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Instrumentation and Metrology (PCCME603T)

Name of Topic:- UNIT-I: Characteristics of Instruments
Contents:-
• Purpose, Structure, and elements of a general measurement system.
• Static characteristics of the measurement system
• Dynamic characteristics of the measurements system
• Measurement error
• Types of inputs and Methods of corrections.
• Mathematical modeling and Transfer function
• Order of the system,
• Standard input signals
• Response of zero, first, and second-order instruments

GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS

Metrology literally means the science of
measurements.

1. Measurand, a physical quantity such as

length, weight, and angle to be measured
2. Comparator, to compare the measurand
(physical quantity) with a known standard
(reference) for evaluation
3. Reference, the physical quantity or
property to which quantitative comparisons
are to be made, which is internationally
accepted

GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS

• We know that measurement is defined as the quantification of a
physical variable using a measuring instrument.
• During the process of measurement, a specific value is assigned to
the unknown quantity after due comparison with a predefined
standard.

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SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS

• Some static characteristics are –
sensitivity, span, accuracy, resolution,
threshold, tolerance, linearity, hysteresis,
drift, cross-sensitivity etc.

• The dynamic characteristics are –

Dynamic Error, Speed of Response,
Fidelity, Lag.

• Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness of readings from

an instrument to the true value. Always accuracy is
measured relative to the true value or actual value.
• Precision: It is the degree of closeness of reading with
the previous reading. An instrument is said to be Precision Accuracy
precise when there is a negligible difference between
successive readings.
• Sensitivity: It refers to the least change in measured Sensitivity
value to which the instrument or device responds. The
ratio of change in the output of an instrument to a
change in the value of the quantity to be measured is
known as sensitivity.
• Linearity: Linearity is defined as the ability to give the
input characteristics symmetrically and linearly
(Straight line). Instruments are said to be linear when Linearity
there is an increment in input and output are constant
over the specified range.
• Resolution: It refers to a small change in input value
that does not affect the output value of an instrument.
This increment is called a resolution.

• Repeatability: It defines how consistently the output of an

instrument for the same input is tried again and again under the
same conditions.
• Range: The left extreme and right extreme values of a quantity
for which the instrument is designed to function. The range is
equal to the Maximum value minus the minimum value.
• Tolerance: It is the highest allowable error that is specified in
terms of certain values while measurement, it is called
tolerance.
• Hysteresis: It is defined as an instrument showing different
output values during loading and unloading conditions.
• Dead Zone: for the largest range of values of a measured
variable, to which the instrument does not respond.
• Drift: undesired change in the output of a measured variable
over a period of time that is unrelated to the changes in output,
operating conditions, and load.
• Threshold: If the input to the instrument is gradually increased
from zero, a minimum value of that input is required to detect
the output. This minimum value of the input is defined as the
threshold of the instrument.

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ACCURACY
• Accuracy is the degree of agreement of the measured dimension with its
true magnitude.
• It can also be defined as the maximum amount by which the result differs
from the true value or as the nearness of the measured value to its true
value, often expressed as a percentage.
• True value may be defined as the mean of the infinite number of measured
values when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors
tends to zero.
• In practice, realization of the true value is not possible due to uncertainties
of the measuring process and hence cannot be determined experimentally.
• Positive and negative deviations from the true value are not equal and will
not cancel each other. One would never know whether the quantity being
measured is the true value of the quantity or not.

PRECISION
• Precision is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring process.
• It is the degree of agreement of the repeated measurements of a quantity
made by using the same method, under similar conditions.
• In other words, precision is the repeatability of the measuring process. The
ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results during the
act of measurements for the same quantity is known as repeatability.
• Repeatability is random in nature and, by itself, does not assure accuracy,
though it is a desirable characteristic.
• Precision refers to the consistent reproducibility of a measurement.
• Reproducibility is normally specified in terms of a scale reading over a
given period of time. If an instrument is not precise, it would give different
results for the same dimension for repeated readings.
• In most measurements, precision assumes more significance than accuracy.

