Exercise 1.

1: The Rock Cycle

1. The stages of the rock cycle:
○ Weathering: Breakdown of rocks at the Earth's surface.
○ Transportation: Movement of sediment by wind, water, or ice.
○ Deposition and Sedimentation: Layers of sediment build up.
○ Burial, Compression, and Heating: Sediments are compressed into
sedimentary rocks.
○ Crystallisation and Melting: Forms igneous rocks through cooling magma;
melting of rocks turns them into magma.
○ Uplift: Moves rocks back to the surface, completing the cycle.
2. Key stages:
○ Igneous rocks form from cooled magma.
○ Sedimentary rocks form from compacted and cemented sediments.
○ Metamorphic rocks are created when existing rocks are subjected to heat
and pressure.
3. Rock identification decision chart (Workbook Answer):
○ Stratified rock with invisible grains → Shale
○ White/creamy rock → Limestone
○ Crystals present → Granite
○ Flat, smooth layers → Slate
○ Large grains → Granite
○ White patches → Marble
○ No visible grains → Basalt

Exercise 1.2: Extracting Rocks and Minerals

1. Methods to find mineral deposits:
○ Prospecting: Surface observations.
○ Aerial photography: Remote sensing using drones/planes.
○ Geochemical analysis: Testing stream or rock samples.
○ Geophysical analysis: Using seismic vibrations to detect minerals
underground.
2. Factors influencing mining decisions:
○ Geology: Depth, position, and stability of rock layers.
○ Environmental impact: Surface vs. subsurface mining.
○ Market price: Higher costs make some methods economically unfeasible.
3. Advantages and disadvantages of mining methods:
○ Open-pit mining: Easier access but large environmental damage.
○ Strip mining: Efficient but causes dust and waste.
○ Drift mining: Cheaper but risk of tunnel collapse.
○ Shaft mining: Reaches deep minerals but is very costly and dangerous.

Exercise 1.3: Impacts of Rock and Mineral Extraction

1. Positive impacts:
○ Increased local employment and infrastructure improvements.
○ Lower costs for local industries due to reduced transportation of materials.
2. Negative impacts:
 ○ Loss of productive farmland.
○ Noise, dust, and water pollution affecting local populations and ecosystems.
3. Environmental consequences:
○ Loss of habitat (topsoil removal).
○ Pollution in water systems and disruption of food webs.
4. Impact of species extinction:
○ Loss of a plant species could severely disrupt the local food web, affecting
other organisms.
5. Mining impact:
○ Open-pit/strip mining causes the most surface damage.
○ Shaft mining has the least surface impact.

Exercise 1.4: Managing the Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction

1. Rehabilitation options:
○ Waste disposal site: Employment but risk of pollution.
○ Naturalising the area: Encourages wildlife but slow recovery.
○ Race track conversion: Employment but not suitable for wildlife.
○ Flooding for fish farms: Employment but water pollution risk.
○ Shopping centre: Employment but loss of natural habitat.
2. Spoil heap management:
○ Monitor for landslides and leaching of toxic materials to prevent
environmental damage.
3. Reasons for poor tree growth on waste heaps:
○ Poor soil structure, toxins, lack of nutrients, shallow soil, and absence of soil
organisms.

Exercise 1.5: Sustainable Use of Rocks and Minerals

1. Solutions for sustainable use:
○ Reclamation: Restoring land after mining.
○ Legislation: Policies to control resource extraction.
○ Efficient use: Improving mining and processing efficiency.
2. Reasons for recycling challenges:
○ High costs, inefficiency in refining, and lower quality of recycled metals.
3. Strategies to improve recycling:
○ New laws, better availability of recycling facilities, financial incentives, and
education on recycling.
4. Potential consequences of decreased mining:
○ Unemployment and local ecosystem disruptions near new recycling facilities.
 1. The Rock Cycle (Topic 1.1):
○ Common question types:
■ Labelling the rock cycle diagram.
■ Describing how different types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic) are formed.
■ Explaining processes like weathering, transportation, deposition, and
metamorphism.
2. Extraction of Rocks and Minerals (Topic 1.2):
○ Common question types:
■ Compare and contrast different mining methods (e.g., open-pit vs.
shaft mining).
■ Describe techniques used to locate mineral deposits (like prospecting,
geophysical analysis).
■ Discuss factors influencing the choice of mining methods (e.g.,
geology, environmental impact).
3. Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction (Topic 1.3):
○ Common question types:
■ Outline environmental impacts of mining (e.g., pollution, habitat
destruction).
■ Explain social and economic consequences of mining in local
communities.
■ Suggest strategies to reduce negative environmental impacts from
mining.
4. Managing the Impact of Extraction (Topic 1.4):
○ Common question types:
■ Discuss rehabilitation strategies after mining (e.g., naturalising land,
creating wildlife habitats).
■ Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of converting mined land
into alternative uses (e.g., parks, shopping centres).
5. Sustainable Use of Rocks and Minerals (Topic 1.5):
○ Common question types:
■ Explain the importance of recycling metals and resources.
■ Evaluate methods of sustainable resource use.
■ Discuss challenges of recycling and suggest improvements.

