applied

sciences
Article
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Signals for Quantitative Assessment of
Reinforced Concrete Anomalies
Wael Zatar 1 , Gang Chen 1, *, Hien Nghiem 1 and Feng Xiao 2

1 College of Engineering and Computer Sciences, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25755, USA;
zatar@marshall.edu (W.Z.); nghiem@marshall.edu (H.N.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China;
xiaofeng@njust.edu.cn
* Correspondence: chenga@marshall.edu

Abstract: This paper presents a study to accurately evaluate defects in concrete decks using ultrasonic
pulse-echo signals. A reinforced concrete deck with void defects was designed and evaluated for
validation, and a commercial ultrasonic pulse-echo (UPE) device was used to obtain the 2D images of
the void defect inside the deck. The UPE image is based on the ultrasonic shear-wave test method
and an extended synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT). To enhance the accuracy of the
defect location in the SAFT imaging, the recorded A-scan data from UPE was analyzed using an
advanced denoising approach and defect echo peak extraction, which are based on empirical modal
decomposition, Hurst exponent characterization, and Hilbert envelope estimation. The results
demonstrated that the location and depth of the void defect in the deck can be accurately assessed by
using the developed approach. The new method provides quantitative information of the anomalies
inside the deck, which can be used to calibrate the qualitative images of UPC devices with the SAFT.

Keywords: nondestructive testing (NDT); ultrasonic pulse-echo (UPE); synthetic aperture focusing
technique; MIRA; reinforced concrete deck; anomalies; void defect; denoise; EMD; Hurst exponent;
Hilbert transform

1. Introduction
Citation: Zatar, W.; Chen, G.; Nghiem,
H.; Xiao, F. Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Poor construction processes associated with concrete quality can affect the load-
Signals for Quantitative Assessment carrying capacity of an engineering structure. A common problem arising from these
of Reinforced Concrete Anomalies. practices is usually cavities, cracks, internal voids, which frequently occur below the con-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860. https:// crete surface and cannot be found outside the concrete structure. These defects of high
doi.org/10.3390/app14114860 magnitude affect the concrete core and can cause a considerable decrease in the properties
Academic Editor: Kang Su Kim
of the concrete elements. The internal flaw detection method uses nondestructive testing
(NDT), which consists of a broad group of analysis techniques to evaluate specific properties
Received: 18 March 2024 and conditions of concrete without deteriorating or destroying the specimen [1,2].
Revised: 19 May 2024 The American Concrete Institute report ACI228.2R3 summarizes a few NDT methods
Accepted: 21 May 2024 used for concrete, one of which uses ultrasonic pulse-echo waves for flaw detection. Pulse-
Published: 4 June 2024
echo equipment consists of grouped piezoelectric transducers that allow for an operator
to analyze an element on a single face without accessing the opposite side of the concrete
element [3]. The pulse-echo technique uses the synthetic aperture focusing technique
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
(SAFT), which is a post-processing signal designed to improve the result of an area scan to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
locate concrete defects [4–7]. This technique has been employed in many studies to locate
This article is an open access article voids in concrete [8–10].
distributed under the terms and The basic principle of UPE testing relies on a transmitter to transform the energy of
conditions of the Creative Commons an electrical voltage into an ultrasonic wave. The ultrasonic wave travels at a velocity
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// dependent upon the concrete properties. The ultrasonic wave travels through the concrete
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ until a void/defect (or boundary) reflects the signal. The reflected signal travels back
4.0/).

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114860 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 2 of 15

until a void/defect (or boundary) reflects the signal. The reflected signal travels back
through
throughthe thematerial
materialtotothethereceiver.
receiver.The
Thereceiver
receiverconverts
convertsthe themechanical
mechanicalenergy
energyback
backto to
electrical energy, amplified as an echo, and recorded as an
electrical energy, amplified as an echo, and recorded as an A-scan [11–13].A-scan [11–13].
Figure
Figure11shows
showsthe theschematic
schematicof ofaatypical
typicalultrasound
ultrasoundreflection
reflectionprinciple
principleininaaUPEUPE
device,
device, with a transmitting and a receiving transducer. Equation (1) allowsfor
with a transmi ing and a receiving transducer. Equation (1) allows foraccurate
accurate
calculation
calculationof of the
the depth
depth of of the
the reflecting
reflectinginterface
interfaceofofthe
thedefect,
defect,Z.Z.Cs𝐶refers
refers to the
to the mate-
material’s
rial’s shear-wave
shear-wave speed,speed, is the travel
∆𝑡 travel
∆t is the time measured,
time measured, and X isandtheXhorizontal
is the horizontal
spacing spacing
between
between the transmi er and the defect location (Equation (1)) [7,11].
the transmitter and the defect location (Equation (1)) [7,11]. To understand the physicalTo understand the
physical properties of material be er, it is essential to consider its density (φ),
properties of material better, it is essential to consider its density (φ), Poisson’s ratio (µ), Poisson’s
ratio (µ), modulus
modulus of elasticity
of elasticity (E), and (E), and
shear shear modulus
modulus (G). By analyzing
(G). By analyzing these we
these factors, factors, we
can gain
can gain valuable
valuable insights insights into the behavior
into the behavior and characteristics
and characteristics of the (Equation
of the material material (Equation
(2)).
(2)). s
2
∆t

Z= 𝑍= C𝐶s 2 −−𝑋X
∆ 2
(1)
(1)

s s
E 1 G (2)
Cs =𝐶 = == (2)
φ 2(1 (+ µ)) φ

Figure 1. Schematic of the principles of UPC device.

