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South Sudan South Sudan

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Secondary Biology
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 South Sudan
SECONDARY
PRIMARY

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Biology
Mathematics
3
Pupil’s Book31
Secondary

Funded by:
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General Education and Instruction.

THIS BOOK IS NOT FOR SALE

Published in 2018 by:
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© 2018, THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH SUDAN, MINISTRY OF GENERAL

EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION.

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 Contents

Unit 1: Classification of living things...........................................................1

1.1 Definition of classification............................................................................ 1
1.2 Necessity of classification.............................................................................. 4
1.3 Taxonomy....................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Hierarchical Taxonomical units of classification....................................... 5
1.5 History of classification................................................................................. 7
1.6 The five Kingdoms....................................................................................... 11
Unit 2: Pathogens and diseases ..................................................................35
2.1 Pathogens and their mode of transmission.............................................. 35
2.2 Disease causing organisms or pathogens.................................................. 37
2.3 How to identify bacteria using different biochemical tests.................... 50
2.4 Communicable and non-communicable diseases .................................. 55
Unit 3: Biodiversity, human activities and climate change........................62
3.1 Biodiversity................................................................................................... 62
3.2 Biodiversity and human activities............................................................. 68
3.3 Environmental pollution............................................................................ 72
3.4 Climate change............................................................................................. 75
Unit 4: Respiratory systems and exchange with the environment.............85
4.1 Respiration.................................................................................................... 85
4.2 Carbon cycle............................................................................................... 114
Unit 5: The digestive and circulatory systems ..........................................121
5.1 Digestion in animals.................................................................................. 122
5.2 Circulatory system..................................................................................... 141
Glossary ....................................................................................................... 159

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 Unit
1 Classification of living things

Learning outcomes
Knowledge and Skills Attitudes
understanding
• Understand • Classify organisms according to • Appreciate
the systems the seven level system. and value
of classifying • Use different equipment and knowledge of
organisms. laboratory techniques for classification
collecting and preserving of living
specimen for identification. organisms.
• Investigate the features of each
group (for example, phylum and
class among others) through field
study using equipment such as
sweep nets, specimen bottles or
containers, forceps, hand lens,
trays and microscopes.

Introduction to classification
Name as many living things that you know and you have interacted with. Where do
they live? Briefly state the observable features of the named organisms.

Did you know?

There are over five million different kinds of living organisms on earth today.
But only about two million of them have been identified and named by scientists
to date. Not all organisms have been discovered.

1.1 Definition of classification

Research Activity
Individually:
Find out the meaning of the word classification from textbooks or the Internet.
Write a report and share with your class members.

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Classification is the process of placing and organising organisms into groups
according to their similarities and differences in structure and the ancestral
origin showing their biological relationship. In Secondary One, you learnt about
the necessity of classification of organisms in the five major Kingdoms, Phyla and
Divisions. Below are examples of different types of living things.

(A) (C)
(B)

(D) (E) (F)

(G) (H) (I) (J)

(M)
(K) (L)

(N)
(O) (P) (Q)
Fig. 1.1: Different types of living things.

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Activity 1.1: Collection and 2. Place each specimen into an
observation of plant specimens appropriate container and close it.
In groups: 3. Take each specimen at a time
Requirements and observe it carefully using
the hand lens.
Containers or specimen bottles,
tongs, forceps and hand lens among 4. Record the main observable
others. features in each specimen.
5. Identify each animal using the
Procedure
local name, English name and
1. Using the apparatus or the scientific name. For the
equipment above, collect organisms whose scientific
different leaves and flower names you do not know, get
specimens. Note: Take care to help from the following sources.
minimise damage to the plants.
(a) The Biology teacher.
2. Take each specimen at a time
and observe it carefully using (b) Taxonomy textbooks.
the hand lens. Identify it using (c) The National Museum.
the local name and the scientific (d) Arboretum.
name. (e) Various research
3. Draw and work out the institutions such as
magnification of each. The Sudd Institute and
4. Record the main observable International Institute
features in each specimen. of Tropical Agriculture
(IITA).
6. Draw and work out the
Activity 1.2: Collection magnification of each.
and observation of animal
specimens
In groups:
Remember!
Requirements
The environment in which the
Containers or specimen bottles, tongs,
organisms are, should always be
forceps, hand lens, microscope, sweep
protected and taken care of to keep
nets, pitfall trap and pooter among
it as natural as possible.
others.
Procedure
1. Using appropriate apparatus Work to do
or equipment above, collect
different types of animal 1. State precautions which should
specimens taking care not to be taken during collection of
harm the specimens. specimens.

3
2. Distinguish between organisms with different features
classification and taxonomy? and group those with similar
characteristics.
3. Group the following organisms
into plants and animals: Donkey, The facts
pawpaw, cat, rat, grass, housefly,
sugarcane, mango, cow, orange, There are two types of classification:
bird and dog.
• Natural classification
• Artificial classification
Check your progress 1a Natural classification is grouping of
1. State the functions of the organisms based on natural relationships
following apparatus: Pooter, between organisms inclusive of internal,
pitfall trap, sweep net, bait trap, external features, biochemistry and
fishnet, forceps and hand lens. physiology. In the natural system, all
living things were traditionally placed
2. Name the taxonomic units used under two major groups called Plantae
for classification. and Animalia kingdoms (refer to
Activities 1.1 and 1.2).
1.2 Necessity of Artificial classification or modern
classification classification is based on one or a
From Activities 1.1 and 1.2 you can few easily observable features and
clearly see that it can be difficult to is usually designed for a practical
group different organisms which exhibit purpose with an emphasis on
simplicity and convenience.
common features while others have
different features. This is equivalent to It does not take into account the
mixing rice, white beans, sorghum and important natural relationships. An
millet. Then you are told to separate example of artificial classification
is grouping different types of fish
them out. Hence the necessity of
regardless of their natural environment.
classification.
• To help in the identification of Work to do
living organisms into their correct
Based on the descriptions
groups for easier reference.
above, create Table 1.1 to show
• To help us arrange the information differences between natural and
about living organisms in an artificial classification.
orderly manner to avoid chaos and
Table 1.1: Differences between
confusion which would arise if
natural and artificial classification.
done arbitrarily.
Natural Artificial
• To help us understand the classification classification
evolutionary relationship
(phylogeny) between different
organisms.
• To enable us to separate living

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 Note: Phylogenetic 1.4 Hierarchical
classification is the one based on
the evolutionary relationships
taxonomical units of
hence the family tree. classification
2. Watch the video link
https://www.youtube.com/ Activity 1.3: Naming organisms
watch?v=oxhYaiSnlAo
In groups
3. Study the evolutionary tree
below. 1. Using Practical Activities 1.1
and 1.2, name the organisms in
your native language.
2. Do all members of the discussion
group or the class understand
the names you have given?
3. What is the impact of the
observation in question 2 above?

1.3 Taxonomy The facts

The science of classification is called
taxonomy. It has two branches, namely:
It is difficult to identify living things
nomenclature and systematics.
using their local names. This is because of
• Nomenclature is the naming of the existence of several local languages.
organisms. To assist scientists from different parts
• Systematics is placing of organisms of the world to communicate, one
into groups which are referred to scientific name is given. This ensures:
as taxa (plural) or taxon (singular) • No confusion when studying the
on the basis of their similarities and organisms.
differences.
• No change of name. Scientific
names rarely change.
Did you know?
• Use of a common language around
Biologists who study taxonomy are the world.
called taxonomists.
In 1707 – 1778 a Swedish naturalist
named Carolus Linnaeus pioneered
the classification technology for
taxonomy which is called numerical
taxonomy in which he devised a
way of recording data.

5
My heritage my pride! of organisms depending on their
similarities is called taxonomy. Different
Our language reflects who we are as levels of classification form taxonomic
a people. It is our nation’s identity. units. These refer to the groups called
Always be proud of your language. taxa (plural) or taxon (singular).

Activity 1.4: Grouping different Group Activity 1

lengths of plant stem 1. Look at Figure 1.2 below.
In groups: 2. In groups, discuss and work out
Requirements the reason the figure is presented
as an upside down pyramid.
Rulers, forceps and plant stems.
Procedure Kingdom
1. Using the apparatus provided Phylum or Division
above, measure the lengths of
plant stems labelled a, b, c, d, e, f, Class
g and h. Order
(a)
Family
(b)
(c) Genus
(d) Species
(e) Fig. 1.2: Taxonomic hierarchy used in
(f) classification.
(g)
Activity 1.5 Grouping
(h) organisms
2. Record the lengths from the In groups, use pictures of the
longest to the shortest. specimens in Practical Activity
Study question 1.1 and Practical Activity 1.2 to
Compare the order of lengths group the various organisms into
of the stems with hierarchy of various taxa using the observable
classification. features of the specimens.

The facts The facts

Organised order enables easier study Kingdom

of specimens or organisms during It is the largest group of the
taxonomical units with the highest
classification. The study of grouping
number of organisms based on similar
characteristics.

6
In this hierarchy, the similarities method). The modern taxonomic
increase while the differences decrease system that was developed by
from the highest rank to the lowest Linnaeus used simple physical
rank. Members of the same kingdom characteristics of organisms to identify
have fewer characteristics in common and differentiate between different
than those in the lower level. species, and is based around genetics.
Basically, there are five kingdoms Linnaeus developed a hierarchy of
namely; Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, groups for taxonomy. To distinguish
Plantae and Animalia. The kingdoms different levels of similarity, each
are divided into Phyla (singular: classifying group, called taxon is
phylum) For animals or Divisions subdivided into other groups.
for plants. The Phylum or Division is
Remember!
divided into Classes which are further
divided into Order, then Family, Genus To remember the order, it is helpful
or Genera (plural) and then Species. to use a mnemonic device. Such
as, Dear King Philip Came Over
Species
for Good Soup or Do Kids Prefer
Species is the smallest unit with the
Cake Over Fried Green Spinach?
most specific organisms in the group.
Members of the same species have the
same number of chromosomes and The taxa in hierarchical order are:
interbreed naturally or freely to give rise • Domain – Archea, Eubacteria,
to viable or fertile offspring. However, Eukaryote
organisms from different species can • Kingdom – Plantae, Animalia,
reproduce but the offspring is infertile Fungi, Protists, Eubacteria
or sterile. For example, a donkey and (Monera) and Archaebacteria
a horse reproduce a mule or a hinny • Phylum
which is sterile.
• Class
• Order
Remember!
• Family
Do not destroy the natural habitat of
• Genus
the specimens. Our environment is
a source of knowledge. • Species – smallest classification unit.

Three-domain system is a biological

1.5 History of classification introduced by Carl Woese
classification et al., 1977 that divided cellular life forms
into archaea, bacteria and eukaryote
Classification of living things domains. In particular, it emphasises
and naming the separation of prokaryotes into two
In science, the practice of classifying groups, originally called Eubacteria
organisms is called taxonomy (taxis (now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now
means arrangement and nomos means Archaea). Woese argued that, on the

7
basis of differences in RNA genes, these in 1990 by Carl Woese as scientists
two groups and the eukaryotes each reorganised living things based on new
arose separately from an ancestor with discoveries.
poorly developed genetic machinery.
Two kingdoms classification
To reflect these primary lines of descent,
he treated each as a domain, divided In his Systema Naturae, first published
into several different kingdoms. Woese in 1735, Carolus Linnaeus distinguished
initially used the term “kingdom” to two kingdoms of living things: Animalia
refer to the three primary phylogenic for animals and Plantae (Vegetabilia) for
groupings, and this nomenclature was plants. He classified all living organisms
widely used until the term “domain” into two kingdoms – on the basis of
was adopted in 1990. nutrition and locomotion (mobility).
Linnaeus placed unicellular (protozoans)
Parts of the three-domain theory have and multicellular (metazoans) animals
been challenged by scientists such as under animal kingdom because of their
Radhey Gupta, who argues that the compact body, holozoic nutrition
primary division within prokaryotes
(ingestion of food) and locomotion.
should be between those surrounded by
All other organisms were grouped
a single membrane, and those with two
under plant kingdom because of their
membranes. The domain is the broadest
immobility, spread out appearance and
category, while species is the most
autotrophic mode of nutrition. Thus, the
specific category available.
traditional plant kingdom comprised
The taxon domain was only introduced bacteria, algae, plants and fungi.

Plants

Animals
hyta

yta
oph
atop

a
d

od
m

r i

Ar lida
r
hyta

Pte

op
Spe

thr
ne
Bryop

der ho es
An

ta ta
h
ma rda
int
s ca

lm
llu

C
the
Mo

ma
Fungi

ino
Ne
he
int

Ech
lm
lhe

ta
era
ty
Pla

nt
ele
Bacteria

Co
Algae

a
er
rif
Po

Fig. 1.3: Two kingdoms classification.

8
Linnaeus developed the present system of naming organisms using two names in
Latin language. This is because the Latin language was used widely by the scientists
during the time and it did not change over time.

Fig 1.4: Carolus Linnaeus

R. H. Whittaker proposed the Five Kingdom classification in 1969. The most common
system of classification in use today is the Five Kingdom classification. In this
system, all living organisms are divided into five kingdoms as shown in Figure 1.5
below.

Animals

Plants
Fungi

Protists

Monera

Fig. 1.5: Five Kingdom classification.

9
Basically, organisms have their common The assigning of scientific names to
names and scientific names. living organisms is governed by a definite
set of internationally recognised and
Group Activity 2 accepted rules referred to as binomial
In groups of three, role play nomenclature.
Linnaeus, Woese and Whittaker by Principles of binomial nomenclature
explaining their systems.
• The first part of the scientific name
Table 1.2: Differences between common is the generic name and it begins
names and scientific names. with a capital letter whereas the
Common name Scientific name second part of the name is the
specific name. The specific name is
The local names It is known and written in small letters.
used and known internationally
• The generic name refers to the
by the local accepted all over
Genus while the specific name
people. the world.
refers to the Species.
It is written It is written in • The scientific name should be
in vernacular Latin language. printed in italics. For example,
language. Pisum sativum for garden pea
Does not bear Bears the generic (English) and when hand written
generic name and name and specific or typed it should be underlined
specific name. name. as separate words. For example,
Pisum sativum.
The facts • All the scientific names should be
Latinised (written in Latin). For
In scientific naming, an organism example, Aloe kilifiensis.
is given two names which adopt the • The scientific name should bear
double naming system. This system of the name of the first scientist who
naming is called binomial system. The adequately described and named
organism bears the generic name and the organism. For example, Balanus
specific name. For example, Zea mays balanoides Linnaeus.
is the scientific name for maize, where
Examples of naming of organisms, with
Zea denotes the generic name and mays
scientific names, are shown in Table 1.3
denotes the specific name.
below.
Table 1.3 Classification of some organisms
Taxon Garden pea Maize Napier grass Domestic Lion Leopard
dog
Kingdom Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum or Angiospermae Angiospermae Angiospermae Chordata Chordata Chordata
Division
Class Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae Monocotyledonae Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Order Rosales Poales Poales Carnivora Carnivora Carnivora

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Family Leguminosae Poaceae Poaceae Canidae Felidae Felidae
Genus Pisum Zea Pennisetum Canis Panthera Panthera
Species sativum mays purpureum familiaris leo pardus
Scientific Pisum sativum Zea mays Pennisetum Canis Panthera Panthera
name purpureum familiaris leo pardus

From the table 1.3 above the garden pea and maize are of different Genus and
different Species while lion and leopard are of the same Genus because of common
features but they are of different Species.
Check your progress 1b
1. Study the table below and answer the questions that follow:
(a) Fill in the blank spaces in the table.
Taxon Human Maize Napier grass Domestic Domestic Leopard
being dog cat
Kingdom Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum or Angiospermae Angiospermae Chordata Chordata Chordata
Division
Class Monocotyledonae Monocotyledonae Mammalia Mammalia
Order Carnivora Felidae Carnivora
Family Canidae Canidae Canidae
Genus Pennisetum Felis
Species purpureum domestica
Scientific Zea mays Pennisetum Canis Panthera
name purpureum familiaris pardus
(b) Are the domestic cat and domestic dog closely related? Give your reason.
(c) Explain why the leopard and lion cannot procreate.
2. A learner wrote a scientific name as CANIS LUPUS. State the mistakes he or
she made.
3. Define binomial nomenclature.
4. Define the term species.

1.6 The five Kingdoms

Group Activity 3
As a class, debate: The facts
a) why Linnaeus is held in high In the modern classification, as earlier
esteem today, and stated, there are five major kingdoms:
b) why the five kingdom binomial
• Monera
system is favoured today.
• Protoctista
• Fungi
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• Plantae
• Animalia
These kingdoms are arranged from simplest form to the complex forms.

Kingdom Monera
This kingdom consists mainly of the bacteria such as Azotobacter, cocci, vibro
cholerae, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus anthracis, Treponema, Nostoc, Cyanobacteria or
blue green, among others. These are the simplest forms of organisms. The study of
bacteria is referred to as bacteriology which is a branch of microbiology.
Nuclear material

Cell wall

Flagellum Cytoplasm

Cell membrane

Fig. 1.6: Generalised diagram of a bacterium.

• They have slimy mucin cell
Did you know?
wall, fewer organelles and no
Small self replicating circle of extra mitochondria.
DNA with fewer genes (plasmids) • They move by use of flagella (plural)
in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or flagellum (singular).
gives extra survival advantage such • Most have single circular DNA
as resistance to antibiotics and molecule while some species
enable some to break down complex contain one or more plasmids.
chemicals such as food and sewage • Most are heterotrophic or
containing hydrocarbons. saprophytic or parasitic. A few are
autotrophic.
The facts • Most reproduce by asexual
reproduction or binary fission
General characteristics while others by sexual reproduction
• They have different body forms. or conjugation.
Some are microscopic, some • Most of them respire anaerobically
unicellular (single-celled though few respire aerobically.
organisms) and some live in Distinguishing characteristics
colonies or singly.
• They are prokaryotic (the cell
• They are prokaryotic (their cell
organelles are not nuclear membrane
organelles are not bound by a nuclear
bound).
membrane).

12
• The cell wall is made of slimy mucin.
• They have fewer organelles and lack mitochondria.

Coccus Diplococci Staphylococci

Streptococcus pneumoniae
Bacillus
Streptococcus Sarcina Tetrad
pyogenes
Arrangement of cocci Vibro cholerae

Fig. 1.7: Examples of bacteria.

Work to do
1. Find out from the books in the library which bacteria cause both food
poisoning and mastitis in camels.
2. Find out the economic importance of bacteria to man.

Kingdom Protoctista
The members of Kingdom Protoctista are: amoeba, paramecium, euglena,
Plasmodium, chlamydomonas, spirogyra and trypanosome.

Blepharoplast
Contractile vacoule
Cell wall Rhizoplast
Nucleus
Cell membrane
Chloroplast Centrosome
(cup-shaped)
Chloroplast
Fig. 1.8: Chloroplast of chlamydomonas Pyenoid

Fig. 1.9: Chlamydomonas structure

13
 Trypanosome
Paramecium

Euglena
Amoeba

Fig. 1.10: Examples of members of Kingdom Protoctista.

Practical Activity 1.5: Observing Procedure

organisms from pond water 1. Using the dropper, place pond
using microscope water onto a glass slide.
Requirements 2. Gently lower the coverslip on the
Microscope, coverslip, cover slide drop of pond water.
a dropper, pond water culture and 3. Examine the setup under low and
mounting needle. medium power objective lens of
the microscope.

14
 4. Draw and label organisms Did you know?
observed.
Protoctista are colourless. They take
the colour of the materials inside
The facts them, including the food they have
just eaten.
General characteristics of protoctista
• These organisms are unicellular, Kingdom Fungi
microscopic or colonial, or form
The members of this kingdom include:
multicellular thalloid. For example,
mushroom, toadstool, yeast and mould.
the spirogyra.
Practical Activity 1.6:
Examination of bread mould
(Rhizopus)
Requirements
Bread with mould, hand lens,
mounting needles, glass slides,
Fig. 1.11: Spirogyra
coverslip and microscope.
• They are eukaryotic (the organelles
Procedure
are nuclear membrane bound).
• They have many organelles 1. Using the mounting needle,
isolate a little portion of the
including mitochondria.
mould and place it on the
• They exhibit asexual reproduction glass slide.
(binary fission, fragmentation and
2. Using a hand lens, observe the
sporulation) though some show
structure of the mould.
sexual reproduction by conjugation.
3. Draw a well labelled diagram of
• Some are motile; they use flagella at least two complete observable
or cilia or pseudopodia while others structures of the mould.
are sessile. Amoeba move by
4. Repeat the procedure in step 1
pseudopodia, paramecium moves
and mount another little portion
by cilia and chlamydomonas moves of the mould on the microscope.
by flagella.
5. Observe the structures under
• Some are autotrophic while others low power objective lens,
are heterotrophic. medium power objective lens
• Some have specialised structures and then high power objective
that perform specific functions. For lens.
example, contractile vacuoles for 6. Draw a well labelled diagram of
osmoregulation. at least two complete structures
of moulds under medium power
objective lens.

15
The structure is likely to appear as the The structure of a yeast cell is likely
one below. to appear as the one below.
Sporangium
Spores
Piece of
Vacoular
bread Nucleus granules
Rhizoids Vacoule
Cell wall

Petri dish Fig. 1.13: Image of a yeast cell.

Fig. 1.12: Image of bread mould.

Work to do
Practical Activity 1.7:
Examination of yeast cells Add some live yoghurt culture
Requirements to milk. Write a report on your
Yeast culture, dropper, glass observation.
slides, coverslip, microscope and
Bromothymol blue.
Practical Activity 1.8:
Procedure Observation of mushrooms
1. Using the dropper, suck a little
Procedure
of the yeast culture, place it on
the glass slide and stain using 1. Visit a forested area near your
Bromothymol blue. Slowly lower school. Observe various fungi
the cover slip. on the barks of trees and dead
2. Mount the prepared cover slide logs. Collect large sized fungi
on the microscope, observe the such as mushrooms.
structure of yeast. Precaution: Some species are
3. Draw a well labelled diagram of poisonous. Wash your hands
at least two complete observable thoroughly after handling them.
structures of yeast cells under 2. Note the structures of
low power objective lens, medium attachment and structures used
power objective lens and then in spore production.
high power objective lens. 3. Draw a well labelled diagram of a
4. Draw a well labelled diagram of mushroom.
at least two adjacent cells under
medium power objective lens.

16
 The structure is likely to appear as the
one below. Work to do

Cap
Find out the following from the
Gill
Internet or reference books.
Stalk a) Health benefits of mushrooms.
Ring
b) History of antibiotics and
Bulb members of the Kingdom
Fungi.
Underground c) Major fungal infections
mycelium
frequently diagnosed in
hospitals.
Fig. 1.14: Image of a mushroom.
Kingdom Plantae
The facts The Kingdom Plantae comprises of all
green plants.
General characteristics of fungi
• They are eukaryotic. Did you know?
• Some are unicellular like yeast
Scientists have come up with a new
while others are multicellular like
way of energy conservation which
mushrooms and toadstools.
involves using plants as a source
• They store glycogen or oil droplets. of light. This is done by inserting
• The cell wall of fungi is made up of bioluminescence from insect gene
chitin although a few have cellulose in plants to grow.
cell walls.
General characteristics of plants
• Their basic unit is the hypha which
• Plants are eukaryotic and
has a cell wall enclosing the
multicellular.
cytoplasm with numerous nuclei.
• Most of them are differentiated into
Several hyphae filaments form a
stems, leaves and roots.
structure called mycelium.
• They have cellulose cell wall.
• Some are saprophytes, some are • They have chlorophyll necessary for
parasites and others are symbiotic. photosynthesis.
The hyphae used for feeding in • Most have vascular bundles: they
saprophytic fungi are called have phloem for translocation of
rhizoids while in parasitic fungi manufactured food from the leaves
are called haustoria. to other parts of the plant while
• Some reproduce asexually through xylem transports water and mineral
sporulation and budding while salts to the leaves and other part of
others reproduce sexually by the plant.
conjugation. • They show alteration of generations.

17
• Exhibit both sexual and asexual 5. Note the size of the leaves, stem
reproduction. and root-like structures, the
• They have localised movement cluster of leaves and the colour
resulting from tropisms and taxes. of the plant.
Main characteristics of major 6. Draw a well labelled diagram of
Divisions of Kingdom Plantae the specimen.
Plants are grouped into three major 7. Repeat steps 1–4 with the
Divisions. These are: liverwort plant.
• Bryophyta
• Pteridophyta Work to do
• Spermatophyte
The criteria used to group the plants into 1. Describe the size and the colour
three Divisions are based mainly on; of the moss and liverwort.
2. State the observable features
• presence or absence of vascular
bundles used to classify the specimens
under Bryophyta.
• production of seeds or spores for
reproduction.
The facts
Division Bryophyta
Bryophytes include liverworts, General characteristics of bryophytes
hornworts and mosses. • These are the simplest forms of
Practical Activity 1.9: plants with no vascular transport
Investigation of features of system hence they rely on diffusion.
Bryophytes • They contain chlorophyll necessary
Requirements for photosynthesis.
Hand lens, scalpels, mature moss • They have developed rhizoids for
plants, liverworts and a tray or anchorage and absorption of water
white paper. and mineral salts.
• They are thalloid (undifferentiated
Procedure
vegetative body) like liverworts or
1. Go to the field or for a nature differentiated into simple leaf-like,
walk in a forest near your stem-like and root-like structures.
school. For example, moss.
2. Collect a few mature moss plants • They lack support tissues hence
and liverworts. they do not grow tall or large.
3. Place the moss on the white • They grow in shady, damp or wet
paper or tray. areas.
4. Using a hand lens and a • They show alteration of
mounting needle, isolate one generation. The gamete producing
mature moss plant carefully and gametophyte is dominant over
examine it. the spore producing sporophyte.
18
 The sporophyte is born on the gametophyte on which it is dependent on. The
male gametes are produced by antheridia and female gametes by archegonia.
Fertilisation depends on availability of water.

Capsule Capsule
Sporophyte

Seta Seta

Perianth
Leaf
Gametophyte

Thallus

Rhizoid Rhizoid

Fig. 1.15: External features of moss and liverworts.

Fig. 1.16: Moss growing on the bark of a tree. Fig. 1.17: Liverwort growing in a swampy place.

Division Pteridophyta
3. Examine the fern and note the
Pteridophytes include ferns and
following:
horsetails.
• Size of the plant.
Practical Activity 1.10: • Structure of leaves and the
Investigation of the features of roots.
pteridophytes • Colour of the fern.
Requirements 4. Identify and cut off a leaflet.
Mature intact fern, hand lens, Using the hand lens, examine
scalpel and white tile/paper/tray. the underside of the leaflet and
Procedure record your observations.
1. Go for a nature walk or to the 5. Draw a well labelled diagram of
field and collect ferns. the observable structures of the
2. Place a fern on the tray. leaflet.

19
 The facts Did you know?

General characteristics of pteridophytes Pteridophytes and bryophytes such

as moss, liverworts and fern are
• Leaves are compound structures used for landscape decoration.
known as fronds, with leaflets
called pinnae. The lower side of the Kingdom Animalia
mature pinna bears sori (plural) Animalia Kingdom is divided into nine
or sorus (singular) which contain phyla namely: Polifera, Coelenterata,
sporangia that bear spores. Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida,
• They are green, non flowering Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata
plants which have roots, stems and and Chordata.
leaves.
• They have a defined vascular system Work to do
with both phloem and xylem in the
roots, stems and leaves. 1. From the general knowledge
• They show alteration of on animals, state four main
generation. Diploid sporophyte characteristics of Kingdom
is the dominant part which Animalia.
forms haploid spores in sori. The 2. Watch the YouTube clips on
haploid spores germinate to form marine animals in https://www.
gametophyte called prothallus youtube.com/watch?v=x3Cmy.
which produce haploid male W18vCo
gametes and female gametes
which fuse during fertilisation, The facts
dependent on water to form
a zygote that develops into General characteristics of members
sporophyte. Dependency of water of Animalia Kingdom
during fertilisation explains
1. They are multicellular and
why the ferns grow in a wet eukaryotic.
environment.
2. All are heterotrophic.
3. Their cell lacks cell wall.
4. Most exhibit locomotion but a few
are sessile.
5. Most reproduce sexually and a few
reproduce asexually.
Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata)
Examples of members of Phylum
Coelenterata include hydra, obelia,
physalia (Portuguese man-of-war),
Fig. 1.18: Fern jellyfish and sea anemone.

20
 Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

Sea anemone
Jelly fish

Fig. 1.20: Flatworm

The facts
Hydra General characteristics of
platyhelminthes
Obelia
• The platyhelminthes have relatively
Fig. 1.19: Examples of cnidarians. long and flattened bodies. This
shape increases the surface area
The facts to volume ratio and reduces the
distance over which gases and
General characteristics of cnidarians
excretory materials have to diffuse.
The cnidarians, formerly called • They are bilaterally symmetrical.
coelenterates are: This means that their bodies can
• Multicellular organisms that be cut into two similar right and
are mostly living in the marine left halves along one plane only
environment. running along the mouth and the
• They have a hollow sac-like digestive tract.
body, which has a single • Their body wall is triploblastic
opening; the mouth that is which means that it has three
used both for taking in food layers of cells. These are ectoderm,
and for removing indigestible mesoderm and endoderm. They
materials. Their mouths are have no body cavity and are thus
surrounded by tentacles, which said to be acoelomate (coelom;
are used for catching prey. The body cavity).
tentacles contain stinging cells • Their muscular and reproductive
(nematocysts) that kill or paralyse systems are well developed. They
the prey. are all hermaphrodites with both
• Their body wall is diploblastic male and female reproductive
which means that it consists of two organs in the same individual.
layers of cells. These are an outer • They have a distinct head often
ectoderm and an inner endoderm. with some sense organs. The

21
 digestive system is well developed the worms that live in the gut of
with extensive branching of the vertebrates to resist digestion by
intestine. However, the gut has only the host’s enzymes. In free-living
one opening, the mouth through forms, the cuticle enables them to
which food enters and undigested resist desiccation.
materials leave. • The digestive system is complete
• There is no circulatory system. with a mouth that is continuous
Some flatworms, for example, with a straight and slender
Planaria are free-living (non- intestine and ends with the anus.
parasitic). Others are parasitic, Ingested food is absorbed through
living on or in the bodies of other the intestinal wall of the worm
animals. Examples are flatworms into a fluid filled cavity called
which include the trematodes or the pseudocoelom and thence
flukes which are parasitic to man into the cells. The pseudocoelom
and other animals. Others are the serves as a hydrostatic skeleton.
cestodes or tapeworms which are There are separate male and
parasitic to man and several other female roundworms with the male
vertebrates. being generally smaller. They are
Phylum Nematoda bilaterally symmetrical. They lack a
circulatory system.
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)

Fig. 1.21: Examples of nematodes.

