BIOCHEMISTRY: WATER & pH

Water = H20 - Polar Molecule

-O and H are bonded together by Covalent bonds
-O and H share electrons but they are closer to the Oxygen
-This makes the O slightly negative and the H slightly positive +

Hydrogen bonds:
-Water is a POLAR molecule
-The O is a little negative -
- The H is a little positive +
-The negative end (O) of one water molecule attracts the positive end (H) of another water molecule
What is a Hydrogen Bond:
-A weak attraction between the slightly negative oxygen of one molecule and the slightly positive hydrogen of
another
-H-Bonds are weak

Cohesion (Water-Water):
-Cohesion: attraction between molecules of the same substance
- Water is a very cohesive because water molecules are attracted to each other by H-bonds
-Molecules hold on to each other tightly and create high surface tension
Ex- Why insects can walk on water

Adhesion (Water-Other):
-Adhesion: attraction between molecules of different substances Water loves other substances
Adhesion explains why:
-Water moves from the roots to the top of plants through small vessels called xylem
-When water moves up a thin tube it is called Capillary Actions when water moves against gravity
pH of a solution: 0-14
-ph: Measures how acid or basic a solution is
- measures the concentration of H+ ions in the solutions
Acids release more H+
Bases release more OH-
Ex- 0= Very Acid 7= Neutral 14= Very Basic

MACROMOLECULES:
Elements of Life
-26 elements make up all living things
-Only about 6 make up most organisms:
Most important is CHON
-Hydrogen H
-Oxygen O
-Nitrogen N
-Carbon C
-Phosphorus P
-Sulfur S

Carbon:
-All life depends on carbon
-Carbon atoms bond easily with H, O , or other C atoms

Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds

-Organic compounds: Compounds that have a backbone of CARBON C-C, C-H
Ex- Lipids , Carbs , Proteins , DNA , RNA
-Inorganic Compounds: No Carbon
Ex- H20 , NaCI , Carbon Dioxide

Macromolecules (macro=big)
-Macromolecules:Large molecules in living cells
-Macromolecules are made by joining together thousands of smaller molecules
-The small molecules are called monomers
- Monomers join together to make polymers (=macromolecules)

Carbohydrates (sugars and starches)

- Made of CHO in a ratio of 1:2:1
-Made of monomers called monosaccharides (=one sugar molecule)
Examples
-Glucose , fructose , galactose
*** IN IMAGE ABOVE IT IS C6 , H12 , O6 TELLING ITS CARBOHYDRATES (1:2:1 ratio)

Polysaccharides (type of carbohydrates): made of many monosaccharides (or monomers)

joined together
Examples: starch , cellulose , glycogen
Starch: Plants store extra glucose in the form of starch- Potato

Cellulose: Plants also join together molecules of glucose to make cellulose

- cellulose the cell wall of plant cells

Glycogen: animals store extra glucose (for a short time) in the form of glycogen

Function of Carbohydrates:
-Carbohydrates (sugar and starch) are the main source of quick energy for living organisms
Lipids (fats):
-Made of CHO
-Made mostly of C and H, with very little O
- Not soluble in water!!! (=insoluble)
-Made of 1 glycerol molecule and 1 or more fatty acids (attached to the glycerol)

Functions of Lipids (fat):

-Lipids store energy long term
-Good temperature insulators (body fat)
-Make cell membranes
-Waterproof of the the skin
Wax, oils (liquids), fats(solids) = Lipids

Proteins:
-Made of CHON (Some have Sulfur (S) too)
-Made of monomers called amino acids
-There are about 20 different types of amino acids
-The sequence and number of amino acids makes each protein different
-Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds

Functions of Proteins:
-Building blocks: Most of the body is made of proteins
Ex- Muscles are made of myoglobin or Nails and hair are made of keratin
-Regulate chemical reactions: chemical reactions in the body are controlled by special proteins called enzymes
-Regulate how the body works: many hormones are proteins
-Defense: immunes system uses antibodies which are proteins
Nucleic Acids:
-Made of CHONP (No S)
-Made of monomers called nucleotides
-Nucleotide

-Nucleotides are joined together to make nucleic acids

-Examples of Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

Function of Nucleic Acids:

-Store and transmit genetic information
-Control all cell and body activities

*** TRICK to Remember

Carbohydrates CHO
Lipids CHO
Proteins CHON (Sometimes S)
Nucleic Acids CHONP

ENZYMES AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

Chemical Reactions:
-Processes that change one set of chemicals into another set of chemicals
-Chemical reactions in living organisms occur in the cells - this is call METABOLISM
METABOLISM: Set of chemical reactions inside cells that build and break down materials
-Reactants or Substrate: are what you start with in a reaction
-Products are what you end up with
Example-