• It is essential to know the difference between precision and accuracy.

• Accuracy gives information regarding how far the measured value is with respect
to the true value, whereas precision indicates the quality of measurement,
without giving any assurance that the measurement is correct.
• These concepts are directly related to random and systematic measurement
errors.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Dynamic Error: The difference between the true value of the measured quantity to
the value shown by the measuring instrument under varying conditions.
• Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity of the measurement system that
responds to the changes in the measuring variable. It indicates how active and fast
the system is.
• Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument is capable of
faithfully reproducing the changes in input, without any dynamic error.
• Lag: Every system takes at least some time to respond, whatever time it may be to
the changes in the measured variable. For Example Lag occurs in temperature
measurement by temperature sensors such as Thermocouple or RTD or dial
thermometer due to scale formation on thermowell due to process liquid.
• Retardation lag: the response of the measurement begins immediately after the
change in measured quantity has occurred.
• Time delay lag: in this case after the application of input, the response of the
measurement system begins with some dead times.

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METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
• These are the methods of comparison used in measurement process. In
precision measurement various methods of measurement are adopted
depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible
error.
The methods of measurement can be classified as:
l. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Absolute or Fundamental method
4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method
6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Contact method
10. Contact less method

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• 1. Direct method of measurement: This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value
of the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any calculations. For example,
measurements by using scales, vernier calipers, micrometers, bevel protectors, etc. This method
is most widely used in production. This method is not very accurate because it depends on human
insensitivity in making judgments.
• 2. Indirect method of measurement: In the indirect method, the value of the quantity to be
measured is obtained by measuring other quantities which are functionally related to the
required value. E.g. Angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw pitch diameter by
three-wire method, etc.
• 3. Absolute or Fundamental method: It is based on the measurement of the base quantities used
to define the quantity. For example, measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the
definition of that quantity, or measuring a quantity indirectly by direct measurement of the
quantities linked with the definition of the quantity to be measured.
• 4. Comparative method: In this method, the value of the quantity to be measured is compared
with known value of the same quantity or other quantity practically related to it. So, in this
method only the deviations from a master gauge are determined, e.g., dial indicators, or other
comparators.
• 5. Transposition method: It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in which the value
of the quantity measured is first balanced by an initial known value A of the same quantity, and
then the value of the quantity measured is put in place of this known value and is balanced again
by another known value B. If the position of the element indicating equilibrium is the same in
both cases, the value of the quantity to be measured is AB. For example, the determination of a
mass by means of a balance and known weights, using the Gauss double weighing.

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• 6. Coincidence method: It is a differential method of measurement in which a

very small difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the
reference is determined by the observation of the coincidence of certain lines or
signals. For example, measurement by vernier caliper micrometer.
• 7. Deflection method: In this method, the value of the quantity to be measured is
directly indicated by a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
• 8. Complementary method: In this method, the value of the quantity to be
measured is combined with a known value of the same quantity. The
combination is so adjusted that the sum of these two values is equal to the
predetermined comparison value. For example, the determination of the volume
of a solid by liquid displacement.
• 9. Method of measurement by substitution: It is a method of direct comparison
in which the value of a quantity to be measured is replaced by a known value of
the same quantity, so selected that the effects produced in the indicating device
by these two values are the same.
• 10. Method of null measurement: It is a method of differential measurement. In
this method, the difference between the value of the quantity to be measured
and the known value of the same quantity with which it is compared is brought to
zero.

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STANDARDS
• Standards play a vital role for manufacturers
across the world in achieving consistency,
• accuracy, precision, and repeatability in
measurements and in supporting the system
that
• enables the manufacturers to make such
measurements.