Figure 1. Schematic of the principles of UPC device.
If applied effectively, UPE devices can be employed in the construction industry to
If applied effectively, UPE devices can be employed in the construction industry to
inspect and evaluate the quality of reinforced concrete structures. Commercially available
inspect and evaluate the quality of reinforced concrete structures. Commercially available
UPE devices, such as MIRA, EyeCon, and Pundit, utilize the tomography technique to generate
UPE
images devices,
of thesuch as MIRA,
interior concrete, EyeCon, andhelp
which can Pundit, utilize
identify the tomography
potential imperfections technique
[14–16]. toIn
generate images of the interior concrete, which can help identify
this study, the dry-point-contact transducer array unit was used to enhance the accuracy potential imperfections
[14–16]. In this study,
of the inspection the dry-point-contact
further. The UPE device used transducer
in this array
studyunit was used to enhance
is a low-frequency the
ultrasonic
accuracy
shear-wave of the inspectiondevice
tomography further.withThe UPE device
a surface used inspacing
longitudinal this study is mm,
of 30 a low-frequency
making it an
ultrasonic shear-wave tomography device with a surface
excellent tool for detecting even the smallest defects in concrete structures. longitudinal spacing of 30 mm,
making it an excellent tool for detecting even the smallest defects
Conventional software of UPE (v7.3.5) devices has limited the application to image in concrete structures.
Conventional
concrete structuressoftware
becauseofofUPE (v7.3.5) devices
the assumption of a has limited the
single-layer application to
homogeneous, image
isotropic
concrete structures because of the assumption of a single-layer
medium for concrete. A concrete bridge deck is a complex structure with multiple layers homogeneous, isotropic
medium for concrete.
of different materials,Aeach concrete
with bridge
varyingdeck is a complex
shear-wave structure
velocities. Duewith multiple
to this layers
variation, the
ofsoftware
different materials, each with varying shear-wave velocities. Due
used for inspection may provide inaccurate information about the multi-layered to this variation, the
software usedincluding
bridge deck, for inspection
depth,may provideand
thickness, inaccurate
internalinformation about the multi-layered
defects. Furthermore, the software’s
bridge deck, including depth, thickness, and internal defects.
signal processing may not accurately present reflected waves at the surface Furthermore, theand
software’s
defects.
signal
The realprocessing may not
heterogeneous accurately
materials maypresent
resultreflected waves at of
in the generation thenon-linear
surface and defects.
features in
The
wave real heterogeneous
propagation. The materials may result
irregular surface in the
texture may generation
cause sensorof non-linear featuresand
contact variation in
wave
createpropagation. The irregular surface texture may cause sensor contact variation and
a stochastic signal.
createPulse-echo
a stochastictesting
signal.is a nondestructive technique that uses ultrasonic waves to detect
Pulse-echo
material defects.testing is a nondestructive
The technique technique the
works by analyzing thatamplitude
uses ultrasonic
of thewaves to detect
echo signal and
material
the timedefects.
it takes The technique
for the signal to works
reachbytheanalyzing
receiver. the Thisamplitude
information of the echo
helps signal and
determine the
the time itpresence,
defect’s takes for size,
the signal to reach the
and location. Onereceiver. This information
of the primary advantages helps determine
of the the
pulse-echo
defect’s
technique presence, size, andinlocation.
is its flexibility One of
testing large and the primary advantages
irregularly shaped objects. of the pulse-echo
However, the
technique has a significant drawback: the loss of sensitivity near the test surface due to the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 3 of 15

coupling of the transducer with the test specimen. The ultrasonic signal passes through
several materials before reaching the test specimen, including a coupling element and a
transducer body. The reflected signals create near-field noise in the A-scan, which shows a
reflector at each material interface.
The amplitude of the received echo depends on several factors, such as the transmitter
power, direction of the transmission, size of the reflector, surface irregularities of the
reflector, the reflector’s position and orientation, the receiver’s size and orientation, loss of
signal at the receiver due to re-reflection and lack of coupling, attenuation of the sound
wave due to absorption and scattering, and shadow effects [17–21].
Ultrasonic testing is an effective method for detecting internal defects in concrete
structures. However, interpreting ultrasonic testing data is a crucial task requiring extensive
expertise. Various methods have been developed to overcome this challenge, including
the widely used mature industrial ultrasonic imaging method, SAFT. These methods have
shown promising results in detecting internal defects of concrete structures. However, it is
essential to note that most of these methods can only qualitatively determine the presence
of defects in concrete and cannot quantitatively detect the position and size of these defects.
Accurate positioning, precise evaluation, and clear visualization of void defects are
essential for assessing the safety and performance of concrete structures. Unfortunately,
the conventional SAFT method is often plagued by background noise and image artifacts,
primarily due to the low-frequency ultrasonic pulse with a long wavelength. Consequently,
the resulting image tends to droop, resulting in suboptimal quality outcomes.
Ultrasonic array devices are now widely employed to visualize the insides of concrete
structures nondestructively. However, the data collected by these devices may sometimes
need to be clarified, requiring the use of image reconstruction algorithms to achieve clear
images. Low-frequency UPE devices can combat the issue of signal attenuation in concrete
structures. These devices emit low-frequency ultrasonic pulses that reduce signal atten-
uation, pulse duration, and image sagging, resulting in fewer image distortions and an
overall improvement in quality.
The UPE device has an impressive collection of ultrasonic transducers that can measure
multiple pulse-echo signals in a single scan. This advanced process results in a comprehen-
sive cross-sectional image of the tested object. The device runs on the cutting-edge SAFT-C
algorithm, which uses a time-domain approach that relies on the delay-and-sum method to
focus on delayed reflections effectively. This algorithm was selected for its user-friendliness
and low-performance requirements, making it an excellent microprocessor option.
While the interpolated image provides an intuitive and immediate visualization of
the inside of concrete structures, the reliability of the information in the interpolated area
decreases as the spacing between 2D images increases. Using a polarized shear wave
by the UPE device makes it highly unlikely for a reflector to be arranged in a specific
direction. Additionally, the UPE device software cannot combine data collected from
multiple orientations to generate an image.
Existing detection methods often use ultrasonic body waves. The current commercial
UPE devices have enabled the rapid acquisition of shear-wave echoes of concrete. The
attenuation by ultrasonic scattering depends on the ratio of the wavelength to the diame-
ter/dimension of the scatterer. Some studies demonstrated that the scattering attenuation
of shear waves is less significant at frequencies lower than 50 kHz for commonly used
aggregate of size 15 mm in concrete. As such, by using current UPE devices, concrete
can be treated as a homogeneous medium with a single constant shear-wave velocity,
and the standard SAFT is employed in the UPE equipment to detect voids, imperfections,
and defects in concrete structures [22–30]. Ref. [31] used a focusing method (TFM) and
SAFT concepts for enhancing multimodal 2D imaging of concrete structures. Ref. [32] used
M-distance and linear discriminant analysis to classify the imagines of SAFT.
The standard SAFT’s results can be further improved by introducing a few develop-
ments, such as calibrating the sagging in the resulting images due to the long wavelength
of the pulse [33,34], the extended SAFT methods and applications [35–42], the AI-based
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 4 of 15

