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INTRODUCTION TO
INSTRUMENTATION
AND
MEASUREMENTS
T H I RD E DI T I O N

Robert B. Northrop
 INTRODUCTION TO
INSTRUMENTATION
AND
MEASUREMENTS
Third Edition
 INTRODUCTION TO
INSTRUMENTATION
AND
MEASUREMENTS
Third Edition

Robert B. Northrop
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20140415

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-9679-5 (eBook - PDF)

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I dedicate this third edition to my wife and daughters, Adelaide, Anne,

Kate, and Victoria, who have always believed in my writing.

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................ xix
Author........................................................................................................................................... xxv

1. Measurement Systems............................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Measurement System Architecture.............................................................................1
1.2.1 Sensor Dynamics.............................................................................................. 3
1.2.2 Overview of Signal Conditioning.................................................................. 7
1.3 Errors in Measurements................................................................................................ 7
1.4 Standards Used in Measurements............................................................................. 14
1.4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 14
1.4.2 Electrical Standards........................................................................................ 14
1.4.2.1 Volt..................................................................................................... 15
1.4.2.2 Resistance......................................................................................... 19
1.4.2.3 Current and Charge........................................................................ 25
1.4.2.4 Capacitance...................................................................................... 28
1.4.2.5 Inductance........................................................................................ 31
1.4.3 Time and Frequency Standards.................................................................... 32
1.4.4 Physical Standards.......................................................................................... 33
1.4.4.1 Mass.................................................................................................. 33
1.4.4.2 Length............................................................................................... 35
1.4.4.3 Temperature..................................................................................... 35
1.4.4.4 Uncertainties in the SI Base Units................................................. 35
1.5 Chapter Summary....................................................................................................... 36
Problems................................................................................................................................... 36

2. Analog Signal Conditioning in Instrumentation........................................................... 41

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 41
2.2 Differential Amplifiers................................................................................................ 41
2.2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 41
2.2.2 Analysis of Differential Amplifiers..............................................................42
2.2.3 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio....................................................................43
2.2.4 Measurement of CMRR, AD, and AC............................................................44
2.2.5 Effect of Source Resistance Asymmetry on CMRR...................................44
2.3 Operational Amplifiers............................................................................................... 47
2.3.1 Types of Op-Amps.......................................................................................... 48
2.3.2 Basic Broadband Amplifier Design Using Op-Amps................................ 50
2.3.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier................................................................. 50
2.3.2.2 Inverting Amplifier and Summer................................................. 52
2.3.3 Current Feedback Op-Amps......................................................................... 53
2.4 Analog Active Filter Applications Using Conventional Op-Amps...................... 58
2.4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 58

vii
viii Contents

2.4.2 Analog Active Filter Architectures.............................................................. 59

2.4.2.1 Controlled-Source Active Filters................................................... 59
2.4.2.2 Biquad Active Filters....................................................................... 62
2.4.2.3 Generalized Impedance Converter Active Filters......................65
2.4.2.4 High-Order Active Filters.............................................................. 69
2.4.3 Operational Amplifier Integrators and Differentiators............................. 69
2.4.4 Summary.......................................................................................................... 71
2.5 Instrumentation Amplifiers....................................................................................... 71
2.5.1 Instrumentation Amplifiers That Can Be Made from Op-Amps............ 73
2.5.2 Isolation Amplifiers........................................................................................ 75
2.5.3 Autozero Amplifiers.......................................................................................77
2.5.4 Absolute Isolation........................................................................................... 79
2.5.5 Summary.......................................................................................................... 79
2.6 Nonlinear Analog Signal Processing by Op-Amps and by Special
Function Modules������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81
2.6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 81
2.6.2 Precision Absolute Value Circuits................................................................83
2.6.3 Multifunction Converters.............................................................................. 85
2.6.4 True RMS-to-DC Converters......................................................................... 86
2.6.5 Square-Root Circuits and Dividers.............................................................. 88
2.6.6 Peak Detectors and Track-and-Hold Circuits............................................. 90
2.6.7 Log Ratio and Trigonometric ICs................................................................. 94
2.6.8 Summary.......................................................................................................... 95
2.7 Charge Amplifiers........................................................................................................ 96
2.7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 96
2.7.2 Charge Amplifiers Used with Piezoelectric Transducers......................... 96
2.7.3 Charge Amplifier as an Integrating Coulombmeter................................. 98
2.8 Phase-Sensitive Rectifiers......................................................................................... 100
2.8.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 100
2.8.2 Double-Sideband, Suppressed-Carrier Modulation................................ 100
2.8.3 Demodulation of DSBSCM Signals by Analog Multiplier...................... 101
2.8.4 Other PSR Designs....................................................................................... 102
2.8.5 Lock-In Amplifier......................................................................................... 102
2.8.5.1 Introduction................................................................................... 102
2.8.5.2 Calculation of the SNR Improvement Using a Lock-In
Amplifier........................................................................................ 107
2.8.5.3 Summary........................................................................................ 110
2.8.6 Signal Averaging to Improve SNR of Evoked Transient Signals........... 111
2.8.6.1 Introduction................................................................................... 111
2.8.6.2 Analysis of SNR Improvement by Averaging........................... 113
2.9 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 116
Problems................................................................................................................................. 116

3. Noise and Coherent Interference in Measurements.................................................... 125

3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 125
3.2 Descriptions of Random Noise in Circuits............................................................ 125
3.2.1 Probability Density Functions.................................................................... 126
Contents ix

3.2.2
Power Density Spectrum............................................................................. 127
3.2.3
Sources of Noise in Signal Conditioning Systems................................... 130
3.2.3.1 Noise from Resistors..................................................................... 130
3.2.3.2 Two-Source Noise Model for Active Devices............................ 133
3.2.3.3 Noise in JFETs................................................................................ 134
3.2.3.4 Noise in BJTs.................................................................................. 135
3.3 Propagation of Gaussian Noise through Linear Filters........................................ 137
3.4 Broadband Noise Factor and Noise Figure of Amplifiers.................................... 138
3.5 Spot Noise Factor and Figure................................................................................... 140
3.6 Transformer Optimization of Amplifier Fspot and Output SNR.......................... 143
3.7 Cascaded Noisy Amplifiers...................................................................................... 144
3.8 Examples of Calculations of the Noise-Limited Resolution of Certain
Signal Conditioning Systems���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145
3.8.1 Calculation of the Minimum Resolvable AC Input Voltage
to a Noisy, Inverting Op-Amp Amplifier������������������������������������������������� 145
3.8.2 Calculation of the Minimum Resolvable Direct Current in White
and 1/f Noise................................................................................................. 147
3.8.3 Calculation of the Minimum Resolvable AC Input Signal to
Obtain a Specified Output SNR in a Transformer-Coupled,
Tuned Amplifier������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 148
3.8.4 Calculation of the Smallest ΔR/R in a Wheatstone Bridge
to Give a Specified SNRout������������������������������������������������������������������������� 149
3.8.5 Determination of the Conditions for Maximum Output SNR
Given a Simple Inverting Op-Amp Amplifier with Known ena
and ina���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
3.9 Modern, Low-Noise Amplifiers for Use in Instrumentation
Signal-Conditioning Systems���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
3.10 Coherent Interference and Its Minimization......................................................... 153
3.10.1 Sources of Coherent Interference................................................................ 153
3.10.1.1 Direct Electrostatic Coupling of Coherent Interference.......... 154
3.10.1.2 Direct Magnetic Induction of Coherent Interference............... 155
3.10.1.3 Ground Loops................................................................................ 157
3.10.2 Cures for Coherent Interference................................................................. 158
3.10.2.1 Powerline Low-Pass Filters.......................................................... 158
3.10.2.2 Transient Voltage Suppressors.................................................... 159
3.10.2.3 Coherent Interference Induced in Coaxial Cables
by Magnetic Coupling.................................................................. 164
3.10.2.4 Single Grounding of Coax Shields to Prevent
Ground-Loop Interference........................................................... 165
3.10.2.5 Use of a Longitudinal Choke or Neutralizing
Transformer to Attenuate Common-Mode Coherent
Interference����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
3.10.2.6 Experimental Verification of Cabling and Grounding
Schemes to Achieve Minimum Noise Pickup�������������������������� 168
3.10.2.7 Circuit Grounding......................................................................... 170
3.10.2.8 Ferrite Beads and Feedthrough Capacitors............................... 170
3.10.2.9 Interruption of Ground Loops by the Use of Isolation
Transformers and Photooptic Couplers������������������������������������ 171
x Contents

3.10.2.10 Photooptic Couplers.................................................................... 172

3.10.2.11 Use of Guarding and Shielding to Reduce
Common-Mode Coherent Interference ���������������������������������� 173
3.10.3 Summary of Techniques for Coherent Noise Reduction........................ 177
3.11 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 179
Problems................................................................................................................................. 180

4. DC Null Methods of Measurement................................................................................. 187

4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 187
4.2 Wheatstone Bridge Analysis.................................................................................... 189
4.3 Kelvin Bridge.............................................................................................................. 190
4.4 Anderson Constant Current Loop........................................................................... 193
4.4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 193
4.4.2 Anderson Loop Applied to Groups of Sensors........................................ 195
4.4.3 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 201
4.5 Potentiometers............................................................................................................ 201
4.6 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 202
Problems................................................................................................................................. 203

5. AC Null Measurements...................................................................................................... 209

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 209
5.2 Components: Inductor Equivalent Circuits............................................................ 209
5.3 Components: Capacitor Equivalent Circuits.......................................................... 211
5.4 AC Operation of Wheatstone Bridges..................................................................... 213
5.5 AC Bridges.................................................................................................................. 214
5.5.1 Bridges Used to Measure Capacitance....................................................... 215
5.5.1.1 Resistance Ratio Bridge...............................................................215
5.5.1.2 Schering Bridge............................................................................ 216
5.5.1.3 Parallel C Bridge.......................................................................... 217
5.5.1.4 De Sauty Bridge........................................................................... 218
5.5.1.5 Wien Bridge.................................................................................. 219
5.5.1.6 Commutated Capacitor Bridge.................................................. 221
5.5.2 Bridges Used to Measure Inductance and Mutual Inductance..............222
5.5.2.1 Maxwell Bridge............................................................................223
5.5.2.2 Parallel Inductance Bridge......................................................... 224
5.5.2.3 Hay Bridge.................................................................................... 224
5.5.2.4 Owen Bridge................................................................................. 225
5.5.2.5 Anderson Bridge.......................................................................... 226
5.5.2.6 Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge....................................... 227
5.5.2.7 Heydweiller Mutual Inductance “Bridge”............................... 228
5.5.3 Null Method of Measuring Transistor Small-Signal
Transconductance and Feedback Capacitance......................................... 229
5.6 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 232
Problems................................................................................................................................. 232