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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT

SYSTEMS
• We know that some physical quantities such as length and mass can be directly measured using
measuring instruments.
• However, the direct measurement of physical quantities such as temperature, force, and pressure
is not possible. In such situations, measurements can be performed using a transducer, wherein
one form of energy/signal that is not directly measurable is transformed into another easily
measurable form.
• Calibration of the input and output values needs to be carried out to determine the output for all
values of input.
• A measuring instrument essentially comprises three basic physical elements. Each of these
elements is recognized by a functional element.
• Each physical element in a measuring instrument consists of a component or a group of
components that perform certain functions in the measurement process.
• Hence, the measurement system is described in a more generalized method. A generalized
measurement system essentially consists of three stages.
1. Primary detector–transducer stage
2. Intermediate modifying stage
3. Output or terminating stage

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• The primary detector–transducer stage senses the quantity to be measured and converts it into
analogous signals.
• It is necessary to condition or modify the signals obtained from the primary detector–transducer
stage so that it is suitable for instrumentation purposes.
• This signal is passed on to the intermediate modifying stage, wherein they are amplified so that
they can be used in the terminating stage for display purposes.
• These three stages of a measurement system act as a bridge between the input given to the
measuring system and its output.

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• PRIMARY DETECTOR–TRANSDUCER STAGE

• The main function of the primary detector–transducer stage is to sense the input signal and
transform it into its analogous signal, which can be easily measured.
• The input signal is a physical quantity such as pressure, temperature, velocity, heat, or intensity of
light. The device used for detecting the input signal is known as a transducer or sensor.
• The transducer converts the sensed input signal into a detectable signal, which may be electrical,
mechanical, optical, thermal, etc. The generated signal is further modified in the second stage.
• The transducer should have the ability to detect only the input quantity to be measured and
exclude all other signals.
• For example, if bellows are employed as transducers for pressure measurement, it should detect
signals pertaining to only pressure and other irrelevant input signals or disturbances should not
be sensed.
• However, in practice, the transducers used are seldom sensitive to only the signals of the quantity
being measured.

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• INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE

• In the intermediate modifying stage of a measurement system, the
transduced signal is modified and amplified appropriately with the
help of conditioning and processing devices before passing it on to
the output stage for display.
• Signal conditioning (by noise reduction and filtering) is performed to
enhance the condition of the signal obtained in the first stage, in
order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio.
• If required, the obtained signal is further processed by means of
integration, differentiation, addition, subtraction, digitization,
modulation, etc.
• It is important to remember here that in order to obtain an output
that is analogous to the input, the characteristics of the input signals
should be transformed with true fidelity.

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• OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE

• The output or terminating stage of a measurement system presents the value of
the output that is analogous to the input value.
• The output value is provided by either indicating or recording for subsequent
evaluations by human beings or a controller, or a combination of both.
• The indication may be provided by a scale and pointer, digital display, or cathode
ray oscilloscope.
• Recording may be in the form of an ink trace on a paper chart or a computer
printout. Other methods of recording include punched paper tapes, magnetic
tapes, or video tapes.
• Else, a camera could be used to photograph a cathode ray oscilloscope trace.
Table 12.1 gives some of the examples for the three stages of a generalized
measurement system.
• Thus, measurement of physical quantities such as pressure, force, and
temperature, which cannot be measured directly, can be performed by an
indirect method of measurement.
• This can be achieved using a transduced signal to move the pointer on a scale or
by obtaining a digital output

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
• Error is defined as a difference between the desired and actual performance or behavior
of a system or object. Thus the deviation of the true value from the desired value in
instrumentation is called error.
• ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
• Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted
standard quantity. It involves connecting a measurement instrument into the system
under consideration and observing the resulting response on the instrument. The
measurement thus obtained is a quantitative measure of the so- called “true value”
(since it is very difficult to define the true value, the term “expected value” is used). Any
measurement is affected by many variables, therefore the results rarely reflect the
expected value. For example, connecting a measuring instrument into the circuit under
consideration always disturbs value.
• Some factors that affect the measurements are related to the measuring instruments
themselves. Other factors that are related to the person using the instrument .The
degree to which a measurement nears the expected value is expressed in terms of the
error of measurement.
• Error may be defined as the absolute or as percentage of error.