Fig. 1.22: Example of a segmented worm.

The facts
General characteristics of nemtodes Did you know?

• The nematodes have a cylindrical The sex organs of hermaphrodic

unsegmented body that is pointed annelids are located in such a way
at the ends. They range in size from that the worms cannot fertilise their
a few millimetres to over a metre own eggs.
long.
• They live in the soil, water, and in The facts
the bodies of larger animals and
ants. General characteristics of annelids
• The whole body is covered with a • They include the earthworms,
tough cuticle that is moulted as the leeches and many marine and
worm grows. The cuticle enables freshwater worms.

22
• The annelids are distinguished from Phylum Mollusca
other worms by the segmentation This phylum includes the snails, oysters,
of their bodies. The anterior octopuses, slugs, squids and clams.
segment carries the head which
contains the brain and the mouth.
The posterior segment carries the
anus. The external segmentation is
continued internally where segments
are separated from one another by
transverse partitions called septa. Squid
• They also have a primitive brain and
nerves. The gut, the major blood Octopus
vessels and the major nerves extend
the whole length of the body but
excretory structures and muscles
are repeated in each segment.
Squid
• The body wall is covered by a thin
epidermis, beneath which are strong
circular and longitudinal muscles.
The muscles aid in swimming,
crawling and burrowing. In many
annelids, each segment has two Snail
pairs of bristles called chaetae or
setae which grip the ground during Fig. 1.23: Example of molluscs.
locomotion.
• The circulatory, digestive and Did you know?
excretory systems are well
developed in all annelids. Pearls and shells from molluscs are
used to make jewellery and fine art
• In terrestrial annelids like the
pieces.
earthworm, there are no special
respiratory organs. Gaseous
exchange takes place through the
The facts
epidermis that is kept moist by
glandular secretions. In aquatic General characteristics of molluscs
annelids, gaseous exchange occurs
through gills. • They live in all kinds of habitats
• Some annelids like earthworms from seawater, freshwater and on
are hermaphrodites. The clitellum land.
produces secretions which form a • The molluscs include a wide variety
cocoon into which eggs are laid; of animals most of which are
other annelids have separate male enclosed in a shell. A few molluscs
and female individuals. like the slugs and octopuses have no

23
 shells. They protect themselves from Procedure
predators by their colouration or by
1. In groups, go for a nature walk
discharging coloured materials that
in the nearby bush.
camouflage them in the background
environment. 2. During the nature walk, use a
hand lens to observe various
• All molluscs have a soft
organisms such as grasshopper,
unsegmented body. The upper
butterflies, cockroaches,
part of the body called the visceral
centipede, millipede, spider and
mass is in most cases covered by
ticks among others.
a shell. The shell is used to protect
the organism from predators and 3. Draw the organisms labelling
to prevent desiccation in land the features observed under the
dwellers. In normal circumstances lens.
only the visceral mass is enclosed 4. List the common features of all
by the shell. the animals you observed.
5. Use images, video clips and
Work to do pictures for the organisms not
present in your immediate
1. Touch the tentacles of a snail or environment.
slug using a stick and take note
of the reaction.
The facts
2. Do the people in your
community consider molluscs General characteristics of Arthropods
as a source of food? If not, find
out why and also inform them • Arthropods include a large variety
of countries where they are of small animals that live on land,
considered as a source of food. seawater, freshwater and in the
air. Their distribution ranges from
the cold polar regions to the hot
Phylum Arthropoda
equatorial regions.
Practical Activity 1.11: • Their bodies are divided into
Observation of the external three parts; the head, thorax and
features of members of abdomen. In some, the head and
Arthropoda. the thorax are fused to form a
cephalothorax.
Requirements
Sweep nets, specimen bottles or • The body is covered by an outer
containers, forceps, pooter, hand rigid coat called the exoskeleton or
lens and tray. cuticle. It is made of chitin, a nitrogen
containing polysaccharide.

24
• They are bilaterally symmetrical. • They are unisexual, that is, sexes are
• They all have several pairs of separate.
jointed appendages; legs (which • Fertilisation is internal or external.
are modified to different structures They are either oviparous or
to perform different functions like ovoviviparous.
jaws, gills, walking legs or paddles). • Sensory organs include antennae,
There may be 3 pairs, 4 pairs, 5 pairs sensory hairs for touch and
or many pairs. chemoreceptors, simple and
• Body is triploblastic. compound eyes, auditory organs
• They are haemocoelomate. Coelom, (in insects) and statocysts (in
that is, body cavity is filled with crustaceans).
blood or fluid. Distinguishing characteristics of
• Head bears a pair of compound eyes arthropods
and antennae. 1. Despite their incredible diversity
• They have open circulatory systems. and sheer numbers, arthropods
• Digestive system is complete, share a number of important
straight and well developed. The distinguishing characteristics.
mouth bears mouth parts for These are:
ingestion of foods. Mouths are • Exoskeleton.
modified for chewing, biting, • Segmented bodies.
sponging, piercing and siphoning.
• Jointed appendages.
• Respiration takes place through
• Bilateral symmetry.
the general body surface or gills (in
crustaceans) or trachea (in insects, • Open circulatory system.
diplopoda and chilopoda) or book 2. The other major Classes of Phylum
lungs (in Arachnida) and book gills Arthropoda include the crustacea
(in king cobra). (crabs, lobsters, shrimps, barnacles
• Excretion takes place through the and woodlice among others), the
Malphigian tubules (in terrestrial diplopoda (millipedes), chilopoda
form) or green glands or coxal (centipedes) and arachnida
glands (in aquatic forms). The (scorpions, king crabs, spiders,
aquatic forms excrete ammonia mites and ticks among others).
while the terrestrial forms excrete Arthropods are animals that have
uric acid. jointed legs.

25
Group Activity 4
Look at the organisms below and place them in their correct class.

Table 1.4: General characteristic of classes of arthropoda

Class General characteristics Examples
• Have cylindrical segmented
body.
• Have two pairs of legs per
segment.
• Have three body parts:
head, short thorax and
body trunk.
• Have a pair of short Millipede
antennae and mandibles.
• Have many simple eyes.
• Have no poisonous claws.
• The body is dorso ventrally
flattened.
• Segmented body divided
into two parts; head and
trunk. The head has a pair
of simple eyes, a pair of Centipede
antennae and a pair of
poisonous claws.
• Hard flexible exoskeleton.
• They have gills.
• Branched antenae.
• The body has two body
sections; abdomen and
cephalothorax.
• They are mostly aquatic.
Crab

26
 • Have two body sections;
abdomen and cephalothorax.
• Have ventral side Tick
cephalothorax.
• Have two chelicerae.
• No antennae but they have
pedipalps.
• Have four pairs of legs. Scorpion
• Gaseous exchange takes
place through the trachea
system, gills or book lungs.

• They have three body parts;

head, thorax and abdomen.
The head has a pair of
compound eyes and several
simple eyes.
• Have one pair of unbranched
antennae. Cockroach Butterfly
• Have three pairs of legs.
Insecta • Gaseous exchange is through
tracheal system.
• Have well differentiated
mouthparts consisting of
mandibles, maxillae and
labia (singular: labium). Housefly Bee
• Excretion is through
Malpighian tubules which
remove uric acid.

Did you know? Work to do

The oldest arthropod known to have 1. Find out some of the diseases,
lived on land is the Pneumodesmus insects transmit to human
newmani. beings.
2. Firefly is an insect that produces
light at night through a chemical

27
 reaction known as Group Activity 5
bioluminescence. Find out Read the features below and name
from the Internet how this the Class.
phenomenon is being exploited
Class Distinguishing characteristics
in life science research.
Three pairs of legs and body
Practical Activity 1.12: parts divided into distinct
Classification of members of head, thorax and abdomen.
Phylum Arthropoda Has two pairs of legs in each
Requirements segment, a head and a long
Millipede, tick, weevil, grasshopper, trunk with many segments.
prawn and termite. Has a pair of antennae, one
pair of legs in each segment
Procedure
and body is divided into
1. Observe the external features head and a long segmented
of the specimen provided and trunk.
record. Body divided into a
2. Use observable features only cephalothorax and
to group the specimens into abdomen, has two pairs of
respective Classes. antennae and five or more
3. Release the organisms back to pairs of legs.
their environment.
Body divided into a
Phylum Chordata cephalothorax which has
pedipalps and abdomen, no
This phylum includes amphibians,
antennae and has four pairs
fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals.
of legs.
The term chordata was derived from
the term notochord. A notochord is Practical Activity 1.13:
a long flexible rod–shaped structure Examination of the features of
comprising of neurones that forms the organisms in phylum chordata
main support of the body in all chordates Your teacher will provide you
during some stage of their development. with model and photographas of
It persists throughout the lives of some chordates.
animals. It is protected by endoskeleton
consisting of vertebral column formed 1. Observe the models and
during late stages of embryology. In photographs. How are they
verterbrate animals, the notochord is different from other organisms
replaced by the vertebral column. you have already learnt about?
2. Compare your finding with
other class members.

28
Class Pisces (Fishes) • All fishes have a lateral line
that detects vibrations in the
Practical Activity 1.14:
Examinination of the features of surrounding water.
organisms in Class Pisces • Eyes are covered by nictating
membrane.
Requirements
• They have a variable body
Tilapia or other suitable fish, hand
temperature that changes with
lens, scalpel or scissors and tray.
that of the surrounding. They
Procedure are for this reason said to be
1. Place any freshly obtained bony poikilothermic or ectothermic.
fish or tilapia on a tray. • They have single circulatory system
2. Examine the external features of with a heart consisting of two main
the specimen and record them. chambers; auricle and ventricle.
3. (a) Draw a well labelled Class Amphibia
diagram of the specimen. The amphibians include frogs, toads,
(b) State the functions of newts and salamanders.
various external features.
4. Cut out the operculum and pull
out the gill.
5. Examine the gill.
6. Draw a well labelled diagram of
the gill.
7. Calculate the surface area of the
drawn gill. Salamander

8. Explain the structural

adaptations of the gill to its
function.
Newt
The facts
General characteristics of pisces
• The bodies of most fish are covered
with scales.
• They move by means of fins hence
they show swimming movement. Toad
• They have a streamlined body. Fig. 1.24: Examples of amphibians.
• Gaseous exchange takes place
through gills.

29
 The facts 2. Talk to an elderly person in your
community about some myths
General characteristics of amphibians associated with frogs.
• They have a moist skin due to the 3. How can amphibians survive
secretion of mucus by glands under in South Sudan’s hot and dry
the skin. This helps the skin to act climate.
as a medium of gaseous exchange in
addition to the lungs. To ensure that
the skin remains moist, amphibians Did you know?
must live in damp places. The skin
of toads is however drier than that The biggest frog in the world is
of frogs. Goliath frog in West Africa. It weighs
as much as a human baby.
• Amphibians are poikilothermic.
• They exhibit sexual reproduction Class Reptilia
with external fertilisation taking
This comprises of snakes crocodiles
place in frogs and toads and internal
lizards, alligators, chameleons, turtles
fertilisation in salamanders. The
and tortoises.
larval stages (tadpoles) develop in
water whereas the adults live on
land but go back to water to breed.
• Gaseous exchange takes place Snake
through external gills in tadpoles,
while adults use moist skin and
lungs.
• They have a double circulatory
system. The heart has three chambers Chameleon
with two atria and only one
ventricle.
• Adults have four legs that are used
for movement both on land and in Tortoise
water. In frogs and toads, the hind
legs are large and strong and their
feet are webbed. They are used for
Lizard
jumping and swimming. Crocodile

Work to do Fig. 1.25: Examples of reptiles.

1. In your free time, observe and

if possible take photographs of
different frogs in your locality.

30
 The facts their features are adapted to their
environment.
General characteristics of reptiles 2. Why do reptiles often bask in
• Some are adapted to live in terrestrial the sun in the morning but seek
habitat and others in aquatic shade from the heat of the day.
habitat.
• They all have a dry scaly skin, which Class Aves (birds)
protects them from drying out. Some common birds are given below.
• They have a three or four chambered Identify the distinguishing features of
heart hence double circulatory each bird. How are the different species
system. of birds adapted to their different
• They have homodont teeth. environments?
• Like amphibians, they are
poikilothermic.
• Some reptiles have four pentadactyl
limbs for walking or crawling on
the ground while few others have
no legs hence slithers.
• Some live on land but others live in
water. (A) (B)
• Gaseous exchange is through lungs.
• All reptiles, including the aquatic
ones, lay eggs that are enclosed by
a protective shell on land. Since
sperms cannot penetrate the shell,
fertilisation takes place inside the
female’s body before the shell is
formed. The eggs hatch into young (C)
reptiles that develop into adults
without going through larval stages.
In a few reptiles, for example, some
species of chameleons, fertilised
eggs are retained in the female’s
oviduct until they are hatched.
• Reptiles excrete their nitrogenous (D)
waste in the form of uric acid. Fig. 1.26: Different types of birds.

Work to do
The facts
1. Identify features of a crocodile,
General characteristics of aves
lizard, snake, tortoise and
chameleon and explain how • They have two pairs of limbs. The
forelimbs are modified as wings

31
 that propel them during flight. uric acid is delivered to the cloaca
The hind limbs are covered with from where it is voided with faeces.
scales and are used for walking,
swimming or perching. Some birds
Did you know?
like the penguin, kiwi, ostrich and
emu, are flightless. Emu oil, a beauty product, is derived
• The bodies of birds are covered with from the thick fat pocket in the back
feathers, which protect them from of the emu bird.
mechanical damage and insulate
them against heat loss except the
legs.
• Birds have a constant body
temperature that is independent
of the temperature of the
surrounding. For this reason, they
are said to be homeothermic.
• All birds lay shelled fertilised eggs
that hatch into young ones. In
addition to feathers and wings,
birds have many other adaptations Work to do
for flight.
What is the scientific name of the
• They excrete their nitrogenous
Emu bird? What are its characteristics
waste as semi-solid uric acid. Since
and economic importance?
they have no urinary bladder, the

Class Mammalia
Examples of mammals are given in the pictures below. Can you identify them? What
are the distinguishing features of each?

(A) (B) (C)

32
 (D) (E)

(F) (G)

(H) (I)

Fig. 1.27: Examples of mammals.

• They have a four chambered heart

The facts
with double circulation.
General characteristics of mammals • They have sweat glands and
sebaceous glands on their skins.
• They are the most highly • They have a diaphragm which
developed animals. Most of them separates the body into thoracic
are covered with hair. The hair acts cavity and abdominal cavity.
as an insulator against cold and
• They exhibit sexual reproduction.
against mechanical damage.
In most mammals, the foetus
• They have heterodont dentition. develops in the mother’s uterus
• They have well developed ears being connected through the
which are divided into outer, placenta for nourishment.
middle and inner ears. • They have mammary glands.
• All mammals are homoiothermic. • They have a highly developed brain.

33
 Did you know? in your introduction highlight
some of its characteristics that
Only mammals have mammary makes it belong to Class Aves
glands, sweat glands, heterodont and other economic values of
dentition and external pinna. the bird.
2. A landscape designer is
considering moss, fern and
Work to do liverworts as plants to use
in decorating the museum
Visit the National Museum entrance that is located in your
of Southern Sudan. Study the neighbourhood.
organisms in the Phylum Chordata. From their characteristics that
Note their diversity. Compare their you have learnt in this unit,
observable characteristics and use advice the designer on whether
them to group the organisms in to proceed or not.
their Classes. 3. Insects are considered as a
nuisance by a majority of people
but from the knowledge you
Check your progress 1c have gained in this unit, your
1. You have discovered that mindset has changed. You and
the back of an Emu bird has your classmates are designing
fat deposit that is used to posters which have pictures
manufacture emu oil. Your of some of the insects in your
class has come up with an idea locality and enumerating their
of rearing the birds to sell to benefits to the society. You will
pharmaceutical companies that need their scientific names.
need the oil. The first task is to Write a draft of the insects that
draft a proposal to submit to you have chosen and against
the school administration. In their names also write their
your proposal draft, include the benefits.
scientific name of the bird and

34
 Unit
2 Pathogens and diseases

Learning outcomes
Knowledge and Skills Attitudes
understanding
• Explain • Investigate pathogens and their • Appreciate the
the role of role in causing diseases in living importance of
pathogens organisms generally. disease control
in causing • Identify and isolate bacteria and and hygiene.
diseases. protozoa.
• Develop the skill of using a
microscope.

2.1 Pathogens and their mode of transmission

Majok was not feeling well, so he failed to turn up for school and instead went to a
nearby hospital. After physical examination, the doctor gave him a note requesting
for laboratory tests, which he took to the laboratory technician.

Fig. 2.1: A doctor examining Majok.

The laboratory technician took a blood sample from his arm then gave him a bottle
and a wooden stick to scoop a small portion of his faecal matter and bring to the
laboratory. After waiting for an hour, he was given the test results to submit to the
doctor. Upon carefully examining the results, the doctor concluded that Majok was
suffering from both malaria and typhoid, and also needed to deworm himself.
The doctor sent him with a note to the pharmacy to get the medication he had
prescribed for his condition. It turns out that Majok lived in a place where there

35
were bushes and poor drainage. He
was neither sleeping under a treated The facts
mosquito net nor drinking treated Pathogens are microorganisms that
water. He was also having a running cause diseases. They exist in five groups,
nose which usually happens to him viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminthic
whenever the rainy season sets in but and fungi. For these pathogens to infect
the doctor said it is normal and will a host, they need to gain entry into the
clear after some time. body of the host.
Group Activity 2.1 In order to survive within the host,
In groups, discuss which the pathogens need to find ways of
microorganisms were responsible overcoming the immune resistance
for the conditions Majok from the host. Because of the tag of
was suffering from. Classify war between the host’s immune system
these microorganisms into the and the pathogen, the symptoms
kingdoms they belong to as you such as headaches, fatigue, nausea,
learnt in Unit One of this book. diarrhoea and lack of appetite occur.
Suggest a general term for the The pathogens also need to multiply
microorganisms that caused the within the host and finally exit to infect
conditions from what you read. another host in order for them to
continue existing.

Did you know?

Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first
person to observe microorganisms in
the year 1670.

Pathogen Host reservoir

Means/route
portal of
New susceptible escape (Exit)
host (establishment
of disease)

Mode of
transmission
Means/route • Indirect
portal of entry • Direct

Fig. 2.2: Pathogen infection cycle.

36
The pathogens that cannot complete whooping cough. In crowded
their life cycle outside a host are obligate places, such diseases may spread
pathogens while those that exist within rapidly to many people.
a host but only produce disease when the (d) Vector transmission: Diseases
host’s immune system is compromised can also be transmitted by a
are known as opportunistic pathogens. mechanical or biological vector.
Some microorganisms that can only Animals typically arthropods carry
cause disease in a specific host may find the disease causing agents from
their way into other hosts and cause one host to another. Mechanical
disease. These types of pathogens are transmission is facilitated by a
accidental pathogens. mechanical vector; an animal that
carries a pathogen from one host
Modes of pathogen transmission to another, without being infected.
Obligate pathogens that cannot exist For example, a fly may land on
outside a host require a mode of faecal matter and later transmit
transmission to move from one host to bacteria from the faeces to food
another. The following are some of the that it lands on; a human eating the
modes used by these pathogens. food may then become infected by
the bacteria, resulting in a case of
(a) Through physical contact: diarrhoea or dysentery.
Diseases that spread through Biological transmission occurs
physical contact include skin when the pathogen reproduces
diseases which are spread through within a biological vector that
sharing clothing with infected transmits the pathogen from one
people and sexually transmitted host to another. Most arthropod
diseases, which are transmitted vectors transmit the pathogen by
through sexual contact. biting the host, creating a wound
(b) Through food or water: Some that serves as a portal of entry.
pathogenic microorganisms spread
diseases through contaminated
food and water. Such diseases Did you know?
are called waterborne diseases.
Examples include cholera, amoebic The ratio of human cells to
dysentery, typhoid and bilharzia. microorganisms living in them is 1:1.
(c) Through the air: Pathogens are
spread through liquid droplets 2.2 Disease causing
that are released when an infected
person coughs or sneezes. Infected
organisms or
droplets are inhaled by another pathogens
person; he or she may acquire the
Viruses
disease causing microbes. Diseases
that spread through air are called From the story of Majok’s illness, what
airborne diseases. These include did you conclude causes the running
common cold, flu, pneumonia, nose? Why was he only showing this
diphtheria, tuberculosis, and symptom during the rainy season?
37
Why did the doctor not prescribe a However, we do not become sick
medication for the condition? regularly because our immune system
is constantly fighting them. Most of the
Did you know? viral infections only take place when
our immune systems are compromised.
There are more viruses in a litre A viral infection is a proliferation of a
of coastal seawater than there are harmful virus inside the body. Viruses
people on earth. cannot reproduce without the assistance
of a host.
The facts
Did you know?
Viruses are infectious, obligate
intracellular parasites comprising Every person inherits a gut virus
of a genetic material (DNA/RNA) from their mothers from the time
surrounded by a coat and an envelope they are born.
derived from a host cell.
They are found everywhere on earth; Group Activity 2.2
in air, water and in all living organisms.
In fact, we breath and eat them daily. In groups look at Figure 2.3 below.
Discuss the text and draw each
stage in the life cycle of viruses with
a description of what happens.

1. Attachment Virus Host cell

2. Entry

3. Replication Capsid
and gene comes apart
expression Viral proteins
Viral
RNA
Copies of
genome Host ribosome

4. Assembly

Off to infect a
new cell

5. Release

Fig. 2.3: General life cycle of viruses.

38
Viral entry Viral genomes must therefore escape the
For the virus to reproduce and thereby endosome before they are destroyed by
establish infection, it must enter cells of proteases and nucleases among others.
the host organism and use those cells’ For some enveloped viruses, this usually
materials. To enter the cells, proteins occurs by membrane fusion mediated
on the surface of the virus interact with by a fusion protein.
proteins of the cell. In most cases, specific Viral replication
attachment proteins on the surface of
viruses bind to specific receptors on the The virus takes control of the host cell’s
surface of animal cells. Cellular receptors replication mechanisms. It is at this stage
are usually either glycoproteins or that a distinction between susceptibility
glycolipids, and have other functions for and permissibility of a host cell is
the cell in addition to virus binding. The made. Permissibility determines the
specific interaction between attachment outcome of the infection. After control
proteins and cellular receptors is a is established and the environment is
major determinant of the host-range, set for the virus to begin, replication
or tropism of the virus. Some viruses occurs rapidly. With some viruses, the
have a very narrow host range, meaning genome is completely released from
that they can only infect one or a small the capsid during or after penetration.
number of cell types, while others have This is known as “uncoating”. In others,
broad host ranges, meaning that they such as retroviruses and reoviruses,
can infect a large number of different the first stages of the viral replication
cell types. This is partially determined cycle (transcription and replication)
by whether the receptor for the virus is actually occur inside the capsid. These
expressed on many or a limited number capsids undergo some conformational
of cell types. changes during infection that allow
viral gene expression and/or replication
Attachment, or adsorption, occurs to begin, and the resulting structures are
between the viral particle and the host sometimes known as partially uncoated
cell membrane. A hole forms in the cell particles. Since almost all DNA viruses
membrane and then the virus particle or replicate in the nucleus of infected cells,
its genetic contents are released into the they must be targeted there. In many
host cell, where replication of the viral cases, the entire nucleocapsid enters the
genome starts. Animal viruses do this nucleus, where uncoating then takes
primarily by one of two mechanisms. place.
Endocytosis: Many viruses enter cells In order for new virus to be assembled,
via receptor mediated endocytosis. In both new viral genomes and other
this pathway, viruses bind to receptors virion components (proteins) must be
at coated pits. The coated pits pinch produced. Exactly how this occurs varies
off to form coated vesicles, which are greatly depending on the virus family.
uncoated and then fuse with endocytic Almost all DNA viruses have genomes
vesicles, and eventually with lysosomes. that are similar to the host cell; that is,
The endosomes become more acidic. they are composed of double stranded

39
DNA, and are therefore able to utilise viral gene expression.
host enzymes to express viral genes and c) Early proteins also play a
replicate viral DNA. Most DNA viruses role in altering host-cell
replicate in the cell nucleus, where metabolism by activating
cellular replication and transcription pathways that induce cell
proteins are localised. After infection, entry into S phase.
the nucleocapsid of DNA viruses 2. Viral DNA replication. Once
is therefore usually delivered to the the viral early genes have been
nucleus where uncoating occurs. expressed, and the cells have been
However, pox viruses are an exception induced to enter S phase, viral
because they replicate in the cytoplasm DNA is replicated. This occurs in
of infected cells. the nucleus of infected cells, and
The replication cycle can be broken gives rise to new viral genomes.
down into the following steps. 3. Late gene expression. After viral
1. Early gene expression. DNA replication has begun, the late
Transcription of these genes occurs genes are transcribed and translated
using cellular RNA polymerase to give rise to late proteins. Both
II and cellular transcription late and early viral proteins are
factors. These proteins bind to synthesised in the cytoplasm, but
the viral DNA in regions called are often transported back to the
early promoters or enhancers, nucleus where both viral replication
and promote synthesis of the early and nucleocapsid assembly occurs.
pre-mRNAs. The early RNAs are Viral shedding
processed (capped, polyadenylated The process by which virus progeny
and spliced) in the nucleus, and are are released to find new hosts is called
then transported to the cytoplasm shedding. After a virus has made many
where they are translated, giving copies of itself, it has usually exhausted
rise to the early proteins. In many the cell of its resources. The host cell
cases, one primary transcript can is now no longer useful to the virus,
give rise to several different mature therefore, the cell often dies and the
mRNAs via a process known newly produced viruses must find a new
as alternative splicing. These host. This is the final stage in the viral
different mRNAs then encode life cycle.
different proteins. Early proteins
typically play several roles in Viral latency
the viral life cycle, including the Some viruses can “hide” within a cell,
following; either to evade the host cell immune
a) They are required for system or simply because it is not in the
replication of the viral best interest of the virus to continually
genome. replicate. This hiding is called latency.
b) Early proteins are also During this time, the virus does not
involved in the regulation of produce any progeny, it remains inactive

40
until external stimuli such as light or as touch, saliva, sexual contact or
stress prompts it to activate. by sharing contaminated needles,
There is a period between infection of a contaminated food and water and air.
cell and the appearance of new infectious Insects including ticks and mosquitoes
virus that is known as the latent period. can act as vectors.
During this time, different stages in the Different viral infections
virus life cycle occur.
There are a number of viral infections
Viral transmission ranging from common cold, polio to
Viruses can be transmitted from one HIV, among others. In this unit, we will
host to another in various ways such only discuss HIV.

HIV Envelope

HIV Caspid

HIV Enzymes

HIV RNA

HIV Glycoproteins

Fig. 2.4: The structure of Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a virus that affects certain types of
T cells of the immune system. Progression of the infection decreases the body’s
ability to fight disease and infection, leading to Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS). HIV is transmitted by coming into contact with blood or
bodily fluids of an infected person, infected mother to baby during birth or
breastfeeding.

41
 Viral components HIV virus is
HIV attaches to are reproduced assembled
host CD4 cell
HIV DNA is
integrated into
HIV's RNA
host DNA

DNA is made from

HIV’s RNA via reverse
transcriptase HIV virus is
distributed

Fig. 2.5: HIV life cycle.

Beneficial importance of viruses including the reproductive, respiratory,

and gastrointestinal systems, the liver,
• In biomedical research, scientists
brain and skin hence the viral infection.
use viruses to insert new genes into
cells. Did you know?
• Viruses also participate in the
process of evolution by transferring There is no cure for viral diseases
genes among different species. but they can be prevented using
• Some viruses protect the host vaccination. Some of the vaccines
against other infections like the against viral infection available
ones that cause chickenpox. include, small pox, rubella,
Viruses can affect many areas in the body, influenza, measles, polio and
Hepatitis B, among others.

42
Study the graph below.

Fig. 2.6: HIV prevalence graph

Describe the pattern you see in the graph.

Bacteria

Examples of pathogenic bacteria

Vibro cholerae human faecal material and encounters

Vibro cholerae causes cholera which is a food. Cholera is a waterborne or
serious disease. It usually occurs as an foodborne disease.
epidemic where sanitation is poor and Group Activity 2.3
compromised due to overcrowding or In groups, look at Figure 2.7 on
poor sewage treatment. The bacteria can page 44. Discuss the text and point
live in water or food contaminated with out where life cycles could be
human faecal material for a long time interrupted to prevent or reduce
until they find a suitable host. Houseflies infections.
can also act as a vector when it feeds on

43
 Life cycle
3 Disruption of water 4 Passes into human Infection
and sanitation systems digestive system
and displacement through drinking • Incubation period of
of populations to contaminated water 2 hours to 5 days
overcrowded camps or food. • About 75 percent
increases risk. of infected people
do not develop
symptoms
• 20 percent of those
showing symptoms
Vibrio cholerae develop acute watery
bacteria diarrhoea and
• Up to 5 million dehydration
cholera cases • Can kill within hours
2 Organic pollutants annually worldwide if untreated or can
such as human and • 100,000 to 120,000 successfully treated
animal waste can deaths a year with rehydration
provide the nutrients salts and intravenous
to trigger epidemic of fluids
the bacteria.

1 Vibrio cholerae
naturally occurs in
aquatic sources such 5 Exits body through
as wetlands, estuaries, faeces. Faeces can be
and stagnant water, contagious for up to
often associated with 14 days.
algae blooms.

Fig. 2.7: Life cycle of Vibrio cholerae.

When food or water is contaminated with human faecal material, human beings
ingest Vibro cholerae. The bacteria undergoes incubation of 1-6 days. They rapidly
multiply in the small intestine and
produce highly toxic substances that into the lungs (droplet infection). It
destroy the epithelial lining, leading to requires prolonged contact between
the symptoms. people hence it is associated with
overcrowding living conditions
Mycobacterium tuberculosis or particularly poor ventilation such as
Mycobacterium bovis
in refugee camps, dormitories and
Mycobacterium tuberculosis or prisons.
Mycobacterium bovis causes Tuberculosis can affect almost all body
tuberculosis which kills about 2 million tissues or organs. However, the lungs
people a year, mostly in sub-Saharan have the highest risk of infection.
Africa and it is the worst killer disease.