6. Survey of Sensor Mechanisms......................................................................................... 237

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 237
6.2 Categories of Sensor Mechanisms........................................................................... 237
6.2.1 Resistive Sensors........................................................................................... 237
Contents xi

6.2.1.1
Resistive Temperature Sensors.................................................... 238
6.2.1.2
Resistive Strain Gauges................................................................ 241
6.2.1.3
Photoconductors............................................................................ 242
6.2.1.4
Conductive Relative Humidity Sensors..................................... 246
6.2.1.5
Direct Resistance Change Used to Sense Position
or Angle.................................................................................... 248
6.2.1.6 Sensors Based on the Giant Magnetoresistive Effect............... 250
6.2.1.7 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance.................................................. 253
6.2.2 Voltage-Generating Sensors........................................................................ 260
6.2.2.1 Thermocouples and Thermopiles............................................... 260
6.2.2.2 Photovoltaic Cells.......................................................................... 263
6.2.2.3 Piezoelectric Transducers............................................................. 266
6.2.2.4 Pyroelectric Sensors...................................................................... 270
6.2.3 Sensors Whose Voltage Output Is Proportional to dΦ/dt...................... 274
6.2.3.1 Variable Reluctance Phonograph Pickup................................... 275
6.2.3.2 Electrodynamic Accelerometer................................................... 276
6.2.3.3 Linear Velocity Sensors................................................................ 277
6.2.4 Sensors Whose Output EMF Depends on the Interaction
of a Magnetic Field with Moving Charges................................................ 278
6.2.4.1 Faraday Effect Flowmeters.......................................................... 278
6.2.4.2 Hall Effect Sensors........................................................................ 281
6.2.5 Sensors Based on Variable Magnetic Coupling........................................284
6.2.5.1 LVDT...............................................................................................284
6.2.5.2 Synchros and Resolvers................................................................ 286
6.2.6 Variable Capacitance Sensors...................................................................... 288
6.3 Fiber-Optic Sensors................................................................................................... 291
6.3.1 Magneto-Optic Current Sensors................................................................. 292
6.3.2 Means of Measuring the Optical Rotation of the Linearly
Polarized Light Output of Certain Optical Sensors................................ 295
6.3.3 Fiber-Optic Mechanosensors......................................................................306
6.4 Photomultiplier Tubes and Related Photoelectron Multiplication Devices...... 311
6.4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 311
6.4.2 Operation of PMTs........................................................................................ 313
6.4.3 Single-Channel Photomultiplier................................................................. 316
6.4.4 Microchannel-Plate Photomultipliers........................................................ 317
6.4.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 319
6.5 Ionizing Radiation Sensors....................................................................................... 319
6.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 319
6.5.2 Geiger–Muller Tubes.................................................................................... 320
6.5.3 Solid-State, Crystal Radiation Sensors....................................................... 322
6.5.4 Scintillation Counters................................................................................... 326
6.6 Electrochemical Sensors........................................................................................... 327
6.6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 327
6.6.2 pH- and Ion-Specific Electrodes................................................................. 328
6.6.3 Polarographic Electrodes............................................................................. 330
6.6.4 Fuel Cell Electrodes...................................................................................... 332
6.7 Mechano-Optical Sensors......................................................................................... 332
6.7.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 332
6.7.2 Optical Coding Disks................................................................................... 333
xii Contents

6.7.3 Sagnac Effect Sensing of Angular Velocity...............................................334

6.7.4 Laser Doppler Velocimetry......................................................................... 338
6.8 Chapter Summary.....................................................................................................345
Problems.................................................................................................................................345

7. Applications of Sensors to Physical Measurements.................................................... 361

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 361
7.2 Measurement of Angular Acceleration, Velocity, and Displacement................. 361
7.2.1 Angular Acceleration Measurement.......................................................... 361
7.2.1.1 Angular Acceleration Measurement with a Constrained
Mechanical Gyro........................................................................... 362
7.2.1.2 Simple Inertia Wheel–Spring–Dashpot Angular
Accelerometer................................................................................ 363
7.2.1.3 Servoangular Accelerometer.......................................................364
7.2.2 Angular Velocity Measurement with Mechanical Gyroscopes............. 365
7.2.2.1 Mechanical Rate Gyro.................................................................. 369
7.2.2.2 Sagnac-Effect Fiber-Optic Gyroscopes....................................... 372
7.2.2.3 Vibrating Mass Rate Gyro............................................................ 374
7.2.2.4 Humphrey Air Jet Rate Gyro....................................................... 377
7.2.3 Angular Velocity Measurement with Tachometers................................. 381
7.2.4 Angular Position Measurement with Gyroscopes................................... 386
7.2.5 Angular Position Measurement with Clinometers.................................. 391
7.2.6 Angular Position Measurement of Shafts................................................. 394
7.3 Measurement of Linear Acceleration, Velocity, Displacement, and Position..... 396
7.3.1 Accelerometers.............................................................................................. 396
7.3.1.1 Basic Newtonian Accelerometer................................................. 396
7.3.1.2 Servoaccelerometer Design.......................................................... 397
7.3.1.3 Piezoelectric Accelerometers....................................................... 398
7.3.2 Linear Velocity Measurement.....................................................................400
7.3.2.1 Means of Measurement of Fluid Velocity.................................. 401
7.3.2.2 Other Means of Measuring Fluid Velocity and Flow..............404
7.3.3 Measurement of Linear Position................................................................. 415
7.3.3.1 Introduction................................................................................... 415
7.3.3.2 GPS Background............................................................................ 420
7.3.3.3 Use of the Global Positioning System to Locate Objects
in Three Dimensions.................................................................... 421
7.3.3.4 GPS System Development............................................................423
7.3.3.5 GPS Signals....................................................................................425
7.3.3.6 GPS Hardware............................................................................... 426
7.3.3.7 GPS Tag Applications in Biology................................................430
7.3.3.8 GPS Summary...............................................................................430
7.3.4 Use of Optical Interferometry to Measure Δx.......................................... 431
7.3.4.1 Introduction................................................................................... 431
7.3.4.2 Measurement of Tympanal Membrane Displacement
by Fiber-Optic Fizeau Interferometer......................................... 438
7.3.4.3 Measurement of Skin Vibration by Optical Interferometry.... 439
7.3.4.4 Two-Frequency, Heterodyne Interferometry............................442
7.3.4.5 Fabry–Pérot Interferometer..........................................................444
7.3.4.6 Discussion......................................................................................446
Contents xiii

7.3.5 Phase-Lock Velocity and Range Sensing with Ultrasound

or EM Radiation............................................................................................446
7.4 Measurement of Force and Torque..........................................................................454
7.4.1 Load Cells for Force Measurement............................................................454
7.4.2 Torque Measurements.................................................................................. 458
7.5 Pressure Measurements............................................................................................463
7.5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................463
7.5.2 High-Pressure Sensors.................................................................................463
7.5.3 Low-Pressure Sensors.................................................................................. 472
7.6 Introduction to Substance Detection and Measurement Using Photons........... 479
7.6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 479
7.6.2 Dispersive Spectrophotometry................................................................... 482
7.6.3 Nondispersive Spectrophotometry............................................................ 488
7.6.3.1 Use of Nondispersive Spectrophotometry to Quantify
CO2 Gas in Air............................................................................... 494
7.6.3.2 Nondispersive Photoacoustic Spectrophotometry................... 494
7.6.4 Fourier Transform IR Spectrophotometry................................................ 495
7.6.5 Single- and Multiple-Bubble Sonoluminescence...................................... 501
7.6.5.1 Introduction................................................................................... 501
7.6.5.2 Single-Bubble Sonoluminescence............................................... 501
7.6.5.3 Multiple-Bubble Sonoluminescence...........................................504
7.6.5.4 Summary........................................................................................504
7.7 Other Means of Substance Detection......................................................................505
7.7.1 Mass Spectrometry....................................................................................... 505
7.7.2 Gas Chromatography................................................................................... 510
7.7.3 Surface Plasmon Resonance........................................................................ 516
7.8 Temperature Measurements..................................................................................... 522
7.8.1 Temperature Standards................................................................................ 522
7.8.2 Some Common Means of Temperature Measurement............................ 523
7.8.2.1 Mechanical Temperature Sensors............................................... 523
7.8.2.2 Electrical and Electronic Temperature Sensors........................ 527
7.9 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 537
Problems................................................................................................................................. 538

8. Basic Electrical Measurements.........................................................................................545

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................545
8.2 DC Voltage Measurements.......................................................................................545
8.2.1 Types of Electromechanical DC Voltmeters............................................. 547
8.2.2 Electronic DC Voltmeters............................................................................ 555
8.3 Measurement of Static Electric Fields and the Potential of Charged Surfaces.......559
8.4 DC Measurements..................................................................................................... 568
8.4.1 Electromechanical DC Ammeters.............................................................. 570
8.4.2 Electronic DC Ammeters............................................................................. 571
8.4.2.1 Error Analysis of the Shunt Picoammeter................................. 572
8.4.2.2 Error Analysis of the Feedback Picoammeter........................... 574
8.4.3 Magneto-Optic Current Sensors................................................................. 576
8.5 AC Voltage Measurements........................................................................................ 576
8.5.1 Electromechanical AC Voltmeters.............................................................. 577
8.5.2 Analog Electronic AC Voltmeters............................................................... 581
xiv Contents

8.5.2.1 AC Amplifier–Rectifier AC Voltmeters...................................... 582

8.5.2.2 Peak-Reading Electronic AC Voltmeters.................................... 583
8.5.2.3 True RMS AC Voltmeter of the Feedback Type........................ 586
8.5.2.4 True RMS AC Voltmeters Using the Direct Conversion
Approach........................................................................................ 588
8.5.3 Measurements of Amplifier Noise Voltages, Noise Factor,
and Figure................................................................................................. 588
8.6 AC Measurements...................................................................................................... 596
8.6.1 Electromechanical (Analog) AC Ammeters.............................................. 597
8.6.2 Electronic and Magneto-Optical AC Ammeters...................................... 599
8.7 Magnetic Field Measurements................................................................................. 601
8.8 Phase Measurements................................................................................................. 611
8.8.1 Analog Phase Measurements...................................................................... 613
8.8.2 Digital Phase Detectors................................................................................ 616
8.9 Measurements of Frequency and Period (Time)................................................... 618
8.10 Measurement of Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance................................. 624
8.10.1 Resistance Measurements............................................................................ 624
8.10.2 Capacitance Measurements.........................................................................630
8.10.2.1 Q Meter Used for Capacitance Measurement...........................630
8.10.2.2 Capacitance Measurement by Q/V.............................................634
8.10.3 Inductance Measurements.......................................................................... 639
8.10.3.1 Voltmeter Method of Estimating Inductance............................ 639
8.10.3.2 Use of the Q Meter to Measure Inductance and Q...................640
8.11 Vector Impedance Meters......................................................................................... 641
8.12 Chapter Summary.....................................................................................................643
Problems.................................................................................................................................643

