AMAN BHALLA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY
Btech CE 6TH SEM
MOCK PAPER
SUB- Foundation engineering
M.M-60
Each section carries 20 marks
Section-A
Q1
a. Foundation .
b. What is shallow foundation
c. Explain the term boring.
d. What do you mean by bearing capacity?
e. What do you understand by active and passive earth pressure?
f. What is meant by allowable settlement?
g. Differentiate between trench and borehole?
h. What is negative skin friction ?
i. Explain term group of pile?
j. Explain briefly pile foundation .What are its purposes?
Section B(Do any four questions)
Q2 Define and explain the methods of soil exploration used for new structure?
Q3 Explain the negative skin friction in pile foundations. What causes it?
Q4. Explain different types of shallow foundations with neat diagrams?
Q5 Describe components of a well foundation with a labeled sketch?
Q6. What are the different types of soil samples? Explain their importance.
Section C (Do any two questions)
Q7. Explain Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory for both active and passive conditions. Derive
the expressions for earth pressure and discuss its assumptions and limitations.
Q8. Discuss the types of piles and factors influencing the selection of piles for foundation
work. Explain the method of calculating the safe load-carrying capacity of piles in clay
using static formula.
Q9. Compare the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT).
Explain their procedures, advantages, and limitations. How are the test results used in
foundation design?
Solutions
Section A
Ans 1. A foundation is the lowest part of a structure that transfers the load of the building to
the ground. It safely distributes the weight of the structure to prevent uneven settlement
and structural failure.
Ans 2 . A shallow foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the
earth very near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as in
deep foundations. Common types include spread footings and mat foundations.
Ans 3. Boring refers to the process of drilling into the ground to collect soil or rock samples
for analysis. It is used in geotechnical investigations to understand subsurface conditions
before construction.
Ans4. Bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. It is
the maximum load per unit area which the soil or rock can bear without failure or excessive
settlement.
Ans 5. Active earth pressure is the pressure exerted by soil when it tends to move away from
a retaining structure, reducing the pressure against it. Passive earth pressure is the
resistance offered by soil when it is compressed against a retaining structure, increasing
pressure on it.
Ans6. Allowable settlement refers to the maximum amount of vertical movement or
displacement of a structure’s foundation that is considered acceptable without causing
structural damage or functional problems.
Ans7. A trench is a long, narrow excavation made in the ground, often used for utilities or
foundation work. A borehole is a small diameter hole drilled into the ground to investigate
subsurface soil conditions, typically used for geotechnical exploration.
Ans8. Negative skin friction occurs when the soil around a pile settles more than the pile
itself, dragging the pile downward and adding additional load to it. It usually happens in soft
compressible soils above the pile tip.
Ans9. A group of pile refers to a number of piles driven or cast close to each other and
connected by a pile cap to collectively support structural loads. This setup distributes the
load among all the piles in the group.
Ans 10. Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation used when the soil near the surface is
not strong enough to support the structure. It involves long, slender columns (piles) driven
into the ground to transfer loads to deeper, more stable soil layers. Its purposes include
supporting heavy loads, minimizing settlement, and providing stability in weak or expansive
soils.
Section B
Ans 2. Definition: Soil exploration is the process of investigating and understanding the
physical properties and stratification of the soil at a construction site to ensure safe and
economical foundation design.
Flowchart: Soil Exploration Process
Site Selection
↓
Preliminary Reconnaissance
↓
Selection of Exploration Method
↓
Drilling / Boring / Sampling
↓
In-situ Testing (SPT, CPT)
↓
Laboratory Testing
↓
Geotechnical Report Preparation
Methods of Soil Exploration
1 Test Pits and Trenches: Manual or machine-dug excavations that allow visual
inspection and sampling of shallow soils. Suitable for small-scale projects and
depths up to 3 meters.
2 Auger Boring:-Hand or power-operated augers are rotated into soft soil to remove
samples. Best for cohesive or silty soils, and economical for shallow depths.
3. Wash Boring: A pipe is inserted into the ground, and water is pumped to wash out soil,
forming a borehole. It’s used for soft soils and combined with in-situ tests.
4. Percussion Drilling:- A chisel bit is dropped repeatedly to break hard soils or rocks. Water
or mud may be used to remove cuttings. It’s useful for stiff soils and rock.
5.Rotary Drilling:A rotating drill bit cuts into the soil or rock, and cuttings are brought to the
surface by drilling mud. Used for deep exploration and rock layers.
6. Standard Penetration Test (SPT):A split spoon sampler is driven into the soil by hammer
blows. The number of blows required gives a measure of soil resistance and relative density.
7. Cone Penetration Test (CPT): A cone is pushed into the ground at a constant rate.
Resistance to penetration is recorded electronically, providing data on soil stratification and
strength.
Diagram: Rotary Boring Setup:-A diagram showing a rotary drilling rig, drill rod, borehole, and
sampling tube.)
Ans3. Definition: Negative skin friction is a downward force exerted on the surface of a pile
by the downward movement of surrounding soil relative to the pile.