Transmission
Mycobacterium tuberculosis or
Mycobacterium bovis are inhaled

44
 Cell-mediated immunity
(T-cell response; CD4+/
CD8+ cells, TNF-α
IFN-γ, ROS, RNS)

95%
Primary infection

Isoniazid
preventive
therapy Latent TB
Transmission
5-10% Risk factor
• HIV infection
• Diabetes
• Generic factors
• Immunosupression
Cavitation • Tobacco smoke
• Alcohol consumption
• Indoor air pollution
Reactivation

50% 95%

Death Cure

Relapse

Fig 2.8: Life cycle of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Group Discussion Activity 2.4 Did you know?

In groups, role play the life cycle of
Mycobaterium tuberculosis shown Failure to complete your TB
in Figure 2.8 above. medication is a crime that is
punishable by law.

45
Table 2.1: Summary of diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria
Pathogenic Disease Mode of Signs and Treatment and
bacteria caused transmission symptoms control
Corynebacterium Diphtheria Drop infection Slight fever Immunisation
diphtheriae Sore throat with toxoids
Severe damage of
nerve cells, heart
and adrenal gland
Clostridium Botulism Contaminated Constipation, Administration
botulinum food vomiting, intense of antitoxins
thirstiness and
paralysis of
muscles
Shigella Bacterial Contaminated Diarrhoea with Use of antibiotics
dysenteriae dysentery food (as mucus and blood,
cholera) abdominal pains
Clostridium tetani Tetanus Wound Muscular spasms Immunis at ion
infection beginning in the with toxoids
mouth and neck
regions and spread
through out the
body
Convulsions and
death
Rickettsia Typhus Vector (rat flea Measles–like Use of antibiotics
and louse rashes on the
forelimbs,
Headache.
Back pains and
on the limbs.
Delirium and
coma
Neisseria Gonorrhoea Sexual contact Males have a Use of antibiotics
gonorrhoea burning feeling
when passing
urine and a
yellow discharge
accompanied
by fever and
headache in
females there are
no signs
Treponema Syphilis Sexual contact Painless sore on Use antibiotics
pallidum the penial glans,
nipple or vagina
Fever,
Skin rashes

46
Protozoan disease causing Plasmodium causes malaria, which
organisms is also a killer disease in Africa. The
Large number of protozoa is parasitic to endoparasites are transmitted from a
man. They cause serious diseases such sick individual to a health one through
as Trichomoniasis, amoebic dysentery, bites of a female anopheles mosquito.
malaria and sleeping sickness. Group Activity 2.5
Plasmodium spp In groups, role play the life cycle
There are various species of of plasmodium as shown in Figure
plasmodium: Plasmodium vivax, 2.9.
Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium Identify how to prevent the spread
malariae and Plasmodium ovale. of malaria and why we use different
strategies.

Fig. 2.9: Life cycle of plasmodium.

The female anopheles mosquito is infected with Plasmodium parasites as it sucks
blood from an infected person. The parasites reproduce sexually by multiple
binary fission in the mosquito’s stomach wall. The parasites’ offspring migrate to
the salivary glands of the mosquito where they are injected into man’s circulatory
system as female anopheles mosquito feeds. The offsprings migrate to the liver
where they asexually reproduce. The liver cells rapture releasing the parasites into
the bloodstream where they attack the red blood cells or brain cells. Further, asexual

47
reproduction in red blood cells leads to Trypanosoma rhodesiense cause
the destruction of the cells, which sleeping sickness or Trypanosomiasis or
rapture to release the parasites in man. African trypanosomiasis. Trypanosoma
In the brain, they cause cerebral malaria cruzi causes Chaga’s disease or South
or mental disorder. This leads to signs American trypasonomiasis. Sleeping
and symptoms. sickness is transmitted from a sick
individual to a healthy one through the
Did you know? bites of a tsetse fly.
Professor Israel Kligler was the Life cycle of Trypanosoma gambiensis
pioneer of malaria eradication in or Trypanosoma rhodesiense or
Israel through drainage of swamps Trypanosoma cruzi
and clearing of bushes. When sucking blood from an infected
individual, the tsetse flies get infected.
Group Activity 2.6 The parasites multiply rapidly in the
tsetse flies’ stomachs and then migrate
In groups, look at Figure. 2.10 below.
Discuss the text and point out where to the salivary glands where they are
the life cycles could be interrupted to injected into suitable hosts as they suck
prevent or reduce infections. blood. Further multiplication occur at
the site of infection. They latter invade
Trypanosoma gambiensis or the bloodstream where they destroy
Trypanosoma rhodesiense or heart muscles and valves, the blood
Trypanosoma cruzi clotting mechanism and brain cells.
Trypanosoma gambiensis and

Fig. 2.10: Life cycle of Trypanasoma.

48
 Have different species which includes:
Did you know? Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma
Scientists have discovered that tsetse japonicum and Schistosoma mansoni.
fly is attracted to blue colour. Adult blood flukes live in the veins
draining the urinary bladder and the
Pathogenic worms intestines. The worms are found in
pairs. The male holds the female which
They are endoparasitic in man.
is much slender in a groove in its ventral
Blood fluke or Bilharzia worm side (Fig. 2.8)
Group Activity 2.7
In groups, role play the life cycle
of blood flukes as shown in Figure
2.11 below

Cercariae released by
i = Infective Stage
5 snail into water and free- d = Diagnostic Stage
swimming
i Cercariae lose tails during
Sporocysts in snail
4 7 penetration and become
(successive generations) schistosomulae

Penetrate
6 skin

Miracidia penetrate 8 Circulation

3 snail tissue
9 Migrate to
portal blood

Eggs hatch in faeces d in urine

in liver and
mature adults
2 releasing
miracidia

Paired adult worms migrate to:

S. mansoni
S. japonicum S. haematobium 10 mesenteric venules of bowel/rectum
(laying eggs that circulate to the liver
1 and shed in stools). s. haemotobium
often occurs in c venous plexus of
bladder

Fig 2.11: Life cycle of blood flukes.

The female lays eggs which have a sharp pointed part which penetrates the blood
vessels, into the bladder or intestine. The eggs are released through urine and faeces.
When eggs are released into water, they hatch into miracidium larvae which penetrate
into the tissues of a snail, the intermediate host, and develop into sporocysts. The
sporocysts then develop into cercariae which are released into water and infect man
by penetrating through the skin. They enter the circulatory system which takes them
to the liver, heart, lungs and finally into the veins, draining into the intestines and the
bladder where they develop into adult flukes.

49
2.3: How to identify • 1
teaspoon agar (about 1.2
2
bacteria using grams).
• 1 cup (60 ml) of hot water.
different biochemical 4
tests 2. Boil the mixture for three minutes
to completely dissolve the agar.
Group Activity 2.8 CAUTION: Teacher supervision
In groups, explain the need to is required to boil water. If you
identify bacteria before treatment. are using a microwave oven to
boil the mixture, be careful not
Growing bacteria in Petri dishes to let it boil over. The mixture
should be clear with no particles
You may not believe what you find floating in it after boiling. Handle
hiding in all corners of every home cultured bacteria with care to
and school and location in the world! avoid dangerous infections.
Take samples around you and see what
3. Remove the mixture from the
bacteria will grow in an agar-filled Petri
microwave and allow it to cool for
dish. A Petri dish prepared with nutrient
3 to 5 minutes.
agar (a seaweed derivative with beef
nutrients added) is an ideal way to reveal 4. Remove the lid off from the Petri
the bacteria hiding all around you. dish (the lid is larger than the
dish) and carefully pour the warm
Practical Activity 2.1: Growing nutrient agar mixure into the
bacteria in a Petri dishes petri dish to cover the bottom-
Requirements half of the Petri dish.
5. Loosely cover the bottom portion
• Teaspoon
and allow the mixture to cool and
• Hot water harden for one hour.
• Microwave-safe container NOTE: Just like gelatin, agar
• Agar needs to boil for a certain
• Petri dishes amount of time to properly gel. If
• Source of heat necessary, pour any unset mixture
in each Petri dish back into the
Procedure bowl (cover the empty dish) and
1. Use a clean, microwave-safe microwave it again until you see
container (a quart-sized bowl it boil. Watch it boil (but not boil
works great) to mix the agar with over) for 10-15 seconds before
water and then boil it. turning off the microwave. There
These proportions make enough should be no “floaters” in it. Pour
nutrient agars to prepare two the hot agar mixture back into
Petri dishes. Thoroughly, stir the dishes (cover them) as you
these together: did before and it should solidify
within an hour.

50
6. Collect some bacteria on the In the Growing Bacteria Activity
end of a cotton swab by rolling a described above, adding an
clean cotton swab in your mouth anti-bacterial hand sanitiser
or remote or door handles or is a variable. Make one dish of
pencil and then lightly draw a microorganisms and one dish
squiggle with it on the gelled of microorganism with a drop
agar. However, many people like of the anti-bacterial sanitiser or,
to test something even grosser better yet, make three dishes:
like the keys on a computer one to act as the control (just
keyboard, a cell phone case, the
microorganisms), one with an
pump handle of a soap dispenser,
anti-bacterial sanitiser, and a
or the television remote control.
third dish with another brand
Unless someone recently cleaned
the buttons on the remote, you of anti-bacterial sanitiser. Then
may be seeing some real goobers you can see which anti-bacterial
in a short time. Dampen a cotton sanitiser is more effective in
swab and roll it in your fingers as killing microorganisms. Make
you pull it across the surface of sure all three Petri dishes have
your choice. microorganisms collected from
NOTE: Place a drop (no more) of the same place in your home or
a hand sanitising gel in the middle classroom at the same time so
of one of the squiggles to prevent you know they are all exposed
antibacterial growth. to the same bacteria. The dishes
7. Lift the lid off the Petri dish and also need to be grown in the
LIGHTLY draw a squiggly line same warm, dark place for the
in the agar with the end of the same amount of time so that the
cotton swab. Roll the swab in conditions are standardised as
your fingers as you draw the line. much as possible.
Replace the lid and label the dish
with the date and the name of the Test for identifying Gram
item you tested. Positive Bacteria
8. Use a sanitising wipe to
• Catalase test
thoroughly clean one of the
surfaces you tested in Step 6, for 2H2O2(l) catalase 2H2O (l) + O2(g)
example, cellphone. • Test starch hydrolysis test
9. With a clean swab, redo the • Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA)
squiggle test in the other half • Blood Agar Plates (BAP)
of the Petri dish from Step 6 to
– Streak-stab technique
confirm your cleaning efforts.
NOTE: You have to add a variable, • Taxos P (optochin sensitivity
or something that changes in the testing)
experiment. • Spirit Blue agar

51
• Motility Agar spp. and the Micrococcus spp. are
• Coagulase Test catalase positive. The Streptococcus and
• Taxos A (bacitracin sensitivity Enterococcus spp. are catalase negative.
testing) Practical Activity 2.2: Identifying
• CAMP Test organisms that produce enzyme
catalase
• Bile Esculin Agar
• Nitrate Broth Requirements
Note: Few tests will be discussed at this • Microscope slides of cultured
level. bacteria
Catalase test • Sterile wooden splint
• 3% Hydrogen peroxide
This test is used to identify organisms
that produce the enzyme, catalase. This Procedure
enzyme detoxifies hydrogen peroxide by 1. Using a sterile wooden
breaking it down into water and oxygen stick, touch the colony in a
gas. microscope slide of cultured
The bubbles resulting from production bacteria.
of oxygen gas clearly indicate a catalase 2. Touch a drop of 3% Hydrogen
positive result. The samples on the top peroxide on the microscope slide.
and right respectively are in Fig. 2.12 3. Observe for presence or absence
are catalase positive. The Staphylococcus of bubbles.

Fig. 2.12: Catalase positive and negative observations.

52
Starch hydrolysis test Kliger’s Iron Agar (KIA)
This test is used to identify bacteria This is a differential medium. It tests for
that can hydrolyse starch (amylose organisms’ abilities to ferment glucose
and amylopectin) using the enzymes and lactose to acid and acid plus gas end
amylase and oligo-1,6-glucosidase. It is products. It also allows for identification
often used to differentiate species from of sulphur reducers.
the genera Clostridium and Bacillus. This media is commonly used to
Because of the large size of amylose and separate lactose fermenting members
amylopectin molecules, these organisms of the family Enterobacteriaceae like
cannot pass through the bacterial cell Escherichia coli from members that
wall. In order to use these starches as do not ferment lactose, like Shigella
a carbon source, bacteria must secrete dysenteriae.
α-amylase and oligo-1,6-glucosidase These lactose non-fermenting enterics
into the extracellular space. These generally tend to be the more serious
enzymes break the starch molecules pathogens of the the gastrointestinal
into smaller glucose subunits which can tract (GIT).
then enter directly into the glycolytic
The first differential ingredient, glucose,
pathway. In order to interpret the results
is in very short supply. Organisms
of the starch hydrolysis test, iodine must
capable of fermenting this sugar will
be added to the agar. The iodine reacts
use it up within the first few hours of
with the starch to form a dark brown
incubation. Glucose fermentation will
colour. Thus, hydrolysis of the starch will
create acidic byproducts that will turn
create a clear zone around the bacterial
the phenol red indicator in the media
growth. Bacillus subtilis is positive for
yellow. Thus, after the first few hours
starch hydrolysis.
of incubation, the tube will be entirely
Tests used to identify Gram yellow. At this point, when the glucose
Negative Bacteria has been all used up, the organism
must choose another food source.
• Motility Agar If the organism can ferment lactose,
• MacConkey agar this is the sugar it will choose. Lactose
• Simmon’s Citrate Agar fermentation will continue to produce
• Urease test acidic byproducts and the media will
remain yellow (see the picture on the far
• Sulphur Indole Motility Media (SIM) left in Figure 2.13).
Oxidase Test
If gas is produced as a result of glucose
• Sugar (for example, glucose) broth
or lactose fermentation, then fissures
with Durham tubes
will appear in the agar or the agar will be
• Methyl Red/Voges-Proskauer lifted off the bottom of the tube.
(MR/VP)
If an organism cannot use lactose as a
• Kliger’s Iron Agar (KIA) food source, it will be forced to use the
• Nitrate Broth amino acids (proteins) in the media. The

53
deamination of the amino acids creates lactose negative, sulphur reducing
ammonia (NH3), a weak base, which enteric.
causes the medium to become alkaline.
The alkaline pH causes the phenol red
indicator to begin to turn red. Since the
incubation time is short (18-24 h), only
the slant has a chance to turn red and not
the entire tube. Thus an organism that
can ferment glucose but not lactose, will
produce a red slant and a yellow butt in
a KIA tube (see second picture from the
left in Figure 2.13). These organisms are
the more serious pathogens of the GIT
such as Shigella dysenteriae. Fig. 2.13: Kliger’s Iron Agar results.
If an organism is capable of using neither
glucose nor lactose, the organism will use Class trip
solely amino acids/proteins. The slant of
Your teacher may organise a visit to
the tube will be red and the colour of the
a nearby centre or invite a physician
butt will remain unchanged (see picture
to visit the school or show a video
on the far right below in Figure 2.13).
clip describing symptoms and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an example
treatment of infectious diseases.
of a nonfermenter.
KIA tubes are also capable of detecting Group Activity 2.9
the production of Hydrogen sulphide
In groups, discuss how to prevent
H2S. It is seen as a black precipitate (see
and control the infectious diseases
second picture from the right in Figure
and present to the class.
2.13). Sometimes, the black precipitate
obscures the butt of the tube. In Further reading
such cases, the organisms should
be considered positive for glucose Use books in the library and
fermentation (yellow butt). Proteus Internet to identify specific
mirabilis (See second picture from right microorganisms involved in the
in Figure 2.13) is a glucose positive, roles indicated in the Figure 2.14
on Page 55.

54
Economic importance of some pathogens

Fig. 2.14: Benefits of microorganisms.

2.4: Communicable and 2. Water treatment

non-communicable Water is treated by:
diseases (a) Boiling
(b) Adding chemicals (chlorination)
Methods used to prevent
Note: Filtered water should be boiled or
infectious (communicable) treated with chemicals before drinking
diseases
3. Observe personal and environmental
1. Natural barriers hygiene
Skin is an example of a natural barrier General cleanliness of the body and
that prevents the pathogens from the surroundings should be observed.
penetrating our bodies.
One should wash his or her hands
Secretions from the body, for example, after visiting the toilets, and before and
mucus and tears, trap the pathogens. after eating. Wash fruits and vegetables
Hydrochloric acid in the stomach thoroughly before eating.
kills some of the disease-causing
microorganisms. 4. Food treatment and preservation
Antibodies, which are made by the This immobilises the bacteria and halts
white blood cells, engulf pathogens and the bacterial activities, which cause
kill them. food to deteriorate.
Sebum, secreted by sebaceous glands Refrigeration and freezing prevent
in the skin is antiseptic, that is, it kills bacterial and fungal multiplication.
bacteria.
55
Other methods of food preservation 12. Good behaviour
include: Avoid risky behaviour such as taking
(a) Pickling excessive alcohol, having unprotected
(b) Boiling sex, prostitution anddrug abuse like
taking cocaine,s among others.
(c) Smoking
(d) Drying Non-communicable diseases
(e) Salting 1. Diabetes
(f) Canning
(a) Diabetes insipidus
(g) Pasteurisation
(h) Chemical treatment When the pituitary gland releases
very little ADH or fails to release it
5. Drug therapy completely, the kidney nephrons are
This is the wise and sound use of drugs, unable to reabsorb the required amounts
for example, antibiotics which cure of water. This leads to the production of
a wide range of bacterial, viral and excessively large volumes of dilute urine.
protozoan diseases. This is known as diuresis. The urine can
also be described as being “tasteless”
6. Immunisation
or insipid thus the name diabetes
This is the introduction of a vaccine insipidus. This condition may be caused
into the body of an organism to increase by disease or injury. Diabetes insipidus
the ability of the body to fight against can quickly lead to dehydration. People
infectious diseases. with this condition therefore drink lots
7. Balanced diet of water.
Eating a balanced diet makes someone Regulation of blood sugar level
strong and healthy. Blood glucose is important in the body
8. Bathing because it is the source of energy for cell
respiration.
Avoid bathing in streams and ponds.
Bath in clean water. The normal blood glucose level required
in the body for normal cell function is
9. Overcrowding kept within a narrow range of 90-100
Avoid overcrowded places. mg per 100 ml of blood. The source
of glucose in our bodies is our diet.
10. Coughing Glucose is the end product of digestion
Cover your mouth with a clean of carbohydrates. It is absorbed into the
handkerchief when coughing. bloodstream from the ileum. This raises
the blood glucose level. It also raises the
11. Food glucose in tissue fluid. Glucose levels
Cover your food all the time except above the normal can make cells to
when eating. lose water and become crenated due to
increase in osmotic pressure.

56
(b) Diabetes mellitus
Group Activity 2.10
This is a condition in which the In groups, make fliers on
pancrease fails to produce insulin or communicable and non-
produces inadequate amounts. This may
communicable diseases and hold
be due to hereditary reasons or disease
a campaign in your locality to talk
affecting the islets of Langerhans cells.
to the people about the disease.
A person with diabetes mellitus has an
abnormally high level of glucose in the 2. Cancer
blood (hyperglycaemia). Symptoms of Cancer is a condition characterised
diabetes mellitus are: by uncontrolled growth of cells in the
• Passing urine frequently body. More than 200 types of cancers
• Constantly feeling thirsty are known today. Cancer, if untreated,
may cause death. Breast cancer is the
• Dehydration
most common cancer in women while
• Loss of weight prostate cancer is most common in
• Poor resistance to infection men. Cancer affects several parts of the
The kidney eliminates some glucose body. They include:
in the urine which is an unusual • Liver • Cervix
condition known as glycosuria (sweet
• Breasts • Skin
urine). If untreated, it can lead to death.
It is managed by daily doses of the • Throat • Prostate glands
insulin hormone, which decreases the • Colon • Blood (leukemia)
glucose level to normal and reduces Causes of cancer
the symptoms of the disease. Insulin is
administered through injection into a Growth in the body of an organism is as
vein. a result of new cells being formed by cell
division process of mitosis. Sometimes,
Work to do this process in which cells divide to form
new cells get out of control. This abnormal
Suggest reasons why insulin is not multiplication of cells in the body
taken orally. may be due to mutation. A mutation
is an abnormal activation of the gene
A diabetic person is advised to limit processes that controls cell division. The
carbohydrates intake in the diet. This cells, therefore, have uncontrolled cell
ensures that blood sugar level is division. The extra cells form a mass
manageable. called tumour. The following are other
Diabetes mellitus is becoming common causes of cancer:
today because of poor diets and • Diet, physical inactivity and obesity.
alcoholism. This is because obesity has negative
Be careful on your diet and avoid alcohol effects on immune and endocrine
and other drugs. system.

57
• Infections by microorganisms. occur mostly in adults. Leukaemia
For example, a virus known as usually starts in the white blood cells.
oncovirus can cause cancer. In people with leukaemia, the bone
• Radiation – If an organism’s body is marrow produces abnormal white blood
exposed to some types of radiation cells, which do not function properly.
such as gamma or x-rays, they can
Signs and symptoms
get cancer. This is because the rays
penetrate the body cells where they Common leukaemia signs and symptoms
interfere with the chromosomes. include:
• Heredity – Some people get cancer • Fever or chills.
because of an inherited genetic • Persistent fatigue, general body
defect. weakness
Types of cancer • Frequent or severe infection
Cancer always appears as a growth of a • Loss of weight
mass of cells in addition to the existing • Swollen lymph nodes and enlarged
body cells. As learnt earlier, the mass liver or spleen.
of cells formed is known as tumour. • Prolonged bleeding even on bruising
There are two types of tumour: benign
• Recurrent nosebleeds.
tumour and malignant tumour.
• Tiny red spots on skin.
(a) Benign tumours • Excessive sweating especially at
These are cells that grow at a certain night.
part of the body but they do not spread • Bone pain or tenderness of bones.
or invade other cells. Such cancers are
(ii) Skin cancer
not harmful. They grown on one part of
the body only. This is abnormal growth of skin cells.
It mostly occurs when skin is exposed
(b) Malignant tumours to the sun’s UV rays. But this form of
These are abnormal growths whose cancer can also occur on areas of your
cells spread and invade other cells of the skin not ordinarily exposed to sunlight.
body. They attack and destroy healthy It is most common in albinos who lack
body cells and may spread throughout melanin pigment in their skin. Melanin
the body and cause death. Examples of prevents damage from sun’s rays on the
cancerous disease are discussed below. skin.
(i) Leukaemia Signs and symptoms
Leukaemia is cancer of the blood. • Dark lesions on palms, soles,
It affects the bone marrow and the fingertips or toes, or on mucous
lymphatic system. Many types of membranes lining the mouth, nose,
leukaemia exist. Some forms of vagina or anus.
leukaemia are more common in • Skin appearing burnt and dark
children. Other forms of leukemia patches on skin in albinos.

58
Factors that increase the risk Effects of cancerous cells in the
of cancer body
• Smoking Cancerous cells have the following
• Excess alcohol consumption effects in the body.
• Over-exposure to radiation • They form lumps or masses of tissue
• Some viral infections called tumours. Tumours can grow
and interfere with the various
• Some chemicals
systems in the body. Some of the
• Hereditary factors systems that are affected are the
Smoking digestive, nervous and circulatory
Smoke from cigarettes contain substance systems.
called tar. Tar contains substances called • Some cancers can release chemicals
carcinogens that are known to initiate that can alter body function.
cancer in the lungs, mouth and throat. • They compete with cells for
nutrients.
Excessive alcohol consumption
• They cause organs to malfunction.
Alcohol damages liver cells making them For example, kidneys to fail.
to develop cancer. It is also converted to
other chemicals that initiate cancer in • Normal body cells die.
the liver and the throat. Ways of preventing and
Over-exposure to radiations controlling cancer
Some radiations such as X-rays and (a) Living a healthy lifestyle
gamma rays increase chances of Here are some suggestions:
development of cancer in the cells.
Strong sun rays (UV) radiation can also • Avoid smoking to reduce cancers of
cause skin cancer. the lungs, mouth, oesophagus and
larynx.
Viral diseases • Stay active and maintain a healthy
Some viral diseases such as hepatitis weight.
increase chances of cancer in the liver. • Eat plenty of plant foods such as
Also, Human papilloma virus causes fruits and vegetables.
cervical cancer. • Get immunised for Hepatitis B
Chemicals to limit liver cancer and HPV
(Human papilloma virus) that leads
Chemicals such as mercury are
to cervical cancer.
carcinogenic and hence initiate cancer
in the body.

59
• Work to reduce stress. (d) Palliative care
• Eat a diet high in antioxidants This is a specialised medical care for
like beta-carotene, vitamin C and people with serious illnesses. The aim is
vitamin E. to provide relief to the patient from pain,
• Limit fat in the diet. Choose fewer stress and discomfort brought about
high fat foods because they have by the illness. It aims at improving the
high calories and may increase the quality of life for the patient. It is done
risk of overweightness which in by a team composed of a doctor, nurses
turn can increase risks of cancer and other health specialists. It is used to
attack. provide support to cancer patients and
• Avoid drinking alcohol. The risk of other patients with terminal illnesses.
various types of cancer, including (A terminal illness is any illness that has
cancer of the breast, colon, lungs, reached a stage where it will automatically
kidney and liver increases with the cause death). It is a disease that cannot
amount of alcohol taken and length be reversed by any form of treatment.
of time a person has been drinking. Palliative care helps the patient to cope
• Protect yourself from strong with the pain and other problems, for
sunlight. It is known to contribute example:
to skin cancer. • Difficulties in breathing
(b) Avoid risky behaviours • Fatigue
Some sexually transmitted infections • Constipation
may increase the risk of cancer. For • Difficulties in sleeping
example, HIV. People who have HIV
and AIDS have a higher risk of cancer • Depression
of the anus, cervix, lungs and immune • Side effects of drugs
system.
HPV (Human papilloma virus) is Check your progress 2
associated with cervical cancer, but it 1. A patient suffering from
may also increase the risk of cancer tuberculosis has been arraigned
of the anus, penis, vulva and vagina. in court for failure to complete
Sharing needles with infected people his prescription. You are the
can also expose someone to HIV as well prosecution lawyer. Write notes
as hepatitis B and C that can increase on why the state should charge
the risk of liver cancer. the accused.
(c) Cancer screening 2. The WHO has classified
cholera as an indicator of social
This is a process by which cancer is
development. Do you agree
detected after it has formed but before
with their conclusion? In either
any noticeable symptoms appear. This
case, write an essay to support
may involve physical examination,
your position.
blood or urine tests and medical
imaging such as X-ray.

60
3. Malaria is still a major killer in ensure the measures they have
Africa yet Israeli managed to put in place eradicate the flies?
eradicate it within a short time 5. Viral diseases do not have a cure
by clearing bushes and draining necessitating the use of vaccines.
swamps. If you were Professor Suggest the reason why this is
Israel Kligler, what strategies so.
would you use to change the
6. You have seen an advert on an
African malaria situation.
antibacterial/antimicrobial soap
4. Your locality is infested with claiming to be removing 100%
tsetse flies. After the knowledge germs. From the knowledge you
gained from this unit that the have gained in this unit, you
flies are attracted to blue colours, are well informed that we need
you decide to contribute to some microorganisms on the
eradication of these flies in your skin. Design a campaign slogan
community. How would you against this soap citing some
incorporate the knowledge you of the microorganisms that are
have gained about the flies to essential for our skin.

61
 Unit
3 Biodiversity, human activities
and climate change

Learning outcomes
Knowledge and Skills Attitudes
understanding
• Understand • Classify meteorological • Appreciate the negative
biodiversity, data, and be able to impact of human
habitat, also read satellite activities on biodiversity
ecosystems, imageries of climatic and local, regional and
populations and nature. global climate.
the impact of • Observe and gauge • Appraise biodiversity
climate change. changes in biodiversity. values and the efforts
• Measure greenhouse exerted by man to
concentration in the conserve and protect
atmosphere. them.

3.1 Biodiversity
Group Activity 3.1
How much life can you find around you?
In this activity you are going to document as much wildlife as you can find
around you, school, home, on the way to school and on your visits.
Keep records using a camera, a diary, drawings and sketch maps to show what
you saw and where.
Try to capture the most amazing life.
Report to the class using PowerPoint, posters, oral presentations or other media.
Use scientific language in all your reports.

Group Discussion
• Suggest to the class local names or descriptions of these different species you
have in your report.
• Identify the groups the different species belong to.
• Why are they different from each other?
• Discuss how organisms feed?

62
 • Where do they line? species, and populations, their genetic
dissimilarity and their complex
• What were they doing in that
interactions of communities and
location you found them?
ecosystems.
• How many different species of
organisms did you record? Often, the term “biodiversity” is used
to refer to number of different species
in different groups of organisms. South
The facts Sudan is rich in birdlife with close to 800
species.
Biodiversity is the assortment of life on
Earth, it comprises of all organisms,

Fig. 3.1: Estimate of all species currently known.

Of these 1,412,500 species globally there are about 30,000 endangered species.
Endangered species are extremely low in numbers; almost extinction. Those species
that are likely to be endangered in the foreseeable future are said to be threatened
species.
Table 3.1: Endangered, threatened and rare species in South Sudan
Name Status Name Status
Elephant Vulnerable Shoebill stork Vulnerable
Mongalla gazelle Vulnerable Black-crowned Vulnerable
crane
Leopard Near threatened Beisa oryx Near threatened
Eastern chimpanzee Endangered Rhinoceros Critically
endangered

63
Wild dog Endangered Northern Giraffe Threatened

Hippopotamus Vulnerable

Did you know?

South Sudan is known to be the only country in Africa with both species of eland–
the common eland (Taurotragus oryx) and the Derby’s (Giant) Eland (Taurotragus
derbianus).

(a) Common eland (b) Derby’s eland

Fig. 3.2: The two species of Eland.

Biodiversity is the difference of genes, species and ecosystems as well as their

interactions with their environment.

Sudan

Ethiopia

South Sudan
Central African
Repuublic

Democratic Republic of Kenya

Uganda
the Congo

Fig. 3.3: The map of Southern Sudan.