9. Digital Interfaces in Measurement Systems.................................................................. 651

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 651
9.2 Sampling Theorem..................................................................................................... 652
9.3 Quantization Noise.................................................................................................... 655
9.4 Dithering..................................................................................................................... 658
9.5 DACs............................................................................................................................ 661
9.6 Hold Operation........................................................................................................... 665
9.7 ADCs............................................................................................................................ 667
9.7.1 Successive-Approximation ADCs............................................................... 667
9.7.2 Tracking or Servo ADCs.............................................................................. 669
9.7.3 Dual-Slope Integrating ADCs..................................................................... 671
9.7.4 Flash (Parallel) ADCs................................................................................... 673
9.7.5 Dynamic Range, Floating Point ADCs...................................................... 675
9.7.6 Delta–Sigma ADCs....................................................................................... 676
9.7.7 Data Acquisition Cards for PCs.................................................................. 681
9.8 IEEE-488 Instrumentation Bus (GPIB).................................................................... 682
9.8.1 Summary of the GPIB Bus Structure......................................................... 682
9.8.2 GPIB Operation.............................................................................................684
9.9 Serial Data Communications Links........................................................................ 685
9.9.1 RS-232C and D Interfaces............................................................................ 686
9.9.2 TRS-422, RS-423, and RS-485 Interfaces.................................................... 688
Contents xv

9.9.3 Universal Serial Bus..................................................................................... 689

9.9.3.1 Introduction................................................................................... 689
9.9.3.2 How USB Works: An Overview.................................................. 691
9.9.3.3 Summary........................................................................................ 693
9.10 CAMAC (IEEE-583) Modular Instrumentation Standard and the VXI
Modular Instrumentation Architecture................................................................. 693
9.11 How Transmission Lines Affect the Transfer of Digital Data............................. 696
9.11.1 Transmission Line Model............................................................................ 696
9.11.2 Reflections on an Improperly Terminated, Lossless Transmission
Line................................................................................................................. 698
9.12 Data Transmission on Fiber-Optic Cables.............................................................. 703
9.12.1 FOC Basics..................................................................................................... 703
9.12.2 Semiconductor Sources and Detectors Used in FOC Data
Transmission................................................................................................. 711
9.12.3 FOC Systems.................................................................................................. 713
9.13 Virtual Instruments................................................................................................... 714
9.13.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 714
9.13.2 PXI Systems.................................................................................................... 716
9.13.3 Summary........................................................................................................ 716
9.14 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 717
Problems................................................................................................................................. 718

10. Introduction to Digital Signal Conditioning in Instrumentation............................ 725

10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 725
10.2 Digital Filters and the z-Transform.......................................................................... 725
10.3 Some Simple DSP Algorithms.................................................................................. 731
10.4 Discrete and Fast Fourier Transforms and Their Applications........................... 740
10.4.1 Use of Data Windows to Improve Spectral Resolution........................... 741
10.4.2 Use of the DFT to Characterize Random Signals and Noise.................. 744
10.4.3 Fast Fourier Transform................................................................................. 747
10.5 Digital Routines for Interpolating Discrete Data.................................................. 749
10.5.1 Estimating Missing Data at the Sampling Instants................................. 752
10.6 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 754
Problems................................................................................................................................. 754

11. Solid-State Chemical Microsensors and Wireless Instrumentation........................ 757

11.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 757
11.2 Chemical Microsensor Designs............................................................................... 758
11.2.1 Silicon-Based Chemical Microsensors....................................................... 758
11.2.1.1 Schottky Diode-Based Microsensors......................................... 758
11.2.1.2 MOS ChemFET.............................................................................. 759
11.2.2 Metal Oxide Gas Sensors............................................................................. 763
11.2.2.1 Taguchi Gas Sensors..................................................................... 763
11.2.2.2 Modern Metal Oxide Gas Sensors.............................................. 764
11.2.2.3 CO2 Microsensor Based on Tin Oxide Doped
with Copper Oxide........................................................................ 767
11.3 Electronic Noses......................................................................................................... 768
11.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 768
11.3.2 Rationale for Artificial Noses...................................................................... 768
xvi Contents

11.3.3 Sensors for E-Nose Applications................................................................ 769

11.3.4 Feature Extraction in E-Noses..................................................................... 781
11.3.5 Some Commercially Available E-Noses.................................................... 784
11.4 Radio ICs for Wireless Data Transmission............................................................. 785
11.4.1 EM Spectrum................................................................................................. 785
11.4.2 Some UHF Radio Chips............................................................................... 786
11.4.3 Antennas for Radio Chips........................................................................... 787
11.4.3.1 Introduction................................................................................... 787
11.4.3.2 Fractal Antennas........................................................................... 788
11.5 Wireless Patient Monitoring Systems..................................................................... 793
11.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 793
11.5.2 RF Communications Protocols Used in WDX and WPM....................... 794
11.5.3 Commercial WPM Systems......................................................................... 795
11.6 Power Sources for Wireless Sensors, Effectors, and WDX................................... 796
11.7 Absorbable Electronic Circuit Implants.................................................................. 799
11.8 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 801
Problems................................................................................................................................. 802

12. Introduction to Mechanical Microsensors.....................................................................805

12.1 Introduction to Microelectromechanical Systems................................................805
12.1.1 Nanoelectromechanical Systems................................................................805
12.2 MEM Accelerometer and Pressure Sensor ICs......................................................806
12.2.1 MEM Linear Accelerometers......................................................................806
12.2.2 MEM Pressure Sensors................................................................................809
12.3 MEM Rate Gyros........................................................................................................ 810
12.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 810
12.3.2 Oscillating Disk Rate Gyro.......................................................................... 810
12.3.3 Vibrating Mass MEM Gyros........................................................................ 816
12.3.4 Quartz Tuning Fork MEM Rate Gyro........................................................ 817
12.3.5 Applications of MEM Gyros........................................................................ 817
12.4 Cantilever-Like MEMS and NEMS and Their Applications............................... 819
12.4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 819
12.4.2 Applications of Cantilever-Based MEMS Sensors................................... 819
12.4.3 Design of Cantilever MEMS and NEMS................................................... 821
12.4.3.1 Cantilever Materials and Fabrication......................................... 821
12.4.3.2 Cantilever Readout Methods....................................................... 821
12.4.3.3 Static MEM Cantilever Deflection Sensing
with Piezoresistors........................................................................ 822
12.4.3.4 Cantilever Beam Resonance Frequency..................................... 824
12.4.3.5 Excitation of Mechanical Oscillation of MEM
Cantilevers............................................................................. 825
12.4.3.6 Vibrations in a Beam Clamped at Both Ends............................ 826
12.4.3.7 Vibrations in a Circularly Clamped Thin Plate........................ 826
12.4.4 Quartz Tuning Fork Biosensor.................................................................... 827
12.4.5 Liquid Viscosity Measurement Using Piezoceramic Resonators.......... 827
12.5 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 829
Problems................................................................................................................................. 829
Contents xvii

13. Examples of the Design of Measurement Systems....................................................... 835

13.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 835
13.2 Self-Nulling, Microdegree Resolution Polarimeter to Measure Glucose
in Bioreactors.............................................................................................................. 835
13.3 Design of a System to Detect, Measure, and Locate Partial Discharges
in High-Voltage Coaxial Power Cables...................................................................845
13.4 Design of a Closed-Loop, Constant-Phase, Pulsed Laser Ranging System
and Velocimeter.......................................................................................................... 852
13.5 Design of Capacitive Sensors for the Detection of Hidden Objects................... 858
13.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 858
13.5.2 Self-Balancing Circuits Used to Measure ΔC/Co...................................... 860
13.5.3 Summary........................................................................................................864
13.6 Chapter Summary.....................................................................................................864
Glossary........................................................................................................................................ 867
References.................................................................................................................................... 881
Preface

Purpose
This text is intended to be used in a classroom course for engineers and scientists. It covers the
theory, science, and art of modern instrumentation and measurements (I&M). There is more
than enough material to support two semesters’ work. Thus, the instructor has the option of
choosing those topics and the depth of coverage that suit his or her interests and curriculum.
Because of its breadth, Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements, Third Edition, will also
be useful as a reference for the practicing engineer and scientist interested in I&M.
Why have a classroom course in I&M? In the United States, over the past three or four
decades, many electrical engineering departments have discontinued classroom courses
on the theory and practice of I&M. In the past decade, we have also seen the swift devel-
opment of new and exciting means of measurement using new technologies, the adoption
of new standards, and, concurrently, the lack of development of a coherent educational
base to support their understanding and use. Using an instrument in the laboratory is not
the same as understanding the physical and electronic principles underlying its design,
and its functional capabilities and limitations. Clearly, there is now more than ever a need
for classroom experience in the new I&M that will give students the necessary technical
background to use and design sensors, signal conditioning systems, and I&M systems.
I feel that this text supports that need.
This text was written based on my 40 years of experience in teaching a classroom course
(EE 230) on electrical instrumentation to juniors and seniors in the Electrical and Computer
Engineering Department at the University of Connecticut, Storrs. Obviously, in more than
40 years, we have seen the field of I&M evolve with the rest of electrical engineering tech-
nology. Because of the rapid pace of technical development, it generally has been difficult
to find an up-to-date text for our electrical instrumentation course. After years of frus-
tration in trying to match a text to course content, I decided to write one that would not
only encompass the traditional aspects of I&M, but also include material on such topics as
modern integrated circuit (IC) and photonic sensors, micro-electromechanical (MEM) and
nano-electromechanical (NEM) sensors, chemical and radiation sensors, signal condition-
ing, noise, data interfaces, basic digital signal processing (DSP), etc.

