
incoming articles and on articles on sale; the Christians were also exempted from the payment of slave-
tax for the slaves they purchased. The plates stipulated further that the chief priest of the church was
accorded the same status as the military political chiefs of the country.
From the evaluation of the above oral and written sources we can conclude that in India there was a
church from the first century onwards, an apostolic church founded by st. Thomas, who preached, died
and buried in south India. But the records available are only from the time of the Portuguese so they are
not enough to prove the St. Thomas traditions without doubt. At the same time no other country other
than India claims to have the tomb of St. Thomas and no other country other than India claims that
Christianity was established by St. Thomas. So based on the living tradition as well as the circumstantial
evidences such as the presence of a Jewish community predating Christianity, the evidences of trade
relation with the west and today more and more scholars tend to hold that Indian Christianity has
apostolic origin.

Questions
1. Explain the different views regarding the ministry of St. Thomas to India?
2. Explain the Traditions connected with the arrival of St. Thomas and his ministry in India?
3. What was the Post Apostolic sources regarding the spread of Christianity in India?
4. Explain the foreign Immigrations to Kerala and its impact on the spread of Christianity?
5. Explain about the copper plates as evidences for Christianity in India?

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Reading Suggestions
Brown, L.W. The Indian Christians of St. Thomas; An account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar.
Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1956.
Firth, C.B. An Introduction to Church History. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1961.
Gielen, Martin. St. Thomas The Apostole of India. Kottayam: OIRSI, 1998.
Hrangkhuma. F. Introduction to Church History.bangalore: TBT,1996.
Jayakumar.A. History of Christianity in India; Major Themes. Kolkata: SCEPTRE,2013.
Keay, F.F. A History of the Syrian Church in India. Delhi: ISPCK,1960.
Koshy.K.V. St.Thomas and the Syrian Churches of India. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1999.
Mundadan, A.M. History of Christianity in India, Vol.I. Bangalore: CHAI, 1984.
_____________.” Origins of Christianity in India: The First Centuries,” The St. Thomas Christian
Encyclopaedia of India, Vol.I. Trisur: The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India., 1982.
Philip, T.V. East of the Euphrates Early Christianity in Asia. New Delhi: ISPCK,1998.

CHAPTER III
2. Emergence of Roman Catholic Mission and Colonialism
Portugal being a Roman Catholic country had the blessing of the Pope in its sea-voyage endeavours.
Pope Callixtus III issued a Bull in 1456 in which he gave to Portugal the right of dominion and
commercial monopoly in the lands discovered and to be discovered. In response to the Pope’s order, the
ruler was asked to take the responsibility to send missionaries, support them, and establish churches,
chapels, monasteries and the like. This came to be known as ‘Padrado’ meaning patronage. So, the ruler
of Portugal ‘missionized’ as they ‘colonized.’ In view of this, every ship which left the shore of Portugal
carried not only merchants but also military and missionaries.
2.1. Portuguese Colonialism and Growth of Christianity in India
The second half of the 15th century is famous in the history of the world as the time of great voyage of
discovery undertaken by the maritime nations of Western Europe, leading to the founding of colonial
empires in America, Africa and Asia. Pioneers of these enterprises were Portugal and Spain with trade as
one of their main motives. Through the means of colonialism Portugal tried to spread Christianity to the
unknown world which came under their control.
Portugal undertook sea voyages during the time of the Portugal Prince, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460).
The capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 which blocked the trade routes by land can be said to
be the immediate cause for Portugal to take up in a serious sea-voyages which they felt would enable
them to find a sea-route to India and other countries.
Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese landed near Calicut on 21 st May 1498. Da Gama sailed back to Portugal in
the following year, and therefore, now that the route was known, fresh and larger fleets made the voyage
to India every year. Soon trading stations were established along the West coast of India and the
Portuguese influence steadily grew. The Portuguese moved to Cochin soon and found it more congenial.
Here they came into contact with the Malabar Christians too.

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In 1509 Affonso de Albuquerque was appointed as the second Governor of the Portuguese possession in
the East. In 1510, he captured Goa from the Sultanate of Bijapur. Goa was made the centre of Portuguese
administration and the capital of all settlement in Asia. In obedience to the command of the Pope, the
Portuguese colonizers got engaged in missionizing their territories in India by a diverse way. Affonso
encouraged mixed marriages. He asked his men, both merchants and military personal to marry Indian
women. This was to build up a body of Christian faithful to Portugal. This was the origin of the Indo-
Portuguese community. The Portuguese administration in Goa offered jobs to Christians alone. So some
of the Indians in those territories embraced Christianity for the sake of govt. Jobs. The Portuguese Govt.
prohibited in its territories the public worship of Hindus and Muslims. Moreover only Christians were
given the power to own lands and passions. Others were asked to leave the area or to embrace
Christianity. Some wanted Portuguese army’s protection, e.g. the Paravas, the pearl-fishing community
on the South-east coast of India (as they were constantly troubled by the Arab traders), sought the help of
the Portuguese for which they were ready to be baptized as
Christians. Christian faith was spread by directly evangelism too but at the same time there was forced
conversion too by the Portuguese in India. In 1534, Pope Paul III erected the diocese of Goa. It became
the head of a regular ecclesiastical organization in India and the East. Thus, the Portuguese colonialism
with trade as the main motives also spread Christianity in India.
2.2. Religious Policies of Portuguese
In a Bull of 1493, Pope Alexander VI commanded to the rulers ‘to send to the said lands and islands
good men who fear God and are learned, skilled and expert, to instruct the inhabitants, in the catholic
faith and good morals.’ When Portuguese settled, they fell the need of spreading of Gospel. The
following are some of the religious policies of Portuguese which are used to Christianize the people in
their territories in India. The Portuguese used different ways and means to Christianize the people their
territories. It was by:
a. Mixed Marriages: The second Governor of the Portuguese territories Alfonso de Albuquerque
encouraged his soldiers to marry the white and beautiful widows and daughters of Muslims. He
gave much importance to mixed marriages and promoted with financial aids and other
reservations in the government. This was the origin of the Indo- Portuguese community.
b. Offering Jobs: The Portuguese offered jobs to Christians alone.
c. Direct Evangelism: The Portuguese spread Christianity by direct evangelism. Portuguese also
built churches in their territories. The Franciscans (1500), Dominicans, Jesuits (1542),
Augustinians (1572) Chaplains, and other got engaged in direct evangelism.
d. Forced Conversion: The Portuguese used its political and military powers to convert Hindus and
Muslims into Christianity. Hindus and Muslims were forbidden for public worship by Portuguese
in the territories. Portuguese even destroyed temples and mosques.
e. Providing Political Protection: Many people became Christians when they were protected from
the Arab traders. Around 20000 Paravas had been baptized within two years by the Catholics.
f. Education and Religious Instructions: The Portuguese started the first school in Cochin. There
were about 100 boys studied in that school. The children were from all classes of society.
Children had been given a bag of rice per week. This attracted many to join the school. This
school became channel to spread the Christian faith. Children received elementary and catechism
classes. The grown-ups received religious instruction. While the advanced and mature
individuals received more substantial theological education. This school also consist of many
women students who were able to recite the commandments, the article of faith, the works of
charity and similar other formulas. Besides, preaching was another means to impart religious
knowledge. It served as a school, college and a theological institution indeed.
g. Humanitarian Works: in 1506, the Viceroy Francisco de Almeida gave orders to start a hospital
in Cochin. This hospital name was Holy Cross Hospital of Cochin. The clergy made regular
visits and pray for the sick. Portuguese as well as Indian Christians were admitted in it.

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2. Francis Xavier and his Missionary Methods
Don Francisco de Jessey Xavier, better known to the English speaking as Francis Xavier, was born on 7 th
April 1506 at the Castle of Xavier in Navarre, Spain. Francis Xavier was one of the founders of the
Society of Jesus. He is known as the first Jesuit missionary in the East. He carried on extensive activities
in India and East Asia. He was not just one of the zealous Jesuits missionaries who came to India in the
16th century, but the one who worked tirelessly, with Divine providence and determination and earned
thousands of souls for Christ.
The Portuguese opened the way for one of the most remarkable missionary expeditions in Christian
history. About the year 1540, the situation in India was that the Portuguese had established themselves
firmly on the West coast, with their centre at Goa and stations at Cranganore, Cochin and other places,
and except in the inland parts, had become the predominant power in that region. Under Portuguese
influence there had been many conversions to Christianity. It was at this stage that King John III of
Portugal appealed to the Pope and newly formed Society of Jesus for priests. The first man to be chosen
bears a famous name in the history of Christianity in Asia, St. Francis Xavier (1506 – 1552).
Francis sailed from Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, in April 1541 to Goa. It was under royal patronage
that he set out. Xavier also carried letters from the Pope appointing him Apostolic Nuncio (ambassador of
the Pope) to India and other countries of the Indian Ocean. During that time a voyage to India took from
5-6 months; but due to unfavourable winds Xavier’s voyage took thirteen months. There were 700 people
on the ship and its impossibility of keeping food and water fresh on a long voyage led to much sickness,
and many died on the way. Xavier spent a great part of the voyage, labouring sacrificially among them,
not refusing even sweepers’ work. He continues ministering to the living as he prepared the dying the
dying for death and burying the death. By the time he landed at Goa on the 6 th may 1542, he was already
reputed a saint.
s HiMissionary Methods:
1. Xavier visits the sick people in the hospital and the prisoners in the.
2. He gathered together children and others in one of the church for elementary Christian
teaching (during that time, the Portuguese were too worldliness and loose-living; Indo-
Portuguese resulting from the mixed marriages were ill-instructed and ill-discipline).
3. He would go about the streets ringing a bell and calling out, “Faithful Christians, friends of
Jesus Christ, send your sons and daughters, and your slaves of both sexes to the Holy Teaching,
for the love of God.”
4. In the morning he ---spends time with children; mid-day with women and evening with men.
5. Build church.
Five months he worked in Goa and then he was asked to leave his missionary works and assigned to
another place by the Viceroy, De Sousa to work among the Parava converts who lived on the South-East
coast opposite to Ceylon (Sri-Lanka). There were 30 Parava villages between Tuticorin and Cape
Comorin. He visited village to village. He picked up young people, trained them and they were called
Kanakkapillai, latter known as Catechists. He built chapel with mud walls and roof with thatch. He also
taught the Parava Christians to contribute to the church and he imposed no fishing on Sundays.

3. Robert de Nobili and the Method of Accommodation

Robert de Nobili was a Jesuit of noble birth who accommodated to the existing Indian social order. He
learned Tamil and Sanskrit and lived the life of a sadhu (wandering ascetic). He also tried to disassociate
himself from the Portuguese missionaries who were converting the fisher folk of low rank. These
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practices gave him wide acceptance among the Indian upper classes, but they brought him into conflict
with his own church.
He was born at Montepulciano, Italy, September, 1577; died at Mylapore, India, in 1656. He entered the
Society of Jesus in 1597, at Naples, and after a brilliant course of studies sailed for the Indian mission in
October, 1604, arriving at Goa, 20 May, 1605. After a short stay in Goa and a few months in Cochin
Nobili was sent to join the mission on the fishery coast. There he spent seven months among the Parava
Christians learning Tamil. In November 1606, he entered the great city of Madurai.
In Madurai, there was already an elderly Portuguese Jesuit, Gonsalvo Fernandes, who had been there
since 1595, ministering occasional Portuguese traders and a congregation drawn from the Parava (low
caste) community. Fernandes had not succeeded in making one convert. In Madurai, Nobili was
distressed to find that the Portuguese customs of Europeanizing all Christians had made Christianity so
detestable in the eyes of all Hindus that the conversion of even a single high-caste man was hardly to be
expected. Nobili found out the reason: becoming Christian was seen as becoming Portuguese – taking up
the Portuguese way of life, meat-eating, wine-drinking, loose-living, etc. Nobili soon realized that in
order to win the high-caste Indian he must himself become Indian. His first step was to separate himself
as far as possible from his Portuguese colleagues in the mission and from the Paravas and other
Christians of low caste. He expressed himself, “I am not Parangis [Portuguese Christians], I was not born
in the land of Parangis, nor was I ever connected with their race . . . I came from Rome, where my family
holds the same rank as respectable Rajas holdin this country. . .”
In 1607, Nobili ripened his intention by re-entering Madura instead of black cassock in Kavirobes, the
dress of the Indian Sannyasi, wooden sandals for his leather shoes. He introduced himself a Roman Raja
(nobleman). He bought a piece of land in another part of Madurai where a little mud-walled house and
chapel were built, observing a strict ascetic regime, attended by his Brahmin cook and servant, living on
rice, vegetables, fruit and milk, and eating only one meal a day, and going out very seldom. He adopted
himself to the customs of the people whom he wanted to evangelize.
Nobili’s new method attracted the people of the higher caste and they could now approach him and
declare themselves to be his disciples which resulted in conversion. Such converts came from several
castes including Brahmins. Though they were baptized in the name of the Triune God as per the Latin
Rite, they were not required to break caste or change their dress, food or mode of life except in the matter
of idolatry; nor were they expect to join themselves to the Parava congregation. They were permitted to
wear sacred cord and to have hair tuft of ‘kudumi.’ Christian prayers were substituted for Hindu
mandrasduring ceremonial bathing and some other rituals. Nobili understood caste as a social system and
custom parallel to distinctions of class and rank of Europe. So he believe and taught openly that when
one embraces Christianity, that person need not leave caste. His method came to be known as
“Accommodation Theory.”

Latinization of St. Thomas Christians: Synod of Diamper and Coonan Cross Revolt
The arrival of the Portuguese on the Malabar Coast made substantial change in the history of the Syrian
Church. Initially they were friendly to each other. When the position of the Portuguese in India became
more secure and their ecclesiastical organization took shape after Goa was made bishopric, they tried to
convert the Thomas Christians into the Roman faith. They came to know more about each other and the
Portuguese began to be more conscious of their differences.
1. Interaction between Syrian Christians (St. Thomas Christians) and the Portuguese (Roman
Catholic Christians)
Portuguese acknowledge the Pope of Rome, not only as their own ecclesiastical head but as supreme
bishop over all Christians on earth but the Syrians acknowledge the Patriarch of the East as their heir
9
head and not the Pope. Moreover, Portuguese considered, Western Catholic (Roman Church) is the only
true form of church and the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church is the standard for all Christians.
For the Portuguese, Christianity of the East was of an inferior form, even a heretical form. But Western
form of Christianity was the perfect one, not only in matters of faith and morals but in all everything. So,
every Christian should conform to Western form of Christianity and the easiest way to achieve this was
to bring the Christians under the Portuguese jurisdiction and the Latin rite.
a. Latinization of Syrian Christians: John D. Albuqueque, the first bishop of Goa in 1538 systematically
organized the work of the Roman Church among the Syrians. Albuqueque sent Vincent D. Logos, a
Franciscan Friar in 1539 with special instruction to subjugate the Syrian Church to the See of Rome.
With this in view, the Portuguese opened two theological institutions to educate and train clergy: one at
Cranganore and another at Vaippikota. Adding to this, the Jesuits missionaries set up a printing press and
published Catechism, Rudiments of Catholic faith, and other devotional books. They worked among the
local Christians, began to tell Mass according to the Latin rite and accused the Syrian Christians as
Nestorian heretics.
b. Dom Alexis de Menezes and the Syrian Christians: In 1595, Bishop Alexis de Menezes was
appointed to the Arch Bishop of Goa. He was a man of courage, strength and of will and had great zeal
for his church. Therefore, he played a decisive role in the subsequent history of the Malabar church. He is
well known for his effort for a ‘force unification‘of the Syrian Christians to Roman Catholicism.
Soon after he became the Arch-bishop of Goa, the Syrian Bishop in India, Mar Abraham died in 1597.
When Mar Abraham died, the Syrians were left without a bishop. Menezes, now knew that another
bishop from Mesopotamia coming to India would be the chief obstacles to the policy of Romanization.
He determined that no successor should arrive from Mesopotamia. It was easy to bring this about, since
the Portuguese had control of the shipping. Menezes was thus left alone in the field to carry out his
policy. In a letter to Rome he put down his aims:
(i) to purify all the churches from heresy and error
(ii) to give them the pure doctrine of the Catholic faith
(iii) to take from them all the heretical books that the Syrians possessed
After convincing the Ach-deacon George of the Malabar Christian church, Menezes made up his mind to
visit Malabar himself and take charge of the Syrian diocese. HearrivedCochin in 1599, and considered
himself as the head of the ecclesiastical head of all Christians in the Portuguese territory. George and the
Syrians seem to think that Menezes would go away after sometime and that he would not do much
permanent harm. With such expectation they agreed on three things:-
(i) That Menezes could visit churches
(ii) That he could celebrate Mass
(iii) That he could preach in the Syrian churches in Malabar.
Menezes, in his preaching he mention that the Patriarch of the East was the robber and only those who
enter by the door of the Roman Church were the true sheep. Once more Menezes persuaded George to
meet him. At the meeting, it was further agreed that a synod (which came to be known as the Synod of
Diamper) would be convened to determine matters of faith, and that Menezes be allowed to go to the
churches only as a visitor and nothing more. However, Menezes overstepped the limits and went to the
extent of ordaining priest in large numbers about 90 in all.

2. The Synod of Diamper

10
The Synod began on 20th June 1599. It was presided by Alexis de Menezes, the Arch-bishop of Goa. He
was assisted by his theologians headed by BelchoirBraz and by four Jesuits of Vaipicotta. The synod was
a very large one, attended by 133priests, 20 deacons and sub-deacons, 660 lay representatives – in all 813
persons on the Syrian side. With Menezes were Portuguese clergy and the Captain and officials from the
Portuguese settlement of Cochin; an armed escort was also in attendance.Eleven days before, Menezes
arrived at Diamper. He brought with him the draft which he prepared, containing decrees to be submitted
to the Synod.
On the first day, after the celebration of the mass, Menezes explained the reason for calling the Synod.
He declared that the Synod was called at the order of Pope Clement VIII who entrusted the
administration of the churches in India to him.
During this Synod, which was lasted for seven days, the Synod issued 200 decrees covering all the main
heads of Roman doctrine and sacramental teaching. The Syrian Church in India accepted, under pressure
but without serious resistance, the rule of the Portuguese hierarchy and the doctrine and many of the
customs of the Roman Church ruled over it.Some of the contents of the decrees were –
1. Clear renunciation of Nestorianism and a statement of the Catholic Faith strongly western in
tone.
2. Clear renunciation of the Patriarch of Babylon (of the East) and insistence on the duty of
obedience of the Pope.
3. Full explanation of the seven sacraments of the Roman Church concerning their use and manner
of celebration.
4. Roman Catholic Administration structure was insisted upon, for example division of the church
into parishes, provision of ministers, feast and fast to be kept, etc.
In this way, the Synod of Diamper achieved one of the aims of Portuguese policy in Kerala, viz., to
separate the Syrian Christians of Malabar from the Eastern Patriarch and to extend the influence of the
Catholic majesty over those parts. Soon the king of Portugal has the right of nomination to the See of
Malabar.
3. Coonen Cross Incident
George, the Arch-deacon died in 1637, the next arch-deacon was Thomas, a nephew of George. Thomas
was rebellious and non-cooperative. By this time Thomas and his party began to think of the old
connection with the Eastern Syrian Church. They sent letters to the Nestorian Patriarch asking for a
bishop. Thus, in 1652, a Syrian Bishop name Atallah/Ahatolla was sent to India. On his arrival he fell
into the hands of the Portuguese. He was detained at Mylapore then taken to Goa in a ship. On the way
the ship stopped at Cochin, there a large crowd of Syrian Christians demanded his release but he was
taken away to Goa. Meanwhile in the excitement a rumour spread that he had been thrown into the sea
and has drown. But what actually happened was that he reached Goa where he was tried by the authority.
As he was found guilty of heresy he was sent to Europe.
However, the rumour about the drawning spread rapidly. The Malabar Christians in fury broke into a
rebellion. They gathered in a large crowd outside the church at Mattencheri. They took a great oath
holding the cross which was fixed in front of the church, that they would no longer be subjected to the
Roman Bishop. As all of them could not reach the cross long ropes were tied to it and the people held the
rope and took the oath. As the force was very strong, the cross became slanting. This famous event took
place on January 3, 1653. This event is known as the Conoon Cross Oath or the Conoon Cross Incident.
In fact, Coonan Cross was against the imposition of Romanization over the Thomas Christians. It was an
outward expression of their deep painful expression of distortion of identity and loss of autonomy. This
finally resulted in the split of the Thomas Christians into several fragments.
Questions
1. Explain the conditions of St. Thomas Christians when the Portuguese encountered them?
11
 2. Explain the Portuguese Roman Catholics religious strategy in spreading their Mission and
Colonialism among Paravas and other Fish Folks?
3. Explain the missionary methods of the Roman Catholic missionary Francis Xavier?
4. Compare and contrast between the missionary methods of Francis Xavier and Robert de Nobili?
5. What extent the methods of colonial missionaries applicable for the present society in doing
God’s mission?
6. Explain the significance of the Synod of Diamper in the life of St.Thomas Christians?
Reading Suggestions
Brown, L.W. The Indian Christians of St. Thomas; An account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar.
Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1956.
Firth, C.B. An Introduction to Church History. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1961.
Gielen, Martin. St. Thomas The Apostole of India. Kottayam: OIRSI, 1998.
Hambye, E.R. History of Christianity in India Vol.III. Bangalore: CHAI, 1997.
Hrangkhuma. F. Introduction to Church History.bangalore: TBT,1996.
Jayakumar.A. History of Christianity in India; Major Themes. Kolkata: SCEPTRE,2013.
Keay, F.F. A History of the Syrian Church in India. Delhi: ISPCK,1960.
Mendonea, Delio DE. Jesiuts in India, Vision and Challenges. Anand: Gujarat Sahitya
Prakash, 2003.
Mundadan, A.M. History of Christianity in India, Vol.I. Bangalore: CHAI, 1984.
Podipara, Placid. “The Sixteenth Century: Alliance with Portuguese,” The St. Thomas Christian
Encyclopaedia of India, Vol.edited by George Menanachery. Trichur: The St. Thomas Christian
Encyclopaedia of India, 1982.
Philip, T.V. East of the Euphrates Early Christianity in Asia. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1998.
Podipara, P.J. The Thomas Christians, Bombay: St. Paul, 1970.
Varghese,V.Titus. Glimpses of the History of the Christian Churches in India. Madra: The CLS, 1983.