Process 1: Sedimentation
Explanation: Sedimentation is the process where particles like minerals, rock fragments,
and organic matter settle out of a fluid (usually water) and accumulate in layers. Over time,
these particles build up in layers, and the weight of the upper layers compacts the lower
layers, turning them into sedimentary rocks. This process often occurs in bodies of water like
rivers, lakes, or oceans.

Key Steps:

1. Weathering – Breaks down rocks into smaller particles.

2. Transportation – Particles are carried by wind, water, or ice.
3. Deposition – Particles settle out of the transporting medium (water, wind, etc.).
4. Compaction – Over time, more particles build up, and the weight of the layers
compresses the sediments.
5. Cementation – Minerals like silica or calcite act as glue, binding the particles
together to form sedimentary rock.

Keywords:
 ● Weathering
● Transportation
● Deposition
● Compaction
● Cementation
● Layers
● Organic matter
● Sedimentary rock

Process 2: Crystallization of Igneous Rocks

Explanation: Crystallization occurs when magma (molten rock beneath the Earth's surface)
cools and solidifies. This can happen beneath the surface (intrusive rocks) or on the surface
after a volcanic eruption (extrusive rocks). As the magma cools, minerals begin to crystallize
and form igneous rocks.

Key Steps:

1. Melting – Rocks melt due to high temperatures within the Earth's mantle or crust.
2. Magma formation – Molten rock collects in magma chambers.
3. Cooling – The magma cools slowly beneath the Earth’s surface (intrusive) or rapidly
on the surface (extrusive).
4. Crystallization – Minerals crystallize from the cooling magma, forming solid igneous
rocks.
5. Solidification – The magma is fully solidified into igneous rock, such as granite or
basalt.

Keywords:

● Magma
● Cooling
● Crystallization
● Intrusive rocks
● Extrusive rocks
● Granite
● Basalt
● Solidification

Process 3: Metamorphism
Explanation: Metamorphism is the process where existing rocks are transformed into
metamorphic rocks through heat, pressure, and chemical processes. This occurs deep
within the Earth's crust, where rocks are subjected to intense conditions that cause their
mineral structure and texture to change.

Key Steps:

1. Burial – Rocks are buried deep beneath the Earth’s surface.

2. Heat – High temperatures from nearby magma or deep burial alter the rock’s mineral
composition.
 3. Pressure – Intense pressure from tectonic forces compresses the rock.
4. Chemical changes – Fluids such as water can cause chemical reactions that further
change the rock.
5. Recrystallization – The minerals in the rock realign and recrystallize to form a
denser, more stable structure, creating metamorphic rock.

Keywords:

● Heat
● Pressure
● Recrystallization
● Burial
● Tectonic forces
● Chemical changes
● Metamorphic rock
● Marble
● Slate

Process 4: Weathering
Explanation: Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals at the Earth's surface due
to various physical, chemical, and biological processes. It occurs without the rock being
moved (unlike erosion), and the products of weathering are often transported away by
agents like water or wind.

Key Steps:

1. Physical weathering – Rocks are broken down through mechanical processes like
freeze-thaw cycles or thermal expansion.
2. Chemical weathering – Rocks undergo chemical reactions, often with water, which
breaks down the minerals (e.g., oxidation, hydrolysis).
3. Biological weathering – Plants, animals, or microorganisms contribute to the
breakdown of rocks.