Reader Background
The reader is assumed to have taken core EE curriculum courses or their equivalents. He or she
should be skilled in basic, linear circuit theory, that is, should have mastered Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems, Kirchoff’s laws, superposition, dependent sources, and ideal op-amps,
and should know how to describe DC and AC steady-state circuits in terms of linear loop and

xix
xx Preface

node equations. An introductory systems course should have given him or her familiarity with
both time- and frequency-domain methods of describing linear dynamic systems char-
acterized by ordinary, linear, differential, or difference equations, including state space,
Fourier, Laplace and z-transforms, transfer functions, steady-state frequency response of
systems, as well as Bode plots. From physics or an EE course in electromagnetics, the reader
should have a basic knowledge of electric and magnetic fields, inductance, capacitance,
reluctance, transformers, etc. There should also be some familiarity with electromagnetic
waves, Maxwell’s equations, transmission lines, and polarization. From a first course in elec-
tronics, there should be basic knowledge of bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), junction field-
effect transistors (JFETs), diodes, and photodiodes and their simple linear circuit models.

Scope of the Text

A major feature of this book is its breadth of coverage. Throughout the text, a high level of
mathematical analytical detail is maintained. It is not a picture book; we have assumed that
readers have already had contact with basic electrical instruments, including oscilloscopes
and meters in their introductory EE and physics labs.
In the following paragraphs, we give an overview of the contents:
Chapter 1, Measurement Systems, is an introductory chapter, which illustrates typical
measurement system architecture and describes sensor dynamics, signal conditioning,
and data display and storage. Errors in measurements are discussed, including the mean-
ing of accuracy and precision, limiting error, etc. The recent (1990) quantum standards
adopted for the volt and the ohm are described, as well as other modern electrical and
physical standards.
In Chapter 2, Analog Signal Conditioning in Instrumentation, we describe, largely at the
systems level, means of conditioning the analog outputs of various sensors. Op-amps, dif-
ferential, instrumentation, autozero, and isolation amplifiers are covered. Applications of
op-amps in active filters, differential instrumentation amplifiers, charge amplifiers, phase-
sensitive rectifiers, etc., are shown. We also give practical consideration to errors caused
by offset voltage, bias currents, input impedance, slew rate and gain × bandwidth product,
etc. There is also a section on nonlinear signal processing with op-amps.
Noise and Coherent Interference in Measurements are treated in depth in Chapter 3. A heu-
ristic yet rigorous approach is used in which we define and use one-sided, noise voltage
and current power density spectra to describe the effect of noise in instruments and mea-
surement systems. Noise factor and figure are defined, and output signal-to-noise ratios
are used to evaluate measurement system resolution. Examples are given of calculations
of the noise-limited resolution of the quantity under measurement (QUM). Techniques are
shown for the minimization of coherent interference.
The traditional topics of DC Null Methods of Measurement and AC Null Measurements are
covered in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, respectively. Wheatstone and Kelvin bridges and
potentiometers are described in Chapter 4, and the major AC bridges used to measure
inductance, Q, capacitance, and D are treated in Chapter 5. Material in this chapter includes
a description and analysis of the Anderson current loop method of reading sensor outputs.
A Survey of Sensor Mechanisms is presented in Chapter 6. This is a large and substantive
chapter covering a broad range of sensor mechanisms and types. Of special note is the
introduction of certain fiber-optic and electro-optic sensors, as well as selected chemical
Preface xxi

and ionizing radiation sensors. The Sagnac effect is introduced, and the basic fiber-optic
gyro is described. New material in Chapter 6 includes a description and analysis of sen-
sors based on the giant magnetoresistive effect (GMR) and the anisotropic magnetoresis-
tive (AMR) effect. Pyroelectric IR sensors are also introduced. Means of measuring the
rotation of linearly polarized light is presented. A substantive section on photomultiplier
tubes and channel-plate photomultipliers is also provided.
Chapter 7, Applications of Sensors to Physical Measurements, presents a detailed analysis of
mechanical gyroscopes, clinometers, and accelerometers. It covers the Doppler effect in ultra-
sonic velocimetry and laser Doppler velocimetry. It also provides an introductory section on
the global positioning system (GPS), a section on optical interferometry, and an extensive
introduction to spectrophotometry, sonoluminescence, and surface plasmon resonance used
for substance quantification. The measurement of force, pressure, and torque is also covered.
In Chapter 8, Basic Electrical Measurements, the classic means of measuring electrical
quantities are presented, as well as newer methods such as Faraday magneto-optic amme-
ters and Hall effect gaussmeters and wattmeters. Electronic means of measuring stored
charge and static electric fields are also described.
Digital Interfaces in Measurement Systems are covered in Chapter 9. It begins with a
description of the sampling theorem, aliasing and quantization. The traditional topics of
hold circuits, digital-to-analog convertors (DACs), and many types of ADCs are covered.
The chapter also deals with data buses. New material includes a section on dithering as
a means to reduce quantization noise, a section on delta–sigma ADCs, and a section on
the ubiquitous universal serial bus (USB). Virtual instruments and PCI eXtensions for
Instrumentation (PXI) systems are also described.
Chapter 10, Introduction to Digital Signal Conditioning in Instrumentation, was written to
acquaint the reader with this specialized field because digitized, measured data is pro-
cessed and stored on computers in modern instrumentation practice. The z-transform and
its use in describing filtering operations on discrete, digitized data in the frequency domain
are introduced. Examples of FIR and IIR digital filters are given, including numerical
integration and differentiation routines, viewed both in the time and frequency domain.
The discrete and fast Fourier transforms are covered, and the effect of data windows on
spectral resolution is discussed. Finally, the use of splines in interpolating discrete data
sequences and in estimating missing data points is described.
An all-new Chapter 11, Solid-State Chemical Microsensors and Wireless Instrumentation, has been
written to address these contemporary topics. Modern tin oxide gas sensors are described,
as well as ChemFETs, ISFETs, and Schottky-diode-based chemical microsensors. Electronic
noses (E-noses) are introduced. Wireless data transmission (WDX) protocols are described
along with certain radio chips and their antennas, including a new section describing
broadband, space-saving, fractal antennas. Energy-harvesting ICs and supercapacitors are
described, as well as absorbable electronic circuits for temporary implants in living systems.
Chapter 12, Introduction to Mechanical Microsensors, is another all-new chapter covering
mechanical microsensors (MEMS and NEMS). It covers micromachined electromechani-
cal accelerometer designs, several MEM rate gyro designs, and cantilever-based MEMS.
Resonant cantilevers are shown to make effective chemisensors.
In Chapter 13, Examples of the Design of Measurement Systems, four examples of complex
measurement systems developed by my students and myself are given to illustrate design
philosophy: (1) a self-nulling microdegree polarimeter to measure glucose concentration;
(2) a system to detect and locate partial discharges on underground, high-voltage power
cables; (3) the design of a laser velocity and distance measuring system; and (4) the design
of capacitance sensors to detect hidden objects.
xxii Preface

Home Problems
Chapters 1 through 12 are followed by problems taken from my extensive classroom experi-
ence in teaching courses in I&M at the University of Connecticut. The problems are doable;
they are student tested. A home problem solutions manual is available from the publisher.

Glossary
This book has a comprehensive glossary covering the acronyms and abbreviations used in
the broad field of I&M. It also describes and defines many terms used in the text.

References and Bibliography

The references cited encompass a wide time span, from the 1950s to the present. There are
many recent entries of review articles and specialized texts that should lead the reader
interested in pursuing a specialized area of I&M further into a particular field.

Index
A complete index allows the reader to access topics featured and not featured in the
contents.

Features
Every chapter in this book has been revised to reflect modern technology. Traditional
material has been retained, however. Two new chapters have been added containing
contemporary material. They expand the scope of the text to include geophysical, chemi-
cal, micromechanical, and photonic instrumentation. Some of this unique new material
includes the following:

• The Anderson current loop technology for conditioning the outputs of remote
resistive and capacitive sensors is found in Chapter 4.
• The design of optical polarimeters and their application to polarization-responding
sensors.
• Photonic measurements with photomultipliers and channel-plate photon sensors.
Preface xxiii

• The Sagnac effect and fiber-optic gyroscopes are introduced as a sensitive means
of measuring angular velocity.
• Vibrating mass and vibrating disk rate gyros are introduced. The novel Humphrey
air jet gyro is analyzed. Traditional pendulum as well as fluid-filled clinometers
are described.
• The global positioning system (GPS) and the various modifications to improve its
accuracy are described.
• Substance detection using photons is introduced in Chapter 7. Dispersive, nondis-
persive, and Fourier transform spectroscopy are described, as well as sonolumi-
nescence and surface plasmon resonance.
• Chapter 9 on digital interfaces has new sections on dithering, delta-sigma ADCs,
data acquisition cards, the USB, and virtual instruments and PXI systems.
• An all-new Chapter 11 describes solid-state chemisensors, including tin oxide gas
sensors, Schottky diode chemisensors, chemFETs, ISFETs, and E-noses and intro-
duces radio ICs for use in WDX. Broadband, compact, fractal antennas are also
described.
• A new Chapter 12 covers micromachined IC accelerometers and rate gyros and
describes resonant MEM cantilever chemisensors.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Author

Robert B. Northrop, PhD, was born in White Plains, New York, in 1935. After graduating
from Staples High School in Westport, Connecticut, he majored in electrical engineering
(EE) at MIT, graduating with a bachelor’s degree in 1956. At the University of Connecticut,
he earned his master’s degree in electrical and systems engineering in 1958. As the result
of a long-standing interest in physiology, he enrolled in a PhD program at UCONN in
physiology, doing research on the neuromuscular physiology of molluscan catch muscles.
He received his PhD in 1964.
In 1963, he rejoined the UCONN EE Department as a lecturer and was hired as an assis-
tant professor of EE in 1964. In collaboration with his PhD advisor, Dr. Edward G. Boettiger,
Dr. Northrop secured a five-year training grant in 1965 from NIGMS (NIH), and started
one of the first, interdisciplinary, biomedical engineering graduate training programs in
New England. UCONN currently awards MS and PhD degrees in this field of study, as
well as BS degrees in engineering under the BME area of concentration.
Throughout his career, Dr. Northrop’s research interests have been broad and inter-
disciplinary and have been centered on biomedical engineering and physiology. He has
done research (sponsored by the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research [AFOSR])
on the neurophysiology of insect and frog vision and devised theoretical models for
visual neural signal processing. He also did sponsored research on electrofishing and
developed, in collaboration with Northeast Utilities, effective working systems for fish
guidance and control in hydroelectric plant waterways on the Connecticut River at
Holyoke, Massachusetts, using underwater electric fields.
Still another area of Dr. Northrop’s sponsored research (by NIH) has been in the design
and simulation of nonlinear, adaptive digital controllers to regulate in vivo drug concen-
trations or physiological parameters, such as pain, blood pressure, or blood glucose in
diabetics. An outgrowth of this research led to his development of mathematical models
for the dynamics of the human immune system, which were used to investigate theoretical
therapies for autoimmune diseases, cancer, and HIV infection.
Biomedical instrumentation has also been an active research area for Dr. Northrop and
his graduate students: An NIH grant supported studies on the use of the ocular pulse to
detect obstructions in the carotid arteries. Minute pulsations of the cornea from arterial
circulation in the eyeball were sensed using a no-touch, phase-locked, ultrasound tech-
nique. Ocular pulse waveforms were shown to be related to cerebral blood flow in rabbits
and humans.
More recently, Dr. Northrop addressed the problem of noninvasive blood glucose mea-
surement for diabetics. Starting with a Phase I SBIR grant, he developed a means of esti-
mating blood glucose by reflecting a beam of polarized light off the front surface of the
lens of the eye and measuring the very small optical rotation resulting from glucose in
the aqueous humor, which in turn is proportional to blood glucose. As an offshoot of
techniques developed in micropolarimetry, he developed a magnetic sample chamber for
glucose measurement in biotechnology applications. The water solvent was used as the
Faraday optical medium.
He has written numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals, and twelve textbooks: Analog
Electronic Circuits (Addison Wesley, 1990), and the following books published by CRC Press:
Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements (1997), Endogenous and Exogenous Regulation

xxv
xxvi Author

and Control of Physiological Systems (2000), Dynamic Modeling of Neuro-Sensory Systems