algorithms applications [43,44], and ultrasonic image by using both linear and non-linear
wave properties [45].
Two-time indices are called t1 and t2 in the ultrasonic transmission, reflection, and
receiving process. By precisely analyzing the designated timings, we can effectively discern
reflections originating from the front surface and any imperfections (Figure 1). This pulse
type is instrumental in generating an A-scan that meets rigorous quality standards. The
data derived from this scan are the time differential tf , which is represented as tf = t2 − t1
and commonly known as the ultrasonic time-of-flight (TOF). Knowing the propagation
speed of bulk waves in the material, the TOF is invaluable in determining the location of
the defect.
TOF-based methods have proven effective in detecting, locating, and sizing faults in
ultrasonic nondestructive testing and evaluation [7,11]. However, echo signals in UPC
testing often contain significant noise. The intensity of this noise can vary depending on
the medium’s properties and the distance of ultrasonic wave transmission, resulting in
low signal-to-noise ratios and peak variations in the time domain. These factors pose a
challenge in accurately locating and extracting peak amplitudes from defect echo signals.
Various signal processing techniques enhance the detection capabilities of ultrasonic
NDT applications, where signals are often mixed with noise. The ultrasonic signals should
be denoised, which is feasible using short-time Fourier transform, wavelet transform,
improved wavelet transforms, adaptive filtering, and empirical mode decomposition
(EMD) [46–52]. Each technique has its strengths and weaknesses, which are considered
when selecting the appropriate method for the given application.
Originating from concrete defect echoes in UPC testing, the resulting intense noise
makes identifying and quantifying defect echoes difficult. Therefore, the conventional
averaging and filtering techniques could be more helpful for pulse-echo noise reduc-
tion. Denoising assists with filtering the noise components and retaining the original
signal’s details.
The most used denoising algorithm thus far is the wavelet threshold algorithm. How-
ever, the wavelet threshold denoising has a severe drawback. It requires appropriate
wavelet base, threshold, and decomposition level values, thus allowing for different pa-
rameters to affect the denoising performance remarkably. Empirical mode decomposition
(EMD) works for non-linear, stochastic, and non-stationary signal processing. The EMD
denoising algorithm does not require presetting the base and decomposition level and is
more adaptable than the wavelet threshold algorithm. Furthermore, the EMD denoising
algorithm can result in high-frequency resolution.
The electrical noise and piezoelectric signal primarily determine the position of the
initial pulses in the UPE device. The signal can travel along a straight line when the distance
is short and the temperature variation is slight. The TOF of the echo wave determines the
position of the scatter.
The Hilbert transform has been used in signal processing to map an actual signal into
an analytical signal with a complex envelope to obtain specific signal features [53,54]. The
Hilbert transform converts a given signal into an analytical signal with a complex envelope,
which facilitates the evaluation of the signal envelope and the determination of the TOF of
the defect echo signal. This transformation is beneficial when the magnitude of the defect
echo signal is relatively small and is merged with a superimposed signal.
This paper proposes an approach to denoise ultrasonic pulse-echo signals using
advanced EMD and Hilbert transform to identify and quantify the defect echo signal. This
advancement complements the commercial UPE device results and accurately calibrates
defect locations. This study’s experimental program shows testing results to validate the
proposed denoising approach.

2. Experimental Setup
Voids are popular defects that occur in concrete due to many reasons, such as poor
consolidation of the concrete or other construction errors. Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
 defect locations. This study’s experimental program shows testing results to validate the
proposed denoising approach.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 2. Experimental Setup

5 of 15
Voids are popular defects that occur in concrete due to many reasons, such as poor
consolidation of the concrete or other construction errors. Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
foamhas
foam hasbeen
beenwidely
widelyusedusedtotorepresent
representthe theartificial
artificialvoids,
voids,asasitithas
hasthe
thesame
samedielectric
dielectric
constant (1.02–1.04) as air [55–58]. The low density of foam allows
constant (1.02–1.04) as air [55–58]. The low density of foam allows for the ultrasonic waves for the ultrasonic waves
totobe
bereflected
reflected in in aa similar
similar manner
mannertotothe thepresence
presenceofof air. In this
air. research,
In this the testing
research, slabs
the testing
(The(The
slabs Ultrasound
Ultrasound Tomographer
Tomographer called MIRA,
called MIRA,manufactured
manufactured by Germann
by Germann Instruments
Instruments (Ev-
anston, IL,IL,USA)
(Evanston, USA)was wasused
usedtotoconduct
conductthe thetests)
tests) asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2a,
2a,which
whichisissame sameasas
theone
the oneinin[35].
[35].AAspecimen
specimenofofreinforced
reinforcedconcrete
concrete(RC) (RC)slabslabwas
wasdesigned
designedwith withtwo twolayers
layers
of #5 steel rebars with a spacing of 203 mm and artificial defects.
of #5 steel rebars with a spacing of 203 mm and artificial defects. The specimen included a The specimen included
a pair
pair of foam
of foam voids
voids to simulate
to simulate embedded
embedded void
void scenarios.
scenarios. TheThe dimensionsofofthe
dimensions theRC RCdeck
deck
slabspecimens
slab specimenswere wereprecisely
preciselymeasured
measuredtotobebe114.3 114.3cm cmininwidth,
width,121.9
121.9cmcmininlength,
length,and and
17.8cm
17.8 cmininthickness.
thickness.The Theartificial
artificialvoids,
voids,depicted
depictedasasV1 V1andandV2 V2ininFigure
Figure2a,2a,were
werecreated
created
usingrectangular
using rectangularprismsprismsofofexpanded
expandedpolystyrene
polystyrene(EPS) (EPS)foam,
foam,which
whichpossessed
possessedthe thesame
same
dielectricproperties
dielectric propertiesasasthe thesurrounding
surrounding air.air.
TheThe artificial
artificial void
void was was
102102
× 30× 30
mm mm (width
(width ××
thickness), and the top surface of the foam was placed 83 mm down from the top surface
thickness), and the top surface of the foam was placed 83 mm down from the top surface of
of deck
the the deck specimen.
specimen. ThisThis approach
approach allowed
allowed forforususto to accurately
accurately simulate
simulate thebehavior
the behaviorofof
thevoids
the voidsininthe
theslab
slabandandevaluate
evaluatetheir
theirimpact
impacton onthe
theoverall
overallperformance
performanceofofthe thestructure.
structure.
Ready-mixconcrete
Ready-mix concretewas wasused
usedfrom
fromin-transit
in-transitmixersmixersfor forcasting
castingthe theRCRCslab,
slab,which
whichwas was
subsequentlycured
subsequently curedand andtested
testedunder
underlaboratory
laboratoryconditions.
conditions.AAshear-wave
shear-wavepulse pulsevelocity
velocity
ofof2450
2450m/sm/swaswasassumed.
assumed.The Thespecimen
specimenwas wasmademadefrom fromnormal
normalconcrete
concretewithwithaaconcrete
concrete
strength of 27 MPa, and small-sized elements less than 10 mm to avoid wavescattering
strength of 27 MPa, and small-sized elements less than 10 mm to avoid wave sca eringby by
theaggregates
the aggregateswere wereadopted
adoptedfor forthe
theexperiment.
experiment.