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• TYPES OF ERROR
• There are generally two types of error in the measurement as
• Static error and
• Dynamic error.
• Static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference
between the true value of a quality and its value of quantity and by
measurement, i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity gives
a different indication.
• Dynamic error is the difference between the true value of a quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument.
• Static errors are categorized as gross errors or human error,
systematic errors, and random errors.

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• 1.GROSS ERROR
• These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using
instruments or error in recording observations. Error may also occur
due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational
mistakes. These errors cannot be treated mathematically. The
complete elimination of gross error is not possible, but one can
minimize them. Some errors are easily detected while others may be
elusive.
• One of the basic gross errors that occur frequently is the improper
use of an instrument. The error can be minimized by taking proper
care in reading and recording the measurement parameter.
• In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to some
extent when connected into a complete circuit. Due to minimizing
this error one should be taken at least three separate reading instead
of being depended on one reading only.
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• 2.SYSTEMATIC ERROR
• Systematic errors are biases in measurement which lead to the situation where the mean
of many separate measurements differs significantly from the actual value of the
measured attribute. These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as
defective or worn parts, or ageing or effects of the environment on the instrument.
Therefore A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as
systematic error.
• Some sources of systematic error are:
• • Errors in the calibration of the measuring instruments.
• • Incorrect measuring technique: For example, one might make an incorrect scale
Reading because of parallax error.
• • Bias of the experimenter. The experimenter might consistently read an instrument
incorrectly, or might let knowledge of the expected value of a result influence the
measurements.
• There are basically three types of systematic errors:-
• a. Instrumental errors.
• b. Environmental errors.
• c. Observational errors.

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• A. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
• Instrumental error refers to the combined accuracy and precision of a
measuring instrument, or the difference between the actual value and the
value indicated by the instrument.
• These errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their
mechanical structure. For example, in the D’Arsonval movement, friction in
the bearings of various moving components, irregular spring tensions,
stretching of the spring or reduction in tension due to improper handling or
over loading of the instrument.
• Instrumental errors can be avoided by:-
• i. Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement
applications.
• ii. Appling correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental
error.
• iii. Calibrating the instrument against a standard.
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• B. ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS
• An environmental error is an error in calculations that are being a part
of observations due to environment. Any experiment performing
anywhere in the universe has its surroundings, from which we cannot
eliminate our system. The study of environmental effects has primary
advantage of being able us to justify the fact that environment has
impact on experiments and feasible environment will not only rectify
our result but also amplify it.
• The environmental errors have different causes, which are widening
with the passage of time, as the research works telling us, including;
temperature, humidity, magnetic field, constantly vibrating earth
surface, wind and improper lightening.
• In high precision laboratories, where a slightest bug can destroy the
whole system, removal or at least minimizing the environmental
errors proved to be very fruitful.
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• C. OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS
• Observational errors are error introduced by the observer. The most
common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter
scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a
meter scale.
• These errors are caused by the habit of individual observers. For
example, an observer may always introduce and error by consistently
holding his head too far to the left while reading a needle and scale
reading.
• In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and
dynamic errors. Static errors are caused by limitations of the
measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior. Dynamic
errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to
follow the changes in a measured variable.

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• 3. RANDOM ERROR
• Random errors are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors
have been substantially reduced or at least accounted for. Random errors
are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and may
be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of
accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed statically.
• These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary
processor making measurements. Such errors are normally small and
follow the laws of probability. Random errors can thus be treated
mathematically.
• For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is
read at 15 minutes intervals. Although the instrument operates under ideal
environmental conditions and accurately calibrated before measurements,
it still gives that vary slightly over the period of observation. This variation
cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or any other known
method of control.
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• SOURCES OF RANDOM ERROR:

• The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to
provide true measurements, are as follows:
1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions
2. Poor design.
3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
4. Poor maintenance.
5. Errors caused by the person operating the instrument or equipment.
6. Certain design limitations.