-Activation energy is needed to start many reactioins

Enzymes (a types of protein):
-Most chemical reactions are too slow or have high activation energy cannot happens on their own inside the cells
-Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
-Enzymes are special proteins that make reactions go faster

Characteristics of Enzymes:
1. Enzymes are catalysts which is a chemical that changes the rate (speed) of the reaction without being
used up in the reaction
2. Enzymes have a definite 3-dimensional shape that allows them to bond with a specific molecule called
SUBSTRATE
3. Enzymes are substrate specific this is called the key-and-lock mechanism The specificity is due to the
precise shape of the active site:
4. The special pocket where the substrate attaches to the enzyme is called the active site
5. When the reaction is complete, the product of products are released and the enzyme is ready to be used
again- enzyme is recycled
6. Enzymes catalyze of facilitate reactions best at the correct (optimum) pH and temperature
-pH:
-the wrong pH can change the shape of the enzyme (=DENATURE the enzyme)
-Denatured enzymes do not work properly because the active site changed shaped
-Temperature:
-High temperatures change the shape of the enzyme(=DENATURE)
-Low temperatures slow the reaction because the molecules are moving slow
-low temperature = low energy
Examples: Active site

Peroxidase in Cells:
CELLS PART 1:
Cell Theory:
1. All living things are made of cells
2. Cells are the basic units of living organisms
3. New cells come from preexisting cells
4. Energy flow occurs within cells
5. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) that is passed from cell to cell during cell division
6. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition, in organisms of similar species
Organelles:
Cell Membrane- Controls what enters and leaves the cell
● Provides protection and support
● Made of: 2 layers of phospholipids (= phospholipid bilayer) , proteins, cholesterol (also a lipid)

Nucleus- Control center of the cell

Contains DNA (= the genetic material) - DNA has the coded information to make proteins
- Chromosomes are made of DNA
 - >Nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane
- > RNA is made in the nucleus

Mitochondria-
Transform the chemical energy of food (glucose) into energy the cell can use: ATP
● This process is called cell respiration
● Power plant of the cell
● Mitochondria have 2 membranes.
● ALL cells have mitochondria

Chloroplasts-
● Capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy (sugars)
● This process is called photosynthesis
● Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll (a pigment)
● Chloroplasts are like solar power plants
● Surrounded by 2 membranes

Ribosomes-
● Ribosomes are in charge of making proteins.
● Ribosomes join amino acids together to make proteins
● Ribosomes are located free in the cytoplasm OR attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
● Protein making machines

Endoplasmic Reticulum = ER
● Made of many folded membranes
● System of “canals” that moves things around the cell
● Highway System
● There are 2 types: Smooth ER, Rough ER

Rough ER-
● Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it – looks bumpy, rough
● Proteins that will be exported from the cell are made in the rough ER (ribosomes makes them, rough ER
moves them)
Smooth ER-
● Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached to it
● Smooth ER assembles and transports lipids
● Smooth ER in the liver removes toxic components from your body.

Golgi Body-
● Golgi sorts, and packs proteins and other materials for export or storage
● Golgi sorts and packs them (Post Office)

Lysosomes-
● Contain digestive enzymes
● Enzymes break down old and defective parts of the cells. Remove “junk”.
● Clean up crew
Vacuoles-
● Store materials such as water, salts, carbohydrates
● Animal cells have many small vacuoles
● Plant cells have a large central vacuole filled with fluid
● Pressure from water in the vacuole helps plants maintain the shape. If the vacuole is not full, the plant
wilts.
Cytoplasm-
● Jelly-like material that contains all organelles
-80% H2O
● Site of most chemical reactions
-Has a characteristic and nearly constant pH
● Contains dissolved nutrients and waste products
● Moves materials around
Centrioles-
● Cylindrical structures made of protein
● Organize the spindle fibers during cell division
● Spindle fibers will separate chromosomes during cell division
● Only found in animal cells

Cytoskeleton-
● Network of protein filaments
○ Helps the cell maintain its shape
○ Helps move organelles and other structures
● Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments
Cell Wall-
● Provides support and protection for the cell
● Plant cell walls are made of cellulose (carbohydrate)
● Wood (and paper) are made of cellulose
● Found in plant cells

CELL MEMBRANE AND TRANSPORT:

Cell Membrane:
1. The cell membrane is made of
-bilayer of phospholipids
-proteins (function as transport or channel, markers, receptors)
-cholesterol (keep membrane “Fluid” not stiff
2. Controls what enters and leaves the cell to maintain HOMEOSTASIS
3. Homeostasis: balance needed for survival
4. Model of cell membrane is called Fluid Mosaic Model —Membrane is a flexible mosaic of diff molecules
**Semi-Permeable Membrane
How do substances move out of the cell?
-Very small and non-polar molecules can pass directly through the phospholipids of the cell membrane. Water is
an exception.
-Large and polar molecules, like some sugars, need to pass through “protein gates”
1. Passive transport: Molecules DO NOT need ENERGY to move across the cell membrane
2. Active transport: Molecules need ENERGY to move across the cell membrane
Passive Transport:
1. Molecules move with the flow, from an area of high concentration to to an area of low concentration
2. Molecules do not need energy (ATP) to move across the cell membrane
3. There are 2 main types: Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion (passive transport):
-The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration
-From more to less (uses kinetic energy)
-All molecules are constantly moving in space
-Even when the concentration is the same (they reach equilibrium) molecules are still moving back and forth
Diffusion: Through membrane
Facilitated Diffusion: Through a transport protein (protein channel)
Osmosis (passive transport):
-The movement of WATER through a membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water
concentration
-From more to less
-H20 is always moving

Active Transport:
 1. It requires energy (ATP)
2. Molecules move from an area of low concentration to an are of high concentration
3. AGAINST the gradient (against the flow)
4. There are 3 types:
A: Protein pumps in the membrane
B:Endocytosis
C:Exocytosis
Endocytosis: When cells take in material by making pockets in the cell membrane. The pocket becomes a vacuole
Exocytosis: Cells send materials out. A vacuole fuses with the membrane and releases the contents
Both require ENERGY
PROTEIN PUMP REF IMAGE:

What happens to cells when you put them in solutions of different concentrations?
-OSMOSIS HAPPENS
-Water will move into or out of the cell
-Water=solvent(dissolves stuff)
-Solute= what is dissolved in the water (ex Salt)
-Isotonic solution: Same solute concentration
-Hypertonic solution: Higher solute concentration
-Hypotonic solution: Low solute concentration

CELL SPECIALIZATION:
Unicellular Organisms: Bacteria, Protista
-Cells are not specialized
-A single cell does everything an organism needs to survive:
-Grows , Reproduces, processes energy,Responds to the environment etc

Multicellular Organisms:
-Cells develop in different ways to perform different tasks/jobs
-Cells are specialized
-Shape of the cell is related to the function

Animal Cells: Specializations

-Red Blood Cells: Carry oxygen
-Pancreas Cells: Produce proteins ((digestive enzymes and insulin) – rich in ribosomes, ER, and Golgi
-Muscle Cells: have fibers for movement
-Neurons: transport signals
-Fat cells: store lipids
-Skin cells: flat and hard (protection)

Levels of Organization:
1. Cells
2. Tissues: Groups of similar cells doing a particular job. Ex: muscles, epithelial
3. Organs; Groups of tissues working together. Ex: Stomach is made of muscles and epithelial tissues.
4. Organ Systems: Group of organs. Digestive system is made of stomach, liver, pancreas etc

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS:

There are 2 basic types of cells:
-Prokaryotic
-Eukaryotic
Differences:
● Presence/absence of nucleus
 ● PResence/absence of membrane-bound organelles
● Small/large size
Prokaryotic Cells: All bacteria
● Small and simple
● No Nucleus
(Genetic material (DNA) is loose inside the cell)
● No organelles with membranes
● The only membrane is the cell membrane
● Have ribosomes
● Have cell wall
● Most primitive cells: First cells on Earth
● Example: Bacteria
(E. coli, Streptococcus)

Eukaryotic cells:
● Large and complex
● Have Nucleus
○ Genetic material (DNA) inside the nucleus
● Many membranes
● Evolved from prokaryotic cells
Cells of:
- plants
- animals
- fungi
- protists

Eukaryotic cells: Animal

● All eukaryotic characteristics (nucleus, membrane-bound organelles)
● Small vacuoles
● No cell wall
● No chloroplasts
● Evolved from prokaryotic cells
● Animals are multicellular

Eukaryotic cells: Plant

● All eukaryotic characteristics (nucleus, membrane-bound organelles)
● Have cell wall
● Have chloroplasts
● Large vacuole
● Evolved from prokaryotic cells
● Plants are multicellular