(a) (b)
Figure2. 2.(a)(a)
Figure Reinforced
Reinforced concrete
concrete deck
deck slabslab specimen
specimen before
before concrete
concrete placement;
placement; (b) front
(b) front panelpanel
of theof
the UPC
UPC device device
and 48and 48 low-frequency
low-frequency dry-point-contact
dry-point-contact transducers
transducers [35]. [35].

Figure2b
Figure 2bdepicts
depictsthe thecommercial
commercialUPC UPCdevice,
device,ananultrasonic
ultrasoniclow-frequency,
low-frequency,shear-
shear-
wavetomography
wave tomographydevicedevice that
that rapidly
rapidly images
images the
thesubsurface
subsurfaceconcrete
concretecondition.
condition.The de-
The
vice boasts
device boasts4848dry-point-contact
dry-point-contact(DPC)(DPC)transmi ing and
transmitting andreceiving
receiving transducers
transducers with
withce-
ramic wear-resistant
ceramic wear-resistant tips
tips arranged
arranged inin aa matrix.
matrix. Its
Its antenna
antenna array
arraycomprises
comprises12 12channels,
channels,
C1C1through
throughC12,C12,atata alongitudinal
longitudinalspacing
spacingofof3030mm,mm,with
witheach
eachchannel
channelfeaturing
featuringfour
four
transducersatata atransverse
transducers transversespacing
spacingofof2525mm.
mm.EachEachtransducer
transducercan cantransmit
transmitandandreceive
receive
low-frequency(55
low-frequency (55kHz)
kHz)shear
shearwaves.
waves.
UtilizingDPC
Utilizing DPC transducers,
transducers, thethe device
device mentioned
mentioned aboveabove can provide
can provide a consistent
a consistent level
oflevel of impact
impact and wavefront
and wavefront penetration
penetration for diagnostics
for diagnostics up to 3upft to 3 ftwhile
deep deep dealing
while dealing
with
with concrete
concrete surfacesurface
textures.textures. The device
The device uses auses a shear-wave
shear-wave pulse pulse
velocityvelocity of m/s
of 2450 2450 for
m/s
for concrete for the SAFT reconstruction. Figure 3 illustrates the fundamental principles
concrete for the SAFT reconstruction. Figure 3 illustrates the fundamental principles of the
of the
UPE UPE device.
device.
 Appl.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
4860 6 of 15 6

(a) Signal transmission and receipt (b) Void affecting signals

Figure 3. BasicFigure 3. Basic

principles of theprinciples of the
UPE device: UPEfirst
(a) the device: (a) of
channel thetransducers
first channel of transducers
transmits transmits sig
signals that
that are subsequently received by other channels; (b) a transmi ing and a receiving
are subsequently received by other channels; (b) a transmitting and a receiving transducer produce transducer
duce an A-scan for void defection.
an A-scan for void defection.