64
 Group Activity 3.2 Types of biodiversity include:
“The loss of genetic diversity • Genetic diversity is all the various
may be rapid in South Sudan and genes in all organisms.
many species may be declining • Species diversity is all the various
particularly for plant variety even
if they are not yet extinct without species including variations among
any documented information.” members of the same species.
The Fifth report to the convention • Ecosystem diversity is all the various
on biological diversity. habitats, ecological communities
What do you understand by this and ecological processes, including
statement? intra-ecosystems differences.
Visit this link on the Internet and
read:
https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ss/
ss-nr-05-en.pdf
What do you think are the main
causes of biodiversity loss?

Species Diversity
Generic Diversity Ecosystem Diversity

The number and

The differences The number and variety variety of ecosystems
in DNA content of species in the world or habitats within
among individuals or in a particular area. a given region, for
within species and example, montane
populations. forest vs grassland
savannah

Fig. 3.4: Types of biodiversity.

The Draft South Sudan Wildlife Conservation and Protected Area Policy, 2012
categorises the ecosystems in South Sudan as follows: Lowland Forest, Montane
Forest, Savannah Woodland, Grassland Savannah, Floodplain, Sudd Swamps and
other wetlands (former “inland delta”) and Semi-Arid Region. (To read more visit
this link: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ss/ss-nr-05-en.pdf).

65
 Fig. 3.5: Sudd Swamps

Did you know?

The world’s population stronghold of the shoebill and black-crowned crane occur
in the Sudd Wetland.

Fig. 3.6: The Shoebill and Black-crowned crane of South Sudan.

Hotspots of biodiversity regionally and globally

Group Activity 3.3
Why are parts of South Sudan protected areas? Research in the document
given in this link: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ss/ss-nr-05-en.pdf

66
 Fig. 3.7: Protected areas of South Sudan.

which is categorised as one of

The facts Africa’s biodiversity hotspots.
Biodiversity is greatest in the tropics • Tropical rainforests are thought to
and decreases as you move further from have more species than previously
the equator towards the north and south thought.
pole. Group Activity 3.4
Those regions of the world with Research on the Internet about this
extremely large concentration of species plant called Rosy Periwinkle from
are referred to as biodiversity hotspots. Madagascar Catharanthus roseus.
Examples of global biodiversity hotspots Why is the plant important?
include:
• Island of Madagascar.
• The cape region of South Africa.
• Indonesia
• Montane Forests, located on the
mountains (Imatong, Dongotona,
Acholis, Didinga and Jebel
Gumbiri). The montane forests
of South Sudan are part of the Fig. 3.8: Catharanthus roseus
Eastern Afromontane ecosystem,

67
 Group Activity 3.5
Role play Minister of Environment Did you know?
in the Government of South Sudan
In terms of ecosystems and biological
preparing the President’s and his
diversity, South Sudan is credited
senior team’s speech on the value of
with having the following:
biodiversity and global importance
of South Sudan. Make sure the • One of the world’s most
English is of high quality for the spectacular animal migrations,
President. thought to rival the migration
of the wildebeest in the Maasai
The facts Mara/Serengeti ecosystem in
Kenya/Tanzania.
Value of biodiversity • The Sudd Wetland, considered
Biodiversity is a natural resource of the largest tropical wetland in
unimaginable value. The value could be Africa and possibly the world.
direct or indirect. • The largest intact savannahs in
Africa (UNDP, 2009).
Direct value
Medicinal value: most medicines in
use today worldwide are derivatives of 3.2 Biodiversity and
organisms. The Catharanthus roseus human activities
from Madagascar one of biodiversity
hotspots, has extracts used to treat Group Activity 3.6
childhood leukaemia. It increases the Read this passage of a true report about
survival rates from 10% to 90%.
South Sudan
Agricultural value: the domesticated
“The catchments of the Nile River
crops are derivatives of wild plants many
are the highlands along the border
years ago and the same wild plants have
with the Central African Republic
been used by scientists to solve current
and the Democratic Republic of
problems like awhile ago a virus attacked
rice in Africa and the wild rice varieties Congo. These have in the past been
offered the solution. undergoing degradation arising
from land clearance for agriculture,
Consumptive use value: wild fish and deforestation and possibly climate
other marine life have provided food to
change. They are the sources of the
humans with aquaculture contributing
Rivers Kir, Lol, Jur, Gal, Peyia and
very little.
the Yei, which contribute their waters
Indirect value to the Nile River. In the past, these
Indirect value includes biogeochemical rivers had been permanent but have
cycles support, waste disposal, fresh been reported to become seasonal
water catchment, soil erosion control, over the last two decades (GOSS and
Climate control, and ecotourism. UNDP, 2011).

68
In addition, they also carry heavy Habitat fragmentation caused by road
loads of silt, which affects aquatic life. network expansion and the expansion
As a result of these changes, certain of extractive industries (such as
species of fish have been reported minerals mining and oil industry
to be on the decline or have become development).
locally extinct. (Adopted from South Sudan Tropical
The status of forest and woodlands Forests and Biological Diversity
biodiversity is directly related to Assessment, Usaid)
deforestation and forest degradation.
http://www.usaidgems.org/
This is more evident in the montane
Documents/FAA&Regs/FAA118119/
and lowland forests that are rich in
SouthSudan2014.pdf
biodiversity but occupy a very small
area of the country. Extraction of Group Discussion
timber, especially the high value
Podocarpus, at the higher altitudes What activities do you think are
and mahogany at the lower elevations a threat to biodiversity in South
is leading to serious deforestation. Sudan? And what is their impact to
South Sudan?
Charcoal and brick making
operations consume high volumes of What do you think will be the
wood, a direct cause of deforestation effect of biodiversity destruction in
and/or forest degradation. Livestock South Sudan (a) Currently (b) 20
farming also leads to deforestation by years from now?
removing seedlings, which eliminates
the capacity of the forests/woodlands The facts
to regenerate. There are fish species
lost due to catchment degradation. Deforestation
Fishermen in Nyamlel on River Lol
Rapid tree cutting to provide firewood,
suspect that five fish species out of the
hardwood and building materials,
15 species they know have disappeared
clearing land for agriculture, grazing
from their river.
and herding livestock in the forests
They also reported that the size of fish destroy biodiversity and habitats of
caught had also decreased, noting that other organisms. Herding livestock in
the Mudfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) the forests removes seedlings of plants.
could reach a length of 1.5 m in the
Slashing and burning land to clear it
past, but the size had decreased in
also contributes to deforestation.
recent fish catches to a maximum
of 0.5 m in length. In their opinion, Effects of deforestation
the fishermen did not think that the
problem was due to overfishing since • Reduction in soil fertility.
fishing in these rivers is quite limited • Flooding and silting of water ways
and simple techniques are being used.” and lower lands.
• Recycling of carbon (IV) oxide and
oxygen reduces.

69
• Climatic changes because of less reduction and soon wildlife to attract
transpiration, affecting the water tourists to South Sudan will be extinct.
cycle. Suggest how it is affected? Tourists bring foreign currency that our
Sunlight radiation is rapidly government may use to buy items like
absorbed by the bare soil hence medicine and machinery to build roads
thermal gradients increase leading and telecommunication infrastructure.
intense to and frequent winds. Overfishing occurs when more fish
• Species extinction because their are caught than the population can
habitat is destroyed or because replace through natural reproduction.
their food web is broken. This can happen by design (because of
market demands) or because of mixed
Did you know? fishing; where when fishing one species
of fish other species of similar size
One animal and one plant species would be caught. The other fish could
become extinct every 30 minutes as be premature therefore their removal
a result of deforestation somewhere from the natural reproduction cycle
in the world. leads to a considerable decrease in the
fish population. Overfishing may be
controlled by:
Habitat destruction
• Selecting the correct mesh size and
The amount of land being turned to
shape allowing immature fish to
be used for agriculture is increasing,
escape.
including draining of swamps and
shift cultivation. This removes habitats • Limiting the quantities of fish each
for many species like the cranes and fisherman can catch per day.
mudfish leading to loss of biodiversity • Creating protected none fishing
in South Sudan. areas particularly the breeding
grounds.
Check your progress 3a
• Controlling the size and number of
The future of the white-eared Kob may
fishing boats.
be threatened by the new trunk roads
in Jonglei state. True or False? Suggest Check your progress 3b
how the life of the White-eared Kob
Studies of individual fish species such
in Jonglei State would be in 20 years.
as Tilapia, indicate the age and size at
Poaching is a serious problem and which they reach maturity. Why is it
leading to overhunting being largely better to catch Tilapia after they reach
attributed to the demand for products maturity rather than before? Suggest
from wild animals such as bush meat and ways the South Sudan government
game trophies, and for money to get rich can protect overfishing in the Jonglei
quickly. The end effect is the population State.

70
Use of pesticides and other agrochemicals and update in a timely manner national
Agrochemicals include pesticides, biodiversity strategy and action plan
insecticides, herbicides and fungicides for conservation and sustainable use of
meant to kill organisms the farmer biological diversity.
does not want on her agricultural Remember
produce. When pesticides kill
sometime they also kill other harmless Biodiversity is the term used to describe
organisms therefore destroying all living things on Earth. It includes
biodiversity, destroying the habitat of the diversity at species, genetic and
some organisms and destroying the ecosystem level.
food web members of some organisms. Ex-situ conservation is the preservation
of components of biological diversity
ex-situ and in-situ conservation outside their natural habitats. This
The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in involves conservation of genetic
1992 required that all countries took resources, as well as wild and cultivated
the responsibility of implementing or species, and draws on a diverse body
Biodiversity Action Plans (BAP). of techniques and facilities.
Therefore, all councils are required In-situ conservation is the on-site
to prepare plans for conserving and conservation or the conservation of
enhancing local habitats and wild genetic resources in natural populations
species. South Sudan is a Party to the of plant or animal species, such as forest
Convention on Biological Diversity, genetic resources in natural populations
which calls upon all Parties to develop of tree species.

Ex-situ “outside” Conservation In-situ “inside” Conservation

Examples: Examples:
• Captive breeding zoos • Nature reserves
• Botanical gardens • National parks
• Safari parks • Marine parks
• Tissue culture • Biosphere reserves
• Seed banks

Fig. 3.9: In-situ and ex-situ conservation.

71
3.3 Environmental pollution
Group Activity 3.7
What do you observe in Figure 3.10? Suggest how the situations captured
in the photographs can be prevented. What changes can be made in laws on
environmental protection? Suggest how you may correct the situation.

Fig. 3.10: Images of environmental pollution in South Sudan.

Air pollution
The facts
Sulphur (IV) oxide produced from food
Pollution is any process which leads processing industries causes respiratory
to adverse harmful changes in the diseases, and affects gaseous exchange.
environment. It combines with moisture and forms
acid rain which falls and destroys plant
Types of pollution include:
leaves reducing the surface area meant
• Air pollution for photosynthesis and also corrodes
• Water pollution metallic rooftops of buildings.
• Soil pollution

72
 Gases combine with water
droplets to form acids
Gases carried
upwards by winds

SO2 NO2 CO2 Acid rain

Acidic gases released

into the atmosphere

Acid rain destroys plants,

pollutes water sources and
soil, and erodes buildings.

Fig. 3.11: Acid rain

Aerosols (including pesticides, Smoke and fumes, produced in areas
fungicides, herbicides and acaricides) with heavy industries or motor vehicles
which are sprayed to control pests, that have incomplete burning of fuels
diseases and weeds contain copper based contribute to environmental pollution.
chemicals that affect the respiratory Smoke contains carbon (II) oxide,
system of animals by causing irritation which reacts with haemoglobin and
and poisoning. reduces its ability to carry oxygen,
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) causing suffocation and finally death.
produced for refrigeration and air Fumes also settle on plant leaves
condition units, destroy ozone layer. surfaces hence reducing the rate of
This increases filtration of radioactive photosynthesis.
rays from the sun, which in turn cause
genetic mutation and sunburns or skin
cancer.

Fig. 3.13: Smoke and fumes from a car.

Excessive production of carbon (IV)
oxide in smoke leads to increase of
the greenhouse effect resulting into
overheating of the Earth’s surface
Fig. 3.12: Chlorofluorocarbons

73
inhabited by living organisms, beyond Radioactive emissions from mines,
the optimum levels for enzymatic atomic bombs, nucleus reactants, cause
reactions. mutation or change genetic make-up.
Sound produced nonstop form heavy Control of air pollution
machines, vehicles and airplanes,
destroys the eardrum and this impairs • Industries and chemical factories to
hearing. be built away from residential areas.
Dust produced in quarries, dusty • Use of alternative sources of power
roads, cement and limestone producing apart from coals or charcoal (for
industries, settle on plant leaves and example, wind or hydro electric
block leaf surface area meant for power).
absorption of carbon (IV) oxide, hence • Massive planting of trees to balance
lower the rate of photosynthesis. carbon (IV) oxide level in the
Dust particles also get into the atmosphere.
respiratory surfaces where they clog • Use of lead free fossil fuels.
them reducing their efficiency. • Filtration of waste gases to remove
Cutting down trees: This interferes harmful gases.
with the carbon cycle, that is, carbon Water pollution
(IV) oxide accumulates in the
atmosphere and causes temperature Oil spills from oil tankers or broken
inversions that lead to thermal oil pipes, when discharged into water
pollution. bodies in large scale block oxygen
penetration into the water, causing
suffocation and death to aquatic life.

Fig. 3.14: Oil spills

74
Heavy oils also coat photosynthetic bacteria action. Thus, leading to
phytoplanktons and cause them to increase in greenhouse effect in the
die since they cannot carry out water bodies. The result causes thermal
photosynthesis. Heavy oils cause pollution too and increases acidity in
clogging of the gills of fish reducing the water.
their effectiveness. Heat production industries may
Industrial wastes which contain discharge hot water directly into
elements like mercury, lead and cyanide the water bodies. Hot water causes
are discharged into water. These elements reduction in the amount of dissolved
are absorbed into the blood when taken oxygen: This is because oxygen
in drinking water. Mercury interferes becomes lighter due to heating
with the process of melanin formation, and evaporates. This then causes
and causes poisoning in man resulting suffocation.
into blindness, paralysis and death.
Control of water pollution
Some of these elements accumulate
in the liver, kidney and bones where • Treat sewage and industrial wastes
they reduce the physiological function before discharge into water bodies.
of these organs. Tiny solid particles of • Use of biological control of insects
industrial waste and surface run-off and other pests.
water clog gills of fish, causing death. • Use of safe methods of controlling
Agro chemicals such as fungicides and pests and diseases, for example,
insecticides contain toxic elements cultural or mechanical controls.
like cyanide and lead which may find • Use of organic farming.
their way into man along food chains,
• Educating all farmers on use of
for example, through eating fish. These
agrochemicals.
cause toxicities and death when they
accumulate to higher levels. 3.4 Climate change
Untreated sewage from urban centres
that get discharged into water bodies Group Activity 3.8
cause eutrophication, that is, increase With the help of your teacher, plan
in the fertility or nutrient contents in for an investigation on average daily
water bodies. This leads into certain temperatures in South Sudan.
effects, for example, algal blooms.
Substantial reduction in amount
of dissolved oxygen, due to rapid
The facts
bacteria decomposition, thus result in Climate is commonly thought of as
suffocation and death of aquatic animals. the expected weather conditions at a
When oxygen concentration goes down given location over time. Climate
due to heavy microbial activities can be studied using geographic
most of microorganisms will respire scales – for example, cities like Juba,
anaerobically. This leads to production countries like South Sudan, or the
of carbon (IV) oxide due to rapid entire globe – by such data as average

75
temperatures, average number of rainy
The facts
days, the average wind speeds, average
wind direction and the frequency of
droughts.
Climate is driven by the sun’s energy
Climate change refers to variation in and controlled by natural processes
these statistics over many years, decades, and biogeochemical cycles in the Earth
or even centuries. system.
Mammoth advancement has been made Since 1880, scientists have been
in increasing our understanding of collecting data, and analysing and
climate change and its causes, and a studying Earth’s surface temperature
purer picture of current and future using thermometers and a variety
impacts is developing. of satellite sensors at thousands of
There are five vital signs of the planet’s locations, on the land, over and under
climate change. These are: the currents of the oceans.
The study and analysis has shown that
• Change in carbon (IV) oxide
Earth’s average surface temperature has
concentration.
increased by more than 0.8°C over the
• Change in global temperature. past 100 years, particularly in the last 35
• Change in arctic sea ice. years.
• Change in land ice. These satellite sensors have shown that
• Change in sea level. there are greater climatic extremes,
Any deviation of any of these five signs for example, heat waves are becoming
means the global climate is changing. more frequent, cold breaks are now
shorter and milder, snow and ice cover
Group Activity 3.9 are decreasing in the Northern and
Supposing you were a lawyer and Southern hemisphere, glaciers and ice
you were defending the Earth caps on mountains around the world are
against destroying human charged melting, and distribution of biodiversity
in court. The Earth argues that is shifting to cooler latitudes or higher
humans caused the climate change altitudes because it is too warm to stay
that resulted in earth’s destruction. where they are.
What is the evidence that humans What causes global climate change?
caused climate change? Create a
Greenhouse effect causes climate
courtroom complete with a judge,
change.
prosecutor and lawyers. Role play
Increase of greenhouse gases
before the rest of the class.
therefore causing an increase in
greenhouse effect.

76
 Fig. 3.15: The natural greenhouse effect.

The Earth’s climate obtains its energy mainly from the sun. The sunlight is reflected
by bright surfaces like ice and clouds which is called Earth albedo (a high albedo is
desirable), and the rest absorbed by the Earth surface and atmosphere.

Fig. 3.16: Earth Albedo is the “whiteness” of the Earth’s surface.

The Earth’s surface re-emits solar • Too much heat being lost to the
energy as heat or infrared radiation or outer space would lower the Earth’s
longwave radiation. temperatures drastically.
Some of the heat is absorbed by the Water vapour, carbon (IV) oxide,
atmosphere and re-radiated while some chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane,
will escape to the outer space. and nitrogen (I) oxide are examples of
This balance could be offset by: greenhouse gases that trap heat in the
atmosphere then emit it in all directions
• Sun’s energy output increase would
including back to the Earth’s surface.
increase Earth temperatures.

77
This is the greenhouse effect and in this respect, it is natural and “necessary evil”.

Did you know?

More methane is produced by termites on Earth than it is produced by all the
ruminant mammals.

Fig. 3.17: Greenhouse effect analogy.

The life on Earth as we know it Deforestation causes climate change

would not have evolved without the Land-use change alters the biodiversity
greenhouse effect. The concentration of therefore, the carbon stored in the
greenhouse gases makes the atmosphere vegetation is released into the
more effective in preventing heat loss atmosphere. Deforestation to pave way
into outer space. If the amount of for land for agriculture is the main
solar radiation entering the Earth’s cause of destruction of biodiversity.
atmosphere is more than amount lost,
Sulphur aerosols and black carbon
what would be the resultant effect?
cause climate change.
Did you know? Volcanic activities and industries release
sulphates into the atmosphere. Black
Kyoto Protocol aims at stabilisation carbon is soot produced by incomplete
of greenhouse gas concentrations combustion from industries, traffic,
in the atmosphere by reducing the outdoor fires, and the burning of coal
concentrations of four greenhouse and biomass fuels.
gases namely: carbon (IV) oxide, Natural causes are insignificant in
nitrous oxide, methane and sulphur causing climate change.
hexafluoride. On September 16,
1987, World nations agreed on the Natural causes of climate change
protocol. include changes in the sun’s output and
in Earth’s orbit around the sun, volcanic
78
eruptions, and internal fluctuations in • Environmental degradation
the climate systems (such as El Niño means less grazing grounds and
and La Niña). But scientific simulations less fishing areas therefore, civil
of the contribution of natural causes to conflicts follow.
climate change even for 20 centuries
yield very little climate change. Did you know?
Impact of climate change
Increase in carbon (IV) oxide as a
The following are the effects of climate greenhouse gas is the single largest
change: contributor to global warming.
• Increased temperatures.
• Frequent extreme weather. Global warming and prevention
• Rising sea levels. measures
• Increased carbon (IV) oxide levels. What could we do to slow global
These four changes will lead to further warming if we wanted to?
changes in global and local stage. These
include: The facts
• Extreme heat leading to
cardiovascular failure.
Theory of global warming
According to report by USAID, all
• Severe weather would lead to
projections agree that South Sudan will
injuries and poor mental health.
get warmer by an average of 1°C by
• Air pollution would result in 2060, with lower increases in the south.
increase in Asthma cases.
Human beings are responsible for
• Changes in the disease vector
global warming is the stay of the global
ecology like more cases of
warming theory. Greenhouse gases
mosquito transmitted diseases.
in the atmosphere trap heat called
• Water quality would decrease and greenhouse effect and keep the Earth’s
as a result waterborne diseases surface in an optimum temperature for
would increase. all forms of living things. Accumulation
• Water and food shortages are on the of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
increase, therefore more cases of as a result of human activities has led
malnutrition. to increased warming of the Earth’s
surface called global warming, which is
a heightened greenhouse effect.

79
 Global warming theory
• Hurricanes
Doubling CO2 directly
increases temperatures
Feedbacks multiply • Tornadoes
this by 3 – 5 or more
about 1 degree Celsius
• Glaciers melting
Warming will/ • More snow/less snow
Observations is causing many • Tropical diseases
negative effects
• Species extinction
This world has warmed All of this (and more)
about 0.8 degree Celsius due to human made • Ocean warming
in the last century CO2
• Coral reef bleaching
Fig. 3.18: Global warming theory.
Combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation as well as use of natural gas may double
the quantities of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere in about 100 years to come.

Check your progress 3c

What assumption(s) does the global warming theory make?

Global warming is the increase in the surface temperatures of the Earth.

Sudan

Ethiopia

Central African
Republic

<+0.7oC
Congo Democratic Kenya
<+0.9oC Republic
<+1.1oC Uganda

<+1.3oc

Fig. 3.19: South Sudan’s global warming predictions.

80
The predicted effects of global warming • Increase intensity of rainfall
are already happening, for example: storms.
• Glaciers are melting and reducing • Increase the length and frequency
in size leading to flooring in the of droughts.
river valleys. These three effects will be felt in South
• Snow cover is reducing in winter. Sudan in the following ways:
• Tree lines are shifting towards the • Increased crop failure because of
poles and upwards towards the desertification.
mountain tops. • Loss of grazing lands and water for
• Spring season will start earlier livestock, therefore, more conflicts
meaning a shorter winter season. among the pastoralists.
• Biodiversity is shifting towards to • Reduction in biodiversity habitats
poles and mountaintops. in wetlands and forests.
• The ocean heat content increases • Reduction in water flowing in the
resulting in increase in incidences rivers, therefore, dry water beds.
of coral reef bleaching, destroying • Few suitable habitats for wildlife,
lives of photosynthetic organisms therefore, reduction of tourism to
supporting the ocean food webs, the country.
therefore loss of marine life and
sources of human livelihoods too.
Check your progress 3d
• Sea ice reduces.
1. What would happen if there was
• Sea surface temperature increases.
no greenhouse effect on Earth?
• Sea levels increase, resulting to
2. What are the four main
floor the sea shores and all sea level
greenhouse gases in the
areas. How do you think this would
atmosphere?
affect life around the Sudd Swamp?
3. What do you predict would
• Ice sheets reducing in the northern
happen if more greenhouse gases
pole.
are added to the atmosphere?
• Air temperatures increase near the
4. What human activities add
Earth-land surface.
greenhouse gases to the
• Air temperatures increase over the atmosphere?
ocean’s surface.
5. How will the increasing
• Relative humidity increases too. temperature impact other things
Specifically, for South Sudan an increase on Earth?
by average temperature of 10oC will:
6. What can you do to help reduce
• Increase the unpredictability of greenhouse gas emissions?
seasonal rains.

81
 years. Greenhouse gases have been
Did you know? in our atmosphere. Minus them, the
Earth would be too cold for all living
The increase of carbon (IV) oxide
organisms, including you. Naturally
concentration in our atmosphere is
occurring greenhouse gases, like
the result of human activities like,
carbon (IV) oxide and methane gas,
deforestation, fossil fuel use, cement
allow sunlight to reach the Earth’s
production, paddy rice production,
surface, while trapping infra-red
keeping ruminants, natural gas use,
radiation from the Earth on its way
use of nitrogen based fertilisers,
back out to space.
farming, refrigerators and fire
extinguisher chemicals. The trapped heat warms the Earth’s
surface to about 35°C warmer than a
Methods of dealing with global freezing atmosphere.
warming If humans beings stopped the production
Group Activity 3.10 of CO2 completely, it would take many
thousands of years for atmospheric CO2
Using computers or phones, to return to ’pre-industrial’ levels due to
please visit this site: https://www. its very slow transfer to the deep ocean
conserve-energy-future.com/ and ultimate burial in ocean sediments.
stopglobalwarming.php
Earth’s surface temperatures would
Read and in your own words and remain high for thousand years,
in reference to your own home suggesting enormously long-term
or school area list 10 actions you vow to a warmer planet due to past
will take to prevent more global and current emissions, and sea level
warming. would likely continue to rise for many
Present your action plan with the centuries even after temperature
group members. stopped increasing.
How else would you educate the Significant cooling would be required
public about global warming and to reverse melting of glaciers and the
their roles to prevent it? Greenland ice sheet, which formed
during past cold climates.
The facts The present CO2-induced warming of
the Earth is, therefore, fundamentally
The future without global warming
irreversible on human lifespan.
What if global warming does not occur,
The quantity and rate of further
what would be the consequences of
warming will depend almost entirely
taking the above actions?
on how much more CO2 people emit.
Natural greenhouse effect has been
around since the planet was moulded Ozone layer and human activities
and has supported life for millions of How do human activities affect the
ozone layer?

82
 Group Activity 3.10 Over Antarctica, there have been found
(in 1985) holes in the high-level ozone
In your groups describe the graph
layer that are thought to be caused by
below. What do you see? What does
the action of chlorine from CFCs.
that mean? Suggest the human
activities that contribute to the Chlorine + Ozone Chlorite + Oxygen
variations in the graph.
The high-level ozone depletion increases
with each chlorite released.
Reduction of high-level ozone exposes
biodiversity to harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the sun. This increases
the risk of skin cancer, cataracts,
mutations, as well as sunburns.
Ozone depletion preventive measures
To reduce destruction of the high-
Fig. 3.20: Ozone layer depletion graph. level ozone layer, reduce or eliminate
the production and use of CFCs by
The facts developing alternatives, because CFCs
have low-biodegradability.
The Earth’s atmosphere has three main Individual efforts include avoiding
problems: ozone layer depletion, acid using products containing
rain formation and greenhouse effect. chlorofluorocarbons; do not buy
Ozone layer is a layer in the Earth’s chlorofluorocarbon products.
atmosphere containing a high National efforts include government
concentration of trioxide (O3). There of South Sudan should ban
are two types of ozone layers: high-level chlorofluorocarbons. The government
ozone (stratosphere ozone or protective of South Sudan should encourage
ozone) and low-level ozone (ground the use of chlorofluorocarbons free
level or troposphere ozone or harmful products. Government should also sign
ozone). international agreements on reducing
ozone depletion.
Global efforts include the Montreal
Protocol signed as an international
agreement by many countries in 1987.
The treaty aims to reduce the use of
chlorofluorocarbons and stop using
it completely by 2000. USA and 12
countries in Europe agreed to stop using
chlorofluorocarbons in 2000.

Fig. 3.21: Earth’s atmosphere.

83
 • Increase vehicle fuel efficiency and
Did you know? support other solutions that reduce
South Sudan fossil fuel use.
If your shadow is taller than you
are (in the early morning and late • Place limits on the amount of
afternoon), you are probably getting carbon that polluters are allowed to
less UV exposure. emit.
If your shadow is shorter than you • Build a clean energy economy
are (around midday), you are getting by investing in efficient energy
higher levels of UV radiation. Seek technologies, industries, and
shade and protect your skin and eyes. approaches.
• Reduce tropical deforestation while
increasing tree planting.
Global warming control
• Move near your workplace or work
How could global warming be from home to reduced reliance on
controlled? cars.
Group Activity 3.11 • Investing in new infrastructure. Bad
“Healing the planet starts in your car roads can lower the fuel economy
garage, in your kitchen and at your of even the most efficient vehicle.
dining room table.” Write an essay • Build more efficient buildings
to explain these words. Present your requiring less air conditioning.
essay before the class. This link might • Improved power plant efficiency
help you: http://globalwarming-facts. and transmission of power to end
info/50-tips/2/ users.
• Substituting natural gas for coal to
reduce black carbon emission.
The facts
• Promote the use of nuclear energy
to generate electricity.
• Global warming is primary because
of greenhouse gases, therefore, • Development in the use of wind
reduce burning of fossil fuels power.
and natural gas and instead use • Use of solar photovoltaic power.
renewable energy sources. • Use of biofuels.
• Also, reduce of cutting of trees • Agricultural soils management.
for agricultural activities such as
keeping ruminants and growing
Check your progress 3e
paddy rice.
Suggest ways of deaking with
• Expand the use of renewable energy
environmental pollution and
and transform our energy system
climate chage in your locality.
to one that is cleaner and less
dependent on coal and other fossil
fuels.

84
 Unit
Respiratory system and
4
exchange with the environment

Learning outcomes
Knowledge and Skills Attitudes
understanding
• Explain the structure • Investigate the process • Appreciate
and function of the of aerobic and anaerobic the role of
respiratory systems process of respiration and respiration in
in animals and its the effect of temperature. living organisms.
role in exchange • Observe and compare the • Appreciate
between organisms structures of respiratory how organisms
and the environment. systems of humans, frogs, produce energy
fish, among others.

4.1 Respiration
Group Activity 4.1
Given that composition of inhaled and exhaled air as tabulated in Table 4.1
below, design a bar chart to compare the inhaled and exhaled air.
Table 4.1 Composition of inhaled and exhaled air
Substance Inhaled air (%) Exhaled air (%)
Nitrogen 78 78
Oxygen 21 16
Carbon (IV) oxide 0.39 4
(a) What do you observe from the bar chart?
(b) Describe what that observation means?
(c) How would you demonstrate that what your bar chart shows is true?

The facts

In Biology, the term “respiration” may mean one of two biological processes,
therefore we will consider both, namely the internal or cellular respiration and
external respiration involving gaseous exchange.