Eukaryotic cells: Fungi

● All eukaryotic characteristics (nucleus, membrane-bound organelles)
● Cell wall made of CHITIN (a carbohydrate)
● No chloroplasts
● Evolved from prokaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells: Protista

● All eukaryotic characteristics (nucleus, membrane-bound organelles)
● Evolved from prokaryotic cells too
● Protista are unicellular = one cell
● One cell satisfies all the needs of the organism – one cell does everything!!!
 ● Move using : Flagellum
■ Cilia
■ Pseudopods

Protista: Euglena Protista: Paramecium

-Move using a flagellum, one long hair-like structure) -Move using cilia (short hair-like structures)

Protista: Amoeba
-Move using pseudopods (pseudo=false; pods= feet), projections of the cytoplasm

DNA/RNA PART 1 :

DNA Structure:
-DNA is an organic MACROMOLECULE (Nucleic Acid)
-DNA is a POLYMER
-2 types of Nucleic acids: DNA, RNA
 -The monomers(Basic building blocks) of nucleic acids are NUCLEOTIDES

-DNA is made of
-2 strands connected
-shape of a twister ladder
-DOUBLE HELIX

-NUCLEOTIDES are made up of

-Deoxyribose: a sugar
-Phosphate
-Nitrogen Base: Adenine(A) , Guanine(G) , Cytosine(C) , Thymine(T)
- Sugar and phosphate molecules are held together by covalent bonds AND also make the sides of rails of the
double helix (Ladder)

**IMPORTANT** A-T G-C A-G

-DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

-Chromosomes are made of DNA pieces coiled around proteins called histones

-Eukaryotic cells have many strands of DNA in the nucleus, each strand becomes one chromosome

-Most prokaryotic cells(Bacteria) have one circular DNA molecule (1 chromosome)

-Plasmid : circular chromosome that bacteria (prokaryotic) has

**IMPORTANT**

Phosphate is the 5’ “prime” side (When is the phosphate is at the end)

Sugar is the 3’ “prime” side (When the sugar is at the end)

The start or the other side is the opposite of the ends prime
EXPLANATION OF PRIME 5 AND 3
DNA complementary strands

For simplicity the 2 DNA strands are represented by the sequence of nitrogen bases
Ex: ATCGAACGTTA (Original) and then TAGCTTGCAAT (Complementary)

Practice- ATCGGGTTAACGTATCC (Original) TAGCCCAATTGCATAGG (Complementary)

DNA Replication
-Duplication of chromosomes
-Occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes
-Occurs during interphase in eukaryotes
-it takes about six hours to copy all your DNA
DNA replication is SEMI-CONSERVATIVE duplicated DNA is 50% original, 50% new

Steps of Replication
1. Enzymes unwind and unzip the DNA double helix (The enzymes HELICASE breaks up the H-BONDS
between the nitrogen bases separating the 2 strands)
2. The enzyme DNA polymerase brings complementary nucleotides and attaches them to the matching
nucleotides in the open strands
- The 2 original strands of DNA are called TEMPLATES
RNA/PROTEIN SYNTHESIS PART 11:
RNA and Protein Synthesis

**IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER**
● The DNA molecule (In the nucleus) contains all the instructions to make proteins
● The instructions are the sequence of nucleotides in DNA - the sequence of letters in a segment of DNA
● A Gene is a sequence of nucleotides (letters) in the DNA molecule
● BUT This sequence has to be translated into amino acids

RNA is:
● Ribonucleic Acid
● RNA is a macromolecule (Nucleic Acid)
● The monomers of nucleic acids are NUCLEOTIDES
Rna :
-One single strand
-Found inside and outside the nucleus
● Made of nucleotides:
-5-C Sugar (Ribose
-Phosphate group
-Nitrogen Bases: Adenine Uracil Cytosine Guanine
**IMPORTANT**
Three types of RNA : mRNA , tRNA , rRNA

Messenger RNA
-Carries info from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
-mRNA is a copy of a section of the DNA
-mRNA contain genetic information
-CODON: sequence of 3 nucleotides in mRNA it codes for one amino acid

Transfer RNA
-Transports amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes during protein synthesis
-ANTICODON: sequence of 3 nucleotides on the tRNA
-the tRNA anticodon matches the mRNA codon

rRNA is:
-Ribosomes are made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
-mRNA brings the message from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome (rRNA). The tRNA brings the
corresponding amino acids
-the ribosomes allow mRNA and tRNA to work together to join amino acids making proteins
DNA vs. RNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