3. Formulation
3. Formulation for Accuratefor Accurate Assessment
Assessment of Void Defects
of Void Defects
Most ultrasonic Most ultrasonic measurements
measurements exhibitasperplexity,
exhibit perplexity, the resultsas the
are resultstoare
subject subject to se
severe
disturbancesdisturbances
such as signal such as signal
deviation, deviation, non-linearity,
non-linearity, stochastic
stochastic surface status,surface status, and m
and mode
conversion dueconversion due to anisotropic
to anisotropic and heterogeneous
and heterogeneous domains indomains in the concrete.
the concrete. These areThese ar
flected
reflected in the UPE in the UPE
signal signal asechoes
as spurious spuriousandechoes
noise. and noise.
The UPE testing The UPE testing data
data analysis analysis
contains contains
ambient noiseambient noise
or signals or signalsbycorrupted
corrupted non- by n
stationary
stationary acoustic acoustic
noises, reducing noises, reducing
the analysis the analysis
efficiency. efficiency.
Denoising of theDenoising of the signals
signals appears
pearsreported
in several studies in several instudies reported
the literature, in the
many ofliterature,
which have many of which
certain have certain
limitations. Most limitati
studies reliedMost studies
on prior relied
signal on prior signal
knowledge knowledge
to enhance to enhance
denoising, denoising,
resulting in the resulting
loss of in the
important dataof important data during filtering.
during filtering.
Typical signal Typical signalmethods
processing processingmay methods may not in
not be effective be detecting
effective in detecting
fault fault featu
features.
However, combining various signal processing techniques can improveand
However, combining various signal processing techniques can improve fault detection fault detec
and analysis.
analysis. To more accurately Toanalyze
more accurately
the behavior analyze the behavior
of non-linear of non-linear signals,
and non-stationary and non-station
signals,
many researchers many
have researchers
utilized empiricalhave utilized
mode empirical mode
decomposition (EMD)decomposition (EMD) to iden
to identify faults.
EMD is capablefaults. EMD is capable
of removing of removing
noise signals noise signals
from non-linear andfrom non-linear signals.
non-stationary and non-stationary
Research conducted [59,60] highlighted that the EMD denoising method surpasses
nals.
both median filtering and wavelet
Research conducted denoising in effectiveness.
[59,60] highlighted that Nonetheless,
the EMD denoising when heavy
method surpa
noise is a factor, selecting the intrinsic mode function (IMF) in EMD
both median filtering and wavelet denoising in effectiveness. Nonetheless, can be difficult. The when he
Hurst exponent is a valuable resource for detecting multifractality that may
noise is a factor, selecting the intrinsic mode function (IMF) in EMD can be difficult.be disguised
in non-linearHurst
and non-stationary signals. The
exponent is a valuable Hurstfor
resource analysis technique
detecting was employed
multifractality that may to be disgu
choose the appropriate IMF with the EMD method [61,62].
in non-linear and non-stationary signals. The Hurst analysis technique was employe
This study presents a novel approach to removing noise from a UPE signal using data-
choose the appropriate IMF with the EMD method [61,62].
driven analysis. The method involves breaking down the noisy signal into IMF components
This study presents a novel approach to removing noise from a UPE signal u
using EMD analysis, and then examining each IMF’s Hurst exponent to determine which
data-driven analysis. The method involves breaking down the noisy signal into IMF c
components require filtering. The filtered components are then reconstructed to eliminate
ponents using EMD analysis, and then examining each IMF’s Hurst exponent to d
the noise from the data.
mine which components require filtering. The filtered components are then reconstru
By utilizing the Hurst exponent to identify the threshold for maximum signal noise
to eliminate the noise from the data.
suppression, the method applies thresholding techniques to the IMFs for optimal noise
By utilizing the Hurst exponent to identify the threshold for maximum signal n
removal. This method has proven more effective than traditional techniques, especially for
suppression, the method applies thresholding techniques to the IMFs for optimal n
low SN signals.
removal. This method has proven more effective than traditional techniques, espec
A comprehensive understanding of IMF statistics in noise-only situations is essential in
for low SN signals.
identifying the significance of a given mode. The estimation of the noise Hurst exponent is
achieved using theAaggregated
comprehensive understanding
variance method. This of exponent
IMF statistics in noise-only
is then situations is esse
utilized to evaluate
in identifying the significance of a given mode. The estimation
the energies of IMFs within the noise model, a crucial step in determining the threshold of the noise Hurst expo
is achieved using the aggregated variance method. This
of IMFs. Understanding the statistics of IMFs in noise-only scenarios can help determineexponent is then utilized to e
the importanceuate ofthe energies
a specific of IMFs
mode. within
Thus, the noise model,
the aggregated a crucial
variance methodstepisin determining
employed to the thr
estimate the noise Hurst exponent, which is then applied to evaluate the IMF energies and help d
old of IMFs. Understanding the statistics of IMFs in noise-only scenarios can
establish the mine the importance of a specific mode. Thus, the aggregated variance metho
IMF threshold.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 7 of 15

Ultrasonic nondestructive testing can present challenges when it comes to detecting

echoes caused by defects in backscattered signals due to backscattering and electronic
noise. However, there is a solution in the form of the EMD algorithm. The EMD algorithm
breaks down a non-linear and non-stationary signal into a series of zero-mean amplitude
modulation and frequency modulation components. By doing so, it can accurately represent
the observation’s characteristic time scale. This means that a multi-component, non-linear,
and non-stationary signal can be represented with precision using EMD within the context
of ultrasonic theory.
Z
n n
x (t) = ∑ j=1 a j (t)cos φ j (t) , x (t) = ∑ j=1 a j (t)exp[i ω j (t)dt]
 
(3)

To decompose a signal using the EMD approach, we represent the instantaneous

amplitude and instantaneous phase of the jth component as a j (t) and φ j (t), respectively,
and n as the number of components. This is achieved through an iterative sifting process,
resulting in zero-mean AM-FM components called IMFs. These IMFs must satisfy two
requirements: (a) the number of extremes and zero crossings in the IMF must be equal
or differ at most by one, and (b) the mean value of the envelopes defined by the local
maxima and local minima must be zero at any point. In essence, the signal must be locally
symmetrical around the time axis. To find the IMFs for a given signal, we conduct the
sifting process to find the IMFs for the signal x (t), which involves the following steps:
(1) To accurately process the input signal, we must initially identify all local maxima and
minima, along with their respective positions and amplitudes. Following this, we can
employ cubic spline interpolation to generate an upper envelope consisting of the
local maxima and a lower envelope using the local minima.
(2) After calculating these envelopes, the envelope mean signal, known as m1 (t), can
be determined by taking their mean. Lastly, to finalize the processing, we need to
subtract the envelope mean signal from the original input signal (Equation (4)).
(3) Check if h(t) meets the IMF requirements. Treat the data as new data and repeat the
process if it does not meet the IMF requirements (Equation (5)).
(4) Repeat the sifting procedure k times until the resulting component h1k (t) is an IMF,
which becomes the first IMF (Equation (6)).

h ( t ) = x ( t ) − m1 ( t ) (4)
h11 (t) = h1 (t) − m11 (t) (5)
c1 (t) = h1k (t) (6)
(5) A standard method for extracting and analyzing a signal’s underlying components
is residual analysis. This process involves subtracting the c1 (t) component from the
input signal and defining the resulting remainder as the first residual. Given that the
first residual r1 (t) may contain information relating to longer-period components,
it is treated as a new data stream. The procedure is repeated for this new signal.
This process may be iterated j times, resulting in the generation of j residuals. By
following this approach, it is possible to obtain a refined understanding of the signal
and identify the underlying components contributing to its overall structure.

 r1 ( t ) − c2 ( t ) = r2 ( t )

.. (7)
 .
r n −1 ( t ) − c n ( t ) = r n ( t )


(6) The sifting process is interrupted once either of the two criteria mentioned above is
fulfilled: firstly, when the component cn (t) or the residual rn (t) is reduced to such a
minuscule size that it can be regarded as insignificant, or secondly, when the residual
(R) becomes a monotonic function that precludes the extraction of the IMF—the
objective IMF can be obtained by adding Equations (4) and (5). The original signal
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 8 of 15

can be expressed as a combination of IMFs and a residual, producing significant

implications in signal processing and analysis. This observation has been accepted in
the academic community.
n
x (t) = ∑i=1 cim f i (t) + rn (t) (8)