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• There are also other types of error:- • limiting error, • Parallax error. • Quantization error.
• LIMITING ERRORS
• Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify accuracy within a certain % of a full scale
reading. For example, the manufacturer of a certain voltmeter may specify the instrument to be
accurate within with full scale deflection .This specification is called the limiting error. This means
that a full scale deflection reading is guaranteed to be within the limit of 2% of a perfectly
accurate reading; however, with a reading less full scale, the limiting error increases.
• PARALLAX ERROR
• Parallax is an apparent displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed
along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination
between those two lines.
• Therefore A change in apparent position of an object, with respect to the reference marks(s) on
an instrument, caused by imperfect adjustment of the instrument or by a change in the position
of the observer or both called parallax error. It is also called instrumental parallax or error of
parallax.
• To avoid this error separated everywhere by the same distance. The term is used, in particular, in
respect of lines and surfaces.
• QUANTIZATION ERROR
• In analog to digital conversion, the difference between the actual analog value and quantized
digital value is called quantization error or quantization distortion. This error is either due to
rounding or truncation. The error signal is sometimes considered as an additional random signal
called quantization noise because of its stochastic behavior.

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• Sources of errors
(1) Noise: It is defined as any signal that does not convey useful information.
(2) Design limitations: These are certain inevitable factors such as friction & resolving power
which lead to uncertainty in measurements.
(3) Response time: It is the time lag between the application of input signal & output
measurement.
(4) Deterioration of measuring system: Physical and/or chemical deterioration or other alterations
in characteristics of measuring system constitute a source of error in measurement.
(5) Environmental effects: The change in atmospheric temperature may alter the elastic constant
of a spring, the dimensions of a linkage, electrical resistance etc. similarly other factors such as
humidity, pressure etc. also affect measurements.
(6) Errors in observation & Interpretation: It is the mistake of operators in observing,
interpreting & recording the data.
(7) Poor maintenance of the system

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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT OR A

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
• Primary Sensing element
• Receives energy from the measured medium and produces on output depending in some way on the
measured quantity.
• Variable conversion element
• To convert the physical or any variable to another more suitable variable while preserving the information
content of the original signal.
• Variable manipulation system/element
• To perform the intended task, an instrument may require a signal represented by some physical variable be
manipulated in some way.
• Data transmission element
• For transmitting the data from one to another, when the functional elements of an instrument are actually
physically separated.
• Data Presentation Element
• Should be recognizable by one of the human senses. An element that performs the ‘translation’ function is
called as data presentation element.
• Data storage / playback function
• For storing the data and get back the data

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INPUT-OUTPUT CONFIGURATION OF INSTRUMENTS

AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
• A generalized configuration containing
the significant input-output relationships
present in all measuring apparatus,
• A scheme suggested by Draper, McKay, and
Lees
• Desired inputs are the quantities that
the instrument is specifically intended to
measure.
• Interfering inputs are the quantities to
which the instrument is unintentionally
sensitive.
• Modifying inputs are the quantities that
cause a change in the input-output
relations for the desired and interfering
inputs
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METHODS OF CORRECTION FOR INTERFERING

AND MODIFYING INPUTS
• A number of methods for nullifying/reducing the effects of
spurious inputs are available:
• The method of inherent insensitivity
• The method of high-gain feedback
• The method of calculated output corrections
• The method of signal filtering
• The method of opposing inputs

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TIME RESPONSE
• If the output of the control system for an input varies with respect to
time, then it is called the time response of the control system. The
time response consists of two parts.
• Transient response:
After applying an input to the control system, the output takes a certain
time to reach a steady state. So, the output will be in a transient state till it goes
to a steady state. Therefore, the response of the control system during the
transient state is known as the transient response.
• Steady state response
The part of the time response that remains even after the transient
response has zero value for large values of ‘t’ is known as a steady-state
response. This means the transient response will be zero even during the
steady state.