12
Chapter IV
Advent of Protestant Christianity in India and Colonialism
Colonialism and Christian Missions
Colonialism and Christian missions went hand in hand since the arrival of the Portuguese in India. In the
second half of the 15th century an era for discovery and adventure was opened up in Europe. Vasco da
Gama's visit to India in 1498 was, for the Portuguese, an opening journey that started European
colonialism in India.
a. Colonialism: The oxford English dictionary defines the colonialism "The practice by which a powerful
country controls another country or countries, in order to become richer and make it as a colony".
According to David J. Bosch, in his famous book "Transforming Mission," he says that modem missions
originated in the content of modern western colonialism. In other words colonialism means the policy of
practice or acquiring political control over another country by exploiting it economically from the
Historical point of view colonialism means the western expansion by the explorations of the Portuguese.
Spanish and later British which rescrubbed in the expansion of and extension of European rule over the
half of the land on the surface of the earth and over one thirds of the world population.
b. Western Colonialism and Christian Mission in General: The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch
and the Danes, and the British the last. All of these colonial countries foremost aim was to get so many
possible trading investments as they could. Their sole aim was a profitable trade; but they also wanted to
spread Christianity. The Pope commanded the Portuguese colonizers to missionize their Indian
territories. Since the Portuguese were Roman Catholics, they, tried to convert the natives not only to
Christian, but also to the Catholic faith. Of the last three, the Royal Danish Mission seems most
welcoming for the mission and the missionaries. The Dutch, as a trading company, was not interested in
mission. The British East India Company's friendliness to the missionaries had been fluctuating.
Sometimes they cooperated well and gave freedom to the missionaries; sometimes they restricted them to
enter the land. Anyhow, during their time in the country, all of them had done many works to and for the
missions, the country, the natives, the mother country and the colonizers as well. During the latter part of
the 19th and earlier part of the 20 th centuries missionaries reached as far to the north-east among the tribal
people.
c. Portuguese/Roman Catholic Mission: It was the Portuguese people who had taken discoveries of the
new land. Vasco da Gama landed in India in 1498. Initially the main motif of the Portuguese who came
to India in 1498 was profitable trade and not the possession of territories. But they were not content to
trade merely as visitors and gradually sought to establish a permanent position. Trading posts became
bases for Christian missions not only to India but also to China. Portuguese explorers prepared the way
for one of the most extraordinary of all Christian missionaries, Francis Xavier.
Pope Callistus III issued a Bull (an edict issued by the Pope) in 1456 in which he offered to Portugal the
rights of dominion and commercial monopoly in the newly acquired territories. Spain, which was also a
Roman Catholic country, was offered a similar privilege. Hence, both the rulers had to send missionaries,
support them, and establish Churches, Chapels, monasteries and the like. The rulers of Portugal and
Spain missionized as they colonized. The union of colonialism and missions is clearly portrayed in the
Papal Bulls of 1493 Pope Alexander VI whereby it appointed the Portuguese and Spanish rulers as
patrons of the Church in their respective areas. This meant that they had to bear all expenses of sending
missionaries, and building, maintain, and defending the Church. Another instance of union is seen in the
issuing of the padrodo grant of right to the kings of Portugal ecclesiastical patronage in the lands
conquered or to he conquered in Asia and Africa, in 1514 by Pope Leo X.
Under the policy, Affonso de Albuquerque, the second governor of the Portuguese possessions in the
East (1509¬1515), encouraged mixed marriages between the Portuguese and Indians. This was to build
up a body of Christians faithful to Portugal. This was the origin of the Indo-Portuguese community. The

13
Portuguese administration in Goa offered jobs to Christians only and public offices could be held by
Christian alone. The Portuguese prohibited in its territories the public worship of Hindus and Muslims.
Moreover, only Christians were given the power to own lands and possessions. Ultimately force
conversion took place, at the same time Christian faith was spread by direct evangelism too.
Under the Portuguese commander, Cabral in 1500 came eight Franciscan Friars and eight secular priests;
and others followed. Thus along with the organizing of Portuguese administration in Goa went the
building of Churches, convents and charitable institutions, and in 1534 Goa was made the seat of a
Portuguese bishop, who became the head of a regular ecclesiastical organization in India and beyond.
d. The Protestant Missions: The Protestant Missions followed the flag of the colonial nations. The first
Protestant Trading Company Mission to India was the British East India Company. It began its trading
enterprise in 1600.
The Dutch: About the middle of the seventeenth century, the Dutch East India Company
gradually took over the authority and power of the Portuguese. Their prime purpose was to make trade.
After capturing the forts of Quilon (1661) and Cranganore (1662), the Dutch captured Cochin in 1663
and ended the influence of the Portuguese in Malabar. With all cruel and barbarian manners the Dutch
deported the Portuguese in total surrender. Being Protestants from Netherland/Holland, and disliking the
Roman Church, they gave their all to remove all traces of the Roman Catholicism. Their advent was seen
as a blessing to the Syrian Christians who were yoked by the Roman Church through the Synod of
Diamper. Although, the Dutch had no interest in mission, they convened the Churches built by the
Portuguese in Cochin fort, Nagapattinam and Tuticorin into Protestant Churches. In 1758, when
Schwartz and his friend Kohlhoff paid a visit to Nagapattnam, the Dutch Governor warmly welcomed
them, and they engaged themselves in various ways of gospel work among both local and European
Christians. On the request of the missionaries, the Dutch officials built a Church for the use of local
Christians there.
The Danish: The East India Company settled at two places in India -Tranquebar in 1620 and
Serampore in 1676. Like the Dutch company the Danish Company had trade as their prime interest. The
Danes were Lutherans but they refused to allow any missionaries in the territories since they saw them as
a threat to their commercial interest.
It was King Frederick IV of Denmark, a Lutheran who first sent the Protestant missionaries to India. He
sent the two German Lutherans, Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Pluetschu to Tranquchar as royal
missionaries in 1706. However, the Danish Commandant J.C. Hassius was very hostile to the
missionaries and their activities. The relationship between the Danish Company and the Tranquebar
missionaries on the one hand and between them and the Mission Board the King of Denmark, set up in
1714, on the other became better after the death of Ziegenbalg in 1719.
Christian Frederick Schwartz who arrived at Tranquebar in 1750 had better relationship. So also was
Phillip Fabricius who was in this country from 1742 to 1788. He worked mainly in Chennai and he had
very good relationship with the British East India Company officials who helped him in more than one
way in his missionary endeavour. During this time, the Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge (S.P.C.K.) of London supported the German Lutheran Missionaries in Chennai, and thus
came into being the English Mission. The British East India Company made use of the services of
Schwartz in politics also. In 1779 when the British heard that Hyder Ali, the Mysore King, had joined
hands with the French, an enemy of the British, and was planning for a war against the British, wished to
send an embassy to him. Schwartz was asked to go on that peace mission. He had several interviews with
Hyder All at Srirangapatnam though that mission did not bring in peace. Later when the Thanjavur
King's administration failed due to mismanagement, the British asked Schwartz to be the administrator.
Such relationship with the British Company helped Schwartz in his missionary activities. Though the
Company was not officially for missions, it helped Schwartz for its own ends.

14
 The British: The British East India Company began its commerce with India from the beginning
of Seventeenth Century. After the battle of Plassey (1757), the East India Company established its rule,
having Calcutta as its headquarters. By the end of the Eighteenth-Century British rule was firmly
established in the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay and eventually became a colonial
government. The Company openly encouraged missionary work until the middle of the eighteenth
century. But towards the end of the century, with annexation of territories and the assumption of
administrative responsibilities over Indian territories, the Company decided not to interfere with the
traditional culture of the people by supporting missionary work. This policy of withdrawing support for
missionary did not last too long. After the Company's charters were renewed in 1813 and finally in 1833,
the Board of Directors changed the policy of the Company and, under pressure from Evangelicals in
England the missionaries began to arrive freely in India. Ever since, there had existed a renewed
cooperation between the missionaries and colonial power in helping one another on their missions.
The Year 1706 was the beginning of Protestant mission in India. This was known as the Tranquebar
Mission.
1. The Tranquebar Mission
The Danish came to India in the early 17 th century and they made Tranquebar its headquarters. They
came to India for trade and their sole aim was trade and profit. They did not any policy to spread
Protestant Christianity among the people in India but they brought chaplains to minister to their own
people.
However, King Frederick IV of Denmark, a Lutheran, conceived the idea of sending Protestant
missionaries to India, probably influence by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK) in
England in 1698. He was unable to find any suitable men in Denmark, got two young theological
students in Germany. They were Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Pluetschau, both were products of
a revival movement called Pietism. Both of them studied under pietist leaders and professor, A.H.
Francke at the University of Halle, the centre of the Pietistic Movement.
They accepted the King’s request and hence they were brought to Denmark and ordained. Soon after,
both of them were sent out to Tranquebar as ‘royal missionaries’ at the expense of the king. The first
Protestant missionaries arrived at Tranquebar on 9th July 1706.
When they arrived at Tranquebar, the situation was different and no welcome awaited them. The Danish
commandant in Tranquebar perhaps, thought that the missionary works would disturb their relationship
with the local people as their main aim was trade. The official party left them in the street. One of the
junior, who took pity on them led to the house of his wife’s parents. A few days later this family found
them a house in the Portuguese quarter.
They began their works by setting themselves to learn Portuguese and Tamil – Portuguese, because it
was the common language used in the European stations in South India; and Tamil, because it the
language of the local people.
Letters written by Ziegenbalg and Pluetschau about their plans for future had been published in Germany
and had aroused much interest. As a result, three more missionaries arrived at Tranquebar in 1709. They
brought with them a large sum of money and other supplies for the mission and clear instructions from
the King to the Commandant that his missionaries were to be given all necessary assistance and
protection. Out of this money a large house and compound, sufficient for all the missionaries and school
was bought.
SPCK, though not sending out missionaries, gave valuable help by raising funds and by printing and
supplying books. SPCK made it possible to set up printing press at Tranquebar in 1712. Thus,
Tranquebar Mission was the combination of Danish King, German Lutheran and Anglican.
2. The Serampore Mission

15
Rev. Dr. William Carey, the Father of Modern Missionand the founder of Serampore College/University
and Mission, was born on 17 th August, 1761 in the village of Paulerspury in Northamptonshire, England.
At the age of 14, his father apprenticed him to a shoemaker. He was baptized in 1783 and in 1789 Carey
became the full time pastor of a small Baptist church in Leicester. Three years later, he published his
groundbreaking missionary manifesto, An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for
the Conversion of the Heathens, which outlines his basis for missions: Christian obligation, wise use of
available resources, and accurate information. The well-wishers in England agree to support Carey and
Dr. John Thomas for coming to India as missionary.
Carey with his family and Thomas sailed from London in June, 1793 and landed at Kolkata in November
of the same year. During the first year in Kolkata, the missionaries sought means to support themselves
and a place to establish their mission, so Carey with his family moved to the north at Midnapore. Carey
managed indigo plant for six year in Midnapore. During that time, he completed the first revision of his
Bengali New Testament. He also began formulating the principles upon which his missionary community
would be formed, including community living, financial self-reliance, and the training of indigenous
ministers.
Meanwhile, the missionary society began to send more missionaries to India; such as William Ward, a
printer; Joshua Marshman, a school teacher and others. They settled in the Danish colony at Serampore
because no missionary works were allowed yet in British East India Company’s area of operation. Carey
and his family joined them in 1800. The mission bought a house large enough to accommodate all of
their families and a school, which was to be their principal means of support. He started his ministry
along with Joshua Marshman, and William Ward. This partnership was generally called the ‘Serampore
Trio’.
a. The Serampore Trio and Bengal Renaissance: Though the Jesuits began Christian activity in Bengal
from the 16th century, the total life of Bengalese was not influence by it. But the mission of Serampore
Trio had an incredible momentum on the life of the Bengal society from 1800. In 1793, William Carey
who had grown up within the great uproar of the European Renaissance, arrived in India bringing hope
for this distressed people. With his experience of the European Renaissance, Carey became one of the
originators of the Bengal renaissance. The ‘Serampore Trio’ worked unitedly for the upliftment of
Bengal society in educational, social and religious environments. Ultimately, the work of this ‘Trio’
bring into being the ‘Bengal Renaissance.’
The Serampore Mission Educational Involvement: Before the Serampore Trio entered in India,
educational activities had already initiated by the earlier missionaries. Contextually, education was the
objective of the East India Company to benefit themselves in commercial enterprise with natives. And all
missionaries also used ‘education’ as a key instrument in their missionary work to propagate the gospel.
Perhaps, the main aim of the Trio might be the same in the beginning like other missionaries. But later,
the view of education became completely different owing to the then Bengal social, religious and cultural
circumstances. The educational institutions launched by the Trio were for the sake of the whole society.
None was to be excluded and traditional bars of caste, creed and sex were set aside.
Elementary Schools: This 'Serampore Trio' was intensely concerned with education of all kinds
and at all levels. In 1816, Marshman wrote the pamphlet Hints Relating to Natives School to secure the
publics’ support. The Indian people responded positively and hence, they established elementary schools,
whose curriculum included an introduction to modern science, geography and history with the mother
tongue as the medium of instruction. By 1818 there were 111 schools with about 10,000 students. These
were charity schools and did not charge fees and no bar was imposed for admission to theses schools.
The main objective was to remove the illiteracy and ignorance of the poor and neglected Dalits classes of
the native society.
Education for Girls: Due to the prevailing social system in India of that time, girls were not sent
to school. The deep concerned of the Trio to provide education to everyone become sensitive to the lack

16
of female education in the society. They started to encourage girls to come forward and join the schools
for an education in the Charity Schools for boys and girls. But these attempts were not successful.
However, they seriously considered and put their efforts to establish schools exclusively for girls. This
effort was materialized in 1822. By 1830, the Serampore missionaries established 33 schools for females
with 582 girl students in the different districts of Bengal and also in other parts of India.
Serampore College: The Trio, especially William Carey was looking forward far beyond the
elementary level. Gradually, he was conceiving the idea of a college for India where Christians, Hindus,
Muslims and others would learn together. The desire for higher education and a longing for western
knowledge among the people motivated Carey to plan for a college. Finally, in 1818, Serampore College
came into exist. The prospectus which was circulated on July 10, 1818, declared Serampore College as a
College for the instruction of Asiatic Christians and other youths, in Eastern Literature and European
Science. English as an essential subject, Sanskrit, Arabic, and Western Science were taught in the
College in vernacular.
The Linguistic Works:The linguistic work of the Trio was so significant. The grammars (e.g.
Bengali, Sanskrit and Marathi); dictionaries (e.g. Bengali, Marathi, Sanskrit); translations (e.g. Bible in
Bengali, Ramayana into English); journalism (e.g. Digdursan, The Friend of India,); publications (e.g.
Itihasmala, Jyotish O Goladhyay) and various literary contributions thus enlightened the whole Bengal.
Such an early attempt to promote Indian languages was undertaken by the Trio though the patronage of
the Forth William College of the East India Company was very substantial and inspiring. They show the
seeds of linguistic renaissance in India and paved the path of development of many of the Indian
vernaculars.
Social Involvement of the Trio: William Carey was a social thinker and reformer. His role in the
abolition of certain evil practices that were carried out under a religious conceal are momentous. The
remarkable contributions of the Trio in abolishing many evil social practices are discussed below.
Infanticide: Infanticide was one of the first of the evil practices of the local people in Bengal that
Carrey witness. This was the sacrifice of the infants, especially girls, to fulfill the vows taken by mothers
by drowning them in the ‘holy river’ or by exposing them to the cold winds and scorching sun. This was
strongly criticized by William Carey and protested against this crime to the Governor-General, Lord
Wellesley. Malay Dewanji quotes the report of Carey submitted against this evil practice to Wellesley:
A criminal and inhuman practice of sacrificing children, by exposing them to be drowned or devoured by
sharks, prevails . . . This practice is not sanction by Hindoo law, nor countenanced by the religious
orders.
Owing to Carey’s status in Forth William College and the request of George Woodney, who was a
member of the Council of the Governor-General also a good friend of Carey, Lord Wellesley declared in
1802 that this system would be considered an act of murder. He enacted a legislation (Regulation VI of
1802) that whoever practices this system of infanticide would be condemned unto death as a murderer.
Abolition of Sati: On a visit to Kolkata, in early 1799, Carey witness a sati (widow burning). His
philanthropic mind was deeply moved by the atrocities of the cruel system of sati, and he decided to
launch a struggle against this inhuman practice. With the help of Pundit Vidyalankar, Carey found no
weight in the shastras about sati. So the missionaries published articles on sati for public awareness, and
they appealed their philanthropic European friends to put pressure on British government. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, a well-known Indian leader also joined the movement against the evil practice of sati. After
a long struggle by the Trio and their supporters, the government abolished sati in 1829.
Exposure of the Sick and the Dying:The name ‘Ghat Murders’ was given to this crime where the
sick and the dying were taken to the banks of the holy rivers and allowed to die. William Carey protested
against the criminal act in 1803. They draw the attention of the people as they write in their journal
Friend of India. With the missionaries’ continuous publication on thi social evil, calling it a ‘murder’ and

17
the word of Ram Mohan Roy who seconded the opinion, James Peggs, who represented the case of the
victims in line with the protest by the Trio, succeeded in forcing the government to see that such
exposures of the sick and dying are ended.
Scientific Development: Carey’s effort in establishing Agro-Horticultural Society in 1820
brought an illumination to the poor cultivators of Bengal. The aim of the Society was to improve
agriculture and horticulture in Bengal where misfortunes had struck the poor cultivators. In 1821, a
young scientist, John Mack joined the Serampore College. He helped Carey to introduce modern
scientific studies from the West in the College. He built a laboratory and a museum. Many scientific
instruments and chemical substances were brought over from England. With the helped of the Governor-
General, Lord Hasting he also open a medical science in the College.
All these were possible because of the firm and fearless efforts of the Serampore Trio. Their involvement
in the field of education, scientific development and social reformation provided a tremendous impact on
the life of the Bengali society and eventually, a special momentum to the Bengal Renaissance in the
nineteen century.
In Carey’s lifetime, the Serampore mission printed and distributed the Bible more than 40
languages and dialects. In 1818, the mission founded Serampore College to train indigenous ministers for
the growing church and to provide education in the arts and sciences to anyone regardless of caste or
creed. Besides his enormous educational and mission enterprises, Carey worked for social transformation
in various ways. His involvement in journalism (e.g. Digdursan, The Friend of India,) had played a great
role in reforming the society. He led the formation of the Agriculture Society of India in 1820. His
contribution are great in stopping infanticide, promoting the idea of saving money in the banks for the
poor and also bringing proper legislation to stop the cruel practice ofSati. After enormous struggles and
contributions towards the church and society, he died in Serampore on 9 June 1834.

Questions
1. Explain the beginning of Colonial era in India?
2. Explain about contradicts and co-operation between Colonials and Missionaries?
3. Write about the missionary contributions of Tranquebar and Serampore Missions?
Study Suggestions
David Packiamuthu. “The Beginning of Protestant Mission in Madras,” Indian Church History Review
Vol.XXXIV (2000).101-113.
Firth, C.B. An Introduction to Church History. New Delhi: ISPCK, 1961.
Gielen, Martin. St. Thomas The Apostole of India. Kottayam: OIRSI, 1998.
Hambye, E.R. History of Christianity in India Vol.III. Bangalore: CHAI, 1997.
Hrangkhuma. F. Introduction to Church History.Bangalore: TBT,1996.
Jeyakumar.A. History of Christianity in India; Major Themes. Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013.
Keay, F.F. A History of the Syrian Church in India. Delhi: ISPCK, 1960

CHAPTER V
Protestant Christianity in Different regions
North India: Protestant Christianity in Different Regions in North India
Introduction:
18
In this chapter we are dealing with the protestant Christianity in the different regions Communities and
Groups in North India doing the time of 18th century in India. And also we will see some other places.
Christianity in 18th century India:
India in the 18th century was a sick country. It was placed in the heat between the hammer of conflicting
colonial ambitions on the one hand, and the anvil of often successful, though short-lived, attempts among
her own powers either to keep the achievements of the past or to create new political entities on the other
hand. Within about seventy years the Mogul empire had ceased to count as the great authority it had been
for nearly two hundred years. Since the end of the 17th century a new all-India power had begun forging
ahead and by the middle of the 18th century it had become formidable indeed. Known as the Mahrastra
Confederacy its ever lengthening tentacles had reached Tamilnadu in the South, Gujarat, and Bihar with
Orissa in North India. Though it had been severely reduced by its defeat at the hands of the Afghans in
1761, it still retained much of its territorial acquisitions, thanks especially to the self-reliance of several
of its associate states.
2. North India:
We can summarize here only such events having a bearing on the present and future of the
Christian communities existing then in North India between the Punjab and the provinces of Bengal,
Orissa and Assam. Within three decades of the death of Aurengzeb (1707) the Mogul empire had become
so enfeebled as to hardly count in the political and military operations of North India. The Mogul nobility
which had been the mainstay of the government and administration lost quickly the high standards they
had been famed for. Only Rajasthan with its several powerful clans managed to escape from the general
decadence of the period, at least to some extent. From 1767 the Sikhs rapidly became the ascending
power in the Punjab, topping at the end of the century with the setting up of a kingdom in Lahore.
Meanwhile the British power vested in the East India Company had also begun looming large in North
India. To these gains, there must be added also the ubiquitous activities of many soldiers of fortune,
mostly English and French, who often served with distinction the various Indian rulers they came to
serve.
3. Christian Communities and Groups in North India: During this period the Christians in north India
belonged to three different groups: European Christians, Eastern Christians, and India converts.
The European Christians were a heterogeneous collection of Portuguese, Italians, Frenchmen,
Englishmen, Dutchmen, Russians, poles, Hungarians etc. The majority were of Portuguese Origin. An
anonymous document written 1625, tells us that many Christians went to the Mughal court with the
intention of becoming Muslims in order to receive riches and honors. In general, it may be said that the
European element in north India was not a credit to the Christian religion. By the middle of the 18th
century, Christian communities were found in Agra, Lahore and perhaps still in Delhi, though the two
existing churches at Delhi were destroyed during the successive sacking of the capital. Small
communities, often composed of both India and foreign Christian, were visible at Ahmedabad, Marwar,
Amber and Udaipur. The majority of the Christians of north India consisted of Indian converts. The
greater part of them were of Hindu origin, but there were also converted Muslims among them, especially
in the earlier days. We hear that in 1604 more than forty converts from Islam received Holy Communion
in the Agra church.
Christianity in Maharashtra:
The contribution of Christian missionaries to the shaping of Indian life in modern times has,
indeed, been very impressive. They established schools, colleges, dispensaries, orphanages and
institutions for the maimed and handicapped. They elevated the neglected classes to high social position
and made them worthy of filling responsible posts in public services, and in all cases made them
conscious of their dignity as men and inspired them with self-respect. The Christian community was only
1.42% of the whole population of Maharashtra.