(2001), Noninvasive Instrumentation and Measurements in Medical Diagnosis (2002), Analysis
and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits in Biomedical Engineering (2004), Introduction to
Instrumentation and Measurements—2nd edition (2005), Introduction to Molecular Biology,
Genomics & Proteomics for Biomedical Engineers (with Anne N. Connor) (2008), Signals and
Systems Analysis in Biomedical Engineering—2nd edition (2010), Introduction to Complexity
and Complex Systems (2011), Analysis and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits in Biomedical
Engineering—2nd edition (2012), and Ecological Sustainability: Understanding Complex Issues
(with Anne N. Connor) (2013).
Dr. Northrop is a member of Sigma Xi, Phi Kappa Phi, Eta Kappa Nu, and Tau Beta Pi
and a founding fellow, Connecticut Academy of Engineers (2003).
His current research interest lies in complex systems and sustainability.
Dr. Northrop was on the Electrical & Systems Engineering faculty at UCONN until
his retirement in June 1997. Throughout this time, he was director of the Biomedical
Engineering Graduate Program. As emeritus professor, he teaches graduate courses in
biomedical engineering, writes texts, sails, and travels. He lives in Chaplin, Connecticut,
with his wife and a smooth fox terrier.
1
Measurement Systems

1.1 Introduction
In this introductory chapter, we will examine the architecture of typical, modern measure-
ment systems and discuss how noise, calibration errors, sensor dynamic response, and
nonlinearity can affect the accuracy, precision, and resolution of measurements. We will also
discuss the contemporary physical and electrical standards used by the National Institute
of Standards and Technology (US NIST, formerly the US National Bureau of Standards
[NBS]) and discuss how these standards are used to create secondary standards used for
practical calibration of measurement systems.
Measurement systems are traditionally used to measure physical and electrical quanti-
ties, such as mass, temperature, force, pressure, velocity, angular velocity, acceleration,
capacitance, and voltage. However, they also can be designed to locate things or events,
such as the epicenter of an earthquake, employees in a building, partial discharges (PDs)
in a high-voltage (HV) power cable, or a land mine. Often a measurement system is called
upon to discriminate and count objects, such as red blood cells, fish of a certain size swim-
ming past a check point, or bottles of beer on a conveyor. Also, a measurement system may
have the task of measuring the concentrations of chemical substances, such as various ions
in solution such as H+(pH), Na+, K+, Cl−, or SO4−, the concentrations of antibodies or other
biological molecules in solution, or the concentrations of certain explosive or toxic gasses
such as CH4 or carbon monoxide. A measurement system is often made part of a control or
regulatory system. The old saying that “if you can’t measure it, you can’t control it” is cer-
tainly a valid axiom for the control engineer as well as for the instrumentation engineer.
The reader should realize that the field of instrumentation and measurements (I&M) is rap-
idly changing, and new standards, sensors, and measurement systems are continually being
devised and described in the journal literature. The IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, the Review of Scientific Instruments, the IEEE Transactions on Biomedical
Engineering, and the Journal of Scientific Instruments are four of the more important periodi-
cals dealing with the design of new measurement systems, instruments, and standards.

1.2 Measurement System Architecture

Figure 1.1 illustrates the block diagram of a typical measurement system. The quantity under
measurement (QUM) is converted to a useful form, such as a voltage, current, or physical
displacement by an input transducer or sensor. (Note the distinction between a sensor and

1
Other documents randomly have
different content
 The designation of king as applied to the wren naturally called for
an explanation. It was accounted for by the story according to which
the birds challenged one another as to who could fly highest. The
eagle flew higher than the other birds, but the diminutive wren hid
beneath his wing, and, being carried up by the eagle, started on his
own flight when the eagle tired, and so proved his superiority (Ro.,
II, 293). The story dates from the period when cunning was
esteemed higher than brute force, and when cheating was accepted
as a legitimate way of showing one's powers. Among the fairy tales
of Grimm one tells how the wren, whose young had been spoken of
disrespectfully by the bear, challenged the four-footed beasts of the
forest, and by a similar strategem proved his superiority over them
also (No. 152). Thus the kingship of the wren extended to the four-
footed as well as to the feathered tribes.
The lines that celebrate the Hunting of the Wren are included in
several of the oldest nursery collections. They depend for their
consistency on repetition; there is no attempt at cumulation. In the
collection of 1744 the piece stands as follows:—
I

We will go to the wood, says Robbin to Bobbin,

We will go to the wood, says Richard to Robbin,
We will go to the wood, says John and alone,
We will go to the wood, says everyone.

II

We will shoot at a wren, says Robbin to Bobbin,

We will shoot at a wren, says Richard to Robbin, etc.

III

She's down, she's down, says Robbin to Bobbin, etc.

IV

How shall we get her home, says Robbin to Bobbin, etc.

V
 We will hire a cart, says Robbin to Bobbin, etc.

VI

Then hoist, hoist, says Robbin to Bobbin, etc.

VII

She's up, she's up, says Robbin to Bobbin, etc.

In the collection of 1783 there is an additional verse:—

So they brought her away after each pluck'd a feather,
And when they got home shar'd the booty together.
(c. 1783, p. 20.)

Another version of this chant from Scotland is included in Herd's

collection of songs, which goes back to 1776.[64] In this the wren "is
slayed," "conveyed home in carts and horse," and is got in by
"driving down the door cheeks." The characters in this case are Fozie
Mozie, Johnie Rednosie, Foslin 'ene, and brethren and kin. The song
ends:—
VIII

I'll hae a wing, quo' Fozie Mozie,

I'll hae anither, quo' Johnie Rednosie,
I'll hae a leg, quo' Foslin 'ene,
And I'll hae another, quo' brither and kin.

In the toy-book literature of the eighteenth century I have come

across the expression, "They sang the Fuzzy Muzzy chorus," which
may be related to these names.
Another variation of the chant sung in Carmarthenshire[65] is set
in the form of a dialogue, and the fact is insisted on that the hunt
shall be carried out in the old way in preference to the new:—
I

O, where are you going, says Milder to Malder,

O, I cannot tell, says Festel to Fose,
We're going to the woods, says John the Red Nose,
We're going to the woods, says John the Red Nose.
II

O, what will you do there? says Milder to Malder....

| We'll shoot the Cutty Wren, says John the Red Nose. |

III

O, how will you shoot her....

| With cannons and guns, etc. |

IV

O, that will not do ...

| With arrows and bows, etc. |

O, how will you bring her home....

| On four strong men's shoulders, etc. |

VI

O, that will not do ...

| In waggons and carts, etc. |

VII

O, what will you cut her up with?...

| With knives and forks, etc. |

VIII

O, that will not do ...

| With hatchets and cleavers, etc. |

IX

O, how will you boil her?...

| In kettles and pots, etc. |

O, that will not do ...

| In cauldrons and pans, etc. |
 XI

O, who'll have the spare ribs, says Milder to Malder,

O, I cannot tell, says Festel to Fose,
We'll give them to the poor, says John the Red Nose,
We'll give them to the poor, says John the Red Nose.

Further variations of the chant have been recovered from the Isle
of Man and from Ireland, where the hunt is kept up to this day. In
the Isle of Man it used to take place on 24 December, though
afterwards on St. Stephen's Day, that is 27 December, which
according to the old reckoning was the beginning of the New Year.
[66] On this day people left the church at midnight and then engaged
in hunting the wren. When the bird was secured, it was fastened to
a long pole with its wings extended, and it was carried about in
procession to the singing of the chant:—
We hunted the wren for Robin the Bobbin.

This chant further describes that the bird was hunted with sticks
and stones, a cart was hired, he was brought home, he was boiled in
the brewery-pan, he was eaten with knives and forks, the king and
the queen dined at the feast, and the pluck went to the poor.
The behaviour of the huntsmen was not, however, in keeping with
these words; for the bearers of the wren, after making the circuit,
laid it on a bier and carried it to the parish churchyard, where it was
buried with the utmost solemnity, and dirges were sung over it in the
Manx language, which were called the knell of the wren. The
company then formed a circle outside the churchyard and danced to
music.
In the middle of the nineteenth century the wren was still hunted
in the Isle of Man and was carried by boys from door to door,
suspended by the legs in the centre of two hoops. These crossed
each other at right angles and were decorated with evergreens and
ribbons. The boys recited the chant. In return for a coin they gave a
feather of the wren, so that before the end of the day the bird hung
featherless. A superstitious value was attached to these feathers, for
the possession of one of them was considered an effective
preservative from shipwreck during the coming year among the
sailors. At this time the bird was no longer buried in the churchyard,
but on the seashore or in some waste place.
The hunt in the Isle of Man was accounted for by the legend that
in former times a fairy of uncommon beauty exerted such influence
over the male population of the island that she induced them by her
sweet voice to follow her footsteps, till by degrees she led them into
the sea, where they perished. At last a knight-errant sprang up, who
laid a plot for her destruction, which she escaped at the last moment
by taking the form of a wren. But a spell was cast upon her by which
she was condemned on every succeeding New Year's Day to
reanimate the same form, with the definite sentence that she must
ultimately perish by human hand. In this form the legend is told by
Train. Waldron relates the same story, which explained why the
female sex are now held of little account in the island, but the fairy
according to him was transformed into a bat.
In Ireland also the wren was generally hunted during the
eighteenth century, and continues to be hunted in Leinster and in
Connaught, but I have come across no chant of the hunt. The bird
was slain by the peasants, and was carried about hung by the leg
inside two crossed hoops, and a custom rhyme was sung which
began:—
The wren, the wren, the king of all birds,
Was caught St. Stephen's Day in the furze;
Although he's little, his family's great,
Then pray, gentlefolks, give him a treat.
(1849, p. 166.)