(7) EMD-based denoising, similar to other decomposition-based denoising techniques

like wavelet transforms, requires a reliable and robust threshold to distinguish be-
tween noise and authentic signal components. In cases where irregularity or noise
is present in a time series, the Hurst exponent plays a crucial role in determining
the irregularity in the signal. This methodology is more efficient than traditional ap-
proaches such as autocorrelation, ANOVA, and spectral analysis in many applications.
The Hurst exponent value, whether greater or less than 0.5, indicates the pattern of
the non-linearity of the data set. Some generalized white noise signals exhibit a flat
spectrum, and their statistical properties are determined solely by a scalar parameter
H, known as the Hurst exponent. For a signal x(t) exhibiting a zero-mean Gaussian
stationary process, its autocorrelation function is expressed as follows:

σ2  
rH [k] = |k − 1|2H − 2|k|2H + |k + 1|2H (9)
2
where σ is the process variance of signal x(t), H is the Hurst exponent, and k is the
correlation lag. Notably, when H equals 0.5, the process is classified as uncorrelated
white noise, whereas for other H values, it is labeled as colored Gaussian noise.
Moreover, when a generalized white noise signal is subjected to EMD, it acts as a
dyadic filter bank.
(8) It is important to note that the log-variance of the IMFs follows a simple linear model,
which the Hurst exponent of the process ultimately governs.

log2 VH [k] = log2 VH [2] + 2(H − 1)(k − 2)log2 ρH (10)

(9) For k ≥ 2 and ρH ≈ 2, the energy of each of the IMFs Ek can be parameterized as a
function of the first IMF energy and Hurst exponent parameters [62]:
 
E1 k
Ek = ρ −2(1−H) , k ≥ 2 (11)
βH H

1 N
N ∑ n=1
E1 = (IMF1 )2 (12)

(10) This particular model can execute denoising BMD-based techniques. The process
entails breaking down the noisy signal into IMFs and gauging their energy levels
about the estimated noise-only IMF energies derived from Equation (10). From there,
the signal reconstruction is accomplished by adding up the IMFs whose energy levels
deviate from the expected noise model.
(11) Peak detection techniques are typically employed to estimate TOF, thereby differen-
tiating between the reflection signal from the front surface and the reflection signal
from the defect. Despite the denoising process, the defect echo signals may still
exhibit dispersion and weakness, requiring specialized methods for identification and
estimation. Techniques such as filtering, cross-correlation, envelop moment analysis,
and matching pursuit decomposition with dispersion compensation are necessary for
accurate defect detection in such scenarios. The envelope of an echo signal constitutes
a vital characteristic that can be employed to extract information regarding the loca-
tion of the echo waveform.
The Hilbert transform facilitates the computation of instantaneous features of a time
series, including the envelope amplitude and instantaneous frequency. The instanta-
neous envelope denotes the amplitude of the complex Hilbert transform, which can
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 9 of 15

be utilized to identify the dynamic characteristics of non-linear systems by improving

the accuracy of envelope detection through the use of local maxima interpolation.
The Hilbert transform involves casting the actual signal a(t) into an analytical signal
∼
(i.e., complex envelope) a (t). The ã(t) is a complex-valued time-domain signal, where
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW the original actual signal a(t) is the genuine part, and the Hilbert transformed 9 ofsig-
16
nal â(t) is the imaginary part (Equation (13)). By leveraging this approach, one can
obtain a complex-valued time-domain signal that provides a more comprehensive
The Hilbert transform
representation involves casting
of the underlying the phenomenon.
physical actual signal a(t) into an analytical signal
(i.e., complex envelope) a(t). The ã(t)∼ is a complex-valued time-domain signal, where
t) = a(t)part,
the original actual signal a(t) is thea (genuine + jâand
(t) the Hilbert transformed signal(13)
a(t) is the imaginary part (Equation (13)). By leveraging this approach, one can ob-
(12) In Equation (14), j is the imaginary number, while H[·] denotes the Hilbert transform
tain a complex-valued time-domain signal that provides a more comprehensive rep-
operation. In the time domain, the Hilbert transform is defined as the convolution of
resentation of the underlying physical phenomenon.
a(t) with 1/πt, where â(t) = H[a(t)]. The envelope of a signal is the magnitude of the
analytical signal, which is the samea(t) =as a(t)
the magnitude
+ 𝑗 a(t) (13)
of the real signal. The complex
signal ã(t) is formed by the Hilbert transform, a(t), and â(t), as shown in Equation (15).
(12) In Equation (14), j is the imaginary number, while H[·] denotes the Hilbert transform
Then, the envelope of the real signal can be given by Equation (16).
operation. In the time domain, the Hilbert transform is defined as the convolution of
a(t) with 1/πt, where â(t) = H[a(t)]. The envelope 1 ∞ aof(τa) signal is the magnitude of the
Z
â(t) = nH [a(t)] = dτ (14)
analytical signal, which is the same as the magnitude
π −∞ t − τof the real signal. The complex
signal ã(t) is formed by the Hilbert transform, a(t), and â(t), as shown in Equation (15).
∼
Then, the envelope of the a (treal
) = signal
a(t) + can
jH [abe given
(t)] = Aby(t)eEquation
iϕ(t)
(16). (15)
( )
a(t) = 𝑛𝐻[a(𝑡)]
q = ∫ 𝑑𝜏 (14)
A(t) = [a(t)]2 + H [a(t)]2 (16)
a(t) = a(t) + 𝑗𝐻[a(t)] = 𝐴(𝑡)𝑒 ( ) (15)
4. Results and Discussion
The results from the UPE device 𝐴(𝑡) =[35] are given
[a(𝑡)] as follows: Figure 4a shows the(16)
+ 𝐻[a(𝑡)] 2D
reconstructed image with an artificial void, reconstructed using the developed software.
The voids’ locations and horizontal dimensions are precisely indicated. Figure 4b displays
4.a Results and Discussion
reconstructed image of the artificial void #1, including its exact frame. Finally, Figure 4c
shows Thethe
results fromSAFT-produced
advanced the UPE device color[35] are given as
spectrum forfollows: Figure 4a shows
signal amplitudes, whichthecan2D be
reconstructed image with an artificial void, reconstructed using the developed
positive or negative. These values range from black (minimum negative to zero) to dark software.
The
red voids’ locations
(maximum and horizontal
positive). The color dimensions
spectrum is are“dark”,
precisely indicated. Figure
representing black to4bblue,
displays
and
a“bright”,
reconstructed image
indicating of the
light blueartificial
to darkvoid #1, including its exact frame. Finally, Figure 4c
red colors.
showsItthecanadvanced SAFT-produced
be seen from Figure 4b thatcolor spectrum
the location of for
the signal amplitudes,
detected which
void is 70–75 mmcan be
below
positive or negative.
the concrete These whereas
front surface, values range from location
the actual black (minimum negative to
of the constructed zero) tovoid
artificial darkis
red
83 mm(maximum
below thepositive).
surfaceThe color spectrum
(distance of concrete is surface
“dark”,torepresenting black
the top surface ofto
theblue, and
artificial
“bright”, indicating light blue to dark red colors.
void form), as specified by the black frame in Figure 4b.