19
Christianity in Gujarat:
Gujarat derives its name from the prakriet Gujaratta. Gujara Rashtra, and means the Land of the
Gujarat who migrated to India along with the Huns between 400 and 600 A.D. This state with an area of
187, 091s.f and a population of more than 26 millions, is situated in the north west of India bordering on
Pakistan. for the rest of India Gujarat is chiefly known as the land of merchants and of mahatma Gandhi
however elementary and sacrificial such impressions may be, they speak significantly of what in reality
the people of Gujarat.
Christianity in the Punjab
The boundaries of the Punjab have changed many times during the past one hundred fifty years. It has
included at various times not only the present Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Punjab and Haryana as well as the union territories of Delhi and Chandigarh but also the west Punjab and
north west frontier province in Pakistan as well. Thus the present Christian community of what has been
the Punjab is confined almost exclusively to the plains area.
Christianity in Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh the land of the mountain of snow’ is a part of the north western range of the
Himalayas. It is bounded on the north by Jammu and Kashmir, on the west by the Punjab, on the south by
Haryana and utter Pradesh, and on the east by Tibet, now incorporated into china. Himachal Pradesh
became the 18th state of the Indian union, only in 1971. A large part of its territory consists of a great
member of former small Raj put principalities, before independence of course subject to the British
colonial power according to the census of India for 1971 Himachal Pradesh has an area of 55,658., and a
population of 3,424,332. Though the state is rich in natural resources of all kinds it has no major
industries; nor has its immense hydroelectric power potential yet been tapped.
Christianity in Uttar Pradesh:
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India. It is also one of the regions in India where Christianity
has made the least headway. There are four main religious communities in U.P. Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs
and Christians. There are 74.9 million Hindus and 13.6 million Muslims in U.P. Christians, though the
third major community in India is a very small minority in U.P. and have never exceeded 0.5% of the
population. During the period 1915-61 the growth of Christian population was more than 100% in 5
districts. There was also a decline in 23 other districts, eight of them recording more than 50% decline. In
1961-71 ten districts recorded a growth of more than 100%, and 16 districts recorded a decline less than
45%.
Christianity in Bihar:
Patna, the capital of what was then called Behar, seems to have been the first place in this state were
Christianity made its early appearance. Invited in 1620 by Mukarran khan, viceroy of the Delhi Empire
some Jesuits of Bengal were royally revived at his court, to find out that the Nawab was a lapsed
Mohammedan convert. For permanent Christian country, we shall have to wait for the arrival of the
Italian capuchins, when the congregation of propaganda fide erected in 1703 the Tibet-Hindustan
prefecture, which was entrusted to them. They arrived in Patna in 1706, and about 1713we find a
reference to their residence there, one of the five of the Tibet Mission. It was a small community of about
150 Christians, if we do not count the Catholics of the English, Dutch and French merchant barges that
plied on the Ganges from Hugli to Patna.
Christianity in Sikkim:
In 1880 the church of Finland missionaries recited permission to work in Sikkim. They opened schools at
Khamdong and song in east Sikkim, and at mangan in north Sikkim. But as they did not intend to remain
in Sikkim, but to more into Tibet, they closed down the school in Khamdong, and handed over their
school at song to the Scottish mission (which had in the meantime started its work in Sikkim), and

20
opened schools at Lachen and Lachung, still further north and nearer to Tibet. Later when they found that
they cloud not get into Tibet, they lift Sikkim about 1956, after closing down their centers at lichen and
Lachung, and handing over there centre at Mangan to one of their local Christians.

Christianity in North East India:

The term “Northeast” is a geographical identity and refers to those portions of India lying to the north
and east of Bangladesh consisting of the states and territories of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya,
Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. The region excluding the recent addition of Sikkim,
the Himalayan state, is also called as “the land of seven sisters”. These states contain an immense
diversity of language and culture, including about two hundred different hill and plains tribes speaking
about 175 different languages. They can be classified into two, the hill and the plain tribes. The hill tribes
consist of the Kuki-Chin-Mizo groups, the Nagas, the Garos, the Khasis and few others. They live in the
states of Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland, Arunachal, Meghalaya and Assam. Most of the hill
tribes are Christians. The plain tribes are the Ahoms and Adivasis. They are found in the Brahmaputra
valley of Assam. At the time of India’s independence in 1947, all but the princely states of Manipur and
Tripura were part of Assam. The states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland were
carved out of Assam in the 1960s and 1970s.1
Impact of Christianity in North East India:
Positive Impact: The advent of Christianity in North East India affected the people of Northeast Indian
in numerous ways. MM. Thomas remarked, “For the tribal people, Christianity came as a liberator form
spiritual and social demons.
Education: The first and foremost contribution of Christianity in the North East India is Education
because almost all the missionaries with the exception of few began their ministry with a School. The
aim of running the schools was to impart the basic knowledge of the Christian faith while imparting
secular education. Therefore scripture, prayer and devotion were important part of the curriculum of their
schools. Apart from opening the schools, the missionaries also played a key role in providing the Roman
script for their native dialects. The first school was opened by the Serampore mission at Gauhati in 1829.
In June 1836 the Baptist missionaries opened a school at Sadiya. Gradually Rev. Nathan Brown
established several schools in the nearby Villages. Rev. Thomas Jones established schools in Mawsmai
and Mawmluh as early as l842. He not only opened the school but also provided the Roman script tor
their dialect and provides literature for the schools. Ramke established the first school in Damra, Garo
hills in 1864. When Dr. Marcus Clark Mason moved to Tutu in l878, the government handed over the
responsibility of education to the mission with grant in aids. The centre school at Tum produced many
teachers who went to villages and opened schools. By 1916. There was a secondary school in tura with
236 students and 96 primary schools with 295l students.” Educational work and Church planting went
hand in hand in Northeast India. Education played a vital role in the modernization and transformation of
the tribal societies. With the introduction of modern education the process of development acceleration
started in all spheres of life. Apart from lifting the social and economical status of the society, education
has also contributed in stimulating a new social relationship among the people which has led to the
restructuring the traditional family, clan, and village contributing to the solidification of the entire tribe. It
also helped in preserving history, language, folktales, and folksongs through documentation.
Philanthropic Work: The Tribals mostly depended on herbals medicines for treatment from their
illness, wounds and injuries. They used to believe that certain sickness was caused by spirits or
supernatural beings, so sacrifices were offered to these spirits in the belief that those illness and sickness
can be healed by appeasing the spirits or supernatural beings. The missionaries offered them treatment
and moreover it was much cheaper or sometime without any cost. In 1878, the Welsh Mission opened a

21
dispensary at Mawphlang, Khasi Hills. Americian Baptists started medical work at Tura, Meghalaya in
1899. In the same year, a Presbyterian missionary doctor started a hospital at Durtland, Mizoram. After
I905, Rev. Pettigrew not only started a dispensary at Ukhrul but also trained simple medical care along
the Bible classes to the native evangelist. It was upon his insistence; Dr. Crozier was .sent to Kungpokpi
in Will where he set up a leper asylum and dispensary. The dispensary at Kangpokpi was upgraded to a
hospital local and is still serving the need of the people. In similar ways lot of hospitals and dispensaries
were established by the missionaries in North East India.
Transformation: The introduction of Christianity and its emphasis on love and forgiveness positively
reduced inter-tribal feuds and stopped head hunting in the war like tribes of Northeast India. It taught
them love and respect, friendship, tolerance, peace and turned them into a people who respect lives.
Prohibition of head hunting struck at the very heart of all the missionaries emphasised on Christianity as
a way of life, a life style. Doctrine was important but meaningless if not associated with transformed life.
RH. Moore, an American Baptist Missionary in 1903 remarked, “To the Christian missionary, and in
Mission business generally, character is a chief asset purified, sanctified, transformed character, perfected
on the lines of the divine model, ‘to the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ’. Emphasis was
always being placed upon the maintenance of certain standards of conduct if one wished to become a
Christian or to remain in the church. The Christian missionaries have also brought an economic well-
being to the Northeast people especially by improving agriculture, dairy farming, providing technical
education, printing skills, architecture and jurisprudence.
Negative Impact:Christianity because of its western culture and civilization has brought massive change
to the social life: of the North East people. Inspite of the tireless, sacrificial and selfless service, Christian
mission has created a disastrous effect on the culture of the people living in Northeast India
Westernization: Western culture which accompanied the missionaries cannot be all together considered
good for all aspects of life at all levels. There are certain negative aspects. And practices which can be
said as the byproduct of the new religion. As a result of embracing western cultured religion the pattern
of thinking, modes of life of the people are being to extent westernized. Panger lmchen remarked,
“Younger people laugh at those who sing the Ao dialect and think them old fashioned and old timers, so
unfit for modern society.” people are embarrassed about their own cultural elements like songs, festivals,
cultural dresses etc.
Individualism: The concept of salvation had shifted the community centred spirituality to the individual
soul saving spirituality. This led to the loss of community centred spirituality and life. Because salvation
is seen from an individualistic perspective all others beyond the self is considered irrelevant. Also the
introduction of education and economy has detached one’s life from home, family, relatives, clan and
village to look for better livelihood. This undoubtedly affected the social life of the North East People.
Dress, Music and Dance: The people of Northeast India possess beautiful and colorful design of dresses
which symbolically maintained their identity among other tribes. However, under the transformation
brought by the missionaries, the earlier converts were stopped from wearing their beautiful ornaments of
great artistic and human value, like cowries, ivory, scarlet hair of enemy and hornbills etc. It is also
observed that the extinction of cultural music, dance and folklorewere due to the missionaries who
prohibited them without understanding their meaning and inner beauty.
Festivals: The life of the people were encircled by so many beautiful and meaningful festivals like, seed
sowing, Harvest, ear piercing festivals. During such festivals the community used to come together for
public gathering and feast where would share their love, joy and happiness. Thus these festivals
strengthened the bond within the communities. However, with the coming of Christianity these festivals
were replaced by Christmas, Easter, and Good Friday etc.2
Challenges for North East Christianity:

22
Christianity because of its western culture and civilization has brought massive change to the social life
of the North East people. In spite of the tireless, sacrificial and selfless service, Christian mission has
created a disastrous effect on the culture of the people living in Northeast India. Mostly, the non-
Christian writers and to some extent the Christian thinkers accuse Christianity as the caused for erosion
and destruction of the indigenous cultural patterns. F.S. Down maintains that “Christianity in general has
helped the people to adjust to the tremendous change that the Bristish administrators had introduced
among the tribals. Ultimately it new cultural synthesis was developed for which Christianity was the
primary agent. In the process of interaction of the tribal culture with Christianity there was rejection.
Transformation and adoption of the tribal culture: The problem with the church in North East India is that
even some of the traditional values very much in tune with Christianity have not been theologically
articulated. Christianity is not a culture but a religion. Therefore it must be understood in the culture of
the people. O.M. Rao remarked, “The gospel must recognize the heritage and responses of a particular
people from their value premises about the word and the human existence." Therefore Christianity will
have less meaning if it is not contextualized to a particular context. It means, it make the gospel
meaningful it must be understood in the light of their culture which again means indigenizing the gospel
and developing their own appropriate theology. Dr. K. Thankzuava remarked, “A tribal theology must
emerge out of the interaction of the text (Bible) and the tribal experiences of actual life and faith in their
own context to empress their relationship with God who concerns with their total salvation.
Questions
1. Explain the spread of Christian missions in North India?
2. Explain about the Christian conversion movements among Dalits, Tribals and adivasis of North
India and North East India?
Study Suggestions
Arthur Jeyakumar, D. “Group Conversion Movements to Christianity in the India Sub-Connent" in ICHR
XXXIX /2 (December, 2005): 1-11.
David H. Lumsdaine, Evangelical Christianity and Democracy in Asia,(New York: Oxford University
Press), India, 2001.
Downs, Frederick S. “Christian Conversion Movements in North East India,” in Religious Conversion in
India: Modes, Moptivations, and Meanings edited by Rowena Robinson and Sathianathan Clark. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Downs, Frederick S. History of Christianity in North East India. Madras: The CLS, 1976.
Ekka, Alexius. “Hundred Years of the Christian Missions in Chotanagpur.”ICHR XXXIII/2(December,
1999).
George, Kattupallil. “Mass Movement among the Adivasi Immigrants of the Brahmaputra Valley
towards the Catholic Church: A Case Study of the Tezpur Mission, 1932-1940.” ICHR XXV/2
(December, 1991).
Menachery, George. The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, vol.I, Trichur: The St. Thomas
Christian Encyclopedia of India, 1982.
Shimrey, R.R. Origin of Cultures of Nagas. New Delhi: Pamleiphi Shimrey, 1985.

Thekkedath, Joseph. History of Christianity in India, vol.II. Bangalore: the Church History Association,
1996.

23
Chapter V
1. Mass/Community Conversion Movements to Christianity with special reference to Dalits and
Tribals
The term Mass Movement is described in various ways. The term mainly means group entry to the
church – a family, a group of friends, a caste, a community, and sometimes a whole village. According to
Waskom Pickett the distinguishing features of Christian mass movement are a group decision favourable
to Christianity and the consequent preservation of the converts’ social integration.
The mass conversion of entire populations, often out of all proportion to evangelistic activity, has now
and then swelled the world Protestant community. Such mass movements were first recognized in India
in the last half of the 19th century. In the 1860s, after decades of very slow progress, the Protestant
churches suddenly began to receive large groups of converts from various ethnic-tribal groups, such as
those inhabiting the hill country of northeast Bengal, and from the outcaste (Dalit) population. The initial
movements, which occurred in every province of India and across the spectrum of Protestant groups,
took missionaries by surprise. Over the next hundred years, mass movements accounted for up to 80
percent of Protestant growth in India. Approximately 1 million Dalits converted to Christianity before
World War I.
a. Mass Conversion Movements: The advent of Christianity into India, through different apostolic and
evangelistic missions, under different denominational labels, and its firmly strong grounding in this soil
owes largely to mass conversions.
The Mass Conversion Movement was seen in Chota Nagpur among the Munda and Oraon tribes of the
Chota Nagpur in Jharkhand. They were influenced by Lutheran missionaries when Johannes Evangelical
Gossner Missionary Organization of Germany sent four missionaries namely: Rev. Emil Satz, Rev.
August Brandt, Rev. Fredrick Basch and Rev. Theodore Yankey in the year 1845. There was a mass
movement in between 1860 – 1867. In 1857 their number was not less than 700 but by 1867 their number
went up to 10,000 and in 1905 they were 67,000 in number. The reason for the rapid increase in the
number of converts was because they received protection from the British government from Zamindars,
employment opportunities were provided to them even in military, they wanted to improve their social
status, they could retrieve their rights as the original people of the land.
Several notable Protestant mass movements occurred in north India toward the end of the nineteenth
century. During the 1870s the Chuhras, a low-ranking community of sweepers, leatherworkers and
agricultural labourers, began converting en masse to Christianity. As a result of their conversion, the
Indian Christian population in the Punjab rose from 3,912 in 1881 to 395,629 in 1931. Other mass
movements in north India include the conversion of the Mazhabi Sikhs and of the Bhangis and Chamars
in Uttar Pradesh. While indigenous agents were most often the ones who led mass movements,
Methodist, Anglican and Presbyterian missions were involved in these north Indian movements.

24
Baptists and Presbyterians played a significant role in the conversion of Naga, Mizo, Manipurean and
Assamese tribal peoples of north-east India. Today tribal populations of north-east India are
predominantly Christian. Since independence, they have been embroiled in cycles of inter-ethnic conflict
and conflict with the government of India over demands for regional autonomy.
A large-scale conversion movement in south India occurred among the Nadars (who were previously
known as Shanars, and had worked as toddy drawers) of Tirunelveli. As a result of their conversion, the
Nadars enhanced their social and economic status dramatically. From the middle of the nineteenth
century, the London Missionary Society (LMS) conducted its work within the so-called ‘Tamil field’ of
south India. Under the influence of the LMS, large numbers of persons from Dalit (formerly called
‘untouchable’) castes, such as the so-called conch shell and green bangle pariahs and Chuklas of Erode,
and from Criminal Tribes such as the Kuruvars of Salem, became Christian. Under the auspices of the
Church Missionary Society (CMS) and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), Dalit groups
such as the Chakkiliyans, Pallans and Shanars of Tinnevelly and Tajore also converted.
b. Causes for the Mass Movement: We can say that people became Christians in order to get liberated
spiritually, socially and in related areas, and to be treated as human beings, i.e. to get an identity.
Therefore, the major causes for Mass Conversion Movement can be divided into four broad heads –
Spiritual, Economics, Social and Natal (Influence of the relatives).
1. Spiritual: The conviction that Christianity is the true religion and the converts felt themselves happy
that they can have real experience of God.
2. Economics: The conversion led into the development of the improvement of the economic status of the
converts in the new religion. This new religion provided education and other means of livelihood due to
the training in the skilled works like carpentry, building construction, black smith, tailoring etc., by
learning these skills the individual could raise their economic status.
3. Social: They formed their society of their own and also de-centralized administration developed in the
villages. The spiritual and the economic status had automatically given them the social status and a
protection from the social oppressions.
4. Natal (The influence of Christian relatives): Conversions also had taken place with the influence of the
family members. So, any converts usually influenced the entire family. This is one of the primary aspects
of the Mass Movements.
2. Caste and Christianity
The caste system is peculiar to India. There are four major castes in India, viz. Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vysya and Sudra. Those who do not come under this caste stratification are considered to be outside the
caste system and they were termed as out-castes (viz. Depressed classes, Scheduled castes, Harijans, Adi-
Dravidar, Dalit, etc.).
These out-castes group who converted to Christianity were not free from the caste system. The Syrian
Orthodox Churches and the Roman Catholic Church treated the caste system as part of the Indian social
structure and it chose to work within the established social structure. The Protestant Christianity in the
southern part of India has traditionally more rigidly maintained the caste system than the northern part of
India.
a. Malabar Syrian Christians: Apostle Thomas landed on the coast of Kerala in 52 CE near Cranganur.
When he began to preach the gospel many high-castes Hindus NambudiriBrahmans (the dominant
landowning caste of Kerala) were converted and established seven churches in the region. Their social
position was further enhanced due to the association with the East Syrian Christians, thus they are also
known as Malabar Syrian Christians. During the 19 th century, conversion took place largely from the
lower and untouchable castes and tribal people. The Malabar Syrian Christians separated themselves

25
from these low-castes/tribal converts and did not interact with them. Eventually, in some churches in
Kerala they have separate pews for low-caste and high-caste members of the congregation.
b. Roman Catholics: Roman Catholic missionaries found difficult to convert the Indian high-caste group.
The majority of the converts were among the low-castes like the pearl Fishery folk on the Coromandel
Coast and the Mukkuvars. As a result Christianity was considered by high-castes as low-caste religion.
Indian high-caste called the Portuguese as Pharangisubsequently Christianity was known as
‘PharangiMarga.’ The name Pharangiwas used with some implied meaning as well - It suggested meat-
eating, wine drinking, loose-living, arrogant persons, etc. To have social intercourse with such people
was considered as unthinkable and disgusting.
In such a context, an Italian Jesuit by name Robert de Nobili arrived in Madurai in 1606. He desired to
change the opinion of the high-castes towards Christianity. Realizing that there existed a great gulf
between the caste Hindus and the Christians, he determined to indigenize himself. As he was from an
Italian noble family, he thought he could be equated to a Kshatriya. He felt that he could be called a
sannyasi – guru. He sought permission of his superiors to adopt that mode of life. When permission was
granted, he engaged a Brahmin cook and begins living in Indian style. He even changed his black
cassock for ‘Kavi’ ropes, the ones used by Indian sannyasi, his leader shoes for wooden sandals - got
down to indigenize Christianity. He bought a piece of land in another part of Madurai where he
established a ‘mutt.’ He observed a typical Indian ascetic life – living on rice, vegetables, fruit and milk,
having a meal once a day and living a secluded life. He also learned Sanskrit and studied Vedas. His new
method attracted the local high caste youth and it resulted in conversions.
Though the converts were baptized in the name of the Triune God as per the Latin Rite, they were not
required to break caste or change their dress, food or mode of life except in the matter idolatry. Nobili
understood caste as a social system and custom parallel to distinctions of class and rank in Europe. So, he
believed and taught openly that when one embraces Christianity, that person need not leave caste or
station in life. His method came to be known as “Accommodation Theory.”
During this period there were more converts from the Sudra castes and the AdiDravidas. As a result,
ministering to both the high-castes and the low-castes became a problem. For sometime the missionaries
tried to solve it by ministering to the higher castes by day and others by night; but this was unsatisfactory.
Then it was decided to appoint special missionaries for work among the lower castes who were called
Pandaraswamis. Those who ministered to the high-caste converts were known as Brahmin sanyasis.
But the method of de Nobili divided the Christians on the basis and it lasted long. Though there were no
separate places of worship, ‘the buildings were so arranged as to keep caste and out-caste in separate
segment. Later, separate worship services were conducted for different caste groups; there were separate
burial grounds etc. In a few church buildings, dividing walls were put up inside to segregate the
congregations on the basis of caste. The Holy Communion elements were distributed first to the high
caste Christians and then to others. This kind of practice continued almost till the middle of the twentieth
century.
c. The Protestants: The first Protestants missionaries were Bartholomew Ziegenbalgand Henry
Pluetschau (arrived at Tranquebar on 9 th July 1706). Ziegenbalg though preached the gospel, did not take
any firm decision to root out caste distinction from among his converts. The church, he built in
Tranquebar called the New Jerusalem Church was in a cruciform (Shaped like a cross). In this church,
‘the Sudra men (who constituted the majority of the converts) sat in the central part of the church, on the
mats, while the lower castes sat in the transepts, on the bare floor. At Holy Communion all the Sudras,
men and women communicated first and the others afterwards. C.F. Schwartz, another missionary who
headed the Tranquebar Mission in 1720 did not like the policy of observing caste distinctions in the
Mission. He tried to stop it through an order. It resulted in opposition and discontent. Some of the Indian
Christian converts threatened to leave the Tranquebar Mission and join the Roman Catholic Church.