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TYPES OF TEST INPUT

• The knowledge of input signal is required to predict the response of a
system.
• In most of the systems, the input signals are not known ahead of time
and also it is difficult to express the input signals mathematically by
simple equations.
• The characteristics of actual input signals are a sudden shock, a
sudden change, a constant velocity, and a constant acceleration.
• Hence test signals which resemble these characteristics are used as
input signals to predict the performance of the system.
• The common use test input signals are impulse, step, ramp,
acceleration, and sinusoidal signals.

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• A signal is a function of an independent variable that carries some information.

• Practically the input and also output signals of any system are complex (they are a
combination of other signals) in nature.
• Thus it is being tough to analyze the characteristic performance of any system by
those signals.
• Thus we need some standard test signal to convert any signal into standard form
and make the system study easy.

Standard Input Signals

1. Step signal
2. Unit step signal
3. Ramp signal
4. Unit ramp signal
5. Parabolic signal
6. Unit parabolic signal
7. Impulse signal
8. Sinusoidal signal
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ORDER OF THE SYSTEM

• The order of the system is defined by the number of independent
energy storage elements in the system, and intuitively by the highest
order of the linear differential equation that describes the system.
• In a transfer function representation, the order is the highest
exponent in the transfer function.
• In a proper system, the system order is defined as the degree of the
denominator polynomial.
• In a state-space equation, the system order is the number of state
variables used in the system.
• The order of a system will frequently be denoted with an n or N,
although these variables are also used for other purposes.

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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF MECHANICAL

SYSTEMS
• The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical
equations known as mathematical model.
• These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
• Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know
the input and mathematical model.
• Design of control system means finding the mathematical model
when we know the input and the output.
• The following mathematical models are mostly used.
• Differential equation model
• Transfer function model
• State space model

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TRANSFER FUNCTION MODEL

• The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined
as the ratio of Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of
input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
• If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the
corresponding Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).
• Transfer function=Y(s)/ X(s)
• The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following
figure.

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ORDER OF INSTRUMENTS
• Zero Order Instruments
• A zero-order linear instrument has an output that is proportional to
the input at all times in accordance with the equation
y(t) = Kx(t)
where K is a constant called the static gain of the instrument.
• The static gain is a measure of the sensitivity of the instrument.
• An example of a zero-order linear instrument is a wire strain gauge in
which the change in the electrical resistance of the wire is
proportional to the strain in the wire.
• All instruments behave as zero-order instruments when they give a
static output in response to a static input.
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• First Order Instruments

• A first-order linear instrument has an output that is given by a non-
homogeneous first-order linear differential equation
tau .dy(t)/dt + y(t) = K.x(t)
where tau is a constant, called the time constant of the instrument.
• In these instruments there is a time delay in their response to changes of
input. The time constant tau is a measure of the time delay.
• Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-order instruments. The
time constant of measurement of temperature is determined by the
thermal capacity of the thermometer and the thermal contact between the
thermometer and the body whose temperature is being measured.
• A cup anemometer for measuring wind speed is also a first-order
instrument. The time constant depends on the anemometer's moment of
inertia.

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• Second Order Instruments

• A second-order linear instrument has an output that is given by a non-
homogeneous second-order linear differential equation
d 2y(t)/dt 2 + 2. rho .omega.dy(t)/dt +omega 2.y(t) = K. omega2.x(t)
where rho is a constant, called the damping factor of the instrument, and
omega is a constant called the natural frequency of the instrument.
• Under a static input a second-order linear instrument tends to oscillate about its
position of equilibrium. The natural frequency of the instrument is the frequency
of these oscillations.
• Friction in the instrument opposes these oscillations with a strength proportional
to the rate of change of the output. The damping factor is a measure of this
opposition to the oscillations.
• An example of a second-order linear instrument is a galvanometer which
measures an electrical current by the torque on a coil carrying the current in a
magnetic field.
• The rotation of the coil is opposed by a spring.
• The strength of the spring and the moment of inertia of the coil determine the
natural frequency of the instrument. The damping of the oscillations is by
mechanical friction and electrical eddy currents.
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