85
Types of respiration Procedure
Internal or cellular respiration is the
1. Take two conical flasks and put
chemical process of releasing energy
200 millilitres of water into both.
in the cell occurring in the presence
of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or 2. Add 20 drops of 10% KOH
in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic to both conical flasks using a
respiration). dropper.
External respiration or gaseous 3. Add 20 drops of phenolphthalein
exchange or breathing is the process of solution and stir it with a straw.
transferring oxygen and carbon (IV) 4. Label the beakers as A and B.
oxide across the respiratory surface to What are you trying to investigate
and from blood respectively. with this experiment?
Practical Activity 4.1 5. Each of you, blow air through
You should have prerequisite your mouth into the balloons
knowledge from Chemistry on until they are full.
acidic/alkaline reactions, reaction 6. Fix the mouth of the balloon
of carbon (IV) oxide in water, pH to one end of a straw while the
levels and acidic/alkaline reactions other end is in conical flask A.
with phenolphthalein solution. 7. Release the air into the straw.
Requirements per group of five Repeat this process for every
learners member of the group.
• 5 big balloons 8. Write down what you observe.
• 2 conical flasks of 250 ml Explain the reason for your
• 2 straws observation.
• 1 bicycle pump 9. Using the bicycle pump, pump
• 10% KOH (potassium fresh air into conical flask B.
hydroxide) in a test tube 10. Write down what you observe.
• 2 droppers • Explain the reason for your
• Phenolphthalein indicator in a observation.
test tube • Compile a group report and
present it to the rest of the
class highlighting:
– What you have
learned from this
experiment.
Colourless
pH 0-8.2 – The precautions
you took into
considerations during
A B
the experiment.
Fig. 4.1: Phenolphthalein in lower and
higher pH conditions.

86
 • The assumptions that you made Gas exchange surfaces or respiratory
surfaces
in the experiment.
• Compare your findings in The most important component of
respiratory system in animals is the
this experiment with your
respiratory surfaces because it is a
observations in Group Activity
transfer point of oxygen and carbon
4.1.
(IV) oxide between the environment
and the cells.
The facts Examples of respiratory surfaces:

Respiratory systems in animals • In fish, they are gill filaments.

• In frogs, they are the skin, mouth
1. Investigate the structure of lining and lung alveoli in adult
respiratory systems in animals frogs and gills in tadpoles.
such as fish, frogs, insects and
• In insects, they are the tracheoles.
mammals, with an emphasis on
• In human beings, they are the lung
human respiratory structures.
alveolis.
2. Understand the role of respiration
as gaseous exchange with the Work to do
environment.
Explain the adaptations of the gill
to its function.

Spiral of chitin
supporting trachea
Spiracle Trachea Thin-walled
valve air sac Muscle

Thin-walled
Cuticle mainly tracheole End of tracheole
composed of chitin which can be fluid-
filled

Fig. 4.2: Tracheole of insects.

87
 Fig. 4.3: Gill filaments of fish.

Flow of
freshly Pulmonary
oxygenated venule
blood back
In fla

to the heart.
ha tes
in

led al
air veo
lu
s

Pulmonary
arteriole

Flow of oxygen-
depleted blood
that has returned
to the heart.

A capillary network covers the surface

of the alveolus to facilitate oxygen and
carbon dioxide exchange.

Fig. 4.4: Alveolus of human beings.

88
 Practical Activity 4.2
Requirements
• A grasshopper
Fig. 4.5: Tadpole showing external gills. • Specimen bottle
• A hand lens
The facts
Procedure
Characteristics of respiratory surfaces 1. Catch a grasshopper from the
field.
• Provide a large surface area for
2. Put it in a specimen bottle.
gaseous exchange.
3. Using a hand lens, observe how
• Moist and permeable surfaces.
it is breathing in and out.
• Highly ventilated.
4. Release the grasshopper back to
• Highly vascularised. its environment.
• One cell thick squamous epithelium.
• Close association with respiratory
pigment.
Gaseous exchange system of insects and its functions
When the spiracle valves open, air containing oxygen is drawn into the tracheal
system due to low pressure created as a result of relaxation of the abdominal muscles
resulting in an increase in abdominal volume.

Head Thorax Abdomen

Wings

Antenna

Legs
1st abdominal
spiracle Dorsal tracheal
Thoracic Thoracic trunk
airsacs spiracles
Abdominal
air sacs
Cephalls
air sacs
Ventral
tracheal
trunk

Lateral tracheal trunk

Fig. 4.6: Inhalation and exhalation in insects.

89
When the spiracle valves close, oxygen is muscle respire anaerobically producing
forced along the tracheal system due to lactic acid which increases the osmotic
contraction of abdominal muscles and pressure of the tissue fluid in the muscle,
into the air sacs and into the tracheoles. so water is drawn out of the tracheoles
Gaseous exchange takes place in the tiny by osmosis. This increases the rate of
tracheoles which are in direct contact diffusion of oxygen into the muscle cell.
with tissue fluid. Oxygen diffuses into
Adaptations of the tracheal system to
the tissue fluid through a concentration
its functions include spiracle valves can
gradient, while carbon (IV) oxide
open and close to prevent water loss if
diffuses into the tracheoles where it is
air is dry. Spiracles have hairs or spines
in lower concentration, then diffuses
in the opening of the tracheae just
to the tracheae and is expelled through
inside the spiracle, to trap dust ensuring
the spiracles as a result of movement
clean air gets inside the tracheal system.
of abdominal muscles. If the tracheoles
The tracheal walls are spirally thickened
are supplying a muscle, the fluid located
with chitin which supports the tracheae
inside tracheoles at rest is withdrawn
keeping them open and allowing faster
into the surrounding tissues when the
air diffusion, if the air pressure inside is
muscle is active. This occurs when the
reduced.

Fig. 4.7: Tracheole of when the insect is active and when resting.
The tracheal system is extensive spreading to every tissue, close to each cell. This
reduces the distance the air has to diffuse to get to respiring cells. Tracheoles penetrate
into every tissue up to the cell membrane, reducing the distance of diffusion.
Tracheoles are very small and numerous increasing the gaseous exchange surface
area. Tracheoles, internal surfaces are moist to dissolve oxygen before diffusion
into the cell occurs. Tracheoles, walls are thin reducing the distance of diffusion
and increasing the rate of diffusion. The removal of the fluid from the end of the
tracheoles speeds up the rate at which oxygen can diffuse along it.

90
 The facts
Gaseous exchange system of a frog
and its functions
Practical Activity 4.3
Requirements
• A frog
• A hand lens Fig. 4.8: Moist frog skin.
• Specimen bottle Mouth cavity: Muscles of the mouth
contract to lower the floor of the mouth,
Procedure
reducing its pressure lower than the
1. With the help of your group atmospheric pressure: Air then moves in
members, catch a frog and put it through the open nostrils into the mouth
in a specimen bottle. where gaseous exchange takes place in
2. Observe the frog’s breathing in the dense blood capillary network in
and out. the mouth cavity. Oxygen diffuses into
3. Release the frog back to its the blood and is transported by the
environment. red blood cells to tissues, while carbon
4. Explain the behaviour of the (IV) oxide diffuses from the blood into
mouth as the frog breathes in the mouth cavity, where it is in lower
and out. concentration, and it is exhaled through
the open nostril when the floor of the
The gaseous exchange system in frogs mouth is raised.
consists of,
The lungs: Muscles of the mouth
• The moist skin. contract and lower its floor. The volume
• Mouth cavity. in the mouth cavity increases, reducing
• The lungs. the cavity pressure in the mouth than
The skin: Oxygen in the atmosphere in the atmospheric pressure. Air rushes
dissolves into the moist, thin skin and into the mouth cavity through the
diffuses into the dense blood capillary nostril due to the reduced pressure. The
network below the skin. Due to its lower nostril close and the floor of the mouth
concentration in the blood than on the is raised to force air into the lungs.
skin surface, oxygen is then transported
to tissues through the red blood cells. Nostril
Carbon (IV) oxide transported from the Glottis
tissues diffuses into the skin’s surface
and into atmosphere from the blood due
to its higher concentration in the blood
than on the skin surface.
Fig. 4.9: Lungs of a frog.

91
Gaseous exchange takes place between Gill filaments
the alveoli and the blood. Oxygen Gill rakers
diffuses into the blood where it is in
lower concentration, while carbon (IV)
oxide diffuses into the alveoli where it is
in lower concentration, and is exhaled
through the nostril by the force of the
flexible lungs as they contract and relax.

Did you know? Gill arch

Fig. 4.10: Gills in fish.

There is a frog Barbourula
The mouth then closes and the muscles
kalimantanensis, in Borneo
contract to raise the floor of the mouth
Indonesia that has no lungs and
cavity, reducing cavity volume and
breathes entirely through its skin.
increasing the cavity pressure. When
this is happening, the higher external
The facts pressure presses the operculum against
the side of the mouth. In this case, each
Gaseous exchange in the gills of a
bony fish
operculum acts as a valve to ensure that
water enters only through the mouth.
The mouth opens and the floor of the This forces the remaining water in the
mouth cavity is lowered by muscular mouth to flow towards the gill chamber.
contraction during inhalation. This
Water entering the mouth has a
increases the mouth cavity volume,
higher concentration of oxygen which
and reduces mouth cavity pressure. As
diffuses from the water flowing over
a result, water flows into the mouth.
the gill filaments and gill lamellae into
Meanwhile, each enclosed operculum
the blood, through the thin walls of
on either side of the mouth bulges
blood capillaries and gill epithelium.
outwards to cause reduction of pressure
Oxygen absorbed combines with
and increase in volume of the gill cavity,
haemoglobin in fish blood flowing in
so that water containing dissolved
the opposite direction to maintain a
oxygen flows from the mouth cavity to
high concentration gradient, and is then
the gill chamber over the gill filaments
transported to other parts of the body.
and gill lamellae.

92
 Gill filaments
Gill rakers

Gill arch

Oxygenated De-oxygenated
blood blood

Gill filaments

Fig. 4.11: Flow of water over the gill particles and pathogens, therefore
lamellae. cleaning the inhaled air. The nostrils
Gills are highly vascularised to maintain also clean the air by filtering using
a high concentration gradient in favour nostril hairs.
of oxygen diffusing into the blood and
The sinuses are moist to moisten the
carbon (IV) oxide diffusing out. The
dry inhaled air. The nostrils have
gill filaments are thin. This reduces
numerous capillaries to warm up the
the distance of diffusion of the gases.
cold inhaled air. The epitheliums of
Bony gill arches provide support to gill
nostrils have olfactory cells to detect
filaments. Gill rakers are bony hair-
harmful chemicals in the air. The
like projections on the gill bar used to
inner passages of airways is lined with
filter out and prevent solid particles
mucous membrane, which contains
from entering the gills hence avoiding
ciliated epithelium. Cilia movement
clogging and mechanical damage. Gill
to and from cause a sweeping action of
filaments are numerous and bear gill
dust particles and pathogens towards
lamellae to increase surface area for
the pharynx, for swallowing, hence
gaseous exchange.
preventing their entry into the alveoli.
The mucous membranes of the trachea
The facts and bronchial tubes, contains goblet
cells, which produce mucus, to trap dust
Human respiratory system and its
particles and pathogens and prevent
functions
them from finding their way into the
The nostrils have goblets cells airways.
secreting mucus, which trap dust

93
 Trachea

Bronchus

Lung Ribs
inside
view Lung

Rib
(cut away)

Diaphragm

Fig. 4.12: Human respiratory system.

The mucous membranes are well served with blood capillaries, which keep the
incoming air warm. The mucous membranes are moist, to moisten the air therefore
preventing the drying of alveoli internal surface. The epiglottis on top of the
trachea,prevents food, drinks and other solid particles from going in the trachea
during swallowing.
The lung has numerous alveoli that provide a large surface area for efficient gaseous
exchange. Epithelial lining between alveoli walls and blood capillaries is one cell
thick (thin)S, to reduce the diffusion distance, therefore increasing diffusion rate
and rate of gaseous exchange. The lungs are spongy, and have numerous alveoli that
accommodates large volume of gases (oxygen). It is highly vascularised, ensuring a
large concentration gradient in favour of gaseous exchange.

Pulmonary
arteriole Capillary network
on surface of
Blood flow alveolus

Blood flow

Pulmonary venule

Fig. 4.13: Capillaries surrounding alveolus.

94
Its epithelial lining is covered by a thin layer of moisture or water film, to dissolve
oxygen for easy diffusion in the blood plasma and red blood cells.

To pulmonary vein
From
pulmonary
artery

Capillary
Alveolar Fluid
membrane CO2
Respiratory Air
membrane
O2
Gases can dissolve
and diffuse between
the lungs and the
circulatory system.
Oxygen diffuses Carbon (IV) oxide
into red blood cells diffuses into alveolus

Fig. 4.14: Gaseous exchange between alveolus and capillaries.

The lung is connected to tree-like system form carbaminohaemoglobin and is

of tubes, (the trachea and bronchi/ transported as carbon (IV) oxide, then
bronchioles), that supply oxygen and diffuse from across the capillary and
remove carbon (IV) oxide from the alveolar walls, where it dissolves into
lungs. The whole lung is covered with the thin water film/moist alveoli lining,
the pleural membrane which is air and hence to the alveoli air filled cavity,
tight thus changes in pressure within from where it is forced out during
the lungs can occur without external expiration, through the bronchioles,
interference. bronchi, the trachea and finally out
through the nasal/buccal cavity, to the
The facts atmosphere.
Cellular respiration
How does carbon (IV) oxide that is
produced in the leg muscle cell of Remember
human reach the atmosphere? Combustion is an oxidation reaction of
Carbon (IV) oxide dissolves in the carbon and oxygen.
plasma, enters the red blood cells, Cell cytoplasm consists of cytosol and
where it reacts with water to form organelles.
carbonic acid which dissociates Functions of the mitochondria
into hydrogen carbonate. It is include provision of energy in form of
transported as hydrogen carbonate, Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
or it combines with haemoglobin to

95
 Group Activity 4.2 Cellular respiration is an enzyme
controlled process occurring in all
What do you observe in Figure
cells to breakdown glucose (containing
4.15? What are the requirements
chemical energy) and release energy
for the wood to burn?
in form of biological energy molecules
called Adenosine Triphosphate,
carbon (IV) oxide and water. Cellular
respiration occurs in the fluid part of
the cytoplasm called cytosol and in the
cell organelle called the mitochondrion
(plural: mitochondria).
enzymes
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon (IV) oxide
+ water + energy
Fig. 4.15: Wood burning. enzymes
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
What types of energy would you
observe if you were the one that Cellular respiration may occur in the
started this fire? presence of oxygen in a process called
Aerobic respiration or may occur in
What types of energy transformations
are occurring as the wood burns? absence of oxygen in a process called
Anaerobic respiration. Respiration is
Suggest the type of molecules burning also called tissue/internal respiration.
in the wood.
Group Activity 4.3
Suggest how the burning wood
molecules compare with glucose in 1. Continually clench and unclench
your body cell cytoplasm. both fists with one arm drawn by
Would you put your finger in the fire? your side and the other raised in
Why? the air.
What is the difference between the 2. Explain why the arm that is
carbon molecules in wood burning raised aches while the other arm
to provide energy and the carbon does not.
molecules called glucose being broken
down to provide energy? The facts

The facts Importance of energy in living

organisms
What is cellular respiration? Why is energy important in the lives of
The difference between combustion living organisms?
of carbon molecules in wood and Energy is needed by living organisms
breakdown of the carbon molecule so that they can carry out all metabolic
called glucose in the cytoplasm of your processes which include catabolic
body cells is a process called cellular processes and anabolic processes. These
respiration. processes include;

96
• Movement and locomotion:
which involves muscle The facts
contractions when moving limbs
Importance of respiration
and chemotaxis of organisms.
Movements to find food, mates Why is respiration essential in living
and shelter require energy too. organisms?
• Reproduction: This is the process Adenosine Triphosphate is the energy
of meiotic cell division to form currency of the cell. Respiration is
gametes. The movement of the process that produces most of the
gametes uses energy. Adenosine Triphosphate abbreviated
• Nutrition: This involves as ATP. All cell activities, like active
processes like churning of food transport, require energy in form of
in the stomach, chewing of food, ATP. It is the only way a cell can utilise
absorption process, peristalsis, and energy. During aerobic respiration, each
synthesis of enzymes, which use molecule of glucose yields a total of
biological energy. about 38 molecules of ATP molecules.
This is an equivalent of 1,178 kJ (one
• Irritability: Active transport of
molecule of ATP is equivalent to 31 kJ).
substances across cell membranes
The heat energy is released little by little,
result in coordination movements
in stages to prevent sudden overheating
like nerve impulse conduction,
of the cells.
nastic movements in plants, and
tropisms. Glucose is an energy-rich molecule
but it is a chemical energy that the
• Growth and development:
cell cannot utilise until respiration
Formation of new cells in the
transforms the energy into biological
process of mitotic cell division, energy molecules. Respiration
and synthesis of proteins from process packages energy in quantities
amino acids. that would not destroy the cell when
• Excretion and Homeostasis: released. Combustion of glucose would
This involves maintaining release energy in quantities harmful to
constant body temperature in the cell.
homeotherms so that enzymes There are two types of respiration,
have optimum temperature to namely aerobic and anaerobic
function in, removal of metabolic respiration.
waste products like the process of
deamination in the liver. The facts
• Respiration and gaseous
exchange: Even the process of Process of respiration
energy transformation requires The breakdown of glucose, catalysed
energy for it to proceed. Breathing by respiratory enzymes takes place in
in and out require contraction many steps.
of intercoastal muscles and
While some of the steps use energy,
diaphragm muscles.
97
others release energy and therefore ATP molecule into two pyruvate molecules
is synthesised. (pyruvic acid) and production of 2 ATP
The steps may be categorised into three molecules.
stages, namely glycolysis (splitting a The first step of this process requires
glucose molecule into two pyruvate energy as ATP to increase the free energy
molecules), Krebs cycle or citric acid of the glucose molecule and convert it
cycle, and electron transport system into fructose-1,6-diphosphate.
stage. This is called phosphorylation. This
Glycolysis is the only stage that is molecule has two phosphate groups
and six-carbon atoms, therefore, it can
common to both aerobic respiration
be broken down into two molecules of
and anaerobic respiration.
3 carbon sugar each also called triose
Glycolysis sugar. The two triose sugar molecules
Glycolysis occurs in the cell cytosol are converted into pyruvic acid.
which is the fluid part of the cytoplasm.
Glycolysis is the breakdown of a glucose

Glucose
ATP
ADP
Glucose 6 phosphate
Activation
Glucose and fructose ATP
are isomers
ADP
Fructose 1,6 diphosphate

3 Carbon sugar phosphate 3 Carbon sugar phosphate Splitting

NAD+
NADH + H+

2ATP Oxidation

Pyruvic acid
(3 carbon compound)
Fig. 4.16: Glycolysis flowchart.
Glycolysis produces four ATP molecules and uses two ATP molecules therefore the
net ATP production is two molecules and synthesis of two molecules of nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide hydrogen (NADH). Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is a
hydrogen acceptor or carrier transferring the hydrogen ion to the electron transport
system in the mitochondria.

98
The fate of pyruvic acid is depended on the availability of oxygen. If oxygen is present,
pyruvic acid is converted into a 2-carbon compound called acetyl coenzyme A. It
can then proceed to the Krebs cycle inside the matrix of the mitochondrion.
If oxygen is absent, then pyruvic acid under goes anaerobic respiration without
further energy production. In human muscles and other animals, anaerobic
respiration produces lactic acid, whereas plants and yeast cells produce ethanol and
carbon (IV) oxide.

Fig. 4.17: Alcoholic and lactic fermentation.

Did you know? The facts

Your muscle cells have the ability Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
to respire for a short time without
oxygen using anaerobic respiration. Work to do
Using this reaction, glucose that
has been stored in your muscle cells What are the differences between
is converted into lactic acid. This is aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
what made your raised arm ache in
Group Activity 4.3

99
 Group Activity 4.4:
Complete the table below on the differences between aerobic and anaerobic
respiration
Question Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Where does it occur? Cytosol and mitochondria. Cytosol only.
What is glucose broken Carbon (IV) oxide and Ethanol
down into? in plants or yeast, and lactic acid
in animals or bacteria.
How many molecules of 38 molecules of ATP from
ATP are produced? each molecule of glucose.
Are there further Ethanol and lactic acid can be
reactions? broken down further in the
presence of oxygen.
For how long can the
reaction occur in your
body?
How fast is ATP Fast
production process?
Is oxygen needed? Yes No
How efficient is it? 40% 2%

Did you know?

Most cars have a fuel combustion efficiency of about 20-25%. Therefore, aerobic
respiration has doubled the efficiency of cars.

Check your progress 4a

Copy the flow diagram in Fgure 4.18 below and complete the terms used to
compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Respiration

(ia) Breakdown of g_______

(ib) with the help of e_______

Oxygen present Oxygen _____ (iii)

(iv) __ respiration (v) __ respiration

Animals Plants Animals Plants

(vi) Energy transferred to ATP (vii) Produces I_______ (viii) Produces e_______
or released as h_______ acid (poisonous to animals) (poisonous to plants)

Fig. 4.18: Flow diagram of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

100
Role of oxygen in respiration accumulated hydrogen ions move back
After glucose is converted into pyruvic (a process called Chemiosmosis) to the
acid, oxygen is required so that the matrix via the ATP synthase enzyme
pyruvic acid can move to the next stage which uses oxygen to form water and
and be converted to acetyl-CoA. Acetyl- release about 34 ATP molecules. From
CoA enters the mitochondria matrix one molecule of glucose a total of 38
where enzymes break it down in the molecules of ATP are synthesised
Krebs cycle to release energy and some (2ATP molecules from Glycolysis, 2
of the energy is used to move hydrogen ATP molecules from the Krebs’ cycle
ions to the intermembrane space in and 34 ATP molecules from the electron
the electron transport system. The transport system).
Cristae

Inner membrane Inter membrane

space Outer membrane

Cristae

Matrix
ribosomes

F1 (ATP synthase
particles)

Fig. 4.19: Mitochondrion

During strenuous exercise like when you run 100 metres race, the demand for ATP
is higher than the supply of oxygen, therefore, the muscle cells respire anaerobically
and produce lactic acid. The accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles would change
the pH of the tissue fluid around the muscle cells and is therefore toxic and can cause
cramps. Faster heartbeat after the running quickly carries the blood containing lactic
acid to the liver where it is oxidised to carbon (IV) oxide and water by the lactic acid
dehydrogenase enzyme or into pyruvic acid.
The quantity of extra oxygen required to break down the lactic acid is called “oxygen
debt”.
The extra oxygen is supplied during the rapid and deep breathing called panting,
after intense physical exercise.

101
 Summary of the Krebs’ cycle is:
The facts
2 Pyruvic acid + 8NAD + 2FAD + 2ADP
Stages of aerobic respiration 6CO2 + 8NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP
Aerobic respiration is a complex III Electron transport system: This is
enzyme-driven biochemical process a very complex system involving
that takes place in the presence of the transfer of the hydrogen ions
oxygen in the living cells, resulting in through several types of acceptor
the release of energy, carbon (IV) oxide molecules like NAD (nicotinamide
and water. adenine dinucleotide) which
Aerobic respiration is a very complex forms NADH2 and FADH2 (Flavin
biochemical process involving three adenine dinucleotide hydrogen).
main stages. These are: Their hydrogen ion is taken up by
oxygen to form water resulting in
Stage I: Glycolysis
energy release. This energy is taken
Stage II: Citric acid cycle (Krebs Cycle) up by ADP to form 34 molecules of
Stage III: Electron transport system ATP per molecule of glucose. This
Krebs’ cycle (Stage II): in this cycle process occurs in the ATP synthase
pyruvic acid, in presence of oxygen, is in the granules attached on the
broken down to carbon (IV) oxide and cristae.
hydrogen ions.

Fig. 4.20: Summary of aerobic respiration stages.

102
 rate of respiration.
Did you know?
• Hydration increase of germinating
Hydrogen carriers NAD and FAD seed tissues increases rate of
are derived from vitamin B complex respiration.
and are called coenzymes. • Inorganic ions uptake in plants
requires ATP from respiration
therefore plants increase the rate
Check your progress 4b of respiration when absorbing
1. Why is pyruvic acid converted mineral ions.
into alcohol or lactic acid during • Other chemicals like cyanides,
fermentation? carbon II oxide, inhibit the rate of
2. Why is there less release of energy respiration.
during anaerobic respiration? • Wounding a tissue causes an
3. List the three phases of aerobic increase in the respiration rate of
respiration of glucose. Where in cells close to the wound.
the cell do these reactions take • Age and type of tissue, with young
place? and developing tissues respires
4. What is the role of oxygen in more vigorously than mature
aerobic respiration? tissues.
5. Name the substrate and products Enzymes
of the Krebs’ cycle.
6. How do fatty acids enter the Practical Activity 4.4:
To demonstrate the presence of
Krebs’ cycle?
Enzymes in cells.

Factors affecting the rate of respiration Requirements

• Basin
• Temperature affects all chemical
and enzyme driven reactions. Low • Conical flask
temperatures below optimum slow • Syringe
down the rate of respiration while • Delivery tube
temperatures above optimum
denature the respiratory enzymes. • Pestle and mortar
At optimum temperature the • Measuring cylinder
respiration rate is highest. • Water
• Molecular oxygen is the final • Hydrogen peroxide
acceptor of electrons in the electron
transport chain, as the oxygen • Petroleum jelly
concentration increases from zero, • Stop watch
the rate of aerobic respiration • Water trough
increases. • Raw Irish potato
• Carbon IV oxide concentration,
increase in the tissues retards the

103
 Plunger Measuring
cylinder 25 ml
Syringe
Clamp
Raw Irish potato
paste
Delivery tube
Cork

Conical flask
Rubber
Hydrogen tubing Water
peroxide Trough
solution +
Irish potato
paste
Fig. 4.21: Setup for demonstrating presence and actions of enzymes in cells.

1. Set the apparatus as show in fig 6. Peel an Irish potato then chop
4.21 above. it up to small pieces. Place the
2. In a 500 ml conical flask, add 30 pieces in a mortar and grind
ml hydrogen peroxide solution. them to a fine paste using the
pestle.
3. Fix the cork securely in the flask.
7. Use a 20 ml syringe to measure
4. Half-fill the water trough, small
of potato paste.
basin or sink with water.
8. Put the syringe in place in the
5. Fill three 25ml measuring
cork of the flask but do not push
cylinders with water. Invert
the plunger as yet. WAIT.
them over the basin of water.
Have one with the open end 9. Apply petroleum jelly at all joints
under the surface of the water of the setup.
in the basin and with the end 10. Push the plunger of the syringe
of the rubber tubing in the with the potato paste to add 1 ml
measuring cylinder then use a paste into the hydrogen peroxide
clamp to hold it in place. and immediately start the stop
watch.

104
 11. After 20 seconds, make a reading 2. How would you confirm that the
of the volume of oxygen gas gas produced is oxygen? Did you
in the measuring cylinder and confirm?
create a table to record your 3. Identify any inconsistencies in
readings. your results.
12. Push the plunger of the syringe 4. Describe the shape of the graph
with the potato paste to add 2 ml and explain the shape of the
paste into the hydrogen peroxide graph in relevant biological
and immediately start the stop terms.
watch and after 20 seconds make 5. Describe any technical
a reading.
difficulties you had with this
• Push the plunger of the syringe apparatus and explain how these
with the potato paste to add 3 ml, could be overcome.
then 4 ml, then 5 ml; upto 10 ml
6 Design a similar experiment and
paste into the hydrogen peroxide
demonstrate to investigate the
and immediately start the stop
presence of the catalase enzyme
watch and after 20 seconds make
in liver or yeast cells.
a reading.
(After the first measuring
cylinder is full of oxygen replace The facts
it with another one).
• Calculate the rate of oxygen Enzymes are protein catalysts which
production in cm3/s. increase the rate of biochemical
• Plot a graph of rate of oxygen reactions by lowering the activation
production against potato paste energy.
volume. Suggest what the potato
Catalysts have the following
paste represents. (Hint: From properties;
your Chemistry lessons, how
do you produce oxygen using • Catalysts increase the rate of
hydrogen peroxide?) chemical reactions.
Note: Hydrogen peroxide is a • Catalysts are not used up in
poisonous substance if left to the reactions therefore they are
accumulate in the body. It is, therefor,e recycled.
broken down to water and oxygen by • Catalysts are not changed at the
the catalase enzyme. end of the reactions.
Protein catalysts referred to as enzymes
Group discussion are made of amino acids joined by
1. Suggest the reactants in this peptide bonds to form long polypeptide
experiment and the products chains that fold into a unique three-
too. dimensional shape. The functional

105
 parts of enzymes are called active sites into the active sites for the enzyme to
and catalytic abilities. The reacting work on them and form a temporally
molecules called substrates have to fix enzyme-substrate complex.

Substrate

Active sites

Enzyme-substrate
complex
Enzymes

Fig. 4.22: Enzyme-substrate complex formation.

Hydrogen peroxide left in an open beaker for a few days would dissociate into water
and oxygen. But what did you notice when you placed pieces of liver, potato, or yeast
in a beaker containing peroxide, the reaction was very fast as the enzyme catalase
breaks down hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water. The oxygen gas was trapped
by the fluid to form bubbles filling the beaker. The reaction is speeded up over 100
billion times.

Enzymes

Oxygen
Hydrogen
peroxide

Water
Fig. 4.23: Reactions of catalase enzyme and Hydrogen peroxide.
The active site has a definite shape and therefore the enzyme is very specific on the
substrate it can synthesis or break down. The catalase enzyme cannot break down
sucrose. The enzyme and substrate work like a key and lock.

106
Substrate

Active sites

Enzyme

The substrate and enzyme active Enzyme-substrate complex

sites have complementary shapes

Fig. 4.24: Enzyme active sites are specific.

The characteristics of enzymes
Temperature: Most enzymes function best within a certain range of temperature,
called optimum temperature. Lower than optimum temperatures inactivates
enzymes because the substrate has low kinetic energy, while higher than optimum
temperature denatures enzymes by deforming the active sites.

37oC Enzymes
denature at high
Heat energy causes
temperatures so
more collisions
Rate of reaction

rate falls rapidly

between enzyme
and substrate

Optimum
temperature for
humans is close to
37oC

Temperature 37o C
Fig. 4.25: Effect of temperature on enzymes in humans.
Sensitive to pH changes: Enzymes work best at a specific optimum pH. Some work
best in alkaline, others in acidic, while some in neutral media. When the pH is below
or above the optimum the enzyme is denatured.