Keywords:

● Physical weathering
● Chemical weathering
● Biological weathering
● Freeze-thaw
● Oxidation
● Hydrolysis
● Erosion

Process 5: Magma Formation

Explanation: Magma is formed by the melting of rocks in the Earth's mantle or crust. This
process is driven by increases in temperature, decreases in pressure, or the addition of
volatiles (e.g., water). Once formed, magma can move upwards through cracks in the crust
and lead to volcanic activity.
Key Steps:

1. Temperature increase – Rocks in the mantle or crust reach their melting point.
2. Decreased pressure – When rocks move to shallower depths, lower pressure allows
them to melt.
3. Addition of volatiles – Water or gases lower the melting point of rocks, causing
melting.
4. Magma chamber formation – Magma collects in underground chambers.
5. Upward movement – Magma rises due to its lower density compared to surrounding
solid rock.

Keywords:

● Magma
● Melting
● Temperature
● Pressure
● Volatiles
● Mantle
● Magma chamber

Summary of Keywords:
1. Sedimentation: Weathering, Transportation, Deposition, Compaction, Cementation,
Sedimentary rock.
2. Crystallisation (Igneous rocks): Magma, Cooling, Crystallisation, Solidification,
Intrusive, Extrusive.
3. Metamorphism: Heat, Pressure, Recrystallization, Burial, Tectonic forces,
Metamorphic rock.
4. Weathering: Physical weathering, Chemical weathering, Biological weathering,
Erosion, Freeze-thaw.
5. Magma Formation: Temperature, Pressure, Melting, Volatiles, Magma chamber.

1. Open Pit Mining

This is one of the most common and large-scale surface mining methods. It involves:

● Process: Removing large quantities of overburden (the soil or rock layer on top of
the mineral deposit) to expose the minerals.
● Advantages:
○ Easier access to materials as the mineral seams are located near the surface.
○ Large size allows easy access for machinery and workers.
● Disadvantages:
○ Causes significant damage to large areas of land, leaving visible scars.
○ Generates a lot of dust and noise pollution.
○ Produces large amounts of waste rock, known as spoil, which can also be an
environmental hazard.

2. Strip Mining
Strip mining is used when mineral seams are near the surface and can be accessed in long
strips.
 ● Process: Large machines remove overburden in long strips to access the mineral
seams underneath.
● Advantages:
○ Efficient and quick removal of minerals, as it cuts into the edge of seams.
● Disadvantages:
○ Significant land disruption and environmental impact over a wide area.
○ Dust and noise pollution are major concerns.
○ Produces large amounts of waste rock.

3. Drift Mining
Drift mining is a method used for accessing minerals that lie in horizontal or gently sloping
seams.

● Process: A horizontal or sloping tunnel (adit) is constructed into the side of a hill to
access the mineral seams.
● Advantages:
○ It is less costly than vertical shaft mining as it requires fewer structures like
support shafts.
○ Majority of overburden is left in place, reducing surface impact.
● Disadvantages:
○ Technically more complex than open-pit or strip mining.
○ There is a risk of tunnel collapse.

4. Shaft Mining
This method is used when mineral deposits are located deep underground.

● Process: Vertical shafts are drilled into the ground to reach deep mineral seams, and
workers and machinery are lowered into these shafts to extract the minerals.
● Advantages:
○ It reaches minerals that are not accessible by surface mining methods.
○ It has less impact on the surface ecosystem, as most of the operations take
place underground.
● Disadvantages:
○ The most expensive method due to the need for advanced technology and
infrastructure.
○ Risky, with hazards such as tunnel collapses, poisonous gases, underground
fires, and explosions.

Additional Methods of Prospecting (to Find Mineral Deposits):

1. Prospecting: Involves visual inspection of surface rock for signs of minerals.
2. Aerial Photography: Remote sensing using drones or planes to take photos and
analyse large areas for mineral signs.
3. Geochemical Analysis: Sampling and chemical analysis of sediments and rocks to
detect mineral presence.
4. Geophysical Analysis: Using seismic vibrations to determine the type and depth of
materials in the ground.

Each method of extraction depends on several factors like the depth of the deposit, cost-
effectiveness, environmental impact, and geological stability.