26
Schwartz acknowledged the difficulty of eradicating the observance of caste distinction among the Indian
Christians and felt that it could be overcome in due course by sheer education of the converts.
d. Serampore Mission: The Serampore Baptist Mission under William Carey, Joshua Marshman and
William Ward did not permit caste distinctions among their converts. From the beginning of their
Mission they were particular about this became they realized that the caste distinctions in the Hindu
society was not social but out and out religious. In 1803 Krishna Prasad, a Brahmin convert married
Onunda, the second daughter of Krishna Pal, a Sudra. This was very significance because caste barriers
were most rigid in marriage. The Serampore missionaries attended that marriage ceremony, and then took
part in a wedding meal the next day with the married couple and their friends at the same table in the
house of Krishna Pal. Such a policy became a norm in general among the Missions in North India.
e. The Anglican Missions: The Church of England in India as well as the Society the Propagation of the
Gospel (S.P.G.) took a variant in a letter written by Bishop Reginald Heber on 26 May 1826, he describes
the preservation of many ancient practices including caste by Christians in South India and Sri Lanka. He
wrote, "The old school Missionaries tolerated all this as a merely civil question of pedigree and worldly
distinction, and in the hope that, as their converts became more enlightened such distinctions would die
away. This effect has not followed; but on the other hand, some of the younger Missionaries, both
German and English, have not only warmly preached against caste, but in the management of their
schools, and the arrangement of their congregations, have thwarted it as much as possible°. A bishopric
of the Church of England in India was created in 1813 as a result of the renewal of the Charter of East
India Company by the British Parliament in the same year. Bishop Reginald Heber was the fourth bishop
and his base was Calcutta. He got drowned at Thiruchirapalli while on a visit in 1827. From the above
mentioned statement, we can conclude that the S.P.G. was taking efforts to abolish the caste observance
from among its Indian converts. But such a policy was not received well by the Indian Christians. A
congregation in Chennai got agitated when their missionary made the Adi-Dravida children to sit along
with Sudra children in their church. The matter was referred to Bishop Heber who consulted other
missionaries then in South India, majority of whom did not favour direct action against caste prejudices.
So he transferred the missionary in question from Chennai to Thanjavur.
The question of caste observance was a point of discussion in the S.P.G. Mission. This could be seen
from a reply the missionaries in Thanjavur sent in response to a questionnaire circulated by Bishop
Daniel Wilson in 1828. He had succeeded Bishop R. Heber. The Thanjavur missionaries acknowledged
that the Indian Christians still observe caste distinctions but that it had not become a matter of
controversy and that they were dealing with it with caution. Bishop Daniel Wilson is known for his
opposition to the maintenance of caste distinctions among Indian Christians. In a circular dated 5 July
1833, Bishop Daniel Wilson instructed the missionaries working in the Diocese of Calcutta to take a
concerted effort to abolish caste distinctions among Indian Christians. He wrote, "The distinction of
castes then must be abandoned decidedly, immediately, finally; ... The Gospel recognizes no distinctions,
such as those of caste, imposed by a heathen usage...”. After conducting a service of Confirmation and
Holy Communion in a Mission Church at Chennai, he wrote in his diary on 27 January 1835 that
distinctions of caste and class were disregarded.
But the strict attitude of Bishop Daniel Wilson had its repercussions too. Some of the higher caste Indian
Christians in Chennai did not wish to submit to Bishop Daniel Wilson's stand and decided to join the
congregation of the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission (L.E.L.M.) in Chennai. The L.E.L.M. which
took over the Tranquebar Mission from the Danish - Halle Mission followed the policy adopted by the
latter on caste observance. So those of the S.P.G. Mission, who desired to quit it on that matter, were
accepted and taken in by the L.E.L.M. This became an issue, and correspondences were exchanged
between these two Missions.
C.T.E.Rhenius who was a missionary of the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.) at Palayamkottai,
Tirunelvely did not permit his seminary students to practice caste distinctions. When the students

27
disobeyed his instruction, he closed the seminary for a while and reopened it only after the students came
forward to abide by his stand on the matter. This was about 1825.
f. The Basel Mission: The Basel Mission in Kanara did not subscribe to the practice of caste distinctions
among its converts. From 1834 it settled its Indian converts far away from their places of origin. It
followed a policy of mixing them up in their industrial and educational institutions.

Ch. Vi. Christianity and National Independence Movement

Nationalism is not a new phenomenon among Indians. Nationalist feelings during the European Colonial
period were expressed in various ways. We see such feelings in the open even from the beginning of the
Europeans' occupation, but they were in a few places only, and their motives and aims varied.
For example: In the beginning of the Nineteenth century Velu Thamby in Kerala (Dewan in the
Travancore State) was against the British, but his opposition was coloured with selfish motives. Veera
Pandiya Kattabomman in the southern part of the former Madras Presidency was opposed to the British
and his aim was different. Many other examples from different regions of India can be cited.
At the same time, the coming of the Europeans, especially the British brought in renaissance in India. As
a result, Indians began to imbibe a sense of pride and appreciation in their culture, languages, literature,
religion and country, and so it can be said that there was a cultural renaissance. People such as Raja Ram
Mohan Roy rose up, and set in motion social, ethical and religious reformation. Such reformers
encouraged Indians, especially the youth to get involved in such reforms. The British were asked by such
social reformers to give more opportunities to Indians in the Indian Civil Service (ICS), which can be
seen as a first step towards devolution of power, though it was not expressed so explicitly. Indians in
I.C.S. meant training in administration as well as to prove that Indians could be equal to the British.
The Mutiny of 1857 changed the colour of administration. That incident was not intended to release India
from the Britishers, rather it expressed in no uncertain terms the hatred of Indians belonging to many
sections of the society towards the British. It also drove home to the Indians the necessity to be united in
their efforts. As a result, nationalism and political consciousness began to grow. Indians especially the
educated saw the future with new vision and mission. The Mutiny had given them self-identity and so
there was a renaissance in culture and Hindu religion.
In such a context, the Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. One of the founders was Allan
Octavian Hume who felt that Indians should be given more freedom, more opportunities in
administration, more room to administer themselves, and more cooperation and understanding from the
British for such aspirations. He was under the opinion that if the British wished the Indian National
Congress (INC) well, then it would lead to a cordial relationship, and its activities would be on the path
of peace and good-will. The INC, in its early stages did not ask for independence and it was not violent
as it was composed of educated, moderates. It asked for social and economic reforms for the betterment
of the lives of Indian people. It proposed more share for the Indians in the administration.
a. Christians in Indian National Congress: "In its early years, Indian Christians enthusiastically
supported the National Congress and attended its annual meetings", says G.A. Oddie'. At the Madras
meeting or session of I.N.C. in 1887 as per the official Congress report, there were 35 Christians out of a
total of 607 registered delegates. This was quite impressive because Christian community in 1887 formed
less than 0.79% of the total population. Some of the prominent Indian Christians at the 1887 I.N.C.
session were R. S. N. Subramania, a Christian solicitor and Municipal Councillor from Madras, Kali
Charan Banerji, a prominent leader of the Bengali Christian community who was also an eminent
scholar, a brilliant orator and a highly respected and influential Indian Christian in Congress circles, and

28
Madhusudan Das, a lawyer who later became a deputy magistrate in Orissa'. The participation of
Christians was significant in the succeeding I.N.C. sessions too. At the 1888 Allahabad session there
were 38 Christians out of a total of 1248 delegates, in the 1889 Bombay session 54 out of 1889, at the
1890 Calcutta session 22 out of 677 and in the 1891 Nagpur session, 16 out of 8121. Apart from Kali
CharanBanerji who continued to play a prominent role in the I.N.C. sessions, there were two other Indian
Christians of note, viz., G.G.Nath, a barrister from Lahore and Peter Paul Pillai, a C.M.S. school teacher,
land-holder and later a barrister from Madras.
b. Women's Participation: Christian women too had taken part in the I.N.C. sessions, and it was reported
that they made their presence felt at the 1889 Bombay session of the INC, and that there were 'no less
than ten lady delegates', three of whom were PanditaRamabai, well-known Christian social reformer,
Ms.Trimbuck and Ms.Nikambe noted Christian educationalists.
c. Missionaries: Yet as per a report in the Harvest Field of 1889 some missionaries had doubts as to the
value and wisdom of Indian and other Christians associating with the I.N.C.'. In 1890 W.Harper, a
missionary warned Indian Christians of the danger of joining with Hindus. While there were missionaries
such as W.Harper who held negative opinion about the I.N.C., there were others who not only
encouraged Indian Christians to participate in the I.N.C. but also attended the Congress sessions in
person. Missionaries such as T.E.Slater, C.F.Andrews and E.Greaves were outspoken in urging Indian
Christians to participate in politics and join the Congress. E. Greaves wrote in 1910 'would to God that
Indian Christians might be found in the very forefront of the National Movement".
d. Christians Participation: Reasons for Decline: In spite of this, the participation of Christians in the
I.N.C. sessions declined slowly from 1892 onwards. The reasons for the decline were many. The
Evangelicals emphasized other-worldliness which encouraged Christians to be aloof from mundane
things such as politics. But evangelicalism and its consequent other-worldliness emphasis was there even
earlier and it was not a new phenomenon, and so it need not be the main reason for these said decline.
The main reasons were fear of the majority Hindus, and the fear of loosing favour from the Government
in terms of securing employment in Government service. It was said that Indian Christians were
obtaining employment in Government service in increasing numbers'. "By 1900 this fear of Hindu
domination was generally shared by the Christian community. In 1908 Joseph J. Ghose writing on Indian
Christians and the national movement, expressed the view that participation in the national movement
would be detrimental to the Christian Community." J.J.Ghose said: "We do not know in what way it will
be of any advantage to Indian Christians if they join the non-Christians in political agitation. If further
political rights and privileges are granted to the people of this country, our poor and small community
will not have the remotest chance to be profited by them. On the other hand greater powers in the hands
of non-Christians may prove dangerous to the very life of our community. We know by experience that
wherever the non-Christians are in power the poor Indian Christians labour under a great disadvantage
and have to suffer humiliation, indignities and even persecution"
As pointed out earlier, the I.N.C. in its early decades was moderate and so the British did not consider it
as a threat t.' their administration. But with the emergence of BalGangadharThilak, and AurobindoGhosh,
the I.N.C. took a revolutionary character. Added to that was the partition of Bengal in 1905, which made
the I.N.C. hostile to the British Raj, when British officials and their establishments were attacked by
Congress men, and some officials were even murdered. This led to a vehement attack of the I.N.C. by the
British both in India and in U.K. So from the beginning of the twentieth century there was apprehension
and fear in the minds of the Indian Christians and European missionaries. As a result, they began to leave
the I.N.C. and their attendance at the I.N.C. sessions dwindled.

5. Christianity and Education and Medical Works

29
1. Education and Christian Missions: There were renowned universities such as Nalanda and Taxila in
the ancient India. Also, there were "Guru-Kula" system of education which of course was for the high-
caste and high-class people only.
It is no exaggeration to say that it was the Christian missionaries who brought the modern system of
education to India and made it available for all people irrespective of caste, colour, creed or status.
Sixteenth Century: The Roman Catholic Jesuit Missionary Francis Xavier started a few schools
to give education for the converts and their children. But these schools were primarily meant to provide
nurture in Christian faith. Xavier used to appoint young men from among the converts themselves who
were capable and intelligent as catechists and arranged for them remuneration from the Portuguese
government. During the 1540s the Portuguese opened the St Paul's College in Goa which was for the
training of Indians. During Francis Xavier’s time it came under the management of the Society of Jesus
and it became it theological institution too, where the youth from the Malabar Syrian Church also were
trained.
Eighteenth Century: The first 'Protestant Missionary to have landed in India, Bartholomew
Ziegenbalg opened in Tranquebar school for the half-natives or mixed-race children in 1707. Boarding
school for Indian children were also begun where they were taught to read and write. The aim was to
enable them to read the Bible by themselves. Christian education was given importance there. Schultze
(1726-1741) started a school for the Portuguese (may be mixed race) children as well as a school for the
Tamil children in Chennai (Madras). English language too was taught in these schools. Later with the
help of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (S.P.C.K.) the Tranquebar Mission or the
Royal Danish-Halle Mission started quite a few schools in other places also. C.F. Schwartz started an
orphanage for the children of those killed in an explosion in the armoury of the Fort in
Trichinopoly/ThiruchirapalIi/Trichy.
The East India Company began a few educational institutions such as Madrassa for Muslims at Calcutta
in 1781 where Persian was taught, a Hindu college at Benares in 1791 where Sanskrit was the medium of
instruction. The East India Company considered it as a favour bestowed by the Company on the Indians.
a. Period of Elementary Schools: The period 1813-1833 can very well be termed as the Period of
Elementary Schools. Almost all the Missionary Societies which entered into India during this period
opened elementary schools in their places of work, where Reading, writing and Arithmetic, were taught
in then local languages, the mother-tongue of the children. Importance was also given to Christian
teachings. The aim was to reach the parents through the pupils and thus pave the way for conversion.
During this period, single-women were not sent as missionaries and so the wives of missionaries started
schools specifically for girl children. One Miss Cooke began educational institutions for girls in Calcutta
in 1821. By 1821 the Serampore Mission was running one hundred and twenty-six village schools.
b. Higher Education/English Education/Alexander Duff: The period 1833-1857 can be termed as the
Period of English Education. The E.I.C.'s Charter was renewed again in 1833 and a provision was made
in it to open its Colonies for missionary activities to missionaries from other countries too. Credit for
bringing in English education into India should go to Alexander Duff, who came to India in 1830 as a
Scottish Presbyterian missionary. He began his work in Calcutta and opened a school there which later
developed into a college that became a centre for western education in India. He considered western
education as a 'preparatis evangelis'. Hisaim was to present the Christian challenge to the elite of India,
and the method he decided upon was education in the English language but on a firmly Christian basis.
When Duff opened his school, Raja Ram Mohan Roy stood beside him on the first day and encouraged
the Hindu boys not to be afraid of reading the Christian Shastra, from which he himself had derived so
much benefit. As result of his educational mission, high-caste young men began to have dialogue with
him.

30
The effect of Duff’s attempt was not as great as he expected. But the influence of his attempt spread far
and wide. Taking a cue from the experiment of Alexander Duff others also followed his method. As a
result, quite a few institutions of higher education came up.
c. Serampore College: But even before that, the Serampore Trio had started a college at Serampore in
1818 which was an Arts and Science College with a Department of Theology. Classes in this college
began from 1819. Christians as well as others were admitted, and they were made to live together in one
hostel. The King of Denmark awarded a Charter to the Serampore College in 1827 which gave it the right
to confer degrees.
d. Other Colleges: In 1820 Bishop Thomas Middleton started a College of Higher learning in Theology.
This came to be known as the Bishop's College. It was established in Calcutta, It trained Indians to be
ministers in the Anglican Church (The Church of England) in India.
The missionaries of the Church of Scotland Mission led the way in the field of higher education in
English. John Wilson started a College in Bombay (Mumbai) in 1832 which later came to bear his name;
John Anderson started in Madras (Chennai) 'the Institution' in 1837 which later developed into the
Madras Christian College, and Stephen Hislop started one at Nagpur in 1844 which later became the
Hislop College. Some of the other colleges started during the period worth mentioning are Foreman
Christian College, Lahore, the colleges under the C.M.S. such as the one started by Robert T. Noble in
November 1843 at Masulipatnam (which later was named as the Noble College) and the one by Thomas
Valpy French at Agra in 1853 viz. St. John's College, Agra. Later the Wesleyan Methodist Mission
started a college called Findlay College at Mannargudi, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu.
e. Women's Education: Christian Missions were pioneers in the field of women's education. Since 1870,
a large number of schools and colleges were established for women by the Protestant missions/churches
throughout India. To name a few: Sarah Tucker College, Palayamkottai, Isabella Thoburn College,
Lucknow, Women's Christian College, Chennai. Some of the first women graduates of Indian
Universities were Christians and also products of Christian Colleges. The Christian educational work for
girls gave an impetus to both the Government and other agencies to venture into that area. Reformers like
Gokhale began to impress upon the Hindus the necessity for better educational facilities for women. By
1900 the Arya Samaj, Theosophical Society, Ramakrishna Mission and other agencies began to take
interest in women's education.
2. Medical Ministry and Christian Missions:
Medical work came to occupy an outstanding position in the ministry of almost all the Christian Missions
which landed in India as well as of the Indian Church. The terrible inadequacy of medical facilities in
India induced Christian agencies to start hospitals and dispensaries both in cities and villages
Nineteenth Century: The first mission to adopt a regular policy of sending missionaries to India
was the American Board (A.B.C.F.M.). The early ones to be sent thus were only men, both ordained to
the ministry and fully qualified as medical doctors and they were called Medical Evangelism. The first
one was John Scudder. He arrived in Madras (Chennai) in 1836. Two of his sons joined him later. His
eldest son Henry Scudder, also a medical evangelist moved over in 1851 to Arcot, where he started a
Medical Mission. in 1857 the Arcot area came under the American Arcot Mission of the Dutch Reformed
Church of America. The American Board began medical work in Madurai from 1837. The London
Mission (L.M.S.) started medical work at Neyyoor (now in Kanyakumari Distnct, Tamil Nadu, but
earlier in South Travancore area) in 1838, but the development of this into an extensive medical mission
with a central hospital and branches came much later. From 1840 the American Baptism had two medical
evangelists in Southern Bengal. The first Protestant medical doctor to come as a medical missionary to
Ludhiana in the Punjab was in 1842.
After 1858, the Protestant Christian Missions in general began to give more attention to medical ministry.
The United Presbyterian Mission, Scotland began its work in Raiasthan from 1860 Their medical

31
evangelists such as Shoolbred and Valentine went to villages going to people rather than people coming
to them and along with giving medical treatment to them they preached the Gospel also to them. In fact,
this was the way the medical evangelists were operating in all the Missions. As a result, U.P.M. Scotland,
established dispensaries and then hospitals at Beawar, Ajmer and in most of their other stations during
the next twenty-five years. So also was the Free Church of Scotland Mission in all its principal stations
between 1857 and 1903. The Basel Mission established hospitals from 1885 at Calicut. Basel Mission
established in hospital from 1885 at Calicut, Betgeri and Udupi. The American Presbyterians had an
important medical centre at Miraj from 1889. During the second half of the nineteenth century medical
work became a recognised branch of service in most missions, and by the end of the century, it was
developing rapidly and increasing M scope. For example, in 1858 there were only seven medical
missionaries in all India (undivided India), in 1882 there were 28; but in 1895 the number had risen to
140, and in 1905 to 280. The number of Indian doctors also gradually increased. In 1895 there were 168
Indian doctors.
a. Medical Schools: Since medical work required trained doctors, nurses and other workers Christian
Medical Colleges and Nurses' Training Institutes were established in a selected few centres. They trained
students for government examinations, and the students were sponsored by various Missions. "The first
effort in this direction was the Agra Medical Mission Training Institute begun in 1881 by Dr. Valentine
of the United Presbyterian Mission. This was something in the nature of a Christian hostel attached to the
Government School of Medicine. The students attended the Government School. but also had
supplementary classes, both medical and other. at the Institute. A more ambitious Project was the North
India School of Medicine for Christian women founded by Dr. Edith Brown and Miss Greenfield at
Ludhiana in 1894, a full-fledged medical school for women doctors, compounders and nurses which
became affiliated to the Punjab University-3, Dr. William Wanless established a Christian medical school
at Miraj "which was for nearly fitly years the principal training school for men-. Dr. Ida S. Scudder of the
American Arcot Mission established on August 12, 1918 a medical school for women at Vellore. It soon
became an union institution supported by ten other mission societies.
What the Christian Missions had established were termed as "Medical Schools'. Then a threat came from
the State Government about de-recognizing them if they do not upgrade themselves as per the norms set
by the government. The first one to be affected was the Vellore medical school. Dr. Ida S. Scudder was
the person who took much pain and effort to 'upgrade' it into a college, and got it affiliated tothe Madras
University for the first two years of the M.B. Course in 1942. Dr. Ida S. Scudder worked tirelessly to
mobilise financial support and cooperation from the USA, Europe and within India and got it fully
established as the Christian Medical College for both men and women in 1945. Because of the changed
scenario the Miraj School came to be closed and merged with Vellore. The one at Ludhiana followed the
example of Vellore and became a Medical College for both men and women.
b. Nurses Training: The contributions made by the Christian Missions in the field of training nurses, and
in the department of nursing his been a distinctive one. In the early stages, nursing profession was not
well-received by the Indians in general. For many years Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians were almost
the only candidates for the nursing profession. In 1940 it was estimated that about 90% of all the nurses
in the country were Christians and about 80% of these had been trained in Christian hospitals. Since then
other communities too have joined in the medical ministry and the government too has entered into the
health services in a big way. Yet Christian hospitals still provide better care than the government
hospitals and the Christian doctors and nurses are still acclaimed to be better than those of other
communities.
c. Speciality Hospitals: Christian medical work has ventured into special lines of medical field. Eye-
hospitals are one among them. The ones at Bamdah (Bihar), Jalalpur-Jattan and Mungeli (M. P) came to
be well-recognised for their eye operations and the treatment of eye-diseases. Some became well-known
for their surgery such as Neyyoor, (Kanyakumari District, T.N.), Vellore. Ludhiana.