1. Double stranded 1. Single stranded
2. Sugar is deoxyribose 2. Sugar is ribose
3. N-Bases are : 3. N-bases are
A, T, C, G A, U, C, G
4. Cannot leave the nucleus 4. Can leave the nucleus
5. One type 5. Three types:
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: Making Proteins

-Cells make proteins by joining together different AMINO ACIDS
-the DNA code determines the ORDER of these amino acids, but DNA cannot leave the nucleus
-RNA is used to help assemble amino acids into proteins
- The 3 types of RNA help in making proteins mRNA , tRNA , rRNA

**IMPORTANT** Protein Synthesis = Transcription + Translation

TRANSCRIPTION: from DNA to mRNA

-Transcription is the process of making messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template (Original)
-DNA must be copied into mRNA because DNA cannot leave the nucleus

STEPS
1: The DNA unzips and RNA bases attach to the exposed bases of the DNA strand, making a strand of mRNA

2: MRNA separates from the DNA template

3: mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosomes (at cytoplasm) to make proteins

**IMPORTANT** unlike using the helicase to unzip the DNA (for copying DNA) instead it uses RNA
Polymerase which unzips the DNA and also assembles the nucleotides (ONLY ENZYME NEEDED TO
KNOW FOR PROCESS)

TRANSLATION: from mRNA to Protein

1. mRNA travels from the nucleus to the ribosome
2. tRNA picks up free amino acids from the cytoplasm and brings them to the ribosome
3. The tRNA anticodon attaches to the mRNA codon and releases the amino acid
4. Another tRNA brings another amino acid and a chain of amino acids begins to form
5. Eventually a STOP codon appears in the mRNA marking the end of the protein
The Genetic Code: mRNA codons
-A sequence of 3 nucleotides in mRNA codes for one amino acid
-AUG =Methionine (Start Codon)
-UCA = Serine
-GCG = Alanine
-AAA = Lysine
-UGA =Stop
REMEMBER HIGHLIGHTED CODONS

CANCER:
-A class of diseases characterized through:
● uncontrolled and abnormal amounts of growth/multiplication
● Invasion of surrounding tissues
● Eventually metastasis into other parts of the body

Definitions:
Tumor- Any abnormal swelling or lump
Cyst- Closed sac having a distinct membrane and division on the nearby tissue.
(May contain air fluids , or semi-solid material)
TUMOR TYPES
Benign - a tumor that stops growing by itself, does not invade other tissues and does not form metastases
Malignant - Synonymous with cancer and invades surrounding tissue
Metastasis - The spreading of cancer to other parts of the body
 SYMPTOMS:
• Cancer symptoms can be classified three ways

• Local symptoms

– Unusual lumps or swelling, bleeding, pain .

– These are all local to one particular area

• Metastasis Symptoms

– Enlarged lymph nodes, cough, bone pain, fracture, neurological.

– May cause pain, but not first symptom

• Systemic Symptoms

– Weight loss, poor appetite, fatigue, excessive sweating, anemia

MECHANISM:
-Cancer ignores checkpoints throughout the cell cycle
-Causes uncontrolled cellular growth
-One mutation can cause a chain reaction leading to multiple mutations and disastrous effects

CAUSES:
-Chemical Carcinogen (Chemicals that cause the DNA to mutate ex: Mutagen)
 -Ionizing Radiation (Prolonged exposure can lead to mutations in DNA and lead to cancer)
-Viral or bacterial infections
-Hormonal imbalances
-Immune system
-Heredity
MUTATIONS:
- A change in the DNA sequence (Mutations alter/change genes)
- Mutations can be:
- Detrimental to the organism
Ex:Cancer, sickle cell anemia
- Neutral -have no effect
Ex: Hair color
- Beneficial
Ex: Skin color
A gene is a sequence of DNA that codes for a protein (and determines a trait/characteristic)

TYPES OF MUTATIONS:
Gene Mutations : Changes in the DNA sequence of a particular gene
A. Point Mutation (Changes in one or a few bases)
One base is changed to another: Substitution
Substitutions usually affect a single amino acid
B. Frameshift Mutation
These mutations occur when a base (letter) is inserted or deleted from the DNA sequence
Insertions and deletions affect the reading frame of a protein by shifting the codons

Chromosomal Mutations: Changes in the number and structure of chromosomes (involves many genes)
A. Deletion: a piece of chromosome is lost
B. Duplication: a piece of chromosome is duplicated
C. Inversion: a piece of chromosome is reversed or flipped around
D. Translocation: A piece of chromosome breaks off and attaches to another