107
 Salivary
amylase

Pepsin
Pancreatic
Relative reaction rate

lipase

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Acidic pH Basic
Fig. 4.26: Effect of pH on enzyme activity.

Specificity: Particular enzymes act on • Decarboxylase releases or removes

specific substrates, like carbohydrase carbon (IV) oxide.
on carbohydrates, lipase on lipids and • Lactic acid dehydrogenase breaks
protease on proteins. down lactic acid to water and
Examples enzymes involved in carbon (IV) oxide in the liver in
respiration the presence of oxygen.
Reversibility: Enzymes can cause
• Hexokinase converts glucose to reactions to follow any direction,
glucose-6-phosphate by adding a depending on the concentration of
phosphate group. substrates, reactants and products.
• Hexose phosphate isomerase Carbonic
converts glucose-6-phosphate to anhydrase
fructose-6-phosphate. CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbon Water Carbonic
• Dehydrogenase removes hydrogen (IV) oxide acid
ions from various molecules.
Fig. 4.27: Reversible action of carbonic
• Aldolase splits the fructose anhydrase in different concentrations of
-1,6-diphosphate (6-carbon) to substrate, reactants and products.
3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (triose Enzymes are not used up in the
sugar). reaction that they control: that is, they
• ATP synthase is involved in the do not form parts of the products thus
synthesis of ATP in the cristae. they can be used again.

108
 Enzyme Enzyme
(sucrase) (sucrose)
Active
site
Fructose

1 Enzyme and
substrate are
Glucose
4 Products available
are released

Enzyme
substrate
complex
3 Substrate is
converted to
products 2 Substrate binds to
enzyme

Fig. 4.27: Enzyme is recycled.

Anaerobic respiration experiments
Conduct experiments to investigate anaerobic respiration involving yeast, fungi and
germinating peas or beans.

Fig 4.28: Yeast cells

Remember
Yeast are unicellular eukaryotic fungi from the Kingdom Mycota. They require
energy to carry out metabolic activities. Through cellular respiration, they obtain
the energy from carbohydrates like sucrose.

109
Yeasts are facultative anaerobes, therefore, in the presence of oxygen, yeasts will
respire aerobically to completely break down carbohydrates into carbon (IV) oxide
and water releasing energy. When given the choice, yeasts will do aerobic respiration
because the ATP yield is more than anaerobic respiration. When oxygen is absent,
yeast can use anaerobic respiration in a process called alcohol fermentation. In
aerobic respiration, they partially break down carbohydrates and produce carbon
(IV) oxide and ethanol (C2H5OH). The carbon (IV) oxide produced turns limewater
cloudy. Air dissolved in sucrose solution can be expelled by boiling and the yeasts
are killed by boiling at 100° C.
Tap

Rubber Rubber tubing

cork
Capillary tube
Capillary tube
Test tube

Beaker Boiling tube

Boiling tube
Boiled yeast +
Limewater sucrose (Soluion B)
Yeast + Limewater
sucrose
(Solution A) Water bath at
40o C

Fig. 4.29: Experiment setup

Practical Activity 4.5: • 2 ml of yeast boiled at 100 – 150°

To investigage anaerobic C for 20 minutes in an oven.
respiration involving yeast • 10 ml of 5% sucrose solution
Requirements made with boiled water. Tap water
• Hot water source should be boiled for 30 minutes
to expel dissolved gases. Dissolve
• 1,000 ml beaker
the sucrose in the boiled water
• 2 boiling tubes while still warm and without
• 2 test tubes shaking and store the solution in
• 2 grams of dried yeast stoppered volumetric flasks.

110
• 15 cm3 limewater Group discussion
• 2 ml cooking oil Discuss the following questions and
• 2 labels for labelling the boiling answer them in your notebooks then
tubes have the group leader present your
• 2 containers for living and dead findings to the rest of the class.
yeast 1. What do you observe in the
• 2 droppers limewater and the boiling tubes?
• 20 ml syringe. Why?
• Thermometer 2. Would your observation agree
Procedure with hypothesis that yeast’s
respire anaerobically?
1. Place about 20 ml limewater into
each of the two test tubes. 3. How has this experiment ensured
2. Label the two boiling tubes that the evidence of respiration
solution A and B respectively. is because of yeast anaerobic
respiration and not anything else?
3. In boiling tube A, add 1 gram of
dried yeast. 4. What assumptions have you made
4. In boiling tube B, add 1gram of in this experiment?
boiled yeast at 100–150°C. 5. How will you setup a control
5. Draw 10 ml of sucrose solution experiment for the observations
using a syringe and add to each made in limewater?
boiling tube ensure the mouth 6. Evaluate this experiment and
of the syringe touches the side suggest how the design was done
of the boiling tube to prevent to ensure anaerobic respiration
introduction of air. You should occurred.
avoid shaking the solution. 7. Suggest what else you could use
6. Using a dropper draw cooking instead of sucrose and why.
oil and place five drops of oil in
8. How would you use this
the mixture in each boiling tube.
knowledge in the real world?
7. Fit the rubber corks with the
delivery tubes as in Figure 4.30. 9. Suggest changes you would make
to this experiment to investigate
8. Half fill-the 1,000 ml beaker with
aerobic respiration in yeast.
hot water at about 40 °C use
the thermometer to measure
temperature and add cold water Remember
if too hot. The combination of sodium hydroxide
9. Dip the two boiling tubes in and pyrogallic acid (sodium pyrogallate)
the warm water bath and absorbs oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide
their respective delivery tubes from the atmosphere.
other ends into the test tubes
containing limewater.

111
 Practical Activity 4.6
Requirements per group
• 2 rubber bungs with a hole same fitting as the capillary tube
• Petroleum jelly
• 2 labels
• Thread
• 2 conical flasks
• Scissors
• 2 × 30 cm long capillary tube of about 0.5 mm bore size
• 20 ml measuring cylinder
• 5 ml test tube
• 2 ml sodium hydroxide
• 2 × 200 ml beakers
• 4 ml pyrogallic acid
• 20 certified bean seeds soaked overnight (From Seed company)
• 20 dried beans
• Permanent marker pen
Bent glass tubes

Cork
Thread
Conical Sodium
Sodium pyrogallate Small test
pyrogallate flask
tube

(A) Respiring (B)

seeds Water Dry seeds

Fig. 4.30: Anaerobic respiration of germinating seeds.

Procedure
1. Label two conical flasks A and B.
2. In conical flask A, place 20 sprouting beans after overnight soaking.
3. In conical flask B, place 20 dried beans (not soaked).

112
4. Tie each of 5 ml test tube with a Group discussion
thread long enough to suspend
1. Suggest the aim of this
the test tube over the beans.
experiment.
5. Then measure 1 ml of sodium
2. Supposing you were asked to state
hydroxide solution and place into
the hypothesis of this experiment,
each of 5 ml test tubes.
what would you state? Why?
CAUTION: Wash off any sodium
3. How do you explain the
hydroxide on your skin with lots
observations you have made?
of water.
4. Why did you setup two conical
6. Add 2 ml of pyrogallic acid to
flasks A and B?
each of the test tubes and do not
shake. It will turn dark brown or 5. How would you design an
black. experiment to demonstrate
that germinating seeds produce
7. Place the test tube containing the
carbon IV oxide?
mixture of sodium hydroxide and
pyrogallic acid in the conical flask 6. How is the knowledge you have
and let it hang from the rubber as gained here used in real world?
per the Figure 4.31. 7. Prepare a presentation of your
8. Connect the capillary tube and findings then have one member
insert in a beaker half full of present to the class.
water. Economic and industry applications of
9. Use a permanent marker pen anaerobic respiration (fermentation)
to mark the level of water in the Alcoholic and lactic fermentation is
capillary tubing. economically beneficial in several ways:
10. Apply petroleum jelly at all fixings
• Baking industry: In bread-making,
joints.
yeast is mixed into the dough and
11. Leave both flasks in a warm place when the carbon (IV) oxide is
for 48 hours. heated during baking, it expands
12. At the end of two days, note how and escapes and leaves behind the
many seeds germinated in each small holes that give bread its light
flask in an appropriate table. and spongy texture.
13. Copy the table below and record • Alcohol production: In beer-
your observations. making, beer is made from
Conical flask Observation after 48 germinating grains, for example,
hours barley and in wine-making, juices
from crushed plant parts are mixed
A with yeast in anaerobic conditions.
B • Biogas production: Biogas is
produced using methanol a form
of alcoholic fermentation.

113
• Gasohol production: Gasohol • Limewater (calcium hydroxide
is produced using ethanol from solution)
alcoholic fermentation.
Caution: Wear eye protection.
Lactic fermentation Procedure
• Cheese production: Bacteria like 1. Pour limewater into a test tube.
Streptococcus lactis are added to 2. Place crushed chalk into a flask
pasteurised milk. The bacteria and add vinegar (or hydrochloric
converts galactose to lactic acid acid) to the flask.
which curdles the milk. The curd
3. Place a deflated balloon tightly
is hardened and flavoured to form over the flask neck so that no gas
cheese. can escape.
• Yoghurt making: Yoghurt is made 4. When the reaction has stopped,
from milk which is treated with pinch the balloon tightly at the
Streptococcus bacteria. This form balloon neck, so that no gas
lactic acid and so cause the milk to escapes.
curdle.
5. Remove the balloon from the
• Silage production: Lactic acid flask and place it over to the test
produced in lactic fermentation tube. Then squeeze it so that
is used to preserve forage for the gas goes into the limewater.
livestock. Observe and record what
happens.
The facts
Alternatively, you can breathe
out into lime water using a straw.
4.2 Carbon cycle
Carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle Group discussion
showing how carbon circulates between 1. What colour was the limewater
the living organisms (biotic) and their before the reaction?
environment (abiotic).
2. What happened to the limewater
Practical Activity 4.7: when you added the gas from
Investigating the presence of the balloon?
carbon (IV) oxide in a living 3. Where did the gas in the balloon
organism come from?
Requirements 4. What reaction was responsible
• Eye protection gear for creating it?
• Crushed natural chalk 5. What gas was released from the
chalk by the reaction?
• Vinegar (or hydrochloric acid)
6. Look at the diagram below
• Flask
and answer the questions that
• Balloon follow:
• Test tube

114
 Pool of CO2 in
atmosphere

Photosynthesis
Respiration

Combustion
Respiration
Respiration

CO2

Hydrogen carbonate CO2 Decay

Photosynthesis organisms
Respiration
Death

Death

Peat
Carbonate, Decay Coal
that is, limestones organisms Oil and fuels

Fig. 4.31: The Carbon cycle.

(a) What processes are involved in the carbon cycle?
(b) How are these processes interrelated?
(c) Identify processes that:
• Increase carbon (IV) oxide into the atmosphere.
• Reduce carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere.
(d) Which human activities increase the amount of carbon (IV) oxide in the
atmosphere?

115
 The facts

Fig. 4.32: Simple carbon cycle.

There are five main reservoirs of carbon decomposed to release carbon (IV)
on Earth. In order from the largest to oxide to the atmosphere from the
the smallest reservoirs, they include: soil organic matter.
• Oceans • Deforestation for charcoal and
firewood: Firewood and charcoal
• Soil and fossil fuels
burning and use release carbon (IV)
• Atmosphere oxide to the atmosphere and reduce
• Organisms the number of trees using carbon
The atmosphere is the main pool (IV) oxide from the atmosphere.
of carbon IV oxide and organisms • Fossil fuel combustion: About 299
exchange with it. Through the following – 300 million years ago, massive
processes, organisms exchange carbon organic matter was buried before
with their environment: it could decompose. Consequently,
• Respiration: The living plants, fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural
decomposers and animals respire, gas were formed. Their combustion
therefore, release carbon (IV) oxide today releases carbon (IV) oxide to
to the atmosphere. the atmosphere significantly.
• Decomposition: Living plants, • Diffusion: Carbon (IV) oxide
animals and decomposers die reacts with water and diffuses into
and their waste materials are the ocean as hydrogen carbonate.
Aquatic life respire and release

116
 carbon (IV) oxide that too reacts with water forming hydrogen carbonate.
Calcium carbonate shells of dead marine life form limestone after geological
forces act on them.
• Photosynthesis: Green plants use carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere in
photosynthesis while aquatic green plants and phytoplankton use hydrogen
carbonate from the ocean water in photosynthesis.

Fig. 4.33: Simple carbon cycle.

Group activity 4.5 Carbon (IV) oxide and the global

warming.
Reducing your personal carbon
footprint. Fossil fuels combustion has increased
the quantity of carbon (IV) oxide in
1. Find out ten easy and practical the atmosphere. Global warming is
things you can do in personal expected to happen due to carbon (IV)
space, at your school, home, oxide and other greenhouse gases.
village, estate and town to help
stop global warming. Compensation point
2. What are you doing at your Just before dawn when there is very
personal level that is adversely little light, the rate of photosynthesis
affecting the carbon cycle? is low. The plant cells are respiring and
producing carbon IV oxide. The rate of
3. What can you do to reduce your
respiration at this time is higher than
carbon footprint?
the rate of photosynthesis. Therefore,
its rate of release of carbon IV oxide is
higher than its rate of consumption.

117
As light intensity increases, the rate B: Compensation point. Rate of
of photosynthesis increases, and the photosynthesis is equal to rate of
amount of carbon (IV) oxide being used respiration and therefore rate of CO2
also increases. A point is reached when uptake equals rate of its release to the
the rate of photosynthesis becomes atmosphere.
equal to the rate of respiration. The B – C: Rate of photosynthesis is
rate of release of carbon (IV) oxide by much higher than rate of respiration,
respiration is the same as the rate of therefore, rate of uptake of carbon (IV)
consumption of carbon (IV) oxide (by oxide is more than rate of release of
photosynthesis). carbon (IV) oxide.
This point at which the rate of respiration
Group Activity 4.6
is equal to that of photosynthesis is
called compensation point. In most Study the photosynthesis and cellular
plants, compensation point is reached at respiration equations below.
Solar energy
around dawn.
Photosynthesis
Carbon IV oxide uptake CO2 + 6H2O C6 H12O6 + O2
Cellular respiration
C
Chemical energy
(ATP) + heat
1. What do you observe?
2. What does that mean to the
B carbon cycle?
A Light intensity
3. What do you think would
Respiration only occuring
Carbon (IV)
in the absence of light
happen if a plant was to be in
oxide release this state for a long period of
Fig. 4.34: Graph illustrating the time? Why?
compensation point. 4. Suggest how nature avoids this
From the graph, at point: condition?
A: Respiration rate is high and carbon 5. Write an essay titled
IV oxide release is high. “Compensation point in plants”
A – B: Increasing light intensity and then read it to rest of the class.
photosynthesis commences. Carbon
(IV) oxide uptake increases whereas
release of CO2 reduces.

118
Check your progress 4c 13. Mention the significance of TCA
1. Define respiration. cycle.
2. What is the role of O2 in electron 14. Why does fermentation yield less
transport chain? energy than aerobic respiration?
3. How many molecules of ATP 15. What are the three major phases
are released when a molecule of of glycolysis?
glucose is oxidised to (a) CO2 16. What is the importance of the
and H2O? (b) Ethanol and CO2? Krebs’ cycle?
4. Name the end products of 17. Differentiate between aerobic
electron transport chains. and anaerobic respiration.
5. Respiration is a continuous 18. Which of the following
process in green plants. Then statements best describes the
why is it that they give out O2 and process of respiration?
not CO2 during the day? Respiration in living organisms
6. What is the site for (a) is:
Glycolysis, (b) Krebs’ cycle, (c) (A) the intake of oxygen and
ATP generation by oxidative output of carbon dioxide
phosphorylation? (B) the intake of food and the
7. What is the fate of pyruvic acid in output of energy
the (a) presence, and (b) absence (C) the intake of food and the
of oxygen? release of carbon dioxide
(D) the breakdown of food to
Write the equations representing
release energy
the processes, that take place in
(E) the oxidation of food to
(a) and (b).
carbon dioxide.
8. What is the significance of
19. Explain what an oxygen debt is
stepwise oxidation of organic
and how it is caused.
molecules instead of one step
reaction? 20. When a carbohydrate is oxidised
to carbon dioxide and water in the
9. What is the significance of
body, 21 kJ energy is produced
photorespiration?
for every litre of oxygen used. In
10. List the substrates that enter and an experiment, a girl absorbed 2
the products produced in (a) litres of oxygen in minutes.
glycolysis (b) Krebs cycle
What is her energy production in
11. How is yeast useful in industry? kilojoules per hour?
Give any three examples.
21. The process of respiration is often
12. How does exchange of respiratory summarised by the equation:
gases take place in plants?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
+ 2,830 kJ

119
 On the basis of this equation, what would you regard as acceptable evidence
that respiration was taking place in a sample of living tissue?
22. A learner sets up an experiment to try and demonstrate that locusts are
respiring. The diagram below shows the apparatus used.

Locust
Sodium
hydroxide
solution

After 15 minutes, the limewater had gone milky and the learner claims that
this proves that the locusts are respiring. Criticise the design of the experiment
and show how you would improve it.
23. The table below shows the energy used up each day either as kilojoules per
kilogram of body mass or as kilojoules per square metre of body surface.
kJ per day
mass/kg per kg body mass per m2 body surface
Pig 128.0 80 4510
Human 64.3 134 4360
Dog 15.2 216 4347
Mouse 0.018 2736 4971
(a) According to the table, what is the total amount of energy used each
day by (i) a human being? (ii) a mouse?
(b) Which of these two shows a greater rate of respiration in the body cells?
(c) Why do you think there is so little difference in the energy expenditure
per square metre of body surface?

120
 Unit
The digestive and circulatory
5 systems in animals
Learning outcomes
Knowledge and understanding Skills Attitudes

• Explain the structure and • Investigate the action • Appreciate the

function of the digestive of digestive enzymes. role of blood
and circulatory systems. • Identify the role of in protecting
• Explain the effect of chemical and physical the body from
exercise on the heartbeat. processes of digestion. diseases.
• Understand the important
role of glands and organs.
Describe the functions of
the rhythmic movement
of food.

Introduction
What did you eat for breakfast, lunch or dinner yesterday? Did you eat the same type
of food? Why did you eat different types of food? Why do you eat food? When you
say that a meal was mouth-watering, what does that mean in biological terms? What
happens to food after you put it into your mouth? Referring to this book, research
what happens to food at each stage of its journey through the human digestive
system. Prepare a role play or a storyboard with your group to show what you have
found out. For example, Stage 1: Here in the mouth, I am being cut and chewed into
small pieces while being mixed with lots of liquid. I am starting to feel sweeter.

121
 Nasal cavity
Buccal cavity

Oesophagus

Liver
Stomach
Gall bladder Pancreas
Bile duct Duodenum
Large intestine
Ileum
Appendix
Caecum
Rectum
Sphincter
muscles

Fig. 5.1: The human digestive system.

Which parts of the digestive system will 5.1 Digestion in animals

come into contact with the food and in How does the process of digestion occur
what order? in animals?
When you eat food, it is because your
body needs food to function and Human digestive system
perform the characteristics of living
organisms namely; movement and Practical Activity 5.1
locomotion, respiration, irritability, You are provided with the following
growth and development, excretion items:
and reproduction as well as finding
• Any starchy foods like cassava,
food and feeding. The food you eat
millet, bread, injera, rice or asida
will get into your mouth, you chew it
while your tongue mixes it with saliva • Knife
and forms it into a bolus. Then you • A means of timing
swallow it into the oesophagus and it • Iodine solution
is delivered to the stomach. After the Procedure
stomach the food will be moved along
1. Cut a small cube of the food about
the intestines and remaining undigested
1 cm cube using a clean knife.
food is egested.

122
2. Put it in your own mouth of course What colour do you observe and
observing hygienic conditions. why? As a scientist, why is this
3. Without swallowing the saliva part of investigation important?
chew the food for about 30 10. How would you report the
seconds. Describe the taste of findings of this investigation?
food in your mouth at the start of 11. Why are the findings of this
chewing and after the 30 seconds. investigations important to you
4. After the 30 seconds of chewing as a biologist?
spit out a tiny amount of the food
into a beaker or on a white tile.
5. Add two drops of iodine solution The facts
onto the chewed food. What do
you observe? What colour do you Digestion is the breakdown of complex
observe and why? food substances to simple absorbable
6. Without swallowing, proceed molecules.
to chew the remaining food for
another 3 minutes then spit a Digestion in the mouth
tiny amount of food on the white Digestion in the mouth is both
tile and add iodine solution. mechanical and chemical. Inside the
What do you observe and what mouth cavity, food is lubricated by
colour do you observe? Is the mucus from the saliva and chewed by
colour different and why? What the teeth. This is mechanical digestion.
caused the change of taste over The tongue pushes food between the
time? (You may swallow the rest teeth for chewing and mixes the food
of the food) with saliva so as to make it softer; and
7. Using a drawing illustrate the make it easy to swallow.
physical change that has occurred
to the food as you chewed it.
Would you suggest the name of
this process? Why is the process
important?
8. Write a word equation for
Parotid
the chemical change that has gland
occurred to the food. Sublingual
gland
9. Cut another small cube of the
Submandibular
food and add iodine solution to gland
it. What do you observe?
Fig. 5.2: Salivary glands

123
 Did you know?
A healthy average person secretes
about 1 litre of saliva every day
(equivalent to 3 standard bottles of
soda a day or 21 bottles in a week).
Saliva also contains an enzyme salivary
Fig. 5.3: Human teeth
amylase which begins the extracellular
chemical digestion of starch even before
the food is swallowed. The enzyme Did you know?
salivary amylase breaks down starch to
maltose (a sweet sugar). If you swallowed food while standing
on your head, the food would move
Mouth has four types of teeth:
through the digestive system?
• Incisors have sharp edges for
cutting. The chewed food is then formed into
• Canines are pointed for holding a bolus and is pushed to the pharynx
food. by the action of the tongue in the
• Premolars and molars have rigged swallowing process.
and flattened cusps for grinding.
Soft pallet

Food
Pharynx
Tongue
Epiglottis
Trachea
A B C
Fig. 5.4: Swallowing of food bolus.
A: The food is chewed and formed into a bolus in the mouth.
B: Swallowing begins as the tongue pushes food into the pharynx.
C: As the soft pallet rises to close passage to the nasal cavity, the epiglottis tends
to close off the trachea and open the oesophagus.
The act of swallowing forces food into the oesophagus (gullet). The food is forced
down the oesophagus towards the stomach by peristalsis which is a process of the
124
smooth muscles contracting and relaxing
in a wave-like rhythmic movement. The pH Description Colour
food passes into the stomach via the range
cardiac sphincter. <3 Strong acid Red
Gullet 3–6 Weak acid Orange or
yellow
Contraction of
gullet muscles 7 Neutral Green
First position 8 – 11 Weak base Blue
of bolus >11 Strong base Violet or indigo

Fig 5.6 pH colour chart

Contraction Procedure
of muscles
Second position
1. Wash the test tubes, beaker and
of bolus droppers provided before use.
2. Use the labels provided to label
the five test tubes A and B and C
and D and E.(ensure the test tubes
Fig. 5.5: Peristalsis of the oesophagus. are dry before sticking the labels).
Practical Activity 5.2 3. Using the measuring cylinder,
place 5 ml of 1% starch solution
Your group is provided with the in all the five test tubes.
following:
4. Add ethanoic or sodium
• White tile or spot plate carbonate to each test tube as
• Wall clock (for the class) according to the table below.
• 10 or 20 ml measuring cylinder Clean the measuring cylinder
or syringe after using it to measure sodium
carbonate solution and before
• 250 cm3 beaker
adding ethanoic acid.
• Dropper
• 11 test tubes Test Starch solution and
tube amylase plus
• 2 test tube racks
• 11 labels A 1 ml sodium carbonate
• 1% starch solution (about 50 ml) solution
• 0.05 M sodium carbonate B 0.5 ml sodium carbonate
solution (10 ml) solution
• 0.1 M ethanoic acid (10 ml) C Nothing
• Iodine solution (10 ml) D 2 ml ethanoic acid
• pH universal indicator E 4 ml ethanoic acid
• Standard colour chart

125
5. Label six test tubes 1-6 and add 2 ml of universal indicator solution in each
of them.
6. Drop five drops of iodine solution on five separate spots on the spot plate or
white tile.
7. Measure and add 1 ml of amylase solution to all the six test tubes then shake
well by hold the test tube with the index finger and thumb then stroking it.

Fig. 5.7 Holding a test tube.

8. Clean a dropper and draw out a sample from each test tube in turn and
drop the sample on a white tile or spot plate containing iodine solution.

Step 1
your hand
Starch solution
+
amylase solution
Dropper

Step 2

Iodine

Fig. 5.8: Procedure of the testing.

9. Using a clean dropper each time, continue sampling at intervals. When a
sample fails to give a blue-black colour with iodine solution, note the time
and stop taking samples from that particular test tube. What colour do you
observe?
10. If after fifteen minutes some samples are still giving a blue-black colour
with iodine solution, there is little point in continuing to test the mixture in
these test tubes.

126
11. Clean the dropper and use it to draw a sample from test tube A. Add 3 drops
into one test tube containing universal indicator.
12. Compare the colour produced in the test tube with the standard chart
provided.
13. Repeat this for each test tube, cleaning the dropper between samples.
14. Wash your mouth of food particles with clean safe water and spit into test
tube labelled 6 containing universal indicator to test the pH of your mouth.
15. What was the pH in your mouth? Why is this important?
16. Enter your observations in the table below.
Table 5.1 Table of results
Time for blue-black
Tube Starch solution and amylase plus: pH
colour to cease appearing
A 1 ml sodium carbonate solution
B 0.5 ml sodium carbonate solution
C Nothing
D 2 ml ethanoic acid
E 4 ml ethanoic acid

Group discussion
In your group, discuss the following questions:
1. Why did you add the mixture of starch and amylase to iodine solution?
2. What did you observe? Why?
3. In which test tube was the reaction between starch and amylase the fastest?
What was the pH of the mixture in the test tube? How does that pH of the
mixture in that particular test tube compare with pH of your saliva? Explain.
4. In a scenario where you have eaten starch containing food, what would
happen to the starch-amylase reaction in the stomach? Why? How would
you prove that?
5. Sodium carbonate and ethanoic acid altered the pH of the mixture. Suggest
how else they could affect the starch-amylase reaction.
6. How else would you design the experiment to eliminate the probability of
Sodium carbonate and ethanoic acid affecting the starch-amylase reaction in
any other way except through pH change.
7. Write 200 words report of this Practical Activity 5.2 and submit to your
teacher to comment.

127
Digestion in the stomach
(monogastric digestion) Did you know?
Stomach is a muscular bag that stores Borborygmic is the stomach
food consisting of longitudinal and rumbling which happens all the
circular muscles that contract and relax time, but gets louder when your
(peristalsis) to churn the food into stomach is empty. Guess why?
semi-fluid chyme.
Stomach
Oesophagus Digestion in human small intestines
The small intestine consists of the
duodenum and the ileum which is
Gall relatively long and coiled to provide a
bladder
large surface area and slow down the
speed of movement of food therefore
Bile duct allowing more time for digestion and
Duodenum
absorption of digested food products.
The opening of ducts allow the bile
Fig. 5.9: Stomach from the liver and pancreatic juice
from the pancrease into duodenum.
The stomach also contains gastric Secretin hormone stimulates the
glands which secrete gastric juice pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice
which contains hydrochloric acid. into the duodenum. Cholecystokinin
The role of hydrochloric acid in gastric stimulates the secretion of bile from the
juice includes: gall bladder into the duodenum.
• Neutralises the slightly alkaline
pH of saliva from the mouth. Did you know?
• Provides optimum pH for the
The large intestine is about 1.5 metres
enzymes in the gastric juice.
while the small intestine is about 6.9
• Kills pathogens or bacteria that metres long and adult female’s small
may be present in the food. intestine is longer than the average
• Activates conversion of pepsinogen adult male’s.
into pepsin.
• Denatures the salivary amylase. Goblet cells in the intestinal wall
In the stomach of infants and young produce mucus which lines the inner
ruminants, the enzyme rennin walls of the intestines to protect them
curdles milk increasing its surface from being digested by proteolytic
area for digestion by pepsin. Gastrin enzymes and also lubricates food as it
hormone stimulates the gastric moves through the lumen reducing any
glands in the stomach wall to secrete friction in the gut.
gastric juice into the stomach. The wall of the small intestines, just
like in the oesophagus and stomach, is

128
made up of circular and longitudinal Colon is the site for absorption of water
muscles which contracts and relax and mineral salts and rectum is the site
antagonistically to facilitate peristalsis for temporary storage of undigested and
and mix food with juices and enzymes indigestible materials.
for rapid digestion.
Walls of the small intestine have Did you know?
glands that secretes enzymes, for
example maltase, sucrase, lactase, Detergents claiming to remove oil
and peptidase which digest food into and blood stains contain digestive
simple absorbable particles. Intestines enzymes like salivary amylase,
internal wall epithelium have numerous pancreatic lipase and proteases like
villi with microvilli on their surfaces pepsin.
which further increase surface area for Physical exercises are known
absorption of food. Microvilli have a to increase digestive systems
thin epithelial layer providing a shorter movements and helps one get in
diffusion distance for digested food. shape too.
There is a presence of lacteal vessels
in the small intestine into which fatty
acids and glycerol are absorbed for Group Activity 5.1
transportation into the lymphatic In groups of four, role play the action
system. of digestive enzymes and absorption
What happens to the fatty acids and of digested food.
glycerol next?
The intestines are highly vascularised Digestive system of Ruminants
which supply them with oxygen and (Polygastric digestion)
also ensure faster absorption of digested Ruminants are herbivores and include
products by maintaining a steep animals like goats, sheep and cattle.
concentration gradient. However, camels are pseudo-ruminants.
Group Activity 5.2
What do you observe in the Figure 5.10 below? Observe Figure 5.1 again and
draw a comparison with Figure 5.9. Identify the differences in the digestive
parts.
Small intestine
Mouth
Anus Oesophagus
Reticulum
Large Omasum
intestine
Abomasum
Rumen

Fig. 5.10: Goat digestive system.

129
Observe the photographs below. What do you see?

Fig. 5.11: The rumen and reticulum of ruminants.