32
The Protestant medical work also included establishing and maintaining several Tuberculosis sanatoria,
leprosy asylums, mental hospitals and more recently psychiatric clinics.
The premier Tuberculosis sanatorium in India is a Christian institution, the Union Mission Tuberculosis
Sanatorium, Arogyavaram, Andhra Pradesh. It was founded as a cooperative union effort by fourteen
missions in 1915. It has become a leading institution not only in treatment but also in research. Its first
superintendent was Dr. C. Enmesh Moeller of the Danish Mission and his successor was Dr P. V
Benjamin. The Government of India had both of them as advisers on Tuberculosis. Besides Arogyavaram
there are eleven other sanatoria in different parts of India.
William Carey was instrumental in founding an asylum for leprosy patients in Calcutta. Missions which
came into India later took the ministry to the leprosy patients as a special field of Christian service. Yet, a
notable institution in this ministry is the Mission to Lepers which is an international and inter-
denominational society and which was formed in Dublin. Ireland around 1874 at the repeated requests of
Wellesley Bailey who came to India with the intention of Joining the police force but who changed
course to become a missionary with the American Presbyterians at Ambala. The Mission to Lepers
maintains twenty six institutions in India and supports thirty-four other homes and clinics. The larger
settlements (supported by the Mission to Lepers) such as Purulia (West Bengal) and Dichpalli (Andhra
Pradesh) besides providing food, shelter and medical attentionhave large farms and dairies worked by the
patients and carry out well organised programmes of occupational therapy and educational and social
activities. The Research and Training Centre of the Mission to Lepers at Karigiri, near Vellore, is making
an increasing contribution to the anti-lepros campaign.
d. Christian Medical Association of India (CMAI): The beginning of twentieth century saw greater
cooperation among Christian Missions and inter-church aid The medical missionaries in India felt the
need to come together for sharing of experiences and counsel and so formed a Medical Missionary
Association in 1905, It came under the National Missionary Council when the latter was formed in 1914.
In 1926 it was christened as the Christian Medical Association of India (CMAI). It acts as the medical
committee of the National Council of Churches in India. Any Christian medical practitioner, irrespective
of his service affiliation, but who accepts the aims of CMAI can become a member of it. From 1925 to
1927 the Association carried out a valuable survey of medical missions in India, the results of which
were published in 1929 and formed the basis of the hand-book The Ministry of Healing in India (1932).
The CMAI is the Central Consultative and Advisory body for the medical enterprise in India. By its
journal, its conferences, and the activities of its staff of Secretaries it disseminates information and ideas,
and provides a forum where the issues of the day may be discussed and policy defined. It also sponsors
various forms of medical education Since 1931 it has had a Nurses' Auxiliary. "The point Of V1CW
advocated by the C.M.A.I. is that a ministry of healing is not a mere adjunct of mission work, adopted
perhaps as an aid to conversion, but itself an essential part of the work of the Christian Church's.
VII. Women’s Participation in Mission:
Christian Missions and missionaries who came to India during the early nineteenth century came across
many social injustices. One of which was the discrimination of women. They took it as one of the major
issues to be reformed and were deeply involved to uplift the status of women in India. C.B. Firth says,
“Among the growing activities of Christian missions in the nineteenth century, particularly in the second
half of it, was work for women.” Some of the prominent Christian women in India such as Amy
Carmichael, PanditaRamabai, Sarah Chacko and Mother Teresa are the subject to be studied.
a. Status of Women in India in the 18th and the early 19th centuries: During the 18th and in the early
of the 19th centuries Indian society was predominantly a Hindu society with Muslims and other minor
groups. There was the existence of numerous subdivisions within each major religious community,
especially within the Hindu society. Among the subdivisions, the status of women is at the lowest ebb
during this period. They were not considered as equal sex and their status in the society varied from caste
to caste. Seclusion of women was common practice among the upper caste society. A Brahmin woman

33
was called antarjanam or agattammamar (meaning in-door people). In the absence of her husband, she
was not permitted to speak to any man. She must not even look on the face of a male sex and in some
cases a woman was not allowed to speak to male relatives. When a Brahmin woman was suspected by
relatives of illegal connection with men, she had to face a severed process of trials. If she was found
guilty, she was removed to a particular house which was built for this purpose. The women were
degraded to slavery and deprived from their parental community. In case of a low caste woman found
improper intimacy with a Brahmin was either put to death or sold as slaves to the Muslims who sent them
beyond the sea. The Nadar women were not allowed to wear any clothing above their waist. And the
Muslim women were not allowed to attend mosque service in Kerala. Moreover, certain socio-religious
and cultural practices which prevailed in the society that enslaved the women folk were child marriage,
female infanticide, sati, devadasi system, dowry system, slavery, purda system, etc. Thus, women were
subjected to extreme discrimination.
b. Mission Programs to uplift the status of Women: When the status of women in India was at the
lowest condition, Christian missions and missionaries came into the scene. Some of the courses they
went through, which in fact promoted the status of women are discussed below.
Education: Christian missions, particularly the Protestant Missions open up the path for
women’s education in India. Ziegenblg, the first protestant missionary in India pioneered education for
girls with a girls’ school at Tranquebar around 1707 and in around 1732, Schultze at Chennai. So, in the
early 19th century, one of the issues much discussed about was centered around the topic of women’s
emancipation though education. After 1813 a large number of small schools for girls were opened by the
wives or widows of Protestant missionaries but most of those schools were short-lived. In 1818, Mrs.
Hannah Marshman along with the Serampore Trio of the Serampore Mission took the pioneering role in
girls’ education through the village schools. In 1821, one Miss. Mary Ann Cook began educational
institutions for girls in Kolkata. Those who attended were low caste girls, who often had to be paid to
attend and there was great prejudice against female education, which gradually withered.
In 1854, the missionaries began to sent Christian ladies to teach high caste girls in the zenanas (women’s
quarters) of Hindu families. Mrs Mullens and an Anglo-Indian lady, Miss Toogood, were prominent in
this work in Kolkata. This was the beginning of permanent system of the zenana schools. It was
multiplied in other towns and became a regular feature of the educational system. These schools received
grants-in-aid from the government, who appointed female inspectors as well. Then Duff in 1857 opened
Christian day school for girls. In 1859 the American Presbyterian Mission started a girl’s boarding school
at Dehra Dun, from which came the first female matriculate of Kolkata University. The progress of
zenana visitation mostly by missionaries’ wives, led to women missionaries being sent to India by the
missionary societies for women’s work. It also led to establish a number of special mission societies such
as Zenana Bible and Medical Mission and the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society. One of the
well-known among the lady missionaries was Isabella Thoburn, of the Methodist Episcopal Church of
America. It was therefore, only from 1860 onwards, women as missionaries were sent out. After which
women’s education especially the higher education too began to be given importance. And since 1870, a
large number of schools and colleges were established for women by the Protestant Missions throughout
India. Some of them are Sarah Tucker College, Palayamkottai; Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow;
Women’s Christian College, Chennai. Some of the first graduates of Indian Universities were also
products of Christian colleges. The works of the Christian missions and missionaries in promoting
education for girls facilitated many Indian women to excel themselves participating in the society. Some
of them were: Cornelia Sorabji from Pune, the first lawyer from Protestant Christian community;
KrupabaiSanthianathan from Chennai, the first women student to enroll in Madras Medical College;
Lilavati Singh from Lucknow, an educator, administrator and organizer. Indeed, the Christian missions
had carried out a tremendous attempt to improve the status of women in India.
Medical Work: Christian mission and missionaries as they began their ministry in India came to
realize the urgent need of medical assistance especially for women and children. Bound by the custom of

34
the land, men were reluctant to speak to doctors who are strangers to them about their wives and Indian
women were themselves most unwilling to be examined by a male physician. In such a condition,
Zenana missionaries played a great role not only in evangelism and education but also brought to light
the special attention of medical help for women. Soon, lady missionary doctors began to arrive in India.
The American Episcopal Methodist Mission was the first to send out a fully qualify lady doctors, Clara
Swain. She began her work in 1870 at Bareilly where a women’s hospital was opened in 1874. In 1871, a
Presbyterian woman medical missionary, Sarah Seward arrived at Allahabad.
The undenominational Zenana and Bible Medical Mission founded by two British society and the Church
of England Zenana Missionary Society started to work among women since 1880 and built hospitals for
women and children in many places all over India. The C.M.S., the Church of Scotland Mission and the
American Presbyterians built hospitals in many places especially for women and children. Among many
hospitals by the Christian missions, the one started by C.M.S. in 1864 at Srinagar, became one of the
most prominent in India. When the British Methodists took up medical work at Mysore city and Hassan
(1906), their hospitals were for women and children. Soon medical works required Indian women
doctors, nurses and compounders. So the missions spent much money and time to train Indian women as
nurses and doctors. The medical profession was one of the first professions open to women in India and
medical colleges were established.
The North India School of Medicine for Christian Women was started by Dr. Edit Brown and Miss
Greenfield at Ludhiana in 1894. It was a fully fledged medical school for women doctors, compounders
and nurses, which became affiliated to the Punjab University. In South India a medical school for women
was founded at Vellore under Dr Ida S. Scudder of the American Arcot Mission. Later these two colleges
became medical colleges for both men and women. These are the two colleges on which the Christian
medical enterprise chiefly depends for its Indian doctors, and the doctors trained in them are fully
qualified men and women.
Female Infanticide: Child sacrifice was a popular practice in India. This was the sacrifice of the
infants, especially girls, by drowning them in the ‘holy river’. Seeing this situation, the Serampore
Mission led by William Carey strongly protested against this practice to Lord Wellesley, the then
Governor-General of India and Wellesley assigned him to inquire into the sacrifice of children to the
Ganges at Sagar Island. In 1801, William Carey submitted a report against this evil practice to Lord
Wellesley. In his report he says, “A criminal and inhuman practice of sacrificing children, by exposing
them to be drowned or devoured by sharks, prevails . . . This practice is not sanction by Hindoo law, nor
countenanced by the religious orders.” And eventually on the basis of his report, the Governor-General
passed a regulation on 20 August 1802, prohibiting the practice of sacrificing children. Thus the practice
of sacrificing female child in the society was able to reform due to the efforts given by the missionaries.
Sati (Widow Burning): Before 1828, Hindu widows were persuaded to immolate themselves on
their husband’s funeral pyres. Those who did not were treated as evil omens but also become domestic
slaves; many were even thrown out of their husbands’ homes to fend for themselves.
In 1818 the Serampore Trio stepped into the field of journalism. Their weekly news paper in Bengali
called SamacharDarpan and English monthly The Friend of India became an important instrument to
promote social reforms. One such issue was Satisahagamana, the burning alive of Hindu widows on the
funeral pyres of their husbands. So the missionaries published articles on sati for public awareness, and
they appealed their philanthropic European friends to put pressure on British government. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, a well-known Indian leader also joined the movement against the evil practice of sati. After
a long struggle by the Trio and their supporters, the government abolished sati in 1829.
Upper-Cloth Revolt: Before Shanars were converted to Christianity by the L.M.S. missionaries
working in South Travancore, Shanars women were not allowed to wear any clothing above the waist by
the upper caste. The L.M.S. missionaries made the Shanars women to put on clothes to cover their breast,
but it led to a extensive conflict with the higher castes that came to be known as the ‘Upper-cloth

35
Rebellion’ though the missionaries were undoubtedly motivated by their own western notions of
propriety, the agitation took on the character of a social movement. In due course, the Governor of
Madras G.E. Trevelyan intervened to impress upon the British Resident in Tranvancore the necessity to
interfere in favor of the Shanar in the wake of the ‘Upper-Cloth Revellion’. In 1859 a declaration was
issued to permit the Shanar women to wear upper cloth, called Kuppaym. It was a great moment for the
Shanar women gaining their dignity and self respect and get out from the bondage of the high-caste
people.
Vocational Training: A few mission societies got an idea of starting small scale industries in
order to provide a means of livelihood for economically weaker people. It was also to rehabilitate for
widows and destitute women. The L.M.S. missionaries, Martha Mault and Johanna Mead combined
classroom teaching and vocational training together. Girls were taught reading and writing in the
morning and spinning cotton, knitting, sewing and embroidery in the afternoon. In 1820, Lace Industry
was started in the Girls’ Boarding School at Nagercoil. This industry provided employment to many
girls. It gave the girls a new outlook on life because this made them self-supporting. Therefore this
industry became an instrument to enhance the status of women in South Travancore. Some of the notable
examples are – The Woven Fabrics Industry of the British Methodists at Ikkadu, Thiruvallur near
Chennai and Dummegudem, Andhra Pradesh (LMS).
c. Amy Carmichael and Devadasi System: Another social evil which prevailed in the Hindu society was
the Devadasi system. Devadasis were the dancing girls in the temple. They were regarded as the maid-
servant of God but, in fact they were ‘the temple prostitutes’. They did not become devadasi in their own
will but usually parents dedicated one of their children, normally a girl child to the temple sometimes
because of a vow, sometimes in order to escape from some entanglement such as if the father was ill, the
mother vowed to give one of her children to God if the father got cured. And sometimes a poor widow
who faced by the impossibility of marrying her child suitably, she ‘marries her child to the god’. This
was a system which degraded the status of women in the society. Among the Protestant missionaries who
found the Devadasi system as a social evil was non-other than Amy Carmichael.
Amy Carmichael was basically from Northern Ireland. She was born on 16 December 1876 in Millisle, a
seacoast village. She was brought up on the teachings of the Bible, the shorter Catechism and the tenets
of Christian especially love, hope and faith. And she belonged to the Presbyterian Church. The family
moved to Belfast when she was in her teens, and she sent to a Wesleyan Methodist boarding-school at
Harrogate. After her father died in 1885, she was a great source of strength to her mother, and a source of
inspiration for her four brothers and two sisters. In 1886 Amy was spiritually touched at the Keswick
convention in Glasgow. The following year, she attended the same convention in Belfast, which
intensified her thirst for winning persons to Christ. From 1890 onwards she engaged in evangelistic tours
and finally in 1892 she decided to be a missionary. She was in Japan for a brief period as a missionary
but she had to leave Japan on health ground. Again in 1895, she was accepted by the Church of England
ZenanaMissionary Society (CEZMS) as their missionary. She arrived in India on 9 November 1895 and
stayed on in India till her death on 18 January 1951. It is said that she had never gone back to England.
She began her work in Bangalore, and then she moved over to Tirunelveli. From 1900, Amy made
Dohnavur in Tirunelveli District as her base. In 1901, while they camping in Pannaivilai, Amy had an
opportunity to redeem a seven-year old girl from a Devadasi house at a village near Pannaivilai. That was
the beginning of her work in rescuing temple-girls or the so called Devadasis.
When Amy found out the Devadasi system, she termed it as ‘defied sin’ and she began to redeem the
temple-girls with the help of a team of Indian women who had formed a band under her initiation.
Though she had faced legal battles in such a ministry, she persisted in it. She began to highlight the plight
of the temple-girls through her writings which influenced the thinking of many Missions as well as in the
government circles. As a result very soon it was made illegal to dedicate a young child to a deity. In 1925
she ceased to be a missionary of CEZMS and began the Dohnavur Fellowship in 1926, which got legal

36
organization in 1927. This fellowship became the nucleus of the various activities of social upliftment of
girl children and women.
d. PanditaRamabai: The 19th century missionary movement was first and foremost a foreign women’s
movement. But the Mukti Mission, started by PanditaRamabai (1858-1922) was primarily an Indian
women’s movement.
Ramabai was a high caste Hindu Brahmin woman. She spent most of her childhood and youth in
pilgrimages with her parents, brother and sister. Both her parents and sister died as victims of a famine in
South India. She and her brother continued their pilgrimages to sacred places; and in 1876 came to
Kolkata. By this time she was a scholar in the Sanskrit language and Hindu scriptures. She was giving
lectures and instructing people on the education of women and their upliftment. She became reformer and
a lecturer all over India. After sometime, Ramabai had lost her faith in traditional Hinduism and had
become a Brahma Samajist . Her brother died and she was married to a Sudra (low caste) man,
BabuBipin, who was well educated. Unfortunately he died after two years of their married life, leaving
her with a baby girl, Manorama. Then she came to Pune and settled there. In Pune she had been attracted
by the activities of Christian missionaries and by the preaching of Nehemiah Goreh, a high caste
Brahmin who had become a Christian shastri.
In 1883, Ramabai went to England to study and fit herself for social work among women. There she met
the sisters of Wantage (Roman Catholic sisters) through Miss Harford who taught her New Testament in
Pune. In England, she was taught by one Miss B, who became a real spiritual guide to her. She was
drawn to the philosophy of Christianity for her work among outcaste

women, and she was intellectually convinced about the truth, so she received baptism in 1883. After she
became Christian, her concern for Hindu women grew stronger and led her to raise fund for establishing
a school in India for high caste Hindu women. She came back in India and started a school called
‘SharadaSadan’ on March 11, 1889 in Bombay and later it was moved to Pune.
In 1896 famine arose in Kolkata, she went there and rescued women and orphan girls. Many other
workers joined Ramabai and one Miss Minnis F. Abrams, a missionary from U.S.A. joined her in her
work. She made a new home called Mukti (salvation) for these rescued ladies and thus the Mukti Mission
began at Kedgaon. Mukti was and is, in fact, an Ashram. Ramabai’s work increased – the gardens and
fields, the oil press and dairy, the laundry and backery, the making of plain Indian garments, caps, lace
buttons, ropes, brooms and baskets, the spinning of wool and cotton, etc. provided employment for
hundreds of girls. Later a printing press also was added. Many hundreds of the girls under Ramabai’s
mission voluntarily came forward to accept Christian faith. Ramabai died in 1922 but the Mukti Mission
still continues.
e. Sarah Chacko: Sarah Chacko was an outstanding and eminent Indian Christian Lady, who was the
first Indian honored to be the President and first Lady president of the biggest ecumenical forum, The
World Council of Churches (WCC). The short life of Sarah Chacko was eventful with very valuable
contributions to the Indian Society and Churches of the world. At the time of her early death at the age of
49 years, she had grown up to be a renowned educationalist and ecumenist.
Sarah Chacko was born on February 13, 1905. She had her primary education done at Syrian Girls
Primary School and Govt. Jubilee Girls High School, Trissur. After the school education, she joined
Queen Mary's Women's College in Madras. She passed BA at the age of 20 in 1925. After that, she
started her teaching carrier at Bending School and later Christain Mahilalayam School in Trissuur. In
1928, she joined for MA in History and Economics at Queen Mary's College in Madras. After her MA,
she joined as the Lecturer of Isabella Thoburn College Lucknow.
Her educational interest was to find the root cause for the international tension and participation of
international law for its control. In 1938, she returned back to Lucknow, became Vice Principal and later
37
Principal of Thoburn College. During this period, in a retreat session conducted by Allen E. Parker, 30
College girls dedicated themselves for the full time Christian service. Sarah was entrusted with the
responsibility of conducting Bible studies for these girls. During the dawn of the twentieth century,
Young Women's wing YWCA, World Women Prayer Day, Women Missionaries and Sisterhood got
momentum to look forward in ecumenical ideas without any denominational segregation. In 1947, she
was elected first to become the Vice President of the World YWCA. During 1948, representatives of 147
churches assembled in Amsterdam and constituted the WCC officially.
After the Amsterdam Assembly, many women's educational conferences were convened. Sarah had
attended all these conferences of the designated women all over the world. In the inauguration meeting of
WCC, Sarah had addressed the audience on the theme 'The Participation of women in Christian Mission'.
Her speech was highly appraised by all the Church leaders participated in the Assembly. She was invited
to the Council out of her own charisma and caliber and not as representative of any Church. After
submitting her report, she was invited as the President of WCC Commission established for Life and acts
of the women in Church and subsequently in 1951, she became the first woman and Indian President of
the WCC.
Further, she was nominated as the Planning Committee Chairperson of the World Christian Youth
Conference held at Kottayam and she gave a very impressive speech in conference held in Madison
Square Garden in America. In 1951, she completed the commission period and returned to Lucknow. As
per the recommendation of Sarah Chacko, the Central committee of the WCC was conducted at the
Thoburn College Campus during Dec.31, 1953 - Jan 8, 1954. As a paradox of history, in 1954, Sarah
expired with a heart attack while playing Basket Ball at the age of 49.
The most stunning character of Sarah Chakko was her relentless struggle for obtaining equality for all
women and Christian women in particular. Sarah’s efforts led to the establishment of a Women’s
Commission within the WCC. She subsequently became the Chairperson of that Commission, as mention
earlier, in addition to her duties as the President of WCC. Moreover, Sarah Chakko embraced Indian
traditions as a Christian which made her love all her fellow human-beings, rich or poor, Hindu, Christian
or Muslim, all as children of the same God. She lived the life of a devotee for the work of the Lord. She
had dedicated her life to that purpose. Sarah Chakko’s life is a testimony to the tenacity of a Christian
woman’s commitment to do her part in the struggle for ensuring equality for all women, starting with
Christian women so that they can serve as role models for all women of all faiths everywhere.
f. Mother Teresa: Mother Teresa was one of the great servants of humanity. She was an Albanian
Catholic nun who came to India and founded the Missionaries of Charity in Kolkata. Later on Mother
Teresa attained Indian citizenship. Her selfless work among the poverty-stricken people of Kolkata is an
inspiration for people all over the world and she was honored with Nobel Prize for her work.
Mother Teresa's original name was Agnes GonxhaBojaxhiu. She was born on August 27, 1910 in Skopje,
Yugoslavia. She was youngest of the three siblings. At the age of 12, she decided that she wanted to be a
missionary and spread the love of Christ. At the age of 18 she left her parental home in Skopje and joined
the Sisters of Loreto, an Irish community of nuns with missions in India. After a few months of training
at the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Dublin and through them, Mother Teresa came to India in
January, 1929. On May 24, 1931, she took her initial vows as a nun. From 1931 to 1948, Mother Teresa
taught geography and catechism at St. Mary's High School in Calcutta. However, the prevailing poverty
in Calcutta had a deep impact on Mother Teresa's mind and in 1948, she received permission from her
superiors to leave the convent school and devote herself to working among the poorest of the poor in the
slums of Calcutta. After a short course with the Medical Mission Sisters in Patna, she returned to
Calcutta and found temporary lodging with the Little Sisters of the Poor. She started an open-air school
for homeless children. Soon she was joined by voluntary helpers, and she received financial support from
church organizations and the municipal authorities. On October 7, 1950, Mother Teresa received
permission from the Vatican to start her own order. Vatican originally labeled the order as the Diocesan
Congregation of the Calcutta Diocese, and it later came to known as the "Missionaries of Charity". The
38
primary task of the Missionaries of Charity was to take care of those persons who nobody was prepared
to look after.
Mother Teresa's work has been recognized and acclaimed throughout the world and she has received a
number of awards and distinctions. These include the Pope John XXIII Peace Prize in 1971, Jawaharlal
Nehru in 1972, Templeton Foundation Prize (London) in 1973, Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 and Bharat
Ratna 1980. On March 13, 1997, Mother Teresa stepped down from the head of Missionaries of Charity
and died on September 5, 1997, just 9 days after her 87th birthday.
From the above discussion, one can obviously says that Christian missions and missionaries are the
forerunners of the movement for the liberation of women in India. They realized that to the true gospel
lies not only preaching and ministering the word of God rather they brought reformation in the society
along the gospel of Jesus Christ to provide a true humanity to everyone. Indeed they reformed the status
of women who were the most neglected section in the society. Today, in India, girls are no less than boys
in terms of education and perhaps in every field which indeed was never allowed earlier. And some of
the prominent Christian women discussed in this paper also set an example, challenging the Indian
women in particular and the whole women in general.