(a) Two-dimensional reconstructed image

Figure 4. Cont.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci.2024,
2024,14,
14,x4860
FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
10 of 15

(b) Reconstructed image (c) Color spectrum

Figure 4. (a) Two-dimensional reconstructed image including the voids; (b) reconstructed image of
void #1; (c) color spectrum for signal amplitudes.

It can be seen from Figure 4b that the location of the detected void is 70–75 mm below
the concrete front surface, whereas the actual location of the constructed artificial void is
83 mm below the surface (distance of concrete surface to the top surface of the artificial
void form), as specified by the black frame in Figure 4b.
Figure 5 shows the A-scans for the cases measured on the concrete deck without void
defect (a) and with void defect (b) below the UPE device. In Figure 5b, the peak at about
80 microseconds is slightly smaller than the last peak at about 60 microseconds; it could
be interpreted as the reflection echo peak from a decayed surface wave or the reflected
echo from a defect void.
Accurately identifying the defect echo wave requires eliminating noise and distin-
(b) Reconstructed image the surface reflection wave and
guishing between (c) sca
Color spectrum
ered wave from the defect. The
analysis
Figure of the transient ultrasonic field distribution reveals that the received signal ofis
Figure4. 4.(a)
(a)Two-dimensional
Two-dimensionalreconstructed
reconstructedimage
imageincluding
includingthethevoids;
voids;(b)
(b)reconstructed
reconstructedimageimage of
dominated by surface wave energy.
void #1; (c) color spectrum for signal amplitudes.
void #1; (c) color spectrum for signal amplitudes.
The presence of the surface wave signal poses a significant challenge to detecting
internal candefects
ItFigure be5 seen and
showsfrom image
theFigure
A-scansquality
4bfor
that [22,33,63].
thethe location
cases The A-scan
of the
measured signal
detected
on the constitutes
void
concrete isdeck
70–75 reflections
mm
without below
void
from
the the
concrete surface
front and sca
surface, ered
whereaswavesthe from
actual defects.
location Figure
of the 5 shows A-scans
constructed
defect (a) and with void defect (b) below the UPE device. In Figure 5b, the peak at about for
artificial RC slab
void is
specimens
83
80 mm with and
below theissurface
microseconds without void
slightly(distance defects.
smaller thanof concreteFigure 6
the last surface shows the
to the 60
peak at about original and
topmicroseconds; denoised
surface of theit artificial A-
could be
scansform),
void of theas
interpreted echo
as thesignal
specified for the
by
reflection the RCpeak
slab
black
echo specimen
frame
frominaFigurethat4b.
decayed does not have
surface wavevoids.
or theFigure 7 shows
reflected echo
the original
from Figure
a defect 5and
showsdenoised
void. A-scans
the A-scans forofthethe echomeasured
cases signal foron thethe
RCconcrete
slab specimen with a void.
deck without void
defect (a) and with void defect (b) below the UPE device. In Figure 5b, the peak at about
80 microseconds is slightly smaller than the last peak at about 60 microseconds; it could
be interpreted as the reflection echo peak from a decayed surface wave or the reflected
echo from a defect void.
Accurately identifying the defect echo wave requires eliminating noise and distin-
guishing between the surface reflection wave and sca ered wave from the defect. The
analysis of the transient ultrasonic field distribution reveals that the received signal is
dominated by surface wave energy.
The presence of the surface wave signal poses a significant challenge to detecting
internal defects and image quality [22,33,63]. The A-scan signal constitutes reflections
from the surface and sca ered waves from defects. Figure 5 shows A-scans for RC slab
(a)
specimens with and without void defects. Figure 6 shows (b) the original and denoised A-
scans
Figureof5.the echo for
A-scans signal for the
the case RC slab
without and specimen
with voids.that does not
(a) without have
void voids.
defect; (b) Figure
with void7 shows
defect.
the original and denoised A-scans of the echo signal for the RC slab specimen with a void.
Accurately identifying the defect echo wave requires eliminating noise and distin-
guishing between the surface reflection wave and scattered wave from the defect. The
analysis of the transient ultrasonic field distribution reveals that the received signal is
dominated by surface wave energy.
The presence of the surface wave signal poses a significant challenge to detecting
internal defects and image quality [22,33,63]. The A-scan signal constitutes reflections from
the surface and scattered waves from defects. Figure 5 shows A-scans for RC slab specimens
with and without void defects. Figure 6 shows the original and denoised A-scans of the
echo signal for the RC slab specimen that does not have voids. Figure 7 shows the original
and denoised A-scans of the echo signal for the RC slab specimen with a void.

(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 Figure 5. A-scans for the case without and with voids. (a) without void defect; (b) with void
11 of 15 de-
fect.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Original
Figure and
6. Original denoised
and denoisedA-scans ofecho
A-scans of echosignal
signal
forfor
RC RC specimen
specimen without
without void.
void. (a) (a) Original
Original Origina
A-scans; (b)(b)
A-scans; Denoised
DenoisedA-scans.
A-scans.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Original
Figure andand
7. Original denoised A-scans
denoised A-scansofofthe
the echo signalfor
echo signal forRC
RCspecimen
specimen with
with void.void. (a)
a defect
a defect
Original A-scans;
(a) Original (b) Denoised
A-scans; A-scans.
(b) Denoised A-scans.