Which part of the ruminant are shown in the photographs? Why do ruminants
need these parts seen in the photographs?

loose allowing circular jaw motion in

The facts the horizontal plane ideal for grinding
food. Their premolars and molars have
Ruminants are herbivorous mammals open enamel in the crown allowing
which are animals that feed exclusively continuous growth of teeth throughout
on vegetation cellulose material that their life; hence reduces the incidence of
forms the cell wall. They lack incisors wear and tear due to grinding. They have
in the upper jaw, instead they have a long and elaborate digestive systems
hard pad against which grass is pressed for effective breakdown of indigested
and cut with incisors in the lower food. In Figure 5.10, you observe
jaw. Incisors in the lower jaw are well that ruminants have four chambered
developed with sharp chisel edge for stomachs with rumen, where digestion
cutting and tearing of grass and other of cellulose takes place due to the
plants. They have no canine teeth, presence of bacteria and protozoa; that
instead they have a gap called diastema selects enzyme cellulase. In Figure
which helps to hold the regurgitated 5.10, the food swallowed enters the
grass before pushing it to the premolars rumen the largest chamber, where
and molars for grinding. The molars fermentation occurs. The fermenting
and premolars have ridges/cusps in food continues to the next chamber
the grinding surfaces which slide over called the reticulum. The fermenting
one another with the grass in between food is regurgitated to the mouth for
hence grinding into tiny particles. The grinding by the premolar and molar
enamel of the molars and premolars teeth. This is called chewing cud, which
have large surface area for grinding is physical digestion. The re-swallowing
food. The joints of the jawbones are of the fine ground food directs the food

130
to the omasum where water is extracted 3. Starting from the posterior end
and semi solids passed on to the of the body, cut the body wall
abomasum, the true glandular stomach, along the lateral side to the head
like human stomach see Figure 5.10. using a sharp scalpel.
The rest of digestion is similar to the 4. With the cut lateral side up, pin
human digestion. the specimen on the dissection
board.
Did you know? 5. Flip open the dorsal part of the
body wall to one side and the
Some cows will make between ventral part of the body wall to
40,000 to 60,000 jaw movements a the opposite side. Loosen the
day chewing cud. body wall further by cutting at
the anus and at the head.
Digestive system of insects (locust) 6. Pin out the body wall to expose
the internal organs.
Practical Activity 5.3 7. Identify the structures and their
In groups functions referring to Figure
The locust is a relatively large insect 5.10 and any other resources
to dissect. available.
8. Make a large well-labelled
Requirements diagram annotating it to the
• Live locust or grasshopper or functions of each structure.
cockroach
• Sharp scalpel or razor blade or
The facts
fine pair of scissors
• Dissection board or wax tray
In a locust, the mouth leads to a short
• Dissection pins or office pins oesophagus. Posterior to the oesophagus
• Hand lens is a relatively large crop which stores food.
• Sharp pencil and paper At the posterior of the crop are gizzard
• Eraser and gastric caecae. Gastric caecae secrete
digestive enzymes and provide a larger
Procedure
surface area for absorption while the
Divide roles amongst the group
gizzard is an active grinding organ using
members.
ridges of cuticle. The oesophagus, crop,
1. Obtain a mature locust from gizzard and gastric caecae form the fore
the school field and put it gut.
in an airtight jar containing
chloroform.
2. Remove the locust from the jar
and cut off the wings.

131
 Oesophagus Colon Anus
Crop Gizzard Stomach Ileum

Rectum

Pharynx Intestine
Labrum Malpighian
Mandible Salivary Salivary Gastrictubules
duct glands caecae
Labium
Fig. 5.12: Locust’s digestive system.

Posterior to gastric caeca is the midgut

or stomach where digestion and
absorption takes place. The Malpighian 2. Observe carefully to see that
tubules are to the posterior of the from the gill arches, the gill
midgut. They are organs of excretion rakers, projects inwards.
extracting water from the faecal pellets. 3. Make a small cut by inserting a
The pellets proceed to pass through fine scalpel blade into the anus
the colon, rectum and out through the (vent) of the fish.
anus. 4. Extend the cut anteriorly along
the fish’s belly towards the head.
Digestive system of fish
Make the cut through and
Practical Activity 5.4 between the pelvic fins.
You are provided with the following 5. Use the pair of scissors to cut
items; anteriorly through the bones
attached to the pelvic fins to
• Whole Tilapia fish expose the mouth cavity.
• Sharp fine scissors 6. With the help of your teacher
• Wax tray or the Internet, identify the
• Hand lens digestive system of fish.
Procedure Internet
1. Using the pair of scissors, cut Use this link: http://share.nanjing-
out the operculum or gill cover school.com/sciences/files/2013/02/
to expose the gills beneath. fish-dissection-2e5c6ra.pdf

132
 The facts
The digestive system in fish is variant being adapted to the mode of feeding of the fish,
either carnivorous and herbivorous fish. However, most fish have digestive systems
that include a mouth, teeth, gill rakers, oesophagus, stomach, pylorus, pylorus
caeca, pancreatic tissue area, liver, gall bladder, intestine and anus. The table below
compares the digestive systems of two types of fish on the bases of feeding mode.
Table 5.2: Summary on digestion in fish
Digestive system part Carnivorous fish digestive Herbivorous fish digestive
system system
Mouth Large Small
Teeth Pointed jaw and pharyngeal Pharyngeal teeth
teeth
Gill rakers Fine filters Course filters
Oesophagus Mucus lubricated Mucus lubricated
Stomach Elastic muscular wall Thin wall
Pylorus Control sphincter Control sphincter
Pylorus caeca Enzyme secretion or Enzyme secretion or absorption
Posterior to stomach absorption
Pancreatic tissue Exocrine /endocrine roles Exocrine /endocrine roles
area
Liver Secretes bile Secretes bile

Protein digestion in human beings

Practical Activity 5.5: Demonstrtion of the presence and action of
enzymes in cells
You are provided with the following items:
• Suspension W (10% egg white)
• NaOH solution
• CuSO4 solution
Procedure
1. Using the reagents provided, carry out food tests. In the table below, record
the food test, the procedures, observations and conclusion.
Food substance Procedure Observation Conclusion

2. Mention two enzymes that may be required to digest suspension W in the

alimentary canal of a mammal.
3. (i) State the purpose of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
(ii) State the purpose of sodium hydrogen carbonate in the duodenum.
133
 cells lining the efferent glomerular
The facts vessels of the kidney. Renin reacts with
Protein digestion begins in the angiotensin from the liver to stimulate
mouth. Protein food is broken down adrenal gland to release aldosterone.
mechanically by the teeth into tiny
particles to increase surface area for Lipid digestion in human beings
subsequent enzymatic digestion. It is also
mixed with saliva that contains mucus The facts
to lubricate it for easy swallowing. When Lipid digestion starts in the duodenum.
food reaches the stomach, it stimulates Bile from the gall bladder is released
the production of gastrin hormone that and contains bile salts which breakdown
influences the production of gastric fats to tiny fat droplets to increase the
juice from gastric glands in the stomach surface area for enzyme pancreatic
walls. Gastric juice contains rennin, lipase to digest. The process of breaking
pepsin and hydrochloric acid. Rennin down of lipids by bile salts is called
curdles milk increasing its surface area emulsification. Pancreatic lipase digests
for digestion by pepsin. Hydrochloric lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. The
acid promotes conversion of inactive intestinal juice secreted by the intestinal
pepsinogen into active pepsin, which wall glands contains intestinal lipase
then digests proteins into peptides. which breaks down the remaining lipids
Hydrochloric acid also provides an acidic into fatty acids and glycerol.
medium suitable for proper functioning
of rennin (chymase) and pepsin. It also Food absorption and
destroys pathogens contained in the assimilation
food. The chyme then moves into the How does the process of food
duodenum through sphincters. Presence assimilation occur within the small
of food in the duodenum stimulates intestine?
production of secretin hormone from
duodenal wall. Secretin hormone in
The facts
turn stimulates liver cells to produce
bile. It also stimulates the pancreas to Protein and simple sugars absorption:
produce pancreatic juice. Pancreatic Amino acids, fructose, galactose
juice contains trypsinogen which is and glucose diffuse through the thin
converted into active trypsin. By the epithelial lining of the microvillus into
action of enterokinase, trypsin then blood capillaries and are transported
digests polypeptides into dipeptides. into the liver via hepatic portal vein.
The dipeptides are then digested into
Protein assimilation: The proteins in
amino acids by peptidase produced in
the body are used for synthesis of new
the ileum.
cells, growth and repair of worn-out
Remember tissues some of the non-essential amino
acids are used in protein synthesis.
Spelling of rennin as renin refers to a
Excess amino acids are broken down
hormone secreted into the blood by

134
(deaminated) into urea and carbon • Amylase solution
residue. Urea is eliminated from the
• Iodine solution
body as urine while the carbon residue
is used in the carbohydrate metabolism • Benedict’s solution
and either converted into the glycogen • Measuring cylinder
for storage in the liver or during food Procedure
shortage converted into glucose and 1. Using the measuring cylinder,
broken down during respiration to place 5 cm3 of 2% starch solution
provide energy. in each test tube.
Glucose assimilation: Excess glucose 2. Rinse the measuring cylinder
is converted to glycogen by action of then use it to add 2 cm3 amylase
insulin. Excess glucose is converted to solution in each of tubes B and D
fats and some glucose is used in cell then shake the test tubes to mix
respiration to provide energy. the contents and allow them to
Physical and chemical digestion stand for 6 minutes.
How does the chemical and physical 3. After 6 minutes, add 3 drops of
digestion processes occur in the body? iodine solution to tubes A and B.
Practical Activity 5.6.The action Rinse the measuring cylinder then
of amylase on starch use it to add 2 cm3 of Benedict’s
solution to tubes C and D then
Requirements place the tubes in the hot water
• Hot water bath bath for 5 minutes.
• Four test tubes labelled A, B, C 4. Compare the final colours in the
and D tubes and complete the table of
• 2% starch solution results (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3: Table of results

Test Reagent
Test tube content Observation Conclusion
Tube used
A 2% starch solution Iodine
B 2% starch solution + amylase Iodine
C 2% starch solution + amylase Benedict’s
D 2% starch solution Benedict’s

(a) What normally happens when iodine solution is added to starch?

(b) Tube B contained starch solution at the beginning of the experiment. How do
you explain the reaction with iodine at the end of the experiment?
(c) What food substance is Benedict’s solution a test for?
(d) Was this food substance present in tubes C or D at the beginning of the
experiment? What evidence do you have to support your answer?

135
 (e) What evidence is there to
suggest that this food substance
is present in tube C at the end of Large lipid droplet
the experiment?
(f) What chemical change could
have taken place in tubes B and
D after adding amylase, which Sodium bicarbonate
would explain the results in these
tubes after applying the iodine Tiny droplets
test and Benedict’s test? of lipids

(g) What part could amylase have Fig. 5.13: Emulsification of lipids.
played in this chemical change? The starch food is broken down
(h) Suggest a control to the chemically by the action of salivary
amylase which converts some of the
experiment which would help to
starch present into maltose. Saliva also
support your answers.
moistens and lubricates the food.
The starch is then swallowed into the
The facts oesophagus where it moves down
to the stomach by peristalsis. As the
Digestion: In the mouth, protein food stomach muscles continue peristaltic
is broken down mechanically by the agitation (churning), all the food types
teeth into tiny particles to increase the are physically broken down into smaller
surface area for subsequent enzymatic particles. Salivary amylase continues
digestion. It is also mixed with saliva to digest starch until the gastric juice
that contains mucus to lubricate it for penetrates the softened food mass,
easy swallowing. denaturing the salivary amylase.
Digestion of starch in the mouth is When food reaches the stomach, it
partly mechanical or physical and partly stimulates the production of gastrin
chemical digestion. Mechanically, the hormone that influences the production
chewing action of the teeth and the of gastric juice from the gastric
movement of the tongue breaks down glands in the stomach walls. Gastric
the food into smaller particles. Chewing juice contains rennin, pepsin and
produces a greater surface area for the hydrochloric acid. Rennin curdles milk
action of enzymes. increasing its surface area for digestion
by pepsin. Hydrochloric acid promotes
The physical digestion of food is possible
conversion of inactive pepsinogen into
by mastication and churning of food
active pepsin which then digest proteins
particles to fine pieces and emulsification into peptides. Hydrochloric acid also
of lipids to smaller lipid droplets. provides an acidic medium suitable for
Mastication, churning and proper functioning of rennin (chymase)
emulsification increase the surface area and pepsin. It also destroys pathogens
of foods for the action of enzymes. contained in the food.

136
No enzymatic action takes place on produce pancreatic juice. Pancreatic
carbohydrates when the food is in the juice contains trypsinogen which is
stomach. However, the hydrochloric converted into active trypsin. By the
acid produced by the gastric gland starts action of enterokinase, trypsin then
the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose digests polypeptides into dipeptides.
and fructose or lactose to galactose and The dipeptides are then digested into
glucose or maltose to glucose. The food amino acids by peptidase produced in
leaves the stomach through the pyloric the ileum.
sphincter and reaches the duodenum,
Group Activity 5.3: Role play
the first part of the small intestine.
Role play digestion by enzymes and
Here, the food mixes with bile (to
absorption.
neutralise its acidity) and pancreatic
juice which contains a starch digesting Different group members will have
enzyme pancreatic amylase. Pancreatic to play the part of (A) glucose
amylase converts the starch to maltose. molecules (initially joined together
As the food moves to the ileum, it mixes to make starch; (B) enzymes and
the intestinal juice or succus entericus (C) the wall of the intestine.
which contain several enzymes that Steps:
complete the digestion of carbohydrates
1. (A) all hold hands to represent a
as follows: Maltase which hydrolyses or
long chain starch molecule.
changes or converts maltose to glucose,
Sucrose which hydrolyses sucrose to 2. (A) release hands as enzymes (B)
glucose and fructose, lactase which break down the chain into small
hydrolyses lactose to glucose and glucose sub-units.
galactose. These are then absorbed into 3. (A) Who are now separate glucose
the blood capillaries in villi. molecules pass through narrow
The chyme then moves into the spaces between other learners (C)
duodenum through sphincters. Presence – the wall of the intestine–as they
of food in the duodenum stimulates are absorbed into the body.
production of secretin hormone from
duodenal wall. Secretin hormone in Functions of associate organs
turn stimulates liver cells to produce What are the functions of glands, and
bile. It also stimulates the pancreas to organs which aid digestion?

137
 Group Activity 5.4
The liver, the pancreas and gall bladder all are important to the process of
digestion. Suggest how important? In your class suggest to each other what
would happen if any of them was surgically removed?

Fig. 5.14: Accessory organs

The facts medium for pancreatic enzymes

action, pancreatic amylase enzyme
As Group activity 5.3 may have pointed that digest starch into maltose,
out to you the duodenum has associate pancreatic lipase that digest fats or
glands and organs. These are: lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
and trypsin enzyme that digests
(i) Liver – secretes bile, stored in the proteins into peptides
gall bladder, which has bile salts
(ii) Brunner’s glands – they secrete an
that emulsify fats into tiny fat
mucus-rich fluid of high pH in the
droplets to be chemically digested
duodenum to prevent corrosion by
by pancreatic lipase.
the acidic chyme.
(ii) Pancreas – which is an endocrine
Sites of chemical digestion
and exocrine gland. As an
endocrine gland, it secretes insulin Where in the body do most chemical
and glucagon to the bloodstream digestion take place?
to regulate amount of glucose in
the blood. As an exocrine gland, The facts
it secretes pancreatic juice which
contains sodium carbonate that The chemical digestion sites and
neutralises acidic chyme from substrate food are tabulated below
the stomach providing alkaline (suggest the end products of chemical
digestion by each of the enzymes).

138
Table 5.4: Summary of digestion sites, food substrates and enzymes involved
Chemical Substrate Enzyme involved Suggest the end
Digestion Site products
Mouth Starch Salivary amylase
Stomach Milk casein Rennin
Stomach Pepsin Protein
Duodenum Starch Pancreatic amylase
Duodenum Lipid Pancreatic lipase
Duodenum Proteins Pancreatic trypsin
Ileum Sucrose Sucrase
Ileum Maltose Maltase
Ileum Lactose Lactase
Ileum Peptides Aminopeptidase

Muscles involved in digestion into the stomach and contract to

How do muscles move food through the prevent food regurgitation during
digestive tract? churning of food in the stomach.
The role muscles play during digestion • The pyloric sphincter muscles
in human beings include: contract to regulate exit of
food from the stomach into
• The cheek muscles are involved in the duodenum for hours until
the movement of cheeks sideways churning is complete when it
during chewing of food and relaxes to allow regulated passage
therefore mixing the food. of the liquid food chyme.
• The alimentary canal muscles • The thick and powerful circular
contract and relax during peristalsis and longitudinal muscles of the
to move the food along as it is stomach wall contract and relax
digested. to churn food and in the process,
• The cardiac sphincter muscles relax break it into smaller particles. The
to allow passage of the food bolus result is chyme.

139
Check your progress 5a
1.

A
B

C
J

D
K
E
L
F
M
G
N
H
P
Q
I

(a) Given the digestive system acted upon and end substance
would you label and suggest produced.
the function(s) of all the 2. Given an illustration of the
parts involved in digestion digestive system in human
of food. beings, plus a ruler, pen and
(b) Create a table to paper, how would you be able
summarise the main to label all parts and state
substances produced by function(s) of each named part.
digestion. The column
3. Given an illustration of the
headings should be titled:
digestive system in goats, a ruler,
region of alimentary,
pen and paper, how will you be
digestive gland, digestive
able to label all parts and state
juice produced, enzymes in
function(s) of each named part?
the juice, class of food

140
4. Given an illustration of the
digestive system in a locust, a
ruler pen and paper, how would
you be able to label all parts and
state function(s) of each named
part.
5. Given an illustration of the
digestive system in tilapia, a
ruler pen and paper, how would
you be able to label all parts and Fig. 5.16: Stethoscope
state function(s) of each named
part? 2. Do you remember the instrument
in Figure 5.16 being used on you
6. Given the digestive system in
human beings, cows, bees and somewhere?
Nile perch, how would you be 3. Why was it being used on you?
able to compare them. 4. Form groups of four.
7. Given the following pairs of 5. Using a stethoscope listen to
terms: Ingestion and egestion, each other’s hearts. Record in
digestion and indigestible, your notebooks the number of
absorption and assimilation, heartbeats per minute and the
and how would you be able to
heart sounds you hear.
distinguish them?
(If a stethoscope is not available
8. Digestion occurs in human
beings, ruminants, insects and then use the method in figure 5.15)
fish. Why do you need to digest 6. In turns, one learner will be the
food? doctor while another learner will
be the patient, the third learner
5.2 Circulatory system will be the nurse recording
what the doctor is observing
How are you today? Are you feeling well?
(hearing), and the fourth learner
How do you know you are well?
is the time keeper and patient
Group Activity 5.5 attendant making sure the patient
1. Observe the picture below. is comfortable during the doctor’s
What do you see? examination.
7. After the first reading change
roles until each learner has had
the chance to be a doctor, a nurse,
a patient and a patient attendant.
NB: Respect the patient’s rights as
the doctor and do not touch the
patient inappropriately.

Fig. 5.15: Taking pulse rate.

141
 studied in Italy, his teacher taught him
8. Why do doctors listen to your
about dissections and when he returned
heartbeat as they examine you at
to England he continued to dissect
the health facility?
animals and refused to follow what the
9. What does this information tell textbooks of those days said about the
them about your health? animal circulatory system.
10. Touch your left side of the chest.
He would later publish that blood is
Do you feel the heartbeat? How
pumped by the heart to arteries and is
does that heartbeat transfer to
circulated around the body and returns
your neck?
to the heart via the veins.

Single and double circulation Work to do

The facts Further reading

You are welcome to read more
on this amazing human being by
visiting this website link: https://
www.famousscientists.org/william-
harvey/
After the reading, design an
illustration to summarise your
understanding of the discoveries
of the functioning of the heart and
blood arteries.

Fig. 5.17a: William Harvey The facts

Circulatory system is a blood transport

system moving blood cells and blood
plasma rapidly around the body
while linking various organ systems.
This is important to all multicellular
organisms because they have a small
surface area to volume ratio to control
water loss, and internal organs are far
from the organism’s body surface.
A circulatory system has the following
Fig. 5.17b: Single and double circulation components: blood as the circulating
fluid, heart as the pump, blood vessels
William Harvey was the first person to as the connecting tubes, and valves to
accurately document the functioning of ensure one direction of blood flow.
the heart and the blood vessels. While he

142
Types of circulatory systems include;
• Open circulatory system found in arthropods and molluscs. The heart pumps
blood or haemolymph to a body cavity called haemocoel, then the blood or
haemolymph returns via collecting blood vessels.

Heart

Hemolymph

Fig. 5.18: Open circulatory system.

• Closed circulatory system found Suitable for Suitable for all

in chordates like birds, fish and animals with a sizes of animals
mammals. The heart pumps blood
larger surface
to the body via continuous blood
area to volume
vessels and cells. That are not in
ratio
direct contact with the blood.
The blood pressure is higher than Types of closed circulatory systems
in open circulatory system and include:
ultrafiltration at the body tissues
• Single circulatory system as seen
forms tissue fluid.
Table 5.5: Comparison of open circulatory
in fish. The heart pumps the blood
system and closed circulatory system to gills via the afferent branchial
Open circulatory Closed arteries then the gill capillaries and
system circulatory efferent branchial arteries transport
system blood to dorsal aorta. The dorsal
Blood is pumped Blood vessels aorta branches to supply blood to
into body cavities contain body organs. The blood leaving the
the blood organs is at low pressure and collects
throughout in sinuses (large blood spaces) from
which the heart can refill. This is a
Blood flows at Blood flow is at single circulatory system because
lower pressure higher pressure the blood passes through the heart
Animals have Animals once to complete a cycle.
slow metabolism have faster
metabolism

143
 Respiratory
capillaries Atrium
Systematic
capillaries

Body

Operculum Heart Sinus venosus

Ventricle

Fig. 5.19: Fish have single circulatory system.

• Double circulatory system as seen in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
The heart pumps the blood to the lungs and back to the heart (pulmonary
circuit), then pumps the same blood to the rest of the body and back to the heart
(systemic circuit) therefore it takes two blood passes to complete a cycle, hence
double circulatory system.
Lung capillaries

Pulmonary
circuit

A A
V V
Right Left

Systematic
circuit

Systematic capillaries
Fig. 5.20: Birds and mammals have double circulatory system.

144
Blood circulation in humans and birds
Group Activity 5.6
In collaboration with your classmates, form groups of six. Study and evaluate
the diagram below then do the task that follows:
Tissue capillaries
Arterioles
Venules
Aorta
Vein Artery
Pulmonary artery
LUNGS LUNGS

Pulmonary vein
Right Left
Vein heart heart Artery

Venules Arterioles
Tissue capillaries
Arterial circulation
Venous circulation

Fig. 5.21: Human and bird circulatory system diagram.

Your task today is to design a game to assist you understand how the blood
circulation in birds and human beings work.
Student Task: using available materials
1 Lung capillaries: receive deoxygenated blood from pulmonary artery
and passes it on to the pulmonary vein as oxygenated blood. Go to the
left atrium.
2 Left atrium: receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary vein and pumps
it through bicuspid valve to the left ventricle. Go to the left ventricle.

3 Left ventricle: receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps
it through aortic semilunar valve to the aorta, then arteries and rest of
the body. Go to the systemic capillaries.

145
 4 Systemic capillaries: receive oxygenated blood from the artery system
and pass deoxygenated blood on to the veins, then vena cava to right
atrium. Go to the right atrium.
5 Right atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava and
pumps it through tricuspid valve to right ventricle. Go to right ventricle.

6 Right ventricle: receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and
pumps it via pulmonary semilunar valve and pulmonary vein to the
lungs. Go to the lungs.

After designing and writing, post them on the wall at random.

Using a small tennis ball, hit at any card at random read, copy into your notebook
and then follow the instructions given on the particular card. At the next card
read, copy and obey instructions then the next until you are back to the first card
you hit with the ball.
• Read what you have copied at each card.
• What do you observe?
• Whose path of movement did you trace?
• Ask the next member of the group to try a different throw of the ball on
another card and repeat the process.
• Is the pattern the same?

heat, metabolic waste products and

Did you know? hormones to the cells of the body.
Ancient Egyptians believed the Muscular contractions of the heart
heart, rather than the brain, was the pump the blood around the body of
source of emotions, wisdom and birds and human beings.
memory. Blood from the veins is received in the
heart atria (singular: atrium) also called
The facts auricles.

Blood circulation is needed to

distribute dissolved nutrients,

146
 Aorta
Right
pulmonary Left pulmonary
artery artery
Right Left pulmonary
pulmonary vein
vein

Fig. 5.22: Diagram of the human/bird heart.

Deoxygenated blood from the vena When full of blood, the cuspid valves
cava (largest vein) is received in the right close and both ventricles contract. The
atrium at the same time is received from left ventricle pumps blood past the
the pulmonary vein in the left atrium. aortic semilunar valves to the aorta
When the left and the right atrium onwards to the other arteries, while the
are full of blood the atrium contracts right ventricle pumps blood past the
to pump blood past the cuspid valves, pulmonary semilunar valves into the
which are two: The left cuspid valves pulmonary artery onwards to the lungs.
are called the bicuspid valves while The blood from the lungs will return
the right cuspid valves are called the to the heart as oxygenated blood with
tricuspid valves. lower carbon (IV) oxide content via the
The contraction of the atria is pulmonary vein into the left atrium.
simultaneous and is self-generated The blood from the aorta will be
by the pacemaker (sino-atria node, conveyed to the arteries then arterioles
SAN). then capillaries (only located in the
The atria contraction pumps blood into tissues or organs) then venules and
the ventricles and the two ventricles fill veins leading to the vena cava. The vena
up with blood as they relax. cava will deliver the blood to the heart
right atrium of the heeart.

147
 Diastole Systole

Fig. 5.23: Cardiac cycle, blood vessels and heart.

Did you know?

There are two main sounds (“lub”
“dub”) made by your heart and they
are the sounds of the cuspid valves
and semilunar valves closing. When
the cuspid valves close they make a
“lub” sound and when the semilunar
valves close, they make a “dub”
sound. The stethoscope is used to
listen to these sounds. Why would
(a) What do you observe in the part
this be important to your doctor?
labelled K?
(b) Where in the body of a goat do
Remember William Harvey you think the specimens K,M and
What made him great? Is it being King N were obtained from?
Charles’ doctor? Is it his discovery of (c) What do you observe in the part
how blood flows? labelled N?
Group Activity 5.7 (d) What do you observe in the part
Look at the photograph and the labelled M?
parts labelled M, N and K. Answer (e) Explain how parts K and M,
the following questions. in terms of their functions, are
related.
(f) What do you think makes K
function as well as it does?

148
 The facts

Structural adaptations of the mammalian heart to its function

The heart has valves namely atrioventricular valves (cuspid valves) and the semi-
lunar valves which when opened allow blood to flow in one direction only; and when
closed prevent backflow of blood.

Position of aortic
valve in heart

Normal trscupid Biscupid aortic

aortic valve valve

Fig. 5.24 (i): Heart valves

Valves have non-elastic chordae tendineae which prevent the atrioventricular valves
from turning inside out into auricles during ventricular systole. Heart has thick
muscular walls which contract to pump blood; and ensure its continuous flow. Heart
has cardiac muscles, which are myogenic; and contract and relax without fatigue.
Heart has sino atrial (SA) node and atrioventricular (AV) node which initiate cardiac
muscle impulses and hence stimulate the contraction of the atria and ventricles
respectively.

Aortic
semilunar valve

Bicuspid valve
Pulmonary
Tricuspid valve semilunar valve

149
 Fig. 5.24 (ii): Four heart valves. pumps blood. The pericardium secretes
Heart is served by vagus and sympathetic pericardial fluid, which lubricates its
nerves which regulate the rate of interior and reduces friction between
the heart beat depending on body’s the pericardial membranes as the heart
physiological requirements. Cardiac moves within the inner membrane. The
muscles are served by coronary arteries, deposit of spongy fatty layer on the
blood vessels, to supply oxygen and pericardium mechanically protects and
nutrients required by heart muscle cells cushions the heart.
to respire and by coronary vein which
transports away carbon (IV) oxide and
Work to do
metabolic wastes. Heart has specialised
interconnected cardiac Pürkinje fibres, • Read the section about the
which spread the wave of excitation adaptations of the heart to its
throughout the heart muscles. The heart function.
has four chambers, which hold blood
• Create a table with three
briefly before it is pumped to the rest of
columns titled; structure,
the body and the lungs. Heart septum
modification and function.
separates oxygenated blood on the left
side of the heart from the deoxygenated • Complete the table by
blood on the right side increasing the summarising what you
efficiency of the heart as a double pump. understood after reading the
Vena cava and pulmonary vein transport section.
blood to the heart auricles from the
rest of the body and lungs respectively. Group Activity 5.8
The pulmonary artery and the aorta 1. Observe Figure 5.25(ii). What
transport blood from the heart ventricles do you see?
to the lungs and the rest of the body
2. Suggest what you think the red
respectively. The entire heart is enclosed
arrows represent.
by a tough double-layered protective
sac, pericardium, which prevents the 3. Suggest what you think the blue
heart from being overstretched as it arrows represent

150
 Arteriole Venule

b. capillary

Valve
Endometrium
Smooth muscles
Connective tissue

a. Artery c. Vein
Fig. 5.25 (i): Diagram of the blood vessels.

Open your notebook and after reading • Veins which transport blood
the facts section label and write the towards the heart and have the
function of each of the parts shown in widest lumen (internal diameter)
Figure 5.21. with semilunar valves preventing
backflow of blood.
The facts
vein artery

There are three main types of blood capillaries

vessels:
• Arteries which transport blood
away from the heart. The largest
artery is the aorta and the smallest
is the arteriole.
• Capillaries which transport blood
Fig. 5.25(ii): Arteries, veins and capillaries.
from arterioles to venules. They
Do you remember William Harvey
are the smallest blood vessels,
story?
their walls are one cell thick and
they offer the greatest resistance to What did he say about the blood vessels?
blood flow. Capillaries are the sites
of ultrafiltration and site of tissue
fluid formation.