Study Suggestions
Athiyal, Sakhi M., Indian Women in Mission, Madras: Mission Educational Books, 1995.
Chatterjee, Sunil Kumar, Hannah Marshman: The First Women Missionary in India, Calcutta: People’s
Little Press, 1987.
Dongre, Rajas Krishna Rao and Josephine F. Pattson, Pandita Pamabai: A Life of Faith and Prayer,
Madras: CLS, 1969.
Hosier, Helen Kooiman, 100 Christian Women Who Changed the Twentieth Century, Secunderabad: OM
Books, 2000.
Imchen, Narola, Christianity and Women, class notes, 2005.
Moses, Rani, “Empowering Women,” Dalits and Women: Quest for Humanity, edited by V.
Devasahayam, Madras: The Gurukul Summer Institute, 1992, pp. 195-204.
Nayak, Jessie Tellis, “ Christian Women in India,” Women in India and in the Church, edited Engelbert
Zeitler, Lucy Misquita and Jessie Tellis Nayak, Indore: Dive Word Publications, 1978, pp.199-210.
Webliography
http:// www. Dohnavurfellowship. Org/.

VIII. Indigenization including the Emergence of Independent Church/Movement such as Subba

Rao
a. Indigenization: The term “indigenous” has its roots in Biology, referring to native plants or species.
For example, a cactus is indigenous to arid climates, while polar bears are indigenous to the Arctic. In
missions, indigenization describes the process of planting ministries that “fit naturally into their
environment.”
Indigenization avoids planting ministries that are out of place and are simply replicas of their Western
counterparts. Just as a plant needs to have certain natural characteristics to be called a flower, a ministry
needs certain native characteristics to be deemed indigenous. The three-self formula and
contextualization are important characteristics of an indigenized ministry (A three-self ministry is a
ministry that is self-supporting, self-governing and self-propagating).

39
The Indian independent Church movements are expression of an authentic Indian incarnation of the
Christian faith. These movements are demonstrations of the translatability of the Gospel. Theses
churches of the “Little Tradition” frequently have been classed as sects. In the past, attempts were made
in Bengal and Madras to produce Indian versions of the faith. A Brahmin poet from Maharastra, Narayan
Vaman Tillak (1862-1919), brought the richness of the Hindu bhakti tradition into the Church. In Tamil
Nadu, Vedanayakam Sastriyar (1774-1864) and Krishna Pillai (1827-1900) and others greatly enriched
and encultured “main stream” Christianity of the South. The most radical attempt came in the guise of the
Christo-Samaj and Church of the New Dispensation of Keshup Chundra Sen (1838-1884) in Bengal who,
however, remained a Hindu. R.C. Das (1908-1968?) and Sunder Singh (1889-1919) are other examples
of individuals who in various ways appropriated the Gospel in an Indian way.
The small Church Movements, as they are sometimes called, capture the ethos of these earlier attempts.
For the most part little is known about these movements. In recent decades a movement around the late
Subba Rao (1912-1981) attracted attention from writers.
b. K. Subba Rao: Independent Church/Movement: Subba Rao’s movement is a specimen of folk
religion, and as such there has been little concern within the movement for its history or for the
documents it produced. Yet the events surrounding the Subba Rao movement are recent enough that the
central incidents can be quite reliably dated. Subba Rao was born in 1912 and married in 1937. In 1942
he experienced a vision of Christ that transformed his life and led to the Jesus movement that continues
to this day.
Both the account of SubbaRao’s vision of Christ and the ministry of healing in Christ’s name that
eventually developed have been preserved with hagiographical rather than historiographical concerns in
mind. SubbaRao wrote a song about his conversion experience and that song appears first in the current
collection of his compositions. Stories of the development of his healing ministry lack time frames and
dates but are believable. SubbaRao had no contact with Christians that might have influenced his vision
in 1942. But in fact he had met the noted Pentecostal evangelist Lam Jeevaratnam due to his wife seeking
(and finding) relief under Jeevaratnam’s ministry. Fundamental to any understanding of SubbaRao is his
reactionary rejection of Christianity and its institutions, and this attitude likely explains why influence
from Pentecostal Christianity was ignored. Within the SubbaRao movement there is no traditional
account for why SubbaRao first rejected Christianity, perhaps because it is considered an obviously right
path. Dr. B. V. Subbamma, who became acquainted with SubbaRao after commending his work in her
study of New Patterns for Discipling Hindus, recounted that SubbaRao attended the Lutheran church in
the village of Munipalle for a time.
By the 1950s SubbaRao had become known for his healing ministry. He was also uncompromisingly
focused on Jesus Christ, whom he proclaimed in the midst of a vibrant critique of all religious traditions.
In practice—and surely this was related to the association of Christianity with Jesus—SubbaRao’s
critique of religious traditions centered on a critique, almost always a mocking, of Christianity. It is thus
no surprise that his early years were marked by rather severe conflict with the established churches. His
first English publication in 1958 was a deeply critical tirade against the church and its ministry, fittingly
entitled Retreat, Padri! A second edition released in 1972 suggested that church relations had improved.
Nothing like actual cooperation ever developed between the SubbaRao movement and the established
churches. The movement continued its central focus on physical healing, but was also certainly a
devotional (bhakti) movement centered on faith and love towards Jesus Christ. Along with these
emphases the idiosyncratic teaching or philosophy of SubbaRao marked the movement. It is very
difficult to estimate the numbers of adherents to SubbaRao’s teaching. There was no formal
organizational structure, and as will be noted there was opposition to baptism and sacramental practice.
The movement developed a slogan of “no caste, no creed, no religion,” but in fact was and is solidly
rooted in the Kamma (“clean Shudra” in the caste hierarchy) community.
8. Cultural Identity and Christianity with Special Reference to North East India

40
Gospel passes through various cultures in different parts of the world so also through the tribal culture in
the North East India. At the same time tribal culture also consciously or unconsciously facilitated in
spreading the Gospel among them. However the important aspect of this tribal culture towards the rapid
spread of Gospel was not realised and remained unnoticed. Western missionaries had never thought
seriously about the tribal culture how much they were attached with their traditional culture, on the
contrary they tried to negate all the tribal cultures as inferior and inspired by the evil spirits. Therefore
the discussion about Gospel and tribal culture has to be understood as a critical reflection of Christian
faith on the basis of tribal people’s experiences and social realities.
The common idea that culture is the fact of man while the Gospel is God's intervention, never constructs
a vigorous relationship between Gospel and tribal culture. Julius Lepner asserts, “Culture, as an act and
attainment of humankind created in the likeness of God, is not outside the rays of the divine energies; it is
not unrelated to the breathing of the Spirit who controls all things, ‘the visible and the invisible.’ The
creative work of people upon nature is a gift, a commandment and a possibility given to the first created
couple, a consequence of being ‘in the likeness of God’ (Gen. 5:1).” Lepner’s argument is considered
valid because God manifest himself to different people in different forms. The valuable tribal cultures,
thus, need to be recognized as a divine practices sanction by God. However while trying to justify the
validity of the tribal culture; it is also important to understand two things in mind concerning the Gospel.
First, the content of the Gospel i.e. God’s saving work in Christ which is eternal and which is not subject
to changes of the situation of the people or place; second, the interpretation of the Gospel which is
subject to change from generation to generation and from culture to culture. In other words, tribal culture
must not super cede the essence of the Gospel and vice versa.
The main concern arises here is how far these two can go together without polluting the Christian faith as
well as without underestimating the local tribal culture. Rao rightly suggests some guidelines to interact
the Gospel in various cultural settings. They are - Custom which is socially valuable should be utilized
even though it was associated with non-Christian practice; in case of a custom that is socially destructive
and opposed to Christianity tenets must be given up and; those customs which though not socially
destructive yet not essential to Christianity or tend to restrict or limit the wider fellowship of the
Christian body should be given up. This means there is a need to find relevant tribal cultures towards
deeper understanding about the Gospel from their cultural set up. For example the tribal concept and
practice of ‘reconciliation’ - the Rongmeis of Manipur called it Chuksu-Garoumei and Aos,
Yimchungru,Sangtam of Nagaland called it Aksu, Pinthrum, Kehdachiliba, respectively. This practice
among the tribal people signifies the change of bad attitude or finalizes any conflict together and makes
peace between persons or groups. Such type of practices of the tribal people qualifies the Christian
principle of forgiving and reconciliation. Likewise there are many more tribal cultural practices which
can be coupled up with Gospel and simultaneously Gospel will be incarnated in the tribal cultural set-up.
This is not to mean ‘culturalism’ in which culture is romanticized and well-regarded above the Bible
rather it is an attempt to rediscover the essence of the cultural values which can be related to the Christian
belief and practices.
As a matter of fact, Gospel and tribal culture is joined at the hip though certain differences occurred
between them. Many times, many people tried to separate these two from one another but as long as the
Gospel is concerned among the tribal people they cannot be departed from one another yet they also
cannot be considered fully complementary to each other. If we think this two are complementary, then
there is a danger of polluting the whole Christian faith because in every culture all the time some kind of
unfavourable or unhealthy practices are common. But it also cannot be regarded as incompatible to each
other – tribal culture in one way or the other makes possible for the rapid spread of the Gospel among
them and simultaneously Gospel also liberated the tribal people from many forms of an oppressive
culture like slavery and headhunting practices and also brought social changes, better way of life. The
bewilderment about Gospel and tribal culture is thus, not due to the purity or impurity but due to the lack
of clear understanding about them. It has to be understood not from the point of superior or inferior, pure
or impure to one another but from the point of incarnating Gospel in tribal culture.
41
XI. Church Union Movements in India with Special Reference to the Church of South India (CSI)
and the Church of North India (CNI)
In the history of Christianity, Nineteenth century is known as the century of missions or missionary
movements, and Twentieth century as of the ecumenical movement. We can confidently say that
Christianity in India had contributed much to the Ecumenical movement.
a. Contributory factors for cooperation among Missions / Churches:
i. Missionary Conferences in India: The British Baptist missionary in Bengal, William Carey
(1761 -1834) was the first one to think of missionary cooperation in the mission field. He in 1806
suggested the convening of a world-level missionary conference at the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa
either in 1810 or 1812 for the sake of discussing the areas of cooperation in the mission fields as well as
for sharing of information, joys and sorrows. But this proposal of William Carey did not materialize then;
it took one hundred years for such a conference to be held,i.e. the World-level Missionary Conference at
Edinburgh in 1910.
May be taking a signal from the suggestion of William Carey, the missionaries of different missionary
societies working in Bombay decided to come together, and they first met in 1825. They discussed the
areas of co-operation in their common task of evangelism, their problems, difficultiesetc. They decided to
have an uniform minimum requirementfor offering baptism to new converts, and also to cooperate in
Christian literature work. This Bombay experience led to similar meetings of missionaries working in
Calcutta and Madras, and they had their first meeting in 1830. The Calcutta meeting met initially in the
house of the Baptist missionary in charge of the Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta on the first Monday of
every month during breakfast time. These city-level meetings led to regional or provincial conferences
ofmissionaries, such as the Bengal General Conference, Calcutta 1855, the North-West India General
Conference, Benares 1857., the South India Missionary Conference, Ootacamund (Ooty) 1858, the
Punjab Conference, Lahore 1862, the South India and Ceylon Missionary Conference, Bangalore 1879,
the South India Missionary Conference, Madras 1900 and so on. All these missionary conferences except
one, the Madras 1900, were convened without the official sanction of the Missionary Societies and were
held at the initiative and interest of the missionaries working in India. In these conferences the
missionaries were able to have, not only fellowship but also sharing of their concerns, difficulties and
dreams. The South India Missionary Conference Madras 1900, was the first one to be organized with the
approval and support of Missionary Societies in South India. The way it was organized and conducted
became a model for future missionary conferences, including the 1910 Edinburgh Conference. We can
say that these were Indian contributions to the Ecumenical Movement.
These regional conferences led to All India level Missionary Conferences which were held once in ten
years, and so were termed as Decennial Conferences. They were Allahabad 1872, Calcutta 1882,
Bombay 1892, Madras 1902 and Calcutta 1912. At the 1872 Allahabad Conference a CMS missionary
from Madras, the Rev. J. Barton read a paper on ‘The Indian Church of the Future', which was
considered as a very important and significant paper. The denominational differences which were
considered as very deep and wide and insurmountable in Europe and America were seen in India in the
background of Hinduism, which was in majority.
The 1879 South India and Ceylon Missionary Conference at Bangalore recommended Family reunions
and Federation of churches. At this Conference it was felt that ''there was a common basis of
Evangelicalism in piety, forms of worship and zeal, and methods of evangelism upon which they could
meet." Thus we can say that the missionary conferences held in India during the Nineteenth century made
it possible for the missionaries of various denominations not only to come together in fellowship but also
to plan for cooperation leading on to a union of Churches/ Missions.
ii. Hill Stations:The European and American missionaries working on the plains of South India
used to spend the month of May every year in the Hill stations such as Kodaikanal, Coonoor/
Ootacamund. During such stays they began to have informalmeetings to exchange views about their
42
work and experience. These meetings led to many cooperative efforts. One of the important results of
these hill meetings was the formation of the South Indian Missionary Association in 1897. This
Association was given the responsibility to organize the 1900 South India Missionary Conference,
Madras, which unlike the earlier ones was an official one which invited missionary societies to send
official delegates. Thus the Hill stations acted as a tool for missionary cooperation and church union.
iii. Organizations: Christian organizations such as the Christian Literature Society, the Christian
Endeavour, and the YMCA brought together European and Indian Church leaders of different
denominations. The Y.M.C.A. in particular treated Europeans and Indians equally. These organizations
gave impetus to Church union movements.
iv. Migrations: One of the unifying forces among the Indians was migration. The great famine of
1876 — 1878 caused many people to move to different parts of South India and even outside the country,
One such group was the Christians of Tirunelvely, particularly the Nadars (Shanars). These migrants got
assimilated with the local denominational mission work and in course of time played a significant role in
church unity efforts.
v. The Madras Christian College: The higher educational institution founded by the Scottish
Presbyterians in Madras in 1837 attracted many young Indians who showed a deep interest in Western
education. Those who joined there came from many parts of South India and so got the opportunity to
meet young people from different denominations, different languages and areaszirhich ultimately led to
the feeling of oneness in Christ. This institution which came to be known later as the Madras Christian
College, got reorganized in 1910 as a union institution. The two Scottish Missions, the Wesleyan
Methodists and the Church Missionary Society (Anglican) became supporting bodies thus bringing about
a climate of oneness (in Christ) and cooperation.
vi. Nationalism: From about the middle of the Nineteenth century, therewere attempts by Indians
to show their nationalist spirit. There were a few Christians also, who expressed it in one way or the
other. The following examples could be cited for such nationalist expressions: the formation of the
'NattuSabai' or the 'Hindu Church of Lord Jesus' by one 'Sattarnpillai’ at Mookkuperi, near Nazareth in
Tirunelvely District, Tamil Nadu; the formation of the National Church of Madras/ India by a medical
doctor Dr.Pulney Andy or Parani Andy; the formation of the ChristoSamaj in Calcutta by Kali Charan
Banerjee and Joy Shome. Also, there were ordained Indians such as LalBehariDey who asked to be
treated equally with European ministers and who wished to form an Indian church taking the best from
each denomination. Nationalism led Indians to come together. The Indian Christians' nationalist spirit too
made the Missions to think of coming together in union (‘unite order to unite').
b. Formation of the South India United Church:
Representatives of Presbyterians and Congregationalists churches had an informal meeting at the 1902
Madras Decennial Missionary conference to find out the possibility of getting into a federation. The
annual gatherings of missionaries at Kodaikanal also brought them closer together. At such a Kodaikanal
meeting in June 1905 formal negotiations between therefore said two groups began. J.S. Chandler and J.
Duthie were keen to have union. According to Duthie, "all churches should realize their 'essential
oneness' and beware of placing undue emphasis upon denominational differences ..."
The Home Boards of the respective missions were consulted about the proposed Union, and their replies
were favorable. At the second General Assembly of the United Churches in July 1407, the proposed
scheme of organic Union was adopted, and the South India United Church (SIUC) came into being in
1908. The formation of the S.I.U.C. was the first fruitful attempt at an inter-denominational union. It can
be an example for federal union.
c. The United Church of Northern India (UCNI):
Soon after the formation of the SIUC, a parallel movement was going on in Northern India. Here also the
denominations involved in were the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists. Eleven Missions belonging
43
to different countries were represented in it and it ultimately resulted in the formation of the United
Church of Northern India in 1924. Its area was vast and wide - stretching from Bengal and Assam to
Gujarat and the Punjab. "The constitution was Presbyterian. Each local congregation had its session;
there were twenty-five Church Councils, representing groups of congregations over particular areas, and
seven Synods representing the Church Councils of a linguistic area, and a General Assembly. There was
a detailed Confession of Faith. in which the principal Confessions of the Protestant Reformation were
commended and the doctrinal beliefs of the U.C.N.I. were set forth in detail in twelve articles."
d. The Formation of the Church of South India:
The SIUC, from its inception, wished to seek and go in for wider union, and for that purpose it formed a
Committee on Union, whose convener was J.H. Maclean, a Presbyterian. He began to contact a number
of Churches, and the reply from the Wesleyan Methodists was favourable. They had passed a resolution
seeking closer cooperationthrough a federation. In its report to the General Assembly of 1409 the
Committee on Union suggested the formation of a Federation of Christian Churches in India." While
explaining Federation the Report said. "The Federation shall not interfere with the existing creed of any
church or society entering into its fellowship and all the churches would recognize the validity of each
other's ministry, membership and discipline." But this effort did not get materialized.
The next significant event was the Indian Ministers' Conference on Church Union organized by H.A.
Popley under the aegis of the Evangelistic Forward Movement. This was held in Tranquebar on April 29-
30, 1919. Fifty-six members — Anglicans, Wesleyans, SIUC and Church of Sweden — attended the said
Conference. The Anglicans and the SIUC participants responded positively and they had a meeting on
May 1-2, 1919 at Tranquebar itself.
The Tranquebar meeting was attended by thirty-three persons, seven represented the Anglicans and
twenty-six the SIUC; there were two non-Indians, viz. H.A. Popley and Sherwood Eddy. The meeting
was led jointly by Bishop V.S. Azariah and V. Santiago (of SIUC). It issued a statement which came to
be known as the `Tranquebar Manifesto'. It said that Church unity is the will of God and it is Biblical;
that divisions in the Church affected evangelism in India; that Church divisions were not the making of
the Indians and so they did not wish to perpetuate them. It proposed the following as the basis for Church
union which were based on the 1888 Lambeth Quadrilateral:
1. The Holy Scriptures containing the Old and the Testaments, as containing all things
necessary for salvation.
2. The Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed.
3. The two sacraments ordained by Christ Himself Baptism and the Lord's Supper.
4. The Historic Episcopate, locally adopted.
Following the publication of the Tranquebar Manifesto a meeting of representatives of the SIUC and the
Anglican Church met in Bangalore in 1920 to discuss the question of union. They issued a Joint
Statement which accepted the position of the Tranquebar Manifesto on episcopacy and defined the nature
of the autonomy of the proposed United Church.
The former L.M.S. congregations in the S.I.U.C. had much difficulty in understanding and accepting the
Joint Statement, especially the stance on episcopacy. So, much discussion took place and letters were
exchanged. A.H. Legg of the Travancore Church Council of the SIUC raised quite a number of questions
and issues. In the meantime the Wesleyan Methodists joined the Church union negotiationsin 1925.
Based on the opinions gathered on the Joint Statement, the first scheme of Union was published in 1929,
and it was circulated among the local congregations of the Churches in negotiation. The Wesleyan
Methodists had the least difficulty in accepting it. Some Church Councils of the SIUC were very
sceptical of the Union Scheme. The Scheme of Union was revised six times based on the comments
received. The Wesleyan Methodists (Madras, Mysore, Trichinopoly and Hyderabad districts) gave their