The bird was slain, but it was not therefore dead. This is conveyed
by the tale told in the Isle of Man, and by the following custom
observed in Pembrokeshire on 6 January, that is on Twelfth Day. On
this day one or several wrens were secured in a small house or cage,
sometimes the stable lantern, which was decorated with ribbons and
carried from house to house while the following lines were sung:—
 [Pg 181]
Joy, health, love, and peace,
Be to you in this place.
By your leave we will sing
Concerning our king:
Our king is well drest,
In silks of the best,
With his ribbons so rare
No king can compare.
In his coach he does ride
With a great deal of pride
And with four footmen
To wait upon him.
We were four at watch,
And all nigh of a match;
And with powder and ball
We fired at his hall.
We have travell'd many miles,
Over hedges and stiles,
To find you this king
Which we now to you bring.
Now Christmas is past,
Twelfth Day is the last.
Th' Old Year bids adieu;
Great joy to the new.
(1876, p. 35.)

On grouping together these various pieces, we are struck by their

likeness, and by the antiquity of their allusions. The bird was usually
slain with stones and sticks, which are among the most primitive
weapons. In Wales bows and arrows, which are old also, were
declared preferable to cannons and guns. In Wales the bird was cut
up with hatchets and cleavers in preference to knives and forks; it
was boiled in the brewery pan, or in cauldrons and pans, in
preference to kettles and pots; and it was conveyed about in a
waggon or cart in preference to being carried on four men's
shoulders. Sometimes the bird was plucked. Finally it was cut up in a
sacrificial manner; one wing—another—one leg—another—and the
spare ribs or the pluck, as the least valuable part of the feast, went
to the poor.
 The representative huntsmen in England are Robbin, Bobbin,
Richard, and John-all-alone. In Scotland they are Fozie-Mozie, Johnie
Rednosie, and Foslin, besides "the brethren and kin." In Wales they
are Milder, Malder, Festel, Fose, and John the Rednose. Of these
characters only Robin and Bobbin (the names are sometimes run
together) and Richard, reappear in other nursery pieces. In the
oldest collection of 1744 stand the lines:—
Robbin and Bobbin, two great belly'd men,
They ate more victuals than three-score men.
(1744, p. 25.)

These powers of eating perhaps refer to the first share of these

characters at the feast. They are further dwelt on in the following
nursery rhyme:—
Robin the Bobbin, the big-headed hen [or ben]
He eat more meat than four-score men.
He eat a cow, he eat a calf,
He eat a butcher and a half;
He eat a church, he eat a steeple,
He eat the priest and all the people.
(c. 1783, p. 43.)

To which some collections add:—

And yet he complained that his belly was not full.

Other pieces dilate on Robin and Richard as lazy in starting, and

on Robin, whose efforts as a huntsman were attended with ill luck:—
Robin and Richard were two pretty men,
They lay in bed till the clock struck ten:
Then up starts Robin, and looks at the sky,
Oh! brother Richard, the sun's very high.
You go before, with the bottle and bag,
And I will come after, on little Jack Nag.
(c. 1783, p. 42.)

Robin-a-Bobbin bent his bow,

Shot at a woodcock and killed a yowe [ewe];
 The yowe cried ba, and he ran away,
And never came back till Midsummer day.
(1890, p. 346.)
Halliwell saw a relation between the huntsman of this verse and
the bird robin, since the robin was reckoned to disappear at
Christmas and not to return till Midsummer. As a matter of fact, the
robin leaves the abodes of man and retires into the woodland as
soon as the sharp winter frost is over. However this may be, the
presence of the wren and of the robin was mutually exclusive, as we
shall see in the pieces which deal with the proposed union, the
jealousy, and the death of these two birds.
 CHAPTER XVI
BIRD SACRIFICE

T HE custom of slaying the wren is widespread in France also. But

the chants that deal with it dwell, not like ours, on the actual
hunt, but on the sacrificial plucking and dividing up of the bird.
Moreover, the French chants depend for their consistency not on
repetition like ours, but are set in cumulative form. Both in contents
and in form they seem to represent the same idea in a later
development.
At Entraigues, in Vaucluse, men and boys hunted the wren on
Christmas Eve, and when they caught a bird alive they gave it to the
priest, who set it free in church. At Mirabeau the hunted bird was
blessed by the priest, and the curious detail is preserved that if the
first bird was secured by a woman, this gave the sex the right to jeer
at and insult the men, and to blacken their faces with mud and soot
if they caught them. At Carcassonne, on the first Sunday of
December, the young people who dwelt in the street of Saint-Jean
went out of the town armed with sticks and stones to engage in the
hunt. The first person who struck the bird was hailed king, and
carried the bird home in procession. On the last of December he was
solemnly introduced to his office as king; on Twelfth Day he
attended mass in church, and then, crowned and girt about with a
cloak, he visited the various dignitaries of the place, including the
bishop and the mayor, in a procession of mock solemnity. This was
done as late as 1819.[67] This identification of the bird and the men
explains the hiring of a cart or waggon to convey "the bird" in our
own custom-rhymes.
The Breton chant on "plucking the wren," Plumer le roitelet
begins:—
Nin' ziblus bec al laouenanic
 Rac henès a zo bihanic | bis.
(L., I, p. 72.)

"We will pluck the beak of the wren, for he is very small," and continues,
"We will pluck the left eye of the wren, for he is very small".

and then enumerates right eye, left ear, right ear, head, neck, chest,
back, belly, left wing, right wing, left buttock, right buttock, left
thigh, right thigh, left leg, right leg, left foot, right foot, first claw of
left foot and every claw in succession of this and of the other foot.
The last sentence is "We will pluck the tail of the wren," and then
sentence after sentence is repeated to the first, "We will pluck the
beak of the wren because he is very small, we have plucked him
altogether."
Another poem preserved in Breton relates how the wren was
caught and caged and fed till the butcher and his comrades came
and slew it, when the revelry began (L., I, p. 7).
I have often wondered at the cruel sport of confining singing birds
in cages. Possibly this goes back to a custom of fattening a victim
that was sacrificially slain. For the wren is tabu in Brittany as among
ourselves, and in popular belief the nestlings of each brood
assemble with the parent birds in the nest on Twelfth Night, and
must on no account be disturbed. This reflects the belief that the
creature that is slain during the winter solstice, at its close starts on
a new lease of life.
The wren is not the only bird that was sacrificially eaten in France,
judging from the chants that are recorded. A chant on "plucking the
lark," Plumer l'alouette, is current in the north of France which
begins:—
Nous la plumerons, l'alouette,
Nous la plumerons, tout de long.
(D. B., p. 124.)

"We will pluck the lark, we will pluck it altogether."

 And it enumerates the bird's beak, eyes, head, throat, back,
wings, tail, legs, feet, claws.
A variation of the same chant is sung in Languedoc, where it is
called L'alouette plumée, "the plucked lark," and is described as a
game (M. L., p. 457).
Again, the dividing up of the thrush forms the subject of a chant
which is sung in Brittany in the north (L., I, p. 81), and in Languedoc
in the south. It is called Dépecer le merle, and preserves the further
peculiarity that the bird, although it is divided up, persists in singing.
The version current in Languedoc begins:—
Le merle n'a perdut le bec, le merle n'a perdut le bec,
Comment fra-t-il, le merle, comment pourra-t-il chanter?
Emai encaro canto, le pauvre merle, merle,
Emai encaro canto, le pauvre merlatou.
(M. L., p. 458.)

"The thrush has lost his beak, how will he manage to sing, and yet he
sings, the poor thrush, yet he goes on singing."

The chant then enumerates the bird's tongue, one eye, two eyes,
head, neck, one wing, two wings, one foot, two feet, body, back,
feathers, tail; always returning to the statement that the bird,
although it is divided up, persists in singing.
The French word merle stands both for thrush and for blackbird.
The blackbird is held in reverence among ourselves in Salop and
Montgomeryshire, and blackbird-pie was eaten in Cornwall on
Twelfth Night.[68] But there is no reference to the sacrificial slaying
of the bird, as far as I am aware. In the French chant the bird
continues to sing although it is killed. The same idea finds
expression in our nursery song of Sing a Song of Sixpence. This
piece, taken in conjunction with the eating of blackbird-pie in
Cornwall and the French chants, seems to preserve the
remembrance of the ancient bird sacrifice. The first verse of this
rhyme appears in the collection of 1744, in which "naughty boys"
stands for blackbirds. In other collections the piece runs as follows:
—
Sing a song of sixpence, a bagful of rye,
Four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pye
And when the pye was open'd, the birds began to sing;
Was not this a dainty dish to set before the king?
The king was in his parlour counting out his money,
The queen was in the kitchen eating bread and honey,
The maid was in the garden hanging out the clothes,
Up came a magpie and bit off her nose.
(c. 1783, p. 26.)

The magpie is "a little blackbird" in the version of Halliwell, which

continues:—
Jenny was so mad, she didn't know what to do,
She put her finger in her ear and cracked it right in two.

Halliwell (1842, p. 62) noted that in the book called Empulario or

the Italian Banquet of 1589, there is a receipt "to make pies so that
the birds may be alive in them and fly out when it is cut up," a mere
device, live birds being introduced after the pie is made. One cannot
but wonder if the device was a mere sport of fancy, or if it originated
from the desire to give substance to an ancient belief.
Again, the robin redbreast was sacrificially eaten in France at Le
Charme, Loiret, on Candlemas, that is on February the first (Ro., II,
264). There are no chants on the sacrifice of the robin in France, as
far as I know. Among ourselves, on the other hand, where no
hunting of the robin is recorded, a piece printed both by Herd[69]
and Chambers suggests his sacrifice. The piece is called by
Chambers The Robin's Testament, and it describes how the bird, on
the approach of death, made a bequest of his several parts, which
he enumerated exactly in the way of the sacrificial bird-chants
current in France. They were his neb, feathers of his neb, right leg,
other leg, feathers of his tail, and feathers of his breast, to each of
which he attributed a mystic significance. The piece in the combined
versions stands as follows:—
 Guid-day now, bonnie Robin
How lang have you been here?
I've been bird about this bush,
This mair than twenty year!

Chorus: Teetle ell ell, teetle ell ell.