MUTAGENS or MUTAGENIC agents:

-Mutagens: a natural or human-made agent which can change the structure of sequence of DNA
-Chemicals : Asbestos, Mustard gas
-Radiation: X-rays , UV radiation etc

CELL CYCLE:
Cells divide to…
-Reproduction (if you are unicellular)
-Growth in size (you get bigger)
-Repair (replace damaged cells)
During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to form 2 daughter cells
Each new cell will start the cycle all over again

The Cell Cycle: Two main stages:

1. Interphase
2. Cell Division (Mitosis)
INTERPHASE:
-Longest phase of the cell cycle “Normal” period of a cell
-Cells growth and carry out their regular functions the cell is just doing its job G1 Phase
-Chromosomes (DNA) copied (=duplicated) S Phase
-Cell prepares for division (duplicates all the organelles) G2 Phase
-G1 = Growth 1. Makes proteins and organelles
-S = Synthesis. DNA is copied
-G2: Growth 2. Makes molecules needed for division

Some Defintions:
Chromosome = Condensed DNA
Centromere = The center point for the chromosome or sister chromatids; equal to # of chromosomes
Single Stranded Chromosome = Half of a chromosome ; During G1 phase
Sister Chromotaids = Double stranded chromosome ;after the cell copies the DNA from S phase
Homologous Pair = They have the identical DNA
CELL DIVISION:
Mitosis: PMAT- Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
First Prophase:
 1. DNA condenses ( coils together) and the chromosomes become visible
2. Nuclear membrane disappears
3. Centrioles separate
Second Metaphase:
1. Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
2. Centromeres connect to the spindle fibers
Third Anaphase:
1. Centromeres divide
2. Sister chromatids separate and move to the opposite poles (apart)
Fourth Telophase:
1. Chromosomes reach the opposite ends of the cell
2. Nuclear membrane forms again
3. Cell begins to split in half
Fifth Cytokinesis:
1. Cytoplasm splits in half forming 2 daughter cells
2. In animal cells the cell membrane pinches inward
3. In plants cells, a cell plate forms between the 2 daughter cells

MEIOSIS: Making reproductive cells

Meiosis: the process of nuclear division where the number of the chromosomes is halved.
● Produces four daughter cells
● All daughter cells are haploid (n) 2n = number of chromosomes n+n = 2n (Haploid=n
Diploid is product of two Haploid)
● Haploid has half the number of chromosomes
● Chromosomes are shuffled in the process, so that each daughter cell has a unique
combination (it produces many different reproductive cells.)
● Process that makes gametes (sperm and egg)
Crossing over: Prophase 1
Prophase: Meiosis starts and chromosomes have already made copies of themselves in (G1 - S - G2 )
Sister chromatids- Identical chromosomes
Crossing over: When duplicated maternal chromosomes and duplicated paternal chromosomes “cross
over” each and parents of the maternal chromosome get replaced and mixed with the paternal
chromosome.
EX:

-Chromosomes exchange sections

-Crossing over increases variability/diversity

Meiosis 1 - Prophase (Crossing over happens here), Metaphase , Anaphase. Telophase

Meiosis 2- Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, Telophase 2

Definitions:
Spermatogenesis: Production of male gametes (Sperm) 2n=4
Oogenesis: Production of female gametes (eggs)
Crossing over: When duplicated maternal chromosomes and duplicated paternal chromosomes “cross
over” each and parents of the maternal chromosome get replaced and mixed with the paternal
chromosome.
SPERMATOGENESIS:
● Occurs in the testes
● Two divisions produce four sperm cells
● Sperm swim (Have mitochondria , do cellular respiration and produce ATP)

OOGENESIS:
● Occurs in the ovaries
● Two divisions produce three polar bodies that die and one egg
● Polar bodies die because of unequal division of cytoplasm
● Starting at puberty one egg matures every 28 days- menstruation
MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS:
Mitosis Meiosis
-Cell division of body cells (somatic) -Cell division that produces
gametes
-Produces 2 diploid cells (2n) - Produces 4 haploid cells (n)
-New cells contains copies of all chromosomes -Each gamete contains just one
-One cell division chromosome for each pair
-All cells are identical (photocopies) -Two cell divisions
-All cells are different

MEIOSIS 1 PROCESS
Prophase 1 crossing over where the two pairs of homologous chromosomes exchange parts of
Metaphase 1 Spindle Fibers bring the two pairs of chromosomes to the middle
Anaphase 1 Spindle fibers pull them away from each other
Telophase 1 Two newly formed nuclei