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Table 5.6: Functional differences between Table 5.7: Structural differences between
arteries and veins arteries and veins
Arteries Veins
Arteries Veins
Transport blood Transport blood Have a small Have large lumen
away from the towards the heart lumen
heart except hepatic Have no valves Have semilunar
portal vein which except at the base valves
transports blood of major arteries
from the intestines
to the liver Have thick Have thin walls
Convey Convey muscular walls which are less
oxygenated deoxygenated which are elastic elastic
blood except blood except
pulmonary pulmonary vein Located deeper Located nearer to
artery away from the the skin
Convey blood Convey blood low body surface
rich in nutrients in nutrient content
except the hepatic • Arteries have a high blood pressure
portal vein and compared to veins.
vena cava • Arteries have a narrower lumen,
Convey which maintains high pressure
Convey while veins have a wider lumen
blood high in
blood low in that reduces pressure.
nitrogenous waste
nitrogenous • Blood is pumped directly into the
materials except
waste arteries at high pressure by the
renal vein and
materials heart.
vena cava
Blood is at high Blood at low • Blood pressure in the veins is
pressure pressure reduced by capillary resistance
before it enters the veins.
Blood flow is in Blood flow is
pulses smooth
Did you know?
Have thick Walls are thin,
muscular elastic less muscular and A red blood cell’s diameter is slightly
walls. inelastic. smaller than the internal diameter of
Have a narrow Have a wider the blood capillaries, therefore, they
lumen. lumen. form a single-file line to fit through
the blood capillaries in the body.
Are located deep Are located nearer
in the body. the skin.

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Role of hormones in regulation of • Vasoconstriction and vasodilation
blood pressure of arteries and arterioles hence
increase and decrease of blood
Group Activity 5.9 pressure respectively.
• Observe Figure 5.26. What do • Change in blood viscosity too
you see? would vary the blood pressure.
The medulla oblongata has a
cardiovascular centre responsible
for controlling blood pressure by
regulating the heartbeat rate and the
vasoconstriction or vasodilation of
blood arterioles.
The following hormones influence the
blood pressure regulation:
Fig. 5.26: A Patient being examined by a • By controlling the blood volume,
doctor. Renin hormone released from the
• Research in the library or kidney regulates blood pressure
Internet how to read the blood through Angiotensin II which
pressure. in turn influence the action of
• If the patient was a healthy aldosterone.
person, what readings do you • Antidiuretic hormone also
suggest the doctor will make? increases blood pressure by
• Explain the reading you have causing more water retention by
suggested. the kidney.
• If you were the patient, how • The atria of the heart secrete a
would you influence the hormone called atrial natriuretic
readings? peptide responsible for lowering
blood pressure through vasodilation
and increase water loss by the
The facts kidney.
• Flight hormones released by
The blood pressure may increase or the adrenal gland increase
decrease if there are changes in the blood pressure too by increasing
following: vasoconstriction and pulse rate.
• The heartbeat rate increases, that Role of the heart in blood flow
increasing the volume of blood
How does the heart regulate the rate
pumped to the artery per minute
of blood flow within the body of
hence increasing blood pressure in
organisms?
the arteries.

153
 impulse within the ventricular muscle.
The facts
A human female heart beats about 77
times per minute while a male heart
beats about 70 times per minute. Every
heatbeat pumps about 140 cm3 of blood
out of the heart, therefore, in a day SA node
it pumps about 7,000 litres of blood
around the circulatory system.
Group Activity 5.10
How many beats does your heart
make in a day?
How would you increase the number
of heartbeats your heart is making? Fig. 5.27: Coordination of a heartbeat.
How many beats does an average
human heart make in a day? Group discussion
How many beats does an average In your discussion group, discuss:
human heart make in a lifetime?
If you were the one designing your
heart, why would you design it for
the contractions to be coordinated
The facts as described above?
The heartbeat rhythm is maintained by
the pacemaker (also called the sino atrial
node). The pacemaker has spontaneously Individual Activity 5.15
active cells, that is they are myogenic Draw Figure 5.27 in your notebook.
cells and generate an impulse which is Then reread the passage before
spread around the heart muscle–to the the figure and then label the parts
atria muscle first causing the contraction mentioned in the passage.
of the atria, then to the ventricle muscle
via the heart conducting systems. The
impulses are prevented from spreading The facts
directly to the ventricles by a fibrous
layer between the atria and ventricles
The contraction of the ventricles pumps
therefore, the heart conducting system
blood into the pulmonary artery and
of atrioventricular node and Bundle
aorta. The left ventricle pumps blood a
of His carry the impulse to the base of
longer distance, therefore, has a thicker
ventricular muscle at extremely high
wall to generate more pumping power
speed. From the base of the ventricular
and pressure.
muscle the Pürkinje fibres transmit the

154
 The sympathetic system secretes
Did you know? hormones epinephrine (also called
adrenaline) and norepinephrine to
Why your heartbeat feels like it is
increase the heartbeat speed.
on the left side of your chest yet it is
on the central position but slightly After which the parasympathetic
to the left? Because the left ventricle nervous system secretes hormone
makes more powerful contractions acetylcholine to decrease the heartbeat
than the right side. rate.
Adrenal glands secrete the hormone
Hormones and heart rate adrenaline when you are afraid or angry
causing an increase in heartbeat rate
Your heartbeat speed may be increased
hence blood pressure and rate of use of
or decreased by the autonomic
glucose in the muscles.
nervous system. There are two types of
autonomic nervous systems, namely These hormones stimulate the
the sympathetic nervous system and pacemaker to release impulses at a
the parasympathetic nervous system. faster rate hence increase heart muscle
contractions.

Blood components and functions

Plasma
(55%) White blood cells + platelets
( <1%)

Red blood cells (45%)

Fig. 5.28: Components of blood.

Blood components
Individual Activity
Study the diagrams in Figure 5.28 showing the blood components, then draw a
table showing a component and its function.

155
 Fig. 5.29: Blood components mind map.

blood cells to ensure efficient transport

The facts of oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide to the
respiring tissues and from the tissues
The red blood cells contain respectively.
haemoglobin which has a high affinity White blood cells fight infections in a
for oxygen and combines with oxygen number of ways, namely neutrophils
in areas of high oxygen tension to form and monocytes phagocytise (ingest)
oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin also pathogens; eosinophils phagocytise
reacts with carbon (IV) oxide forming antigen-antibody complexes and
carbaminohaemoglobin. The red blood allergens; basophils release histamine
cell is biconcave in shape to increase which promotes blood flow to injured
its surface area for diffusion of oxygen tissues and lymphocytes are involved in
and carbon (IV) oxide in and out of the antibody production.
cell. The mature red blood cell lacks
Thrombocytes, when damaged, release
a nucleus and other cell organelles to
thrombokinase starting the process of
provide adequate spaces for packing
blood clotting.
haemoglobin involved in transport of
the oxygen and carbon(IV) oxide. Blood plasma contains water which
maintains blood volume and transports
Inside the red blood cells the rate of
molecules like amino acids, fatty acids
reaction between water and carbon
and glycerol from the small intestines to
(IV) oxide is increased by carbonic
the liver, and other body tissues. Plasma
anhydrase to form carbonic acid. The
proteins maintain blood volume and
haemoglobin reacts with hydrogen ions
osmotic pressure, buffer blood pH at
from the dissociation of carbonic acid
7.4 and transport cholesterol. Plasma
therefore buffering the plasma pH. The
salts maintain blood osmotic pressure
red blood cells are the most numerous
and pH while aiding metabolism.

156
Blood plasma transport hormones • Lymphocytes produce various
and enzymes from secretory glands to antibodies which destroy
tissues where they are required. It also microorganisms in the following
transports carbon (IV) oxide to lungs ways:
and urea from tissues to the kidneys. – Agglutinins: Causes the
It also distributes heat throughout the pathogens to clump together
body. stopping them from
How the human body protects itself multiplying and later are
against pathogens engulfed and destroyed by
phagocytes.
• Reflex actions like coughing,
– Lysins: Digest the cell
sneezing and vomiting help to
membrane of the pathogens
remove foreign materials from
destroying them.
respiratory and digestive tracts.
– Opsonins: Stick to the outer
• Enzyme lysozyme present in surface of the pathogens
the saliva, tears and nasal (nose)
making it easier for the
secretion digest the walls of certain
phagocytes to engulf and
bacteria and destroy them.
destroy them.
• Mucous secretions of the – Antitoxins: Neutralise the
respiratory track (mucus) trap
toxins produced by the
inhaled microorganisms or dust
pathogens.
which are then forced upwards in
the mucus by cilia to the pharynx • Clotting of blood prevents entry of
where they are coughed out or microorganisms when the blood
swallowed. vessels are cut to expose blood.
• The skin cornified layer Blood clotting process
provides mechanical barrier to
• Platelets (thrombocytes) are
microorganisms from entering the
involved in blood clotting process,
body.
where platelets produce enzyme
• Sebaceous glands produce sebum thrombokinase.
which is antiseptic.
• Thrombokinase activates
• Gastric juice contains hydrochloric
prothrombin, in the presence
acid which lowers the pH in the
of Calcium ions, into enzyme
stomach, killing microorganisms.
thrombin.
How blood protects the body against
• Thrombin converts soluble
pathogens
fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin
• Phagocytosis by phagocytes engulfs threads which trap red blood cells
and destroys foreign bodies that to form a blood clot.
enter into the body.

157
 Fig. 5.30: Blood clotting mechanism.
Blood clotting and its importance:
Check your progress 5b
• Provides a physical barrier to
pathogens. 1. Describe how blood is used in
transportation of respiratory
• Prevents excessive loss of blood, gases to and from the body
hence presents anaemia. tissues.
• Prevents excessive loss of nutrients. 2. Describe the functions of blood
• Prevents excessive loss of heat. plasma.
• Prevents excessive loss of water. 3. Describe how the human
Excessive loss of water leads to body protects itself against
dehydration. pathogens or disease causing
microorganisms.

158
Glossary Angiotensin II is a peptide hormone
that results to vasoconstriction which
Abomasum, also called the maw,
increases blood pressure.
rennet-bag, or reed tripe, is the
fourth and final stomach chamber in ATP synthase is an enzyme that
ruminants. directly generates adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) during the process
Acetyl coenzyme A, also Acetyl-CoA, is
of cellular respiration.
a compound whose role is a coenzyme
in many biological acetylation reactions Biochemical reactions is the
and is formed as an intermediate in the transformation of one molecule to
oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and a different molecule inside a cell
proteins. facilitated by enzymes.
Activate is to make something active or Biodegradable is the ability of a
operative. substance or organism to break down
safely, reliably and relatively quickly by
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is
biological means into raw materials of
energy the cell can use to do work.
nature and disappear into nature.
Aerobic respiration is the process by
Biodiversity (biological diversity) is the
which chemical energy is released in
total sum of all the living organisms
cells during the breakdown of food
that exist on our Earth. It is the amount
such as glucose.
of variation in life in a given species,
Agricultural value is the productive ecosystem, biome or planet. It is
value of biodiversity of wild species essential for biosphere survival since
of plants that provides a rich source it allows the differences in biological
of genes to develop disease and pest systems to absorb any drastic changes
resistant varieties of crops. that may happen.
Aldolase is a protein (called an enzyme) Biotechnology is any technological
that helps break down certain sugars to application that uses biological systems,
produce energy. living organisms, or derivatives thereof,
Amino acids are molecules that to make or modify products or processes
can link together in long chains to for specific use.
form proteins. They contain carbon, Blood circulation is the continual
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and flow of blood from the heart through
sometimes sulphur. branching arteries, to reach and
Anaerobic respiration is the release traverse the capillaries in all parts of
of a relatively small amount of energy the body, reconverging in the veins and
by the breakdown of food substances returning to the heart, to flow through
in the absence of oxygen. Because the the lungs and back to the heart to start
food is not completely broken down the circuit again.
some of the energy remains in the Bolus refers to food that has been
waste products. chewed and mixed with saliva in the
mouth.

159
Breathing is a mechanical process where Causative agent is the organism which
gases are exchanged between the lungs causes a disease.
and the atmosphere. It is the first step in Cellular respiration is the enzyme
respiration. controlled reaction in the cell to
Bundle of His is a collection of heart breakdown glucose in order to produce
muscle cells that conducts the electrical ATP, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
impulses that regulate the heartbeat, Cellulase is an enzyme that digests
from the atrioventricular node in the cellulose and is produced by
right atrium to the septum between the microorganisms.
ventricles and then to the left and right Chewing cud is when the grass eaten by
ventricles. a ruminant is regurgitated and chewed
Canines, also called eyeteeth or cuspids, by the flat molars and premolars.
are teeth used for ripping and tearing at Chlorofluorocarbons are chemical
foods that might be tough, such as meat. compounds found in aerosol spray
You have a total of four canines. cans, refrigerators, air conditioners, and
Carbaminohaemoglobin, also called styrofoam cups, among other products.
carbhaemoglobin, is a compound of When released to the atmosphere, they
haemoglobin and carbon (IV) oxide, damage the stratospheric ozone layer.
and is one of the forms in which carbon CFCs are also known as Freon.
(IV) oxide exists in the blood. Churning is the peristaltic mixing of
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is a relatively food in the stomach to break it up to
weak acid, which dissociates into smaller pieces.
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydrogen Cilia are hair-like structures located
carbonate ions (HCO3–). in the respiratory tract and fallopian
Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme tubes. They waft mucus and ovum along
present in red blood cells that aids in respectively.
the conversion of carbon (IV) oxide to Ciliated epithelia are epithelial cells
carbonic acid and hydrogen carbonate that have hair-like structures called
ions. When red blood cells reach cilia which move back and forth to help
the lungs, the same enzyme helps to move particles out of our body. They are
convert the hydrogen carbonate ions found in our respiratory tract and in the
back to carbon (IV) oxide, which we fallopian tubes of women. They contain
breathe out. goblet cells which secrete mucus.
Cardiac sphincter is a valve between the Circulatory system is made up of your
bottom of the oesophagus and stomach. heart and blood vessels. The heart
Carrier is a person who has been pumps blood to all areas of your body.
infected but develops no signs and The blood carries oxygen and nutrients
symptoms and can pass the disease to to your body.
another. Citric acid cycle is a cycle where one
turn of the cycle produces 2 molecules
of CO2, H combines with its acceptors

160
to make NADH and FADH2 and ADP Dehydrogenase is an enzyme that
is converted into ATP. It occurs in the catalyses the removal of hydrogen atoms
mitochondria of the cell. from a particular molecule.
Climate change is any change in climate Denature enzymes an enzyme is a
over time, due to natural variability or protein, and at high temperatures,
as a result of human activity. the shape of the protein is changed,
Climate is the prevailing weather preventing it from performing its
conditions of a region which include, function hence it is said to be denatured.
temperature, air pressure, humidity, Deoxygenated blood is blood that has
precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness and no oxygen.
winds, throughout the year, averaged Diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscular
over a series of years. partition separating the thorax from
Closed circulatory system is a system the abdomen in mammals. During
that has the blood closed at all times breathing, it contracts increasing the
within vessels of different sizes and wall volume of the thorax and so inflates the
thickness. Blood is pumped by a heart lungs.
through vessels, and does not normally Diffusion is the spontaneous
fill body cavities. movement of a substance from a region
Colon is the large intestine where water of high concentration to a region of low
and mineral ions are absorbed. concentration.
Consumptive use value is productive Digestion is the breakdown of big,
value of biodiversity of wild species like insoluble food particles into small
like hardwood such as mahogany. particles using mechanical and chemical
Cusps are raised rough points on the processes.
crowns of teeth. Dipeptide are two amino acids joined
Cytosol is the liquid portion of the together by a peptide bond.
cytoplasm where many chemical Double circulatory system is the type
reactions occur within the cell. of circulatory system that occurs in
Decarboxylase is an enzyme that mammals where blood passes through
catalyses the release of carbon (IV) the heart twice before completing a full
oxide from the carboxyl group of certain circuit of the body.
organic acids. Ecosystem diversity is a variety of
Deforestation is the removal of forests interactions among organisms in
by cutting and burning of trees and communities.
other vegetation to provide land for Ecotourism is environmentally
agricultural purposes, residential or responsible travel and visitation to
industrial building sites and roads, or relatively undisturbed natural areas in
by harvesting the trees for building order to enjoy, study and appreciate
materials or fuel. nature that promotes conservation,
has visitor impact and provides for

161
beneficially active socioeconomic behind the tongue and in front of the
involvement of local populations. entrance to the larynx. It is a valve-like
Electron transport system is the process cartilage which works with the larynx to
involving the stepwise transport of act as a lid every time we swallow.
electrons to a final electron acceptor such External respiration refers to the
as oxygen creating an electrochemical sequence of events that lead to the
gradient across membranes to drive the exchange of oxygen and carbon
phosphorylation to ADP to yield ATP. (IV) oxide between the external
Emulsification is the process whereby environment and the cells of the body.
large globules of fat are broken down Extracellular refers to situated or
into smaller globules. occurring outside a cell or cells.
Endangered species are any species Flavin adenine dinucleotide hydrogen is
in danger of extinction throughout a redox cofactor that is created during
or a significant portion of their range the Krebs cycle and utilised during the
due to destruction or interruption of last part of respiration.
environment (habitat loss), an alteration Forest degradation is a decrease in
in the ecological balance resulting in the capacity of a forest to produce
an increase in predators and too few ecosystem services such as carbon
remaining members for sustainable storing and wood products as a result
breeding. of anthropogenic and environmental
Endemic is a disease which is always changes.
present at the low level in a given Fructose is sugar found in fruits.
population or region.
Gastric juice is the digestive fluid made
Enzyme catalase is an enzyme found up of pepsin and other enzymes that are
in nearly all living organisms exposed produced by the glands of the stomach.
to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants and
animals). It speeds up the decomposition Gastrin hormone is a protein hormone
of hydrogen peroxide to water and produced in the wall of duodenum and
oxygen. pancreas that stimulates the release of
gastric juice by the stomach wall.
Enzyme rennin is an enzyme that is
needed for the breakdown of proteins. Genetic diversity is diversity of genes
within a species. There is a genetic
Enzyme-substrate complex is a variability among the populations and
temporary structure formed when a the individuals of the same species.
substrate bonds with the enzyme active
site. Gill epithelium is squamous or flattened
epithelial cells lining the surface of gill
Enzymes are proteins that speed up filaments.
chemical reactions (catalysts).
Gill filaments are the red, fleshy parts of
Epidemic is a situation in which a the gills. They are the smallest division
disease spreads rapidly through a large of the gill and they take oxygen into the
number of people and later disappears. blood.
Epiglottis is the flap of cartilage lying

162
Gill lamellae are a multi-tissue structures Hexose phosphate isomerase is an
that are the transverse vertical platelets enzyme that catalyses the interconversion
on the gill filament, through which of d-fructose 6-phosphate and d-glucose
capillaries run. 6-phosphate.
Gizzard is a muscular bag where Hydrochloric acid is an acid found in
grinding of food occurs. the stomach that promotes conversion
Global warming is an average increase of inactive pepsinogen into active
in the temperature of the atmosphere pepsin, which then digests proteins into
near the Earth’s surface and in the peptides.
troposphere, which can contribute to Hydrogen carbonate is hydrogen
changes in global climate patterns. carbonate ion.
Glucose is the simplicity type of sugar Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of
obtained from foods you eat and your respiration produced in all living cells.
body uses it for energy. It is harmful and must be removed as
Glycolysis is the sequence of reactions soon as it is produced in the cell. Cells
that convert glucose into pyruvate in the make the enzyme catalase to remove
presence of oxygen (aerobic) or lactate hydrogen peroxide.
in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) Inactivate enzymes are enzymes in their
with the production of ATP. inactive form, they are at a point when
Greenhouse effect is the partial the enzymes stops working.
trapping of solar radiation by the Incisors are the front teeth present in
atmosphere, similar to the trapping of most mammals.
heat in a greenhouse. Sunlight that is Incubation period is a period of time
not reflected by the clouds reaches the between the original infection and the
Earth’s surface, warming it up. Infrared appearance of signs and symptoms.
radiation reradiated from the surface Infective period is a period during
is partially absorbed by carbon (IV) which a person is capable of passing the
oxide in the atmosphere causing overall disease on to another person.
surface temperature to rise. Intercostal muscles are muscles of two
Greenhouse gases are gases that absorb sets: external intercostal that are found
infrared radiation and radiate heat in all between the ribs with fibers running
directions. They include water vapour, downwards towards the sternum. They
carbon (IV) oxide, methane, nitrous pull ribs together raising the rib cage
oxide, ozone and any fluorocarbons. during inspiration.
Haemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying Internal respiration is the physical
pigment of red blood cells that gives process in which oxygen is taken up by
them their red colour and works to capillaries of lung alveoli and carbon
transport oxygen to the tissues. (IV) oxide is released from blood.
Hexokinase is an enzyme that catalyses Lacteal is the smallest part of the
the ATP dependent phosphorylation of lymphatic system that allows absorption
glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. of fats in the small intestines.

163
Lactic acid dehydrogenase, abbreviated Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
as LDH, catalyses the conversion of (NAD+) is a biological oxidising agent.
lactate to pyruvic acid and back, as it The plus sign represents the positive
converts NAD+ to NADH and back. charge on nitrogen.
Lactic acid is a colourless or yellowish, Nostrils is one of the two channels of
syrupy, water-soluble liquid, which the nose, from the point where they
is a byproduct of anaerobic glucose separate to the external opening.
metabolism. Notifiable disease is a disease which
Lactic fermentation occurs during rapid must be reported to doctors or health
exercises when less oxygen is available. authorities due to its seriousness, for
It produces soreness. example, TB, Polio and Cholera.
Lumen is the inside space of a tube- Oesophagus, also called gullet or food
shaped structure, such as an artery or pipe, is a long, muscular tube that
intestine. connects your mouth to your stomach.
Lung alveoli are tiny airsacs that are Omasum, also called the bible, the
responsible for gaseous exchange within fardel, the manyplies and the psalterium,
the lungs of tadpoles. is the third chamber of the stomach in
Malphigian tubules are organs of ruminants.
excretion in insects. Open circulatory system is a system
Medicinal value is relating to medicinal where blood, rather than being sealed
effects of medicinal substances or tight in arteries and veins, suffuses
substances that can be used to treat and the body and may be directly open to
cure. the environment at places such as the
Microvilli are extensions of the cell digestive tract.
membrane used to increase the surface Optimum temperatures are
area of the small intestines. temperatures at which enzymes
Mitochondrion is a membrane bound function best. For most enzymes,
organelle found in the cells that make it is 40 degrees Celsius. At high
up plants, animals, fungi and other temperatures, enzymes denature.
forms of life. Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen
Molars are large, flat teeth at the back of needed to get the body back to its resting
the mouth used primarily to grind food rate and get rid of the excess lactic
during chewing. acid produced after intense physical
Mucous membranes are wet or moist exercises.
membranes that are always continuously Ozone layer is a layer found between the
bathed in the secretions. stratosphere and the troposphere which
Multicellular is a tissue, organ or contains 90% of atmospheric ozone
organism that is made up of many cells. (O3). It filters out and converts harmful
UV rays from the sun into heat energy.
Neutralises means creates a pH of 7
(neutral).

164
Pandemic is an epidemic which spreads Premolars or bicuspids, are transitional
across a whole continent. teeth located between the canine and
Pathogens are organisms that invade molar teeth. You have two premolars
the body, live parasitically, and cause per quadrant in the permanent set of
diseases. teeth, making eight premolars in your
Pepsin is an enzyme that breakdowns mouth.
proteins into smaller peptides (that is, a Prevention are measures taken to
protease). prevent a person from getting a disease,
Peptides are shorter chains of amino for example, vaccination, sewage
acids. treatment and hygiene among others.
Peristalsis is the contractions of two sets Pseudomonas is a group of denitrifying
of muscles in the walls of the gut. One bacteria.
set runs along the gut, while the other Pürkinje fibres are special fibers that are
set circles it creating a squeezing action, located in the atrioventricular, or AV,
moving down the gut. bundle of the heart. They send nerve
pH (potential concentration of hydrogen impulses to the cells in the ventricles
ions) is a scale of acidity beginning at 0 of the heart and cause them to contract
to 14. It tells how acidic or alkaline a and pump blood either to the lungs or
substance is. the rest of the body.
Phosphorylation is the addition of Pyloric sphincter is a band of smooth
phosphate group to an organic molecule. muscles at the junction between
There are two types: substrate level and the pylorus of the stomach and the
oxidative. duodenum of the small intestine. It
acts as a valve to control the flow
Poaching is the illegal act of hunting, of partially digested food from the
killing or capturing animals. stomach to the small intestine.
Polygastric digestion is the digestion Pylorus caecae are finger-like projections
that occurs in ruminants which involves located in the stomach of fish. They
many stomach. caeca secrete digestive enzymes and
Polypeptides are long continuous and increase the surface area in the stomach
unbranched peptides. for nutrient absorption.
Population is a group of organisms, Pylorus is the furthest part of the
all of the same species, that live in a stomach that connects to the duodenum.
specific area. Every organism you can It prevents intestinal contents from
think of is a member of a population. A reentering the stomach when the small
healthy population will grow and die at intestine contracts and limits the passage
a relatively steady rate unless it runs out of large food particles or undigested
of water, food or space, or is attacked in material into the intestine.
some way by diseases or predators. Pyruvic acid is the end product of
glucose breakdown that occurs in the
process of glycolysis.

165
Renin hormone is a hormone that Single circulatory system is the type
controls blood pressure and fluid of circulatory system in which blood
balance. passes through the heart only once in
Rennin, also known as chymase, is a each complete circuit around the blood
protein-digesting enzyme that curdles system.
milk by transforming caseinogen into Species diversity is diversity among
insoluble casein. species in an ecosystem. Biodiversity
Respiration is the oxidation of food hotspots are excellent examples of
substances (glucose) with the release of species diversity.
energy in living cells. It is a characteristic Species is a Latin word meaning “kind”
of life since all living things require or “appearance.” It is a population or
energy for essential activities. There are group of populations whose members
two types: aerobic and anaerobic. have the potential to interbreed and
Respiratory surface is a thin, moist, produce fertile offspring.
epithelial surface that oxygen can cross Spiracle valves are muscular valves
to move into the body and carbon (IV) in the insect body, and their opening
oxide can cross to move out of the body. can be controlled, mostly in order to
Reticulum is the second chamber of the regulate water loss, since the tracheal
ruminant stomach. system is always saturated with water
vapour.
Reversibility is the ability of an
enzyme causing a reaction to follow Stomach is a muscular organ located on
any direction, depending on the the left side of the upper abdomen and it
concentration of substrate, reactants receives food from the esophagus.
and products. Substrate is a substance acted upon by
Rumen, also called a paunch, is the an enzyme.
first chamber in the alimentary canal of Sucrose is a disaccharide, non-reducing
ruminant animals. sugar, made of a glucose molecule and
Ruminants are mammals that chew cud a fructose molecule linked together.
and have a stomach divided into four Symptoms are an indication of a disease
compartments. Examples are cows, which is not detectable by examination
sheep, moose, goats, antelopes and and can only be reported by the patient,
camels. for example, headache and nausea
Salivary amylase is an enzyme found among others.
in the saliva of human beings and The internal intercostal are found
herbivorous animals that is involved in between the ribs. They depress the rib
the predigestion of starches. cage during forced expiration.
Signs are visible expression of a disease Thoracic cavity, also chest cavity is
which can be found by examining a bounded by chest wall and below by
patient. diaphragm. It extends upwards into

166
the root of the neck about one finger Ultrafiltration is high pressure filtration
breadth above the clavicle on each side. through a semipermeable membrane in
The chest cavity can be divided into a which colloidal particles are retained
median partition, called mediastinum, while small sized solutes and the solvent
and the laterally placed pleurae and are forced to move across the membrane
lungs. by hydrostatic forces.
Threatened species are any species likely Unicellular eukaryotic are single-celled
to become endangered in the foreseeable organisms. “Unicellular” means the
future. The population of a threatened organisms have only one cell, while
species is declining at an alarming rate. “eukaryote” means each of these cells
Tissue fluid is a solution that bathes has a nucleus–and other organelles–
and surrounds the tissue cells of held in place by membranes.
multicellular animals. It is the main Vascularised is to provide a tissue or
constituent of the extracellular fluid, structure with vessels, especially blood
whose other components are the blood vessels.
plasma, lymph and transcellular fluid. Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the
Trachea is a tube in vertebrate animals blood vessels as a result of contraction
that leads from the larynx to the of the muscular wall of the vessels.
bronchial tubes and carries air to the Vasodilation is the widening of blood
lungs. vessels resulting from relaxation of
Tracheoles are extremely small, thin- smooth muscle cells within the vessel
walled, respiratory tubules originating walls, in particular in the large veins
from the ends of the smallest insect (called venodilators), large arteries,
trachea. and smaller arterioles, the opposite of
Treatment are measures taken to cure vasoconstriction.
a disease or alleviate symptoms once a Vector is an organism which carries the
person has the disease, for example, use causative agent from an infected animal
of antibiotics. or plant to another.
Trypsin is a protease produced in the Villi are tiny finger-like structures in the
pancreas and it hydrolyses proteins. lining of the small intestines.
Trypsinogen is an inactive substance Waste disposal is the discarding of
secreted by the pancreas, from which unwanted materials from houses, street
the digestive enzyme trypsin is formed sweeping and commercial industrial
in the duodenum. and agricultural operations arising from
man’s activities.

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 3
South Sudan South Sudan

3
Secondary Secondary

Secondary Biology
Biology Student’s Book Biology
Secondary Biology has been written and developed by Ministry of General

Student’s Book
Education and Instruction, Government of South Sudan in conjunction with Subjects
experts. This course book provides a fun and practical approach to the subject
of Biology, and at the same time imparting life long skills to the students.

The book comprehensively covers the Secondary 3 syllabus as developed by

3
Ministry of General Education and Instruction.

Each year comprises of a Student’s Book and Teacher’s Guide

The Student’s Books provide:
Full coverage of the national syllabus.
A strong grounding in the basics of Biology.
Clear presentation and explanation of learning points.
A wide variety of practice exercises, often showing how Biology can be applied to
real-life situations.
It provides opportunities for collaboration through group work activities.
Stimulating illustrations.

Student’s Book
All the courses in this secondary series were developed by the Ministry of
General Education and Instruction, Republic of South Sudan.
The books have been designed to meet the secondary school syllabus,
and at the same time equiping the students with skills to fit in the modern
day global society.

This Book is the Property of the Ministry of General Funded by: Published by: Funded by:
Education and Instruction.
This Book is the Property of the
This Book is not for sale. Ministry of General Education
Any book found on sale, either in print or electronic and Instruction.
form, will be confiscated and the seller prosecuted. This Book is not for sale.