Figure 8 shows the denoised A-scan of the case with a defect void and the extracted
Figure 8 shows the denoised A-scan of the case with a defect void and the extracted
envelope from denoised A-scans without void. The envelope represents standard surface
envelope from denoised
wave decay, which can beA-scans
used aswithout
threshold void. The envelope
to calibrate any abnormalrepresents
wave peak standard
that is surface
wave decay, which can be used as threshold to calibrate
not from the surface wave and could be higher than the threshold. any abnormal wave peak that is
not fromAs theshown
surface wave and
in Figure could
8, only be the
inside higher than
yellow the threshold.
circle, the peak of the denoised A-
As shown in Figure 8, only inside the yellow circle, the
scan at about 80 microseconds is substantially higher than peak of the
the envelope denoised
of the surface A-scan
at about 80 microseconds is substantially higher than the envelope of the surface
wave threshold; as such, it can be identified as the echo peak of the internal defect void wave
reflection wave.
threshold; as such, it can be identified as the echo peak of the internal defect void reflection
The relevant delayed time can be obtained based on the above-identified defect echo
wave.
peak and the surface echo peak in Figure 8. Based on Equation (1) and the conventional
The relevant
procedure [7,11],delayed
the depthtime
of thecan be void
defect obtained
can bebased on the
calculated. Theabove-identified defect
result is listed in Table 1 echo
peakand
and the surface
is compared withecho peak
the void in Figure
depth 8. Based
inside test specimenonandEquation
void depth(1)from
and UPEthe device
conventional
procedure
imaging. [7,11], themethod
The new depth of themore
gives defect void can
accurate be than
results calculated.
the UPEThe result
device is listed in Table
mapping.
1 and is compared with the void depth inside test specimen and void depth from UPE
device imaging. The new method gives more accurate results than the UPE device map-
ping.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2024,
2024,14,
14,4860
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
12 of 16

Figure8.8.A-scan
Figure A-scanof
ofRC
RCspecimen
specimenwith
withvoid
voidand
andthe
theextracted
extractedenvelope
envelopefrom
fromA-scans
A-scanswithout
withoutvoid.
void.

Table 1. Comparison of the void location.

Table 1. Comparison of the void location.
Method Experimental Specimen UPE Device New Method
Method Experimental Specimen UPE Device New Method
Distance from surface (mm) 83 70–75 82
Distance from surface (mm) 83 70–75 82
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This study aims to quantitatively evaluate void defects in concrete deck slabs using
the ultrasonic
This studypulse-echo technique. evaluate void defects in concrete deck slabs using
aims to quantitatively
the
 ultrasonic pulse-echo technique.
Advanced signal processing methods are used to accurately evaluate the location of
the void defects
• Advanced signalin concrete decks,
processing methodswhereas the imaging
are used of commercialized
to accurately ultrasonic
evaluate the location of
devices
the void usually
defects ingives qualitative
concrete decks,information
whereas theabout
imaging defects.
of commercialized ultrasonic
A concrete
 devices deckgives
usually slabqualitative
specimen with artificialabout
information void defects.
defects is used for validation. A
• Acommercial
concrete deck ultrasonic pulse-echo
slab specimen withdevice, based
artificial voidon the ultrasonic
defects is used forshear-wave
validation.testA
method using dry-point-contact transmi ing and receiving transducers, and ex-
commercial ultrasonic pulse-echo device, based on the ultrasonic shear-wave test
tended using
method SAFT dry-point-contact
were employed totransmitting
map the internal void defect
and receiving of the validation
transducers, and extendedcon-
crete deck
SAFT were slab specimens.
employed to map the internal void defect of the validation concrete deck
The specimens.
 slab recorded data from the ultrasonic pulse-echo device was analyzed by using the
• The proposed
recorded methods to accurately
data from evaluate
the ultrasonic the void
pulse-echo defect
device waslocations
analyzed in by
theusing
concrete
the
deck slab specimen. The new method consists of benchmark envelope estimation and
proposed methods to accurately evaluate the void defect locations in the concrete deck
the denoise
slab specimen. of the
Theecho
new signal,
methodwhich identifies
consists the weak
of benchmark stochastic
envelope and non-station-
estimation and the
ary echo signal from void defects.
denoise of the echo signal, which identifies the weak stochastic and non-stationary
The results
 echo demonstrated
signal from that the proposed method accurately located the void de-
void defects.
• The fectsresults
in thedemonstrated
concrete deckthat the proposed
specimen. method
In contrast, theaccurately
commercial located the void
ultrasonic defects
pulse-echo
in the concrete deck specimen. In contrast, the commercial ultrasonic
device’s map for the void defects of the concrete deck can only give qualitative re- pulse-echo
device’s
sults. map for the void defects of the concrete deck can only give qualitative results.
• TheThecostcostofof
application
application of the newnew
of the method and procedure
method and procedure is low,isaslow,
the A-scan
as the is alwaysis
A-scan
available for UPE testing, and all the related algorithms have been
always available for UPE testing, and all the related algorithms have been well de- well developed.
• The direction to extend the current study is to apply and evaluate the proposed
veloped.
method to other kinds of subsurface anomalies of concrete, such as irregular crack,
rebar/corrosion, etc.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4860 13 of 15

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.Z.; Methodology, W.Z. and G.C.; Software, H.N.;
Validation, W.Z., G.C. and F.X.; Formal analysis, W.Z., G.C. and F.X.; Investigation, W.Z.; Resources,
W.Z.; Data curation, W.Z., G.C. and H.N.; Writing—original draft, G.C.; Writing—review & editing,
W.Z. and H.N.; Supervision, W.Z.; Project administration, W.Z.; Funding acquisition, W.Z. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by West Virginia Department of Transportation grant num-
ber [RP328].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author (due to restrictions from the funding agency).
Acknowledgments: Wael Zatar and Hien Nghiem would like to express their appreciation for the
financial support provided by the West Virginia Department of Transportation (WVDOT) through
the research project entitled “Corrosion Research to Maintain and Sustain Infrastructure in West
Virginia”. The findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this study are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect the viewpoints of the WVDOT. The authors would like to thank
Hai Nguyen, Tu Nguyen, Cumhur Cosgun, and Kien Dinh for their support while conducting this
research project’s experiments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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