Causes of Negative Skin Friction :-Compression and settlement of soft clay layers.
Placement of fill material above soft soil.
Lowering of the groundwater table.
Consolidation of loose, saturated soils after pile installation.
Effect:It increases the total load acting on the pile, which must be considered in design to
avoid failure.
Diagram: N
Prevention Measures:
Using coating or sleeves to reduce friction.
Preloading the soil.
Designing piles to resist additional load.
Ans 4. Definition: Shallow foundations are those whose depth is less than or equal to their
width. They distribute structural loads near the surface.
Types of shallows foundation
1. Isolated Footing: Supports individual columns. It may be square, circular, or
rectangular in shape
2. Combined Footing: Used when two columns are close together and individual
footings overlap. Can be rectangular or trapezoidal.
3. Strip Footing: A continuous footing that supports a load-bearing wall. Used when
walls carry significant loads.
4. Raft or Mat Foundation:- A large slab supporting multiple columns and walls. Used
when soil has low bearing capacity or when basements are required.
Selection Considerations:
Load magnitude and distribution.
Soil bearing capacity.
Proximity of columns and walls.
Cost and site conditions.
Ans 5. Definition: Well foundations are deep foundations used for bridge piers and heavy
waterfront structures, constructed by sinking a hollow well into the ground.
Components
1. Well Curb:A steel cutting edge at the bottom of the well that helps in sinking the well
by cutting the soil
2. Steining:The vertical outer wall of the well, constructed with brick or concrete.
3. Top Plug: Concrete plug above sand filling to lock it in place and support the cap.
4. Well Cap: A thick reinforced concrete slab that distributes the load from the
superstructure to the well.
Diagram: Well Foundation
A vertical cross-section showing:
Q6. What are the Different Types of Soil Samples? Explain Their Importance ?
1. Disturbed Soil Sample:The structure of soil is changed during sampling. These
samples are used for basic laboratory tests like classification (grain size, Atterberg
limits, etc.).
Importance:
Provides general soil information for preliminary design.
2. Undisturbed Soil Sample:The natural structure and moisture content of the soil is
preserved. Obtained using thin walled tubes or piston samplers
Importance:
Used for shear strength, compressibility, and consolidation tests. Essential for accurate
foundation design.
3 Remolded Sample:These are artificially prepared in the lab by compacting disturbed
soil. The natural structure is not preserved.
Importance:
Used for testing under controlled conditions and comparative studies.
Sampling Tools: Open Drive Sampler – for undisturbed samples.
Split Spoon Sampler – used in SPT to collect disturbed samples.
Piston Sampler – minimizes disturbance in soft soils.
Diagram:
Section C
Ans7. Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory
Introduction: Rankine’s Theory deals with the lateral earth pressure exerted by soil on a
vertical retaining wall. It is based on the limit equilibrium of the soil mass and is applicable
for both active and passive earth pressures.
Assumptions of Rankine’s Theory:
The soil is homogeneous, dry, cohesionless or cohesive.
The retaining wall has a vertical back and smooth surface.
The ground surface is horizontal.
The wall yields sufficiently to allow the full development of active or passive condition.
The failure surface is planar.
Types of Earth Pressure:
Derivation for Active Earth Pressure:
Derivation for Passive Earth Pressure:
Flowchart: Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory
Start
|
Define Soil Properties (γ, φ)
|
Determine Wall Conditions (Active/Passive)
|
Calculate Pressure using P = ½ K γ h^2
|
Result: Lateral Earth Pressu
Limitations:
Assumes planar failure surface, not always true.
Neglects wall friction.
Does not account for irregular backfill geometry.
Applicable only to vertical, smooth walls.
8. Piles: Types, Selection & Load Carrying Capacity
Types of Piles
a. End-Bearing Piles:
These piles transfer the structural load directly to a firm stratum or rock layer that lies beneath
the soft or weak soil. The bottom tip of the pile rests on this hard layer, and the load is
transmitted vertically through the shaft. They act similarly to columns placed on a solid
foundation.
b. Friction Piles:
Friction piles rely on the skin friction between the pile surface and the surrounding soil to
transfer load. These are especially effective when a firm bearing layer is too deep to reach, and
the entire load is gradually transferred to the soil along the length of the pile through adhesion. c.
Compaction Piles:
These piles are not meant to carry any structural load but are used to densify loose, cohesionless
soils (such as sand) by displacing the soil around them. This increases the soil’s bearing capacity
and reduces settlement.
d. Tension or Uplift Piles:
Used to resist upward or pulling forces caused by wind, hydrostatic uplift, or machinery
vibration, these piles are embedded deep enough to rely on the weight and friction of the soil to
prevent being pulled out.
e. Sheet Piles:
These are thin, interlocking piles made of steel, timber, or concrete used primarily for earth
retention and water cutoff walls. They don’t bear vertical loads but resist horizontal earth
pressures in cofferdams, retaining walls, or waterfront structures.
f. Bored or Cast-in-Situ Piles:
These are constructed by drilling a hole into the ground and filling it with reinforced concrete.