Tee, tee, tee, tee, tee, tee, tee,
Tee, tee, tee, teetle eldie.

But now I am the sickest bird

That ever sat on brier;
And I wad make my testament,
Guidman, if ye wad hear.

"Gar tak this bonnie neb o' mine,

That picks upon the corn,
And gie 't to the Duke o' Hamilton
To be a hunting horn.

"Gar tak these bonnie feathers o' mine,

The feathers o' my neb,
And gie to the Lady o' Hamilton
To fill a feather-bed.

"Gar tak this guid right leg o' mine

And mend the brig o' Tay;
It will be a post and pillar guid,
It will neither ban nor gae.

"And tak this other leg o' mine

And mend the brig o'er Weir;
It will be a post and pillar guid,
It'll neither ban nor steer.

[Pg 193]
(Herd only).

"Gar tak these bonnie feathers o' mine

The feathers o' my tail,
And gie to the Lady o' Hamilton
To be a barn-flail.

"Gar tak these bonnie feathers o' mine

 The feathers o' my breast,
And gie to ony bonnie lad
That'll bring me to a priest."

Now in there came my Lady Wren

With mony a sigh and groan;
"O what care I for a' the lads
If my wee lad be gone?"

Then robin turned him round about

E'en like a little king,
"Go, pack ye out at my chamber door,
Ye little cutty quean."

(Chambers only).

Robin made his testament

Upon a coll of hay
And by came a greedy gled
And snapt him a' away.
(1870, p. 40.)
The Robin's Testament should be compared with the French piece
called Le Testament de l'Ane, "the testament of the ass," of which a
number of variations have been collected. The "testament of the
ass" was recited outside the church on the so-called Fête de l'Ane,
"the feast of the ass," which was kept in many cities of France till a
comparatively recent date. In Douai it was celebrated as late as the
year 1668. On this occasion an ass was brought into church, and an
office was recited in Latin, which enlarged on the ass that carried
the Holy Family into Egypt, the ass which bore Christ into Jerusalem,
the ass of Balaam, and so forth. Its chorus consisted of braying, in
which the assembled canons joined. This service in church was
preceded by a recitation outside the holy edifice, which was in the
vernacular, and which, in dialogue form, enlarged on the several
parts of the ass.[70]
One of these dialogue pieces, current in Franche-Comté, describes
how the she-ass, conscious of the approach of death, bequeathed
her feet and ears to her son, her skin to the drummer, her tail to the
priest to make an aspergill, and her hole to the notary to make an
inkpot (B., p. 61).
Another version, at greater length, is in the form of instruction
which is given by the priest to the child, whose answers are set in
cumulative form.
"The feast of the ass," in the words of Bujeaud, "must have been
very popular, since I have often heard the children of Angoumais and
Poitou recite the following piece ":—
Le prêtre: Que signifient les deux oreilles de l'âne?
L'enfant: Les deux oreilles de l'âne signifient les deux grands saints, patrons
de notre ville.
Le prêtre: Que signifie la tête de l'âne?
L'enfant: La tête de l'âne signifie la grosse cloche et la langue fait le battant
de cette grosse cloche qui est dans le clocher de la cathédrale des saints
patrons de notre ville.
(B. I., p. 65.)

"The priest: What do the ears of the ass stand for?—The child: The ears of
the ass stand for the two great patron saints of our city.—The priest: What
does the head stand for?—The head stands for the great bell, and the tongue
for the clapper of the great bell which is in the belfry of the cathedral of the
holy saints, the patrons of our city."

We then read of the throat which stands for the entrance to the
cathedral—the body for the cathedral itself—the four legs, its pillars
—the heart and liver, its great lamps—the belly, its alms-box— the
tail which stands for the aspergill—the hide which stands for the
cope of the priest—and the hole which stands for the holy-water
stoup.
This chant on the parts of the ass is among the most curious
survivals. At first one feels inclined to look upon it as intended to
convey ridicule, but this idea is precluded by the existence of The
Robin's Testament, and by the numerous pieces which enumerate
the several parts of the bird in connection with the bird sacrifice.
Again in this case we are led to look upon the piece as a garbled
survival of some heathen form of ritual. The ass, however, was not
known in Western Europe till a comparatively late period in history. It
has no common Aryan name, and the question therefore arises how
it can have come to be associated with what is obviously a heathen
form of ritual.
Mannhardt, with regard to German folk-lore, pointed out that the
ass was substituted in many places for the hare, which was tabu,
and with which it shared the peculiarity of having long ears. This
substitution was favoured by their likeness of name: heselîn,
heselken. (M., p. 412.)
We are led to inquire if the ass in Western Europe can have taken
the place of another animal also, and we find ourselves confronted
with the following facts:—
Dicky among ourselves is applied to a bird, especially to a caged
(? perhaps a sacrificial) bird; the word Dicky is also widely applied to
an ass, properly to a he-ass.[71] The ass is often called by nicknames
exactly like the small wild birds: Jack-ass, Betty-ass, Jenny-ass, in
form closely correspond to Jack-daw, Magpie, and Jenny Wren of the
feathered tribe. The word Jack-ass moreover is applied both to the
four-footed beast and to a member of the feathered tribe.
Nicknames probably originated in the desire to conceal a creature's
true identity.
In Scotland the word cuddy again stands both for an ass and for
some kinds of bird, including the hedge-sparrow and the moor-hen.
[71] The word cuddy is said to be short for Cuthbert, but it seems to
be related also to cutty, an adjective applied to the wren (cf. above,
p. 176, 193), the derivation and meaning of which are uncertain.
The same overlapping of terms exists in France, where the ass is
popularly called Martin (Ro., IV, 206, 223, 233), while the feathered
martins include the martin pêcheur, kingfisher, the martin rose,
goatsucker, and the martinets (Ro., II, p. 70). In Germany also,
where no bird-chants are recorded, as far as I am aware, the
expression Martinsvogel is applied to a bird of augury of uncertain
identity, sometimes to the redbreast (Gr., p. 946). And a current
proverb has it, Es ist mehr als ein Esel der Martin heisst, "he is more
than an ass who is called Martin." (Ro., IV, 233.) In Barmen boys
parade the streets on the eve of St. Martin's Day, asking for
contributions, and, if they receive nothing, they sing:—
Mäten ist ein Esel, der zieht die Kuh am Besel.
(B., p. 363.)

"Martin is an ass, he pulls the cow by the tail," that is, "he has no money in
his purse."

These various survivals support the view that the ass in Western
Europe somehow got mixed up with the birds. When and how this
came about is difficult to tell. The representatives of Christianity
were in a position to accept the feast of the ass, since the ass
figured largely in the Old and the New Testaments. But we do not
know if they consciously did so, and introduced the ass in the place
of another animal, or if they took over an animal which had before
their time been accepted in the place of a bird.
 CHAPTER XVII
THE ROBIN AND THE WREN

O NE side of the subject remains to be discussed. It is the relation

of the robin to the wren. Many custom rhymes, legends, and
nursery pieces name the birds together, and they sometimes enlarge
on the jealousy of the birds, and on the fact that their presence was
reckoned mutually exclusive. Perhaps the birds, looked at from one
point of view, were accounted the representatives of the seasons,
and, as such, came and went by turns.
The robin and the wren are mentioned together in several custom
rhymes, some of which mention other birds also:—
The robin redbreast and the wren
Are God's cock and hen.
(1826, p. 292.)

In Warwickshire they say:—

[Pg 201]
The robin and the wren
Are God Almighty's cock and hen;
The martin and the swallow
Are God Almighty's bow and arrow.
(1870, p. 188.)

In Lancashire this takes the form:—

The robin and the wren are God's cock and hen;
The spink and the sparrow are the de'il's bow and arrow.
(1892, p. 275.)

This association of the sparrow with the bow and arrow reappears
in some nursery pieces, as we shall see later.
The robin and the wren are coupled together also in the following
rhyme from Scotland, which has found its way into some modern
English nursery collections:—
The robin redbreast and the wran
Coost out about the parritch pan;
And ere the robin got a spune
The wran she had the parritch dune.
(1870, p. 188.)

The Robin's Testament already quoted concludes with anger on

the part of the robin at the entrance of the wren, whose appearance
heralds his death. Other pieces describe the inverse case, when the
wren dies in spite of the robin's efforts to keep her alive. This
conception forms the subject of a Scottish ballad called The Birds'
Lamentation, which is included in the collection of David Herd of the
year 1776. It contains the following lines:—
The Wren she lyes in Care's bed, in meikle dule and pyne, O!
Quhen in came Robin Red-breast wi' sugar saps and wine, O!
—Now, maiden will ye taste o' this?—It's sugar saps and wine, O!
Na, ne'er a drap, Robin, (I wis); gin it be ne'er so fine, O!
—Ye're no sae kind's ye was yestreen, or sair I hae mistae'n, O!
Ye're no the lass, to pit me by, and bid me gang my lane, O!
And quhere's the ring that I gied ye, ye little cutty quean, O!
—I gied it till an ox-ee [tomtit], a kind sweat-heart o' myne, O!

The same incidents are related of real birds in the toy-book called
The Life and Death of Jenny Wren, which was published by Evans in
1813 "for the use of young ladies and gentlemen:—
A very small book at a very small charge,
To teach them to read before they grow large."

The story begins:—

Jenny Wren fell sick upon a merry time,
In came Robin Redbreast and brought her sops and wine;
Eat well of the sop, Jenny, drink well of the wine.
Thank you Robin kindly, you shall be mine.

The wren recovered for a time, but her behaviour was such as to
rouse the robin's jealousy. She finally died, and the book concludes
with the lines:—
Poor Robin long for Jenny grieves,
At last he covered her with leaves.
Yet near the place a mournful lay
For Jenny Wren sings every day.

It was an ancient superstition that the robin took charge of the

dead, especially of those who died by inadvertence.
The proposed union of the robin and the wren forms the subject
also of a story that was taken down from the recitation of Mrs. Begg,
the sister of the poet Burns. She was under the impression that her
brother invented it. It describes how the robin started on Yule
morning to sing before the king, and of the dangers, in the form of
Poussie Baudrons, of the grey greedy gled, of Tod Lowrie, and of
others, he encountered by the way. He sang before the king and
queen, who gave him the wee wren to wed. Then he flew away and
sat on a briar (1870, p. 60). There is no sequel.
In all these stories the wren is described not as a cock-bird, but as
a hen-bird, which is incompatible with the idea of kingship that is
expressed by the bird-chants. Perhaps the idea of the kingship is the
older one. For in the legend told in the Isle of Man as an explanation
of the custom of killing the wren, this bird is described as a fairy,
that is, of the female sex, and legends that are intended to account
for a custom are necessarily of a more recent date than the custom
which they explain. The wren in Normandy also is sometimes spoken
of as a hen-bird, La poulette du bon Dieu, God Almighty's hen. One
custom-rhyme current in Scotland directly associates the bird with
the Lady of Heaven:—
Malisons, Malisons, mair than tens,
That harry the Ladye of Heaven's hen.
(1870, p. 186.)