MEIOSIS 2 PROCESS
Prophase 2 Spindles form no crossing over
Metaphase 2 Spindle Fibers bring ONE chromosome to the middle
Anaphase 2 CHROMATIDS pulled away
Telophase 2 divides so 4 cells formed ;phju
KARYOTYPES:
Karyotype: photograph of an organism chromosomes, grouped in homologous pairs (Humans have 23
pairs of chromosomes , total of 46)
Diploid: Two complete sets of chromosomes one moms and one dads
*Homologous Chromosome Pairs must have matching “stripes”
First 22 pairs are called autosomes and the last pair is called a sex chromosome pair (Female XX , Male
YX)

HUMAN GENETIC DISORDERS:

-Most genetic disorders have no cure,yet
-Scientists currently working on a way to fix the “bad” genes in an organism using GENE THERAPY
Genetic Disorders caused by Mutations
-Cystic fibrosis RECESSIVE ; Chromosome 7
-Sickle cell anemia CODOMINANT NS or SS ; Chromosome 11
-Hemophilia RECESSIVE SEX-LINKED must two recessive X for females and one for males
-Phenylketonuria or PKU RECESSIVE; Chromosome 12
-Tay-Sachs RECESSIVE
-Huntington’s disease DOMINANT
Genetic Disorders caused by Nondisjunction
-Down syndrome EXTRA CHROMOSOME ON 21
-Klinefelter syndrome AN EXTRA X OR Y SEX CHROMOSOME Ex- XXY on 23
-Turner syndrome JUST ONE X on 23

Non-disjunction of chromosomes
-Non-disjunctions:Failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis 1 or 2
-Both chromosomes stay together and BOTH go to one gamete the other gamete gets NOTHING
-if non-disjunction occurs, one gamete get both chromosomes, the other gamete nothing

GENETICS
VOCAB:
A gene: is a section of a chromosome (DNA) that has the info for a particular trait (a sequence of
DNA)
Ex- Genes for eye color , type of hair
Alleles: are the alternative forms of a gene Alleles are the different versions of a gene. Most traits have 2
alleles, one in each chromosome
IMPORTANT HOMOZYGOUS = PURE (Purebred) HETEROZYGOUS = HYBRID
=CARRIER
Genotype: is the set of alleles of an organism. It is described using the letters of the alleles
Phenotype: the appearance of an organism what it looks like (What you can see)
Meiosis info: the number of chromosomes is cut in half , Meiosis produces haploid cells(n), eggs and
sperm will have just ONE chromosome of each pair.

Gametes: FOUR sex cells produced at the end of meiosis

1. Chromosomes come in pairs and humans have 23 PAIRS of chromosomes
2. Each pair of chromosomes is said to be homologous because they have the same types of genes
(have the info to produce the same traits)
3. Ones of the chromosomes in a pair of homologous chromosomes come from the mother and the
other from the father

A Cross: one trait is studied at a time is called a MONOHYBRID cross and a DIHYBRID cross is two
traits (USE FOIL)

Test Cross: A cross between an individual of an unknown genotype with a known one to determine the
genotype of the unknown.

EX-

IMPORTANT MENDEL'S PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY:

1. Principle of Dominance: Some alleles are dominant, others are recessive. An organism with a
dominant allele will always show the dominant trait
 2. Principle of Segregations: The 2 alleles of a trait separate when the sex cells are formed (one
chromosome carrying one allele goes to the gamete, the other homologous chromosome, carrying
the other allele,goes to another gamete)

3. Principle of Independent assortment: Genes or different traits can segregate (separate)

independently during meiosis(the formation of gametes). Traits are independent of each other.

PEDIGREES:
A pedigree: a chart that shows the relationships within a family to help understand how traits are passed.
IMPORTANT:
- A cross of 2 recessive individuals can never giver a dominant result
- 2 dominant individuals can produce recessive offspring if they are heterozygous
- A dominant trait cannot “skip” a generation
- Sex-linked traits tend to be more “common” in males if a female has a sex-linked trait then the
father had it and the mother was a carrier

GENETIC ENGINEERING:
How do we change the genome?
Selective Breeding: Select some traits by allowing only those organisms with the desirable traits to reproduce
(artificial selection)
Ex: Dogs, cats, plants : different breeds or types
Hybridization: cross dissimilar individuals to have offspring with the best of both (Trial and error)
Inbreeding: Cross organisms that have similar characteristics(same type)- Pure breeds
Increase variation by inducing mutations: radiation and chemicals

How do we change the genome of an organism?