44
approval in 1943. The Anglican dioceses of the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (CIBC), viz. Madras,
Travancore-Cochin, Tirunelveli and Dornakal gave their consent in 1945. The Nandyal area of the
Diocese of Dornakal did not wish to join the Union and so it was left to function as a part of the CIBC.
The SIUC, especially the LMS Congregational areas had much difficulty in getting the approval. The
North Tamil Church Council (Coimbatore) of the SIUC refused to accept it and so it was permitted to
function separately. Some individual congregations in some other areas too objected the Scheme of
Union, and they were not compelled to join. Other Councils of the SIUC gave their consent in 1946.
It was accepted from the beginning that the UnitedChurch would be an Episcopal Church. Though there
were diverse opinions about the episcopal ministry, the parties agreed to maintain the historic episcopate,
but did not attempt to formulate a doctrine of it. Ultimately it was decided to accept all the ordained
ministers as they were to minister anywhere within the Church of South India.
So the Church of South India was inaugurated on September 27, 1947. The North Tamil Church Council
(Coimbatore) of the SIUC joined the CSI in 1950 and it became the Coimbatore diocese of the CSI
TheKanarese Basel Mission joined the CSI in 1958. In 1968 a group of CSI members in the Malabar area
left CSI and formed Malabar Basel German Mission Church. Later, they rejoined the CSI on 26 January
2003. The CSI is a model for organic union.
e. The Church of North India (CNI):
The United Church of Northern India (UCNI) was formed in 1924 in which eleven missions of
Congregational and Presbyterian family joined. The UCNI, like the SIUC, began to go in for wider unity.
As a result, the British Wesleyan Mission suggested to have a Round Table conference (RTC) to which
other like-minded denominational Churches could be invited to discuss the possibilities of Church union.
So as a result the first Round Table Conference (RTC) met at LalBagh Girls' School atLucknow on 10-11
April 1929. Representatives from the Australian Churches of Christ Mission, the Australian Methodist
Church, the British Wesleyan Methodist Church, the American Methodist Episcopal Church and the
UCNI attended it. A member of the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (Anglican) was present as a
visitor. This session of RTC heard and recorded statements, from the different Church representations on
Church polity, the Sacraments, International Relationship and Doctrinal Standards. It was conducted as a
Faith and Order conference. Those who were present there proposed to continue the conversations.
The second meeting of the RTC was held at Delhi from 18-20 November, 1930 in which in addition to
the above mentioned, the Church of the Brethren and the Society of Friends took part. The Church of
India, Burma and Ceylon (CIBC) was officially represented. Apart from these, there were visitors from
the United Presbyterian Mission of the Punjab and two delegates from the Joint-Committee on Union in
South India. As a result of this linking Of North and South, an all-India Conference on Church Union
was held at Nagpur from 7 to 9, November, 1931 attended by five representatives from the North and
four from the North and four from the South, under the Chairmanship of Bishop V.S. Azariah of
Dornakal. The second R.T.C. advocated definite steps towards closer cooperation in evangelistic efforts,
in Christian service and in worship. Further, it felt the necessity to examine the question of the
unification of ministry and to reach an agreement regarding the principles of Church organization and
government.
The second RTC appointed a Continuation Committee (C.C.) to continue its work. The C.C. met in 1935
and 1936, and prepared a definite 'Basis of Negotiation', which was revised and accepted at the third RTC
at Lucknow in 1937. After further revision and amplification, the C.C. re-issued it in July 1939. While
this was being done, some of the Churches represented in the earlier meetings dropped out, and the
negotiations were continued by the UCNI, CIBC, the British and Australian Methodist Churches, the
Baptist Churches aria the Methodist Church in Southern Asia (MCSA;earlier referred to as the American
Methodist Episcopal Church).
During the same period, negotiations had also been going on parallely between the UCNI, the MCSA and
the Baptists and they had formed a Joint Council, which after its fifth meeting in 1940 issued a Plan of
45
Union. After further revision it came out in 1942, which was more Presbyterian in character. Owing to
this and certain other uncertainties, there was some hesitation in proceeding with the work of the RTC.
The Baptist Churches withdrew from the RTC for a time from 1940.
However, the CC. at its meeting in March 1941 further developed the Basis of Negotiation which was
presented at the fourth meeting of the RTC on 31 July and 1 August 1941. A proposal was made here to
unify the Episcopates of the CIBC and the MCSA which should be initiated by the mutual laying-on of
hands.
The fifth meeting of the RTC at Allahabad in July 1947 accepted the method for the unification of the
ministries by the mutual laying-on of hands with prayer, and incorporated it into the Basis of Negotiation,
which was accepted by the four Churches represented at the RTC.
So a 'Negotiating Committee' was forme. It had its first meeting at Calcutta from 27 to 30 March 1951.
Delegates of the Baptist Churches joined again. Further meetings of the Negotiating Committee look
place in 19f 2 and 1953, as a result of which a revised edition of the Plan of Union was published in
1954. The Negotiating Committee met at Pachmarhi (Madhya Pradesh) in April 1975 and adopted the
revised Third Edition of the plan.
The next meeting of the Negotiating Committee was held at Jabalpur towards the end of 1959 in the
backdrop of certain suggestions made by the Lambeth Conference in 1958. It made certain minor
changes in the inauguration service which were incorporated in a revised issue of the Proposed Services
at the Inauguration. But it decided against considering any further amendment of the Plan.
In the following years, the UCNI and the British and Australian Methodists secured favourable voting in
their Churches, but the MCSA, the CIPBC, and the Brethren failed to get the required majo rities (in
voting) for going forward into union, and the voting of the Baptist Churches was very much divided. By
the beginning of 1963 it was clear that turner revision would be necessary in the Plan in view of the
adverse voting and criticisms, and by general agreement the Working Committee initiated a review of the
Plan which was carried further by the Continuation Commuitee meeting at Nagpur in February 1964, The
CC brought out the fourth edition of the Plan of Union for North India in I965 which was accepted.
Finally the Church of North India (CNI) was inaugurated on 29 November 1970 at All Saints' Cathedral,
Nagpur. The MCSA withdrew at the last moment.
X. Issues Challenges facing Indian Churches

1.Religious Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism usually has a religious connotation that indicates unwavering attachment to a set of
irreducible beliefs. However, fundamentalism has come to be applied to a tendency among certain
groups–mainly, although not exclusively, in religion–that is characterized by a markedly strict literalism
as it is applied to certain specific scriptures, dogmas, or ideologies, and a strong sense of the importance
of maintaining in group and outgroup distinctions,leading to an emphasis on purity and the desire to
return to a previous ideal from which advocates believe members have strayed. Rejection of diversity of
opinion as applied to these established "fundamentals" and their accepted interpretation within the group
often results from this tendency.
Depending upon the context, the label "fundamentalism" can be a pejorative rather than a neutral
characterization, similar to the ways that calling political perspectives "right-wing" or "left-wing" can
have for some negative connotations.
Hindu Fundamentalism/Hindu Cultural Nationalism: New Face of Hinduism Hindutva, in short,
stands for Hindu Nationalism. Hindutva means, Hinduness or conscious of being a Hindu or Hindu as the
dominant identity. It aims at a Hindu nation state (Hindu rashtra).

46
Nationalism as an ideology originated in the west either using language or religion seeking political
expression. It attempts to create a national identity by a process of inclusion and exclusion. It includes
people with little cultural differences and excludes those who have greater differences. Through inclusion
it does away with internal differences and achieves a kind of homogeneity. Hindu religious nationalism
passes off as cultural nationalism which is more of a political movement. Caste divides, but culture
unites. It is a religious cover for political power.
What all of these castes have in common is the intense hatred towards the non-Hindus, especially the
Muslims. Memories of historic wounds are kept alive and Muslims are demonized as the “other” who
need to be subjugated, cleansed and relegated to second class citizen status. Next on the list are
Christians and they are taken to task for their conversion activities as conversions expose the porous
boundaries. Muslims and Christians are targeted as if they are the cause of all ills affecting the Hindus.
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was born when fascism ruled Italy, and Hitler was about to capture
power in Germany. RSS founders were great admirers of Mussolini and Hitler. The organization, from
the dress, to the greeting mode to the basic philosophy of hate was modelled on fascists of Italy and
Nazis of Germany. According to Goldhagan (1997) the cognition of anti-Semitism subsumes three
notions:
1. The Jew was different from the German 2. He was a binary opposite of the German, and 3. He was
malevolent and corrosive. As a result, two policies emerged: 1. to turn Jews into socially dead beings,
and 2. to remove Jews thoroughly and permanently from social and physical contact with Germans.
A similar cognition of the Muslims and Christians has been created after 1980s in the minds of the people
(inclusive of all classes and masses) with horrendous stereotypes, through sustained vernacular media
campaign, rathyathras, ramshilapujans, kathas, video shows and audio cassettes. The media has no doubt
played a great role in mobilising the Hindu masses.
The activities of Hindutva organisations are varied. One group of activities targets the minorities,
especially the Muslims and Christians. They have set up competing institutions in the area of health and
education, especially in backward tribal areas. Relief and reconstruction during natural disasters is the
second area which was mainly with the Christian missionaries. Another set of activities are related to the
media: printing tons of literature against these minorities and also the use of the electronic media to
demonise the minorities. Political mobilization of the masses is another area of activities. A fifth area of
activities is celebration of Hindu festivals and religious events on a massive scale, thus trying to
Hinduising tribals and Sanskritise the lower castes.
What follows is crafting religion-based riots and communal violence — intense hate campaigns through
print and electronic media, provocation of the minorities, use of the arms of the state which are already
taken into confidence, frustrating the legal process for the victims and twisting judiciary and the police in
favour of the Sangh Parivar, and harassment of secular and liberal Hindus. When violence occurs it is
made to appear spontaneous while most of it is premeditated.
The phenomenon of Hindu nationalism has, by and large, been interpreted in India as the resurgence of
Brahminism. Brahminism is not strictly limited to Brahmins alone, but an attempt by the middle and
upper castes to safeguard their privileges, perks, status, wealth and power, which was theirs in the
traditional caste hierarchy. The higher the caste, the greater was its power, position and wealth. It was the
secular and democratic Constitution of India that challenged these traditional
hierarchies through institutional changes (educational, legal and political) wherein the upper castes saw
the threat to their cozy existence. They are reacting violently now (Lobo 2002: 10).
Islamic fundamentalism: Christians in India are not much affected by Islamic fundamentalism except
perhaps through terror attacks in general. The phenomenon of Muslim fundamentalism at the global level
is interpreted as follows: There was a gradual shift of power from the Islamic world to the Christian
world of Europe and the USA since the fourteenth century. World capital too has moved away from the
47
Islamic countries. Muslims began to be conscious that they were no longer at the same level as the West
in capital, science, technology, literature and art. Many Muslim territories were colonised by the West.
The patron became the recipient. For the past several centuries, Muslims have not been creative in the
scientific domain, nor have they been masters of technical development. They remain excluded.
Secondly, most Muslim countries rich in resources became the target of western powers. In 1953, in Iran,
the duly elected Prime Minister was deposed and the Shah was brought back. The USA blindly supported
Israel and co-opted corrupt Arab leaders in Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. This humiliation of Muslim
countries and resentment as individuals and collectivity is exploited by persons like Bin Laden and is
manifested through religious fundamentalism.
Christian Fundamentalism Pentecostalism that began in the 1920s in India has been experiencing
extraordinary growth since 1980. It is fast becoming the face of Christianity in India. It is fundamentalist
in the sense that it is based on the implicit politics of eventual Christian domination. The agenda includes
conversion, an aggressive stance towards non-Christians and the use of the media to extend their sphere
of influence.
Thomas (2008:xiii) argues that Christian fundamentalists, like their Islamic counterparts, belong to a
global umma and harbour real and perhaps imagined, even delusional, longings directed towards making
all of God’s people Christian (2008:xv). These Christian groups may not use real physical violence,
though they are well-versed in using the media and non-media means to propagate “symbolic violence”
that is often backed up by economic enticements to persuade individuals and communities to become
Christian.
Common in All Fundamentalisms Religious fundamentalists normally have a political agenda and the
media are used to further this agenda. The meticulous and systematic uses of the media by Hindu
nationalist forces in India, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad and the BJP, as much as by Pat Robertson and
others of his ilk in the USA, backed by the technologies of marketing, have played a key role in their
ascendance in the public domain.
Project Fundamentalism identifies a list of family resemblances or characteristics of fundamentalism
(Thomas 2008:5). This list includes five ideological and four organisational characteristics:
Ideological:
1. Reaction to the marginalisation of religion in the context of secularisation.
2. Selectivity in their response to modernity and in highlighting their own traditions.
3. Moral dualism – dividing the world into black and white, right and wrong.
4. Absolutism and inerrancy in their interpretation of the scriptures and belief in core fundamentals.
5. Millennialism and messianism or belief in the end of time and victory for the faithful and just.
Organisational: 1. Elect membership – the belief that the faithful, who are ordained by God, will prevail
over the unfaithful masses. 2. The drawing of sharp boundaries between those who are born again, those
who are saved and those who have been damned. 3. Authoritarian organisations like the RSS and the
Sangh Parivar and belief in charismatic leaders such as Bin Laden. 4. Behavioural requirements that
adherents follow a strict code of discipline including the expectation that the individual member’s
identity is subsumed into the larger collective identity

2. Conversion and Anti- Conversion bills

Religious freedom of every citizen to propagate his or her religion is guaranteed in Article 25 (1)
of the Indian Constitution. It says, "subject to public order, morality and health and to the other
provisions of this part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right freely to
profess practice and propagate religion."This clause was written as the model of the constitution of

48
Ireland clause 44(22). It was Dr.B.R.Ambetkar in a note -dated 24.3.1947 wrote in the draft constitution
that freedom should be given to every Indian citizen to profess, practice and propagates his or her
religion. After much suggestion, 6-12-1948 the constituent assembly incorporated the present clause
25(1) in the Constitution of India. The constitution vide act 25 assures freedom of conscience and
freedom of profession, practice and propagation of religion. Hence starting in the 1950s, various States in
India began to create tensions between Hindus and Christians through the enactment of "freedom of
religion” legislation. These laws have not only restricted the practice of Christianity and other non -
Hindu religions, but have also led to an up serge of violence against such minority religions in India. In
effect, the Freedom of Religion Acts is direct Hindu attempts to use state power to prevent conversion;
thus, they violate the freedom of religion espoused by the Constitution of India.
India is a secular state.The word 'secular' was introduced in the preamble of the constitution in the 27th
year of the Republic through the 42nd amendment act, 1976. Even though the term 'secular' is not used in
the constitution anywhere, Secularism in the Indian context has to be understood within the definition of
the constitution and its various provisions in preamble. The founder of Indian constitution Dr. Ambedkar
pointed out "All that the secular state means is that the parliament shall not be competent to impose any
particular religion upon the rest of the people ".The central idea of Indian secularism is
SarvaDharmaSamabhava, which means equal respect to all forms of worship. There is another term
which refers secularism is DharmaNirpekshta means religious authorities will have no say in matters of
the state.
Secularism was the guiding principle of anti-British struggle. It was recognized as an ideological
platform for the multi-religious, multi-caste, multi-ethnic population of the subcontinent. The resultant
Constitution made different provisions to ensure that secularism has a place in the society:
(i) The state by itself shall not espouse or establish or practice any religion
(ii) Public revenues will not be used to promote any religion
(iii) The State shall have the power to regulate any economic, financial or other secular activity
associated with religious practice (Article25 (2)(9) of constitution)
(iv) Every individual will have, in that order, an equal right to freedom of conscience and religion.
In the words of Nehru "what it means is that it is a state which honors all faiths equally and gives them
equal opportunities; that as a State, it does not allow itself to be attached to one faith or religion…. In a
country like India, real nationalism is a relic of the past and no longer relevant today".
In a similar vein Mahatma Gandhi said," I swear by my religion, I will die for it. But it is my personnel
affair. The state has nothing to do with it .The State will look after your secular welfare, health,
communications, foreign relations, currency and so on but not your and my religion. That is everybody’s
personnel concern."Donald Smith, a scholar of Indian political studies gives the working definition of the
word secularism. He says, “The secular state is a state which guarantees individual and corporate
freedom of religion, deals with the individual as a citizen irrespective his religion, is not constitutionally
connected to a particular religion nor does it seek either to promote or interfere with religion. Upon closer
examination it will be seen that the conception of a secular state involves three distinct but inter- related
sets of relationships concerning the state, religion, and the individual. The three sets of relations are:
(1) Religion and the individual (freedom of religion)
(2) The state and the individual (citizenship)
(3) The state and religion (separation of state & religion)
The Indian concept of secularism recognizes the relevance and validity of religion in life, and seeks to
establish a rational synthesis between the legitimate functions of religion and the legitimate functions of
the state.

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Inclusion of the Term 'Secular'
The word 'secular' was not appeared in the first Preamble of The Constitution of India .As per the
proceedings of the Constituent Assembly the omission of the word 'secular' or 'secularism' was done
deliberately. It seems that perhaps the Constitution makers were apprehensive that if the words "secular"
or "secularism" were introduced in the Constitution, they might unnecessarily bring in, by implication,
the anti-religious overtone associated with the doctrine of secularism as it had developed in
Christiancountries. However, during the emergency imposed by the government of Mrs.Indira Gandhi,
the Preamble of the Indian Constitution was amended by the Constitution (42nd amendment) Act so as to
include the word 'secular' before the words "Democratic Republic."The following words echoed during
the discussion in the LokSabha welcomed the inclusion of Secular:“It is very welcome also that the word
'secular’ is being introduced.We want to understand that what the significance behind this is. Because
our state is a secular State, our State respects and recognizes, and gives equal rights to people belonging
to all religions or faiths or to people of no religions, in law”.
Thus the absence of the state religion and provisions for the equal treatment of all religions are
characteristics of secularism in India.
The context and the need for the inclusion of the term 'secular' in the constitution are important. The
inclusion of the term 'secular' was proposed as a remedy to the communal and religiously fundamentalist
attitude of the Bharatiya Jan Sangh, which was thriving on the communal political agenda. They were of
the opinion that the nature of the Hinduism is secular, and it alone was tolerant while other religions
sought converts through force and coercion.Therefore, it was necessary for the Constitution to affirm the
nation as committed to secularism and there can be no going away from secularism. It echoed thus the
concerns of the religious minorities and the upholding of human rights. Thus the term 'secular' got
inserted in to the preamble of the Constitution of India through the 42nd amendment of the Constitution
in 1976.
Constitution and Religious Freedom
The Constituent Assembly by May 1947 itself adopted the clauses 13, 14, and 15 of the draft
Constitution dealing with freedom of religion. The very idea of religious freedom enshrined in the
Articles 25, 26, and 28 are the security and protection of religious minorities. In the case of religion,
India took models from England and United States of America. According to their constitution,
profession of any religion or no religion is not an offence, no Christian has since long been punished for
heresy, every form of public worship is permitted, the profession of any form of religious belief is not a
condition for the exercise of civil rights and religious belief is not a condition for political rights.From
these examples of the West, India also embarked on the principles of religious freedom.
TheAnti –ConversionLaws
Authorities in states with strong Hindu Nationalist Party influences have began to enforce anti-
conversion laws under the Penal Code to fine and imprison Christian missionaries.Independence Indian
constitution protects every citizen have the right not only the freedom to believe and practice one's faith,
but also to propagate it.Anti-conversion Laws are ostensibly intended to prevent people from being
unethically converted from one religion to another. Anti-Conversion laws have become an important
issue now because some converts. In addition there have been reports of violence against Christians
based on conversion activities.
History of Anti-Conversion Laws: Anti-conversion laws have arisen from long history of religious
activity in India. These laws were first seen during British colonial period, although the government did
not promulgate any anti-conversion laws. However, Hindu princely states enacted them during the
British colonial period in an attempt to preserve Hindu religious identity in the face of British
missionaries. In particular, princely states, now part of Chattisgarh,passed anti-conversion laws as early
as the 1930s. The Raigarh State Conversion Act 1936, the Patna Freedom of Religion Act of 1942, the