There is another toy-book relating the proposed union of the robin

and the wren, which leads up to the death of the robin. It is called
The Courtship, Marriage, and Picnic Dinner of Cock Robin and Jenny
Wren, and was first issued by Harris in 1810. In this book other
animals took part in the ceremony. The cock blew the horn, the
parson rook carried Mother Hubbard's book, the lark sang, the
linnet, the bullfinch, and the blackbird all officiated. A picnic dinner
followed, to which the raven brought walnuts, the dog Tray brought
a bone, the owl brought a sack of wheat, the pigeon brought tares,
and so forth. The enjoyment was at its height—
When in came the cuckoo and made a great rout,
He caught hold of Jenny and pulled her about.
Cock robin was angry and so was the sparrow,
Who now is preparing his bow and his arrow.
His aim then he took, but he took it not right,
His skill was not good, or he shot in a fright,
For the cuckoo he missed, but cock robin he killed,
And all the birds mourned that his blood was so spilled.

The cuckoo, it will be remembered, was the bird of the god Thor,
and the enemy of matrimonial bliss.
This story of a bird-wedding does not stand alone. From France
and Spain come a number of pieces which similarly describe the
proposed wedding of birds and end in disaster. In Languedoc one is
called Lou mariage de l'alouseta, "the wedding of the lark." It
begins:—
Lou pinson et l'alouseta
Se ne voulien maridà.
(M. L., p. 490.)

"The spink (or finch) and the lark intended to marry. On the first day of the
wedding they had nothing to eat."

A gadfly on his neck brought a loaf, a gnat brought a cask, a

butterfly a joint, and a sparrow brought grapes. The flea jumped out
of the bed and began to dance, and the louse came forth from the
rags and seized the flea by the arm. Then the rat came out of his
hole and acted as drummer, when in rushed the cat and devoured
him.
 Exactly the same story is told in much the same form in Catalan of
La golondrina y el pinzon, "The goldfinch and the swallow," but the
verses on the gay rat and the destructive cat are wanting (Mi., p.
398). Other versions have been recorded in the centre and in the
North of France, one of which was printed in 1780 (Ro., II, 180, 212;
D. B., p. 106). From thence the song was probably carried to
Canada, where it reappears as Pinson et Cendrouille, "The finch and
the nuthatch" (G., p. 275). Here the ending is that the rat played the
fiddle, and the cat rushed in and spoilt the fun.
These stories of bird-weddings should be compared with one
which describes how the flea and the louse combined to set up
house together and came to grief. It is told in Catalan of La purga y
er piejo (Ma., p. 74). In Languedoc the same story is told of La
fourmiho e le pouzouil, "the ant and the flea" (M. L., p. 508). In form
these pieces closely correspond with our bird-wedding. There is the
same communal feast to which the various guests bring
contributions, and the same revelry which ends in disaster.
This Spanish piece on the housekeeping of the louse and the flea
has a further parallel in the story called Laüschen und Flöhchen,
"The louse and the flea," which is included in the fairy tales of
Grimm (No. 30). But the German story is told in the cumulative form
of recitation, and its contents are yet one stage more primitive.
There is nothing on a wedding celebration. The louse and the flea
set up house together, and began by brewing beer in an eggshell.
The flea fell in by inadvertence and was drowned. Then the louse set
up the wail. In this the door joined by jarring, the broom by
sweeping, the cart by running, the dungheap by reeking, the tree by
shaking, till they were all carried away by the brook.
Much the same story, told in cumulative form also and equally
primitive, is current among ourselves. It seems to be old (1890, p.
454), and is called Tittymouse and Tattymouse. We read how
Tittymouse and Tattymouse went a-leasing (gleaning), and set about
boiling a pudding. Titty fell in and was scalded to death. Then Tatty
set up the wail. It was joined by the stool that hopped, the besom
that swept, the window that creaked, the tree that shed its leaves,
the bird that moulted its feathers, and the girl that spilt the milk.
Finally an old man fell from a ladder, and all were buried beneath the
ruins. Tittymouse and Tattymouse are usually represented as mice,
but the word tittymouse is also allied to titmouse, a bird. Titty and
Tatty are among the many rhyming compounds of which the
meaning is no longer clear.
The conceptions on which these pieces are based all recall
primitive customs. The wedding is a communal feast to which
contributions of different kinds are brought by the several guests.
Again the death of one individual draws that of a number of others
in its wake. On comparing these various pieces, we find that those
which are set in cumulative form, judging from their contents, are
the more primitive. This supports the view that the cumulative form
of recitation represents an earlier development in literature than
rhymed verse.
The toy-book on The Courtship of Cock Robin and Jenny Wren
attributes the robin's death to the carelessness of the sparrow. The
sparrow is also described as causing the death of the robin in the
knell of the robin, which is one of our oldest and most finished
nursery pieces. The death of the robin is a calamity, his blood is
treasured, he is buried with solemnity. In the collections of 1744 and
1771 the knell stands as follows:—
[Pg 210]
1. Who did kill Cock Robbin?
I said the sparrow, with my bow and arrow,
And I did kill Cock Robbin.

2. Who did see him die?

I said the fly, with my little eye,
And I did see him die.

3. And who did catch his blood?

I said the fish, with my little dish,
And I did catch his blood.

4. And who did make his shroud?

 I said the beetle, with my little needle,
And I did make his shroud.
The Death and Burial of Cock Robin formed the contents of a toy-
book that was printed by Marshall in London, by Rusher in Banbury,
and others. One of the early toy-books belonging to Pearson, which
are exhibited at South Kensington Museum, contain verses of this
knell with quaint illustrations. The toy-book published by Marshall
which contains the knell, is described as "a pretty gilded toy, for
either girl or boy." It leads up to the knell by the following verse,
which occurs already as a separate rhyme in the nursery collection
of 1744:—
Little Robin Redbreast sitting on [or sat upon] a pole,
Niddle noddle [or wiggle waggle] went his head [tail]
And poop went his hole.

This is followed by the picture of a dead robin with the words:—

Here lies Cock Robin, dead and cold,
His end this book will soon unfold.

We then read the four verses of the knell already cited, and
further verses on the owl so brave that dug the grave; the parson
rook who read the book; the lark who said amen like a clerk; the kite
who came in the night; the wren, both cock and hen; the thrush
sitting in a bush; the bull who the bell did pull.
In another toy-book the magpie takes the place of the fly, and
from the illustration in a third one we gather that not a bull but a
bullfinch originally pulled the bell.
The toy-book published by Marshall concludes:—
All the birds of the air
Fell to sighing and sobbing,
When they heard the bell toll
For poor Cock Robin.
(Reprint 1849, p. 169 ff.)
 The antiquity of this knell of the robin is apparent when we come
to compare it with its foreign parallels, which are current in France,
Italy, and Spain. In these rhymes also, those who undertake the
office of burial are usually birds, but the nature of him whose death
is deplored remains obscure.
In Germany he is sometimes Sporbrod, sometimes Ohnebrod, that
is "breadless" (Sim., p. 70), a term which may indicate a pauper. The
piece current in Mecklenburg is simpler in form than ours.
Wer is dod?—Sporbrod.
Wenn ehr ward begraben?
Oewermorgen abend, mit schüffeln un spaden,
Kukuk is de kulengräver,
Adebor is de klokkentreder,
Kiwitt is de schäŭler,
Mit all sin schwester un bräŭder.
(W., p. 20.)

"Who is dead?—Breadless. When will he be buried?—On the eve of the day

after to-morrow, with spades and with shovels. The Cuckoo is the
gravedigger, the Stork is the bell-ringer, the Pee-wit acts as scholar, with all
his sisters and brothers."

The knell that is recited in Languedoc is called Las Campanas, the

bells. One version begins:—
Balalin, balalan, La campana de Sant Jan
Quau la sona? Quau la dis?—Lou curat de Sant-Denis.
Quau sona lous classes?—Lous quatre courpatrasses.
Quau porta la caissa?—Lou cat ambe sa maissa.
Quau porta lon doù?—Lou pèirou.[72]

"Ding[Pg 213] dong, the bell of St. John.—Who tolls it and who says (mass)?
—The priest of St. Denis.—Who sounds the knell?—The four ravens.—Who
bears the coffin?—The cat in its maw.—Who wears mourning?—The
partridge."

Another version preserves the trait that the individual's

possessions took part in the mourning:
 "Balanli, balanlau, the bells near Yssingeaux are all tolled through April.
Who is dead?—Jan of the Gardens (dos Ort). Who carries him to his grave?—
His great coat. Who follows him?—His hat. Who mourns for him?—The frog.
Who sings for him?—The toad. Who forsakes him?—His sabots. Who says so?
—Jan the less. What shall we give him?—The legs of a dog. Where shall we
find them?—Near Chalençons there are plenty." (M. L., p. 232.)

Jan dos Ort in other versions of the knell is called Jean le Porc,
also le père du jardin; and in the latter case, le père petit, the little
father, pronounces him dead, and receives dogflesh (M. L., pp. 226,
230).
The Italian knell is quite short:—
Who is dead?—Beccatorto.
Who sounds the knell?—That rascal of a punch.
(Quel birbon de pulcinella, Ma., p. 133.)

The Spanish knell is not much longer:—

[Pg 214]
?Quién s'ha muerto.—Juan el tuerto.
?Quién lo llora.—La señora.
?Quién lo canta.—Su garganta.
?Quién lo chilla.—La chiquilla.
(Ma., p. 62.)

"Who is dead?—Crooked Juan. Who mourns for him?—The swallow. Who

sings for him?—His coat. Who calls for him?—The quail."

Victor Smith, with reference to these chants, enlarged on the

possible nature of Jan, or Juan, of the French and Spanish versions,
who is called also "the father of the gardens," and who was given
dogflesh to eat. In illustration he adduced the legend of the god
Pan, who was looked upon as the father of gardens, and who was
supposed to eat dogflesh (M. L., p. 227). Dogs were sacrificed at the
Lupercalia which were kept in April, and the month of April is
actually mentioned in one of the French chants. If this interpretation
is correct, the knells on Jan current in France and Spain preserve the
remembrance, not of a bird sacrifice, but of a dog sacrifice. But the
Italian name Beccatorto is probably crossbill (R., II, 160), and birds
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