Change the DNA: by physically cutting , adding, or removing pieces, with the desired genes
Transgenic organisms: organism that have genes from other species
Clones: genetically identical cells or organisms ( have exactly the same DNA)

The Tools of Genetic Engineering:

 1. Extract the DNA: We did it already (Strawberry DNA)
2. Cutting the DNA: With “scissors”: Restriction enzymes
3. Separate the pieces of DNA: Electrophoresis
4. Make copies of DNA: Polymerase Chain Reaction
Cutting the DNA:
-We cut DNA into smaller fragments using restriction enzymes
-Restriction enzymes cut DNA at a specific nucleotide sequence they are very specific
-We obtain restriction enzymes from bacteria

Separating fragments (pieces) of DNA:

After cutting the DNA, the pieces are separated using gel electrophoresis
1. A mixture of fragments is placed at the end of a gel
2. An electric voltage is applied to the gel
3. The pieces of DNA are negatively charged (-), so they move toward the positive (+) end of the gel
4. Smaller pieces move faster (go far)
5. Bigger pieces are slower (stay close to the beginning)

Making more copies of DNA

-You can easily make more copies of DNA in a lab
-There is a technique used called polymerase chain reaction or PCR:
1. The DNA fragment to be copied is heated in a soup of nucleotides (A, T , C, G)
2. The 2 strands separate (high t0 breaks H-bonds)
3. The solution cools and DNA polymerase attaches the free nucleotides to the open strands
4. Now we have 2 DNA molecules (4 strands)
5. Repeat the heating, DNA polymerase, and cooling cycle (steps 1,2,3) as many times as needed
PCR= Polymerase Chain Reaction
Forensics

• In a crime scene, police collect skin flakes and blood.

• Is there enough DNA in those cells to do DNA testing (DNA fingerprinting?) NO

• Police use PCR to copy the small amounts of DNA collected.

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• Enzymes are very sensitive to high temperature (denature). How come DNA polymerase works at high
temperatures?
DNA polymerase for PCR comes from bacteria that live in Hot Springs – Yellowstone National Park

GENETIC ENGINEERING PART 2:

 DNA Fingerprinting:
-Every individual has a unique DNA we are all slightly different
1. DNA is cut with restriction enzymes every organism will have a different number of pieces and of
different size
2. The DNA fragments are separated using gel electrophoresis
3. The pattern of bands in the gel is characteristic of each organism everyone will have a different pattern of
bands
Application of genetic engineering:
4. DNA Fingerprinting
5. Genetic Engineering: Making transgenic organism
6. Cloning
7. Human Genome Project
8. Gene Therapy
Making Transgenic organisms:
-Transgenic: an organism that contains DNA from other species
-Recombinant DNA: DNA is made from combining the DNA of 2 different organisms (different species)
-Plasmid: Small, circular, DNA molecules found in the cytoplasm of bacteria in addition to the regular DNA

Transgenic organisms:
Other examples of transgenic organisms:
1. Transgenic Bacteria: produce Human Insulin and Blood Clotting Factors (to treat hemophilia) - Bacteria
grow fast
2. Tobacco plant with glowing protein from lightning bugs
3. Transgenic pigs and sheep that produce human proteins in their milk (easy to collect)
4. Transgenic corn and soybeans with a natural insecticide
5. Golden Rice: Transgenic rice with genes to make vitamin A
Cloning:
Cloning: Making organisms that are genetically identical, starting from a single cell.
How is it done?
1. Nucleus of an egg (haploid) is removed and destroyed
2. Empty egg is fused with a somatic cell (diploid)
3. The egg cell, with the nucleus of a body cell, starts dividing
4. Embryo is placed in the uterus of a foster mother where it develops to full term

The Human Genome Project

Human Genome Project: Project to sequence the human DNA and analyze the information
-1990-2003
-Cost in the USA: $2.7 billion
-Multinational Project: COLLABORATION
-Goals:
1. Sequence the DNA
2. Identify the genes that cause diseases
3. Map the location of every gene in the chromosomes
Findings:
-Human DNA is made of 3 billions bases x2
-There are about 35,000 genes
-Many diseases are genetically controlled information can be used to cure diseases
-All the data is free and available to everyone on the internet
-Biotechnology companies are trying to develop better drugs and better ways to test for genetic disorders
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy: a defective gene (piece of DNA) is replaced by a good, normal gene
● The main problem is how to deliver the good DNA to the cells affected
● Viruses are often used a vectors to deliver the new DNA to the cell
● Gene therapy has been tried for cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and some immune disorders