These piles are suitable for large-diameter and deep foundations and minimize vibrations,
making them ideal in urban areas.
g. Driven Piles:
Precast concrete, steel, or timber piles are driven into the ground using mechanical hammers.
These piles are quick to install and suitable for various soil types. However, their installation can
generate significant noise and vibration.
3. Factors Influencing the Selection of Pi
A Magnitude and Type of load: The type, quantity, and direction of the structural load (axial,
lateral, or uplift) determine pile selection. For example, tension piles are required when uplift
forces are dominant, while high axial loads may need end-bearing piles.
B Subsoil Conditions:
The nature and layering of the soil directly influence pile type. For cohesive soils like clay, skin
friction piles work well, while end-bearing piles are preferred in non-cohesive soils with deep
hard strata.
C Depth of Hard Stratum:
If the firm stratum is reachable, end-bearing piles can be used. When the hard layer is very deep,
friction piles are a more economical and practical solution.
D Groundwater Table Level:
A high water table affects construction techniques and the pile material (e.g., concrete mix).
Driven piles may be better suited in such cases to avoid collapse during boring.
E Construction Constraints:
In congested areas or close to existing structures, bored piles are preferred due to less vibration.
If speed is critical, precast driven piles may be chosen.
F Equipment and Material Availability:
Availability of pile-driving machinery, skilled labor, and materials like steel or concrete
influence the decision. If high-tech equipment is not available, traditional timber or precast
concrete piles might be used.
G Cost Consideration:
Cost efficiency depends on pile length, type, ease of installation, and availability. For large
projects, cast-in-situ piles might reduce material and transport costs.
Method of Calculating Safe Load-Carrying Capacity in Clay Using Static Formula
Step 1: Total Ultimate Load (Qu)
The total load a pile can carry is the sum of base resistance (Qb) and shaft resistance (Qs):
Q_u = Q_b + Q_s
Where: End-bearing capacity of the pile
Skin friction along the pile shaft
Step 2: Base Resistance (Qb) Calculation
The resistance at the pile tip is calculated using
`Q_b = C * N_c * A_b`
Where: C: a coefficient
N_c: a bearing capacity factor
A_b: the area of the bearing surface
Step 3: Skin Friction (Qs) Calculation The shaft resistance is given by:
Q_s = α * C * A_s`
friction resistance (Q_s) is equal to the product of:
α: an adhesion factor
- C: the soil cohesion
- A_s: the surface area of the shaft
Ans 9. Introduction Subsurface investigations are essential before any civil engineering
construction, particularly foundation design. Among the in-situ tests used to evaluate soil
properties, the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT) are
widely adopted. These tests help in assessing soil strength, stratification, relative density,
and other geotechnical properties. Though both serve similar purposes, they differ
methodology, precision, application, and interpretation. Understanding their differences
and applications is crucial for appropriate foundation recommendations
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
1. Equipment Used:
2. Split-spoon sampler (50.8 mm OD and 35 mm ID)
3. Drop hammer (63.5 kg)
4. Drilling rig with borehole tool
5. Measuring tape, blow count recorder
6. Borehole casing to prevent collapse
Step-by-Step Procedure:
Drilling the Borehole: A borehole is drilled to the desired depth using augers or rotary
drilling methods
Placement of Sampler: At the desired test depth, the split-spoon sampler is lowered to
the bottom of the borehole.
Seating Drive: The sampler is driven 150 mm into the soil to penetrate any loose material
at the base
Main Penetration: The sampler is further driven 300 mm, and the number of hammer
blows required to drive each 150 mm increment is recorded
SPT N-value: The total number of blows for the second and third 150 mm increments is
summed to get the N-value
Sample Recovery: The sampler is retrieved with a disturbed soil sample for
classification.
Diagram: SPT Setup
Drill Rig → Split Spoon Sampler → Drop Hammer (63.5 kg) from 760 mm height ↓
Blow Count → Penetration of 150 mm ignored + 300 mm counted
↓
N-value = Blows for last 300 mm
2.3 Corrections to N-value:
To standardize results and improve accuracy, the raw N-value is corrected as follows:
Energy Correction (CE): Accounts for hammer efficiency (< 100%).
Overburden Pressure Correction (CN): Adjusts N-value based on confining pressure.
Borehole Diameter (CB), Rod Length (CR), Sampler Correction (CS): Additional adjustments
for equipment dimensions.
Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)
Equipment Used:
Cone penetrometer (60° apex, 10 cm² base area)
Hydraulic push rig (20 mm/sec penetration)
Load cells to measure qc (tip resistance) and fs (sleeve friction)
Piezocone module for pore pressure (in CPTu)
Data acquisition system
Step-by-Step Procedure:
Site Setup: A reaction frame or vehicle-mounted rig is positioned at the test location.
Initial Calibration: Load cells and sensors are calibrated before testing.
Insertion of Cone: The cone is pushed into the soil at a constant rate of 20 mm/sec.
Measurement of Parameters: During penetration, the cone tip resistance (qc), sleeve friction
(fs), and pore