50
Sarguja State Apostasy Act 1945 and the Udaipur State Anti-Conversion Act 1946 are other examples of
these laws. These early anti- conversion laws may have been the foundation and inspiration of post-
colonial Indian Anti-conversion laws.
Anti-Conversion Laws in Various States
Currently, Anti-conversion laws are in force in eight States; Orissa,Madhya Pradesh,
ArunachalPradesh,Tamil Nadu,Gujarat, Chhattisgarh,HimachalPradesh, and Uttarakand.In Arunachal
Pradesh and Rajasthan, the laws have been passed but not yet implemented.Thetensionbetween Hindus
and other religions,especially,Christianity,that has led to the proposal and passage of anti -conversion
laws in these states.Hindutva, and the BharatiyaJanata Party(BJP) is the main driving force behind anti-
conversion legislation.
a) The Orissa Freedom of Religion Act:The Orissa Freedom of Religion Act was passed in 1968.It
was the first freedom of religion act in post independent India.
b) The Madhya Pradesh Dharma SwantantryaAdhiniyam,1968:The Madhya Pradesh act was passed
by the state legislature in 1968, which is in the same lines as above the Orissa Act. In the place of
inducement they put it 'Allurement' which was defined as an "offer of any temptation in the form of -
(i) any gift or gratification either in cash or kind;(ii) grant of any material benefit, either monetary or
otherwise."This law requires every one baptizing a convert to notify the district authorities. Those
familiar with village life in India know that in practice this exposes converts and catechumens to
harassment. Once again it was plain that the act was directed against Christian missionary activity.
c)Arunachal Pradesh Freedom of Religious Act: In 1978 this act was passed by the Arunachal Pradesh
Legislature. Originally labeled the Arunachal Pradesh Freedom of Indigenous Faith Bill, it was renamed
the Freedom of Religion Act on the advice of the President.In some respects this act is similar to the
Orissa and Madhya Pradesh Acts, but it aimed specially at conversions from indigenous faiths, and it is
described as, "a bill to provide prohibition of conversion from indigenous faith of Arunachal Pradesh to
any other faith or religion by use of force or inducement or by fraudulent means and for such matters
connected there
d) Tamil Nadu Prohibition of Forcible Conversion of Religion Ordinance: This bill was passed on
October 5, 2002.However, the Tamil Nadu legislature has recently revoked its anti-conversion law due to
a public outcry against its perceived restriction on the freedom of religion.
e) The Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill -2003: The State Government passed the bill to check the
conversions. Under terms of this act anyone is wishing to convert from one religion to another needs
prior permission from the district magistrate. In 2007, the state government passed another bill to bring
their dormant 2003 Anti- conversion law into enforcement.
d)Rajasthan Dharma Swatantraya Bill. 2006: The Rajasthan Assembly on Friday the 17th April 2006
passed an anti-conversion bill even the entire opposition stayed away. The Rajasthan Dharma Swatantrya
Bill 2006 has a provision for re-conversion to Hinduism. It is evident that the purpose of this bill is to
encourage conversion to Hinduism and to denounce conversion to any other religion. This also supports
that all attempts to nip freedom of religion to the minorities are the direct outcome of a well- conceived
communal agenda in India.The Governor did not give his assent to this bill, so it has not come into force.
f) The Himachal Pradesh Freedom of Religion Act, 2006:This bill was passed in the State Assembly in
December 2006. This law is unique because the secular Congress party generated and passed it. This bill
also enacted greater punishment of up to two-year imprisonment and/or a fine of rs.25000 /. If minors are
involved, five years imprisonment and or rs.50000/fine are penalty.However, returning back to a
previous religious group is not considered violating this law. This last section makes the law appear
improper and guided at strengthening Hinduism rather than protecting a person's religious freedom.
g) Chattisgarh Freedom of Religious Act, 2006: According this States Law any religious conversion
requires official approval. An amendment was added allowing Christians intending to 'reconvert' to
51
Hinduism to be exempted from the requirement. The governor did not sign the amendment, so it too is
not in force.
Causes of the Anti-conversion Laws
i) Causes: The princes of Hindu states used anti-conversion laws to counteract the work of Christian
missionaries in their states. Today Hindu fundamentalists also want Hinduism to be the most important
religion in India. Indian courts seem to have been influenced by the importance of Hinduism and have
bowed to the influence of Hindu fundamentalists by interpreting Article 25 of the Indian Constitution to
benefit the interest of Hindutva.The Freedom of Religion Acts have been challenged on the basis of the
Indian Constitution's assurance of the "freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practice and
propagate." However, these rights are subjects to 'public order'; the Supreme Court of India found that to
be a valid basis to restrict the freedom to propagate one's religion. While interpreting the term
"propagate" the Court distinguished the "right to transmit one's religion" from the "right to convert one's
religion."It held thatArticle25 (1) guarantees freedom of conscience to every citizen, and not merely to
the followers of one particular religion, and that, in turn, postulates that there is no fundamental right to
convert another person to one's own religion because if a person purposely undertakes the conversion of
another person to his religion, that would impinge on the freedom of conscience guaranteed to all the
citizens of the country alike.
Another important concealed purpose of these anti-conversion laws is to criminally penalize Christian
missionaries for propagating their faith to help stem the tide of dalits converting to Christianity. As most
of the violence regarding conversions seems to be borne by Christians and recent converts, these anti-
conversion laws seem to only ostensibly maintain public order. Public order is being maintained by
submitting to the intolerance of Hindu Fundamentalists, so that they will not riot and commit acts of
violence. Submitting to intolerance is not a good reason to continue to allow states to enact and enforce
anti- conversion laws.
Another factor is electoral strategy, that is, to get votes from the upper caste Hindu majority by appeasing
them with a law that keeps the socially entrenched caste system in place. However, the underlying factor
is still the struggle for power-to keep the lower caste Hindus from competing with the higher and
privileged castes.
3. Communalism
The communal violence is problem. Which is facing the entire Indian society? It is a conjectural aspect
that sometime it may break out here or there in a virulent form. But in fact, communal violence has been
pervading sometime growing sometime receding butt still pervading on a large scale in an entire Indian
society. So, it is a problem that people all over the country are facing. Communal violence in the form of
riots or terrorism draws our attention in a dramatic manner but the underlying and long-term cause of
violence is spread of communalism. Communal violence in its different form based on extreme
communalism and feelings of fear and hatred, it I ultimately the ugly and barbaric expression of and the
logical extension of period spread of communalism as an ideology. While communal riots, for example,
gave credibility to the basic communal ideological precepts. It is the communal ideology and politic,
which the communal politicians and ideologues preach in a normal time. Which form the real basis on
which communal tension and violence occurs. In other words, communal ideology and politics are the
diseases, communal violence only its external symptoms. So, the communal violence is linked to
communal ideology. Communal ideology can prevail even without violence, but communal violence
cannot exist without communal ideology. Therefore, communalism is above all a communal ideology.
So, the question arise what is communal ideology? A communal ideology consists of three element one
succeeding the other.
First of all according to communal ideology people who follow the same religion having common secular
interest, that is people of same religion have not only common religious belief, but also have common
political, economic, social and cultural interest. This is the first bedrock of communal ideology. From
52
this arise the notion of a religious community for secular interest. A person who talk about the Hindu
community or Muslim community or the interests of the Muslim community or the Hindu community is
all ready taking the first steep toward communalism whether he know it or not. The second step is taken
when in a multi-religious society, the secular interests that are economic, social, political and cultural
interests, of the followers of one religion are different from some of the interests of the followers of
another religion. E.g., the secular interests of Hindu are different from the interests of Muslim one has
taken the second step toward communalism.
The third step is taken when not only the interests of the followers of different “communities” different
but are hostile to each other, that is, what is economically, politically, socially or culturally in interests of
Hindu is not so in the interests of Muslim, that the two cannot have common economic, social, political,
interests that there secular interests are bound to be oppose each other. This last step brings
communalism to the stage of what would be describe as extreme communalism.
The first stage is beginning of communal ideology. The second stage is what may describe a liberal
communalism or moderate communalism. The third stage is reached when secular interests of the
followers of one religion are counterpoised to the secular interests of the followers of another in a hostile
fashion. we get the last stage of communalism ideology. So the communal violence is only a concrete
conjectural manifestation of the communalization of society and politics. Communal ideology leads to
politic and psychology differentiation, distance and competition along religious line. Sooner or later it
lead to mutual fear and hatred and ultimately to violence. Once communalism segments like politics
along religious line, violent conflict became a matter of time behind every riot a strong collective
communal mentality.
Following are the factors responsible for the growth of Communalism in India: Tracing the roots of
communal violence has been a controversial problem. According to some scholars the roots of
communalism lay in failure of Hindu and Muslim to fuse their differences and constitute one society.
However, exponent of this theory insist that the role of divisive forces in Indian society should not be
exaggerated. India had powerful cohesive and unifying elements which often held various socio-cultural
communities together.
UN Historical Approach: The British use of Indian history to degenerate Indian national character and
to prove Indian’s unfitness for independence and democracy produced another distortion in Indian
Historiography and politic. The Indian counter this unscientific and unhistorical approach with an
unhistorical approach of their own. They began to glorify the past. Thus gradually developed several
myths, each one of which weakened healthy, secular nationalism and gave an opening to communalism.
The first of these myth is the belief that Indian society and culture-Indian civilization-had reached a high
watermark, the Golden Age, in ancient India, from which high watermark it gradually sided downward
during the medieval period branded the period of decadence and of „foreign rule‟ and continued to slide
down till the revivalist movement made partial recovery but that real task of reviving the past glory and
civilization still remains. The blaming this decay of “Islam” or “Muslim” rule and the alien west, was
easily taken. These create hostility between these two religious communities.
Hero myth: All of the major heroes, RanaPratap, Shivaji, and Guru Gobind Sing, belonged to medieval
India and had fought against Mughal authority- have done as much to undermine secularism and national
integration as any other ideological factor. These hero myths proved the case for the two nation theory or
basic communal approach. By what definition are they national heroes and their struggle a national
struggle? Because they were fighting against foreigner? How were the Mughals foreigners? Because they
were Muslim. What was the uniting principle in the nationalism of RanaPratap, Shivaji and Guru Gobin
Sing? Their being Hindu or non-Muslim thus the hero myths spontaneously generated communalism.
Divide and Rule Policy of the British: The British rulers adopted the policy of 'Divide and Rule' to
strengthen their roots while living in India. They divided the people of various communities of India and
spread the feeling of distrust among them and hence they sowed the seeds of communalism in India.

53
Political Organisations: Different communal organisations are found in India which have created hatred
among the people of various religious communities by propagating, and hence they are the root cause of
communalism. Inertia indifferent Government: When the government does not take proper action at
the proper time, communalism spreads among the subjects. Sometimes the government favours on the
religion and leave others which create differences.
Ineffective Handling of Communal Riots: Sometimes the state governments have been proved
ineffective to curb the communal riots in their respective states. It also results in spreading the
communalism. As the result of the above factors, communalism is raising its ugly face in India after the
Independence and also creating great problems even in the working of Indian political system.
Solution: Communalism is the product of a particular situation of a particular society, economic and
polity which creates problems for its people problem of which the people are not able to understand
cause. Communalism is often the efforts of the people to come to grips with the solution of their personal
and social crisis. Without correctly grasping what the social situation is. Therefore the solution of
communalism in a permanent direction lies in righting the social situation or the way out from
communalism mean de-communalising ideologically the people of this country. If the communalism is an
ideology, it cannot be suppressed by force. No ideology can be suppressed by force. Ideology has to be
fought at the level of ideas.
The ideological struggle against communalism above all mean bringing home to people, masses and
intellectual, the falsity of communal assumption, of communal logic, of communal answer; of bringing
home to people that what the communalist projects‟ problem are not the real problem and what the
communalist say is the answer is not the real answer; this is the long haul which we have got to
undertake, of going to the people and explaining to them with the help of history, with the help of
sociology, with the help of everyday life, with the help of our social struggle.
[1] The remedy of constitutional safeguards to root out the chronic malaise of communalism shall not
have desired effect unless it is tackled by society itself.
[2] Efforts should be made by the enlightened citizens to discourage the communal based forces from the
social, political and electoral process in order to make these forces irrelevant. They are to be opposed not
to be appeased.
[3] Communal carnage should be dealt strictly with new strategies.
[4] To usher an era of social equity and sarvadharma sambhavathe people of India should not mix
religion with politics to attain the goal of common brotherhood for the unity and integrity of the nation.
[5] The role of education and the press is crucial. Paradoxically, the spread of literacy can also have
negative consequences in thus respect. In simple terms literacy is supposed to be the panacea for all
social ills; and spread of literacy is seen as of the highest value. It is of course of highest value and
literacy is one of the three or four basic developments which all society must achieve. But in this
development there also inheres a great danger. The illiterate Russian produce Lenin as their leader; the
illiterate Indians have produce Gandhi as their leader; and the country with the highest literacy, with the
largest number of Ph.Ds has produce Hitler as their leader; therefore be warned. Literacy makes sense
only if it is used to spread the right type of ideas, not if it is used to spread poisonous ideas.
[6] Ideological struggle against communalism does not at all mean a struggle against religion, religiosity.
Communalism is neither inspired by religion nor is religion an object of communal politic. Religion is
personal affair. Even though the communalist bases his politic on religious differences, uses religious
identity as an organizing principle and in mass phase of communalism uses religion to mobilize the
masses.
[7] Ideological struggle against the communalism mean, the establishment of the legal secular state and
ideology was necessity, because when two or more religion already existed it was useless and worse than
useless for the state to seek to impose religious uniformity to do so merely lead to civil war or communal
54
riots and thus weaken the state. So secularism opposed to all form of institutionalized religious
domination. It challenges not merely inter- religious but also intra-religious domination. Secular state not
only keep separation of state and religion but also refused to be theocratic or any formal, legal alliance
with any religion.
4. Minority Issue and Rights
Minorities are generally those sects of people who are less in number and evidently stand distinct and
unique from the majority. On accounts of their lesser strength, they tends to become more conscious
about their rights and privileges and claims for constitutional rights and safeguards for their protection
and upliftment. Louis Wirth opined that, “A minority is a group of people who because of their physical
or cultural characteristics, are singled out from others in the society in which they live for differential and
unequal treatment and who, therefore, regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. Further,
minority status carries with it an exclusion from full participation in the life of the society” “A group
numerically inferior to the rest of the population of a State, in a non- dominant position, whose members
being nationals of the State possess ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristic different from those of the
rest of the population and show, if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity, directed towards preserving their
culture, traditions, religion and language.”
Minority and Multiculturism India
In retort to the continuous claims by the minority people even in the forward and developed first world
countries and an indepth link between the minority’s difficulties and mass human rights violations
throughout the world sparked a new thinking and deliberations in the academic circles which
predominantly focussed on the politics and culture of minority and majority. This opened the door for the
systematic and scientific examination of a concept called ‘multiculturalism’ in democratic theories. The
political scientists started thinking scholarly insights and understandings about the existence of minorities
in majority society and the importance of special rights, privileges and concessions to enable the minority
to safeguard their distinct and unique identities of religion, caste, language, culture etc.
India is socially, economically and ethnically a mosaic of diversity. “Under the traditional caste system,
which still plays a key role in the society and in politics, there are at least, 3000 castes and 25000 sub
castes in India. The country has officially recognised languages that together constitute a mere fraction
of more than1500 mother tongues known to exist, of which are spoken by more than100,000 people.”
“There are 4635 identifiable communities diverse in biological traits, dress, language, forms of worship,
occupation, food habits and kinship patterns in India. These communities derive roots from a mixed
ancestry that includes the Proto-Austratoid, Paleo Mediterranean, Caucasian, Negroid and Mangoloid.”.
It is a matter of flaunting to claim diversities in a society but it is not an easy job balance and maintain
unity among these diversities
Minority rights in the constitution of India
The political system of such a country will have the daunting task of addressing conflicts and
disagreements emerge out of the competing and diagonally opposing interests and aspirations. In India,
the status and privileges of minorities has a unique and distinct connotation as it is “a confederation of
minorities.” The social, cultural, linguistic and cultural pluralism in India created a vicious circle for the
peaceful coexistence of various identities. This also made the minorities vulnerable to the dominating
whims and wishes of the majority. The demands and clamouring by the minorities in India for protection
of their rights and identities are a serious headache for the Indian democracy. The “loggerhead between
the minorities and majorities in India has a long dated history dating back to several centuries.”16 The
chronicles of India’s freedom struggle against the British imperialism and colonialism has many
instances of communal riots whose culmination can be seen in the partition of the country, which has far
reaching consequences on the minority rights.
CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY ON MINORITY RIGHTS

55
 Avowed to set up socio-economic and political set up which was conducive for the peaceful co-existence
of diverse identities and communities of the country, the framers of Indian constitution were cautious to
draft a constitution for the country that quench the thirst for national unity while accommodating the
individual aspirations and demands of individual communities. After a lot of debates and discussions, the
constituent assemble finally adopted a constitution which did not offer any special political right to any
religious minority, except Anglo-Indians.18Keeping up the neutrality and impartiality of the state in
religious affairs, the country was declared secular Equality of opportunity and equality before law has
been extended to every citizens of the country as per the provisions of the Indian constitution.Indeed the
Constitution of India does not offer any distinct and exclusive rights to minorities barring some rights
concerning their language, culture and education. This does not mean that the Constituent Assembly and
Constitution of India were blindfolded to the upliftment process of the socially backward and historically
discriminated and deprived sections of the society. It has incorporated various provisions and
amendments for amelioration of the weaker sections of society. An inspection of minority rights as
detailed in the Constitution divulges that the minorities descend their rights predominantly from four
sources:
The Preamble of the ‘Indian Constitution’
The preamble of the Indian Constitution begins as, “WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly
resolved to constitute of India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC….”. The preamble has authoritatively declare that India is a secular county. When the
Constitution of India was passed in 1950, the word secular was not there in the preamble. It was through
the 42nd amendment of the Indian Constitution, in 1976, the term secular was inculcated in the preamble.
This does not mean that before its addition, the constitutional framers did not want India to be secular. It
is just that in 42nd amendment, secularism was more explicitly proclaimed. Earlier, the secular
characteristics of the country was pronounced implicitly through the Articles from 25 to 28, dealing with
right to freedom of religion. The constitution of India personifies the positive aspect of the term
secularism, ie, “all religions in our country (irrespective of their strength) have the same status and
support from the state.”This also means that no religion will be treated as national or state religion and no
special privileges will be given to a particular religion. Every religion will have equal stature and respect
in front of Indian state. In this regard Neera Chandhoke rightly observed: “It is not surprising that
secularism in the Indian polity as a response to our conditions and mode of thought came to be
conceptualized as Sarva Dharma Sambhava or equality of all religions.”
Part III of the Indian Constitution
Part III of the Indian Constitution contains the cardinal part of Indian constitution. It is in this part, from
article 12-35, Fundamental Rights are enshrined. In this matter, it was the Constitution of USA which
gave inspiration to the constitutional framers to create detailed and justiciable fundamental rights. The
benefits and privileges guaranteed under fundamental rights are entitled to all the citizens of the country
without any discrimination. The dignity of the individual, the equality of society, protection of larger
public interest and safeguard of national unity are ensured by the provisions of fundamental rights. Since
the rights are guaranteed and protected by the constitution, the supreme law of the country, they are
called as fundamental rights. Since these rights are equal to everyone, minorities too have the coverage of
it. In this context following are the fundamental rights that ensure security and safeguard the rights and
privileges of minorities of the country.
Article 14 of the Indian Constitution articulates that, “The State shall not deny to any person equality
before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.”As per this provision,
every citizen of the country will be have equal access and protection of law. No one will be seen a bit
higher than the other in legal jurisprudence. Nevertheless Article 15(4) reads, “Nothing in this Article or
in clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement
of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and the
scheduled tribes.” This article gave constitutional authorisation to the government machineries to make
56
any special provisions for the advancement of the backward sections of the society. In the Gopal Singh
Committee Report and the Sachar Committee Report the educational and backwardness of the Muslims
were underpinned. Various states in India like Kerala, Tamil Nadu etc extends the benefits and coverage
of reservation to Muslims as well, who belongs to the minority section of Indian society.
Article 19 of the Indian Constitution expresses that, “All citizens shall have the right
* To freedom of speech and expression;  To assemble peaceably and without arms;  To form
associations or unions;  To move freely throughout the territory of India;  To reside and settle in any
part of the territory of India and  To practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or
business”
These freedoms are the hallmarks of a successful political democracy. They are the linchpin for one’s
over all development and peaceful and fruitful existence in a human society. For the advancement and
progress of minorities, these freedoms of expression, assembly, union, movement, profession, settlement
etc are quintessential. If these freedoms are not constitutionally ensured, the minority rights have the
chances of getting suppressed by the majority sections of the society.
Article 25 of the Indian Constitution voices that, “Subject to public order, morality and health and to the
other provisions of this Part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right freely
to profess, practise and propagate religion.”This right gives the freedom to an individual to follow,
practice and spread religion of individual choice. State cannot impose or curb any particular religious
convention or tradition. This gives a kind of immunity to minorities from the attacks of majority religions
of the country.
Article 26 of the Indian Constitution states that, “Subject to public order, morality and health, every
religious denomination or any section thereof shall have the right
 To establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes;  To manage its own
affairs in matters of religion  To own and acquire movable and immovable property; and  To
administer such property in accordance with law.”
These rights protects and guarantee the collective rights of a religion. This will give a safety and
protection to the communal rights and privileges of minority religions.
Article 27 of the Indian Constitution utters that, “No person shall be compelled to pay any taxes, the
proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance
of any particular religion or religious denomination ”This ensures that state is not spending the public
money for the welfare and upliftment of a particular religion at the cost of many including minority
religions. When a government is formed who is having affiliation to majority religion, chances of
minority religions, beings secluded and sidelined are higher. But the provisions of article 27 is a block to
this kind of biased tendencies.
Article 28 of the Indian Constitution tells that, “No religious instruction shall be provided in any
educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds.”This article ensure that no fully/partially
state funded educational institution compel anyone to follow religious instructions. This will also protect
the minorities from any attempt of the majority religious educational institution to compulsorily follow
their religious instructions.
Article 29 of the Indian Constitution says that, “(1) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of
India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to
conserve the same.(2) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by
the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of
them.” This is one of such article which explicitly and exclusively deals about the minorities of the
country. These articles provide a helping hand for the minorities to defend and safeguard their distinct
language, culture and script.

57
Article 30 of the Indian Constitution states that, “(1) All minorities, whether based on religion or
language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. (2)The
State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution
on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.”
This article gives the right to the minorities to start and manage educational institution and prevent state
from showing discrimination while granting aid to educational institution.

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