MODULE 5

Meaning of Teams

A team can be defined as a collective group of employees who work interdependently to achieve
a common goal or purpose for an organisation. Companies are formally made up of different
kinds of teams with different skill sets. You’ve got your functional teams, which are often
department-based, cross-functional teams that bring together people from different areas, and
self-managing teams that operate independently. Chances are, you’ll be part of various teams in
your workplace. But your main squad is typically your departmental team, the folks responsible
for delivering a specific product or service.

Nature of Team

Work teams are the backbone of today's organisations. They are like a puzzle of individuals,
each piece interlocking with the others, sharing responsibility for their organization's success.
Let's break down what makes a work team successful:

1. Purpose: Every work team has a mission—a goal they're all striving towards. This goal
is usually a piece of the bigger picture, aligning with the wider objectives of the
organisation.

2. Shared Leadership: Leadership isn't a one-person show in a work team. It's shared
among the members, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility within the team.

3. Interdependence: The beauty of a team is in its interdependence. The actions of one

member can ripple through the team, impacting everyone's performance.

4. Accountability: Accountability in work teams is two-fold. Each member has

responsibility for the tasks allotted to them, and the team as a whole is responsible for the
final results of their efforts.

5. Communication: Communication is the lifeblood of work teams. Regular and effective

communication keeps everyone on the same page and helps iron out any issues.

6. Diversity: Work teams are a melting pot of diverse skills and expertise. This diversity
can spark innovative solutions and enhance decision-making.

7. Adaptability: Work teams are ever-evolving and adapting to meet the requirements of
changing of the future. For instance, the rise of technology has paved the way for virtual
teams, where all members work remotely.
Types of Teams

1. Cross-functional teams: Cross-functional teams are a lot like functional teams but with
a twist. They're made up of members from different departments. These teams come in
handy for tasks and projects that need a mix of expertise and viewpoints. Communication
is key in these teams and is often a top priority for supervisors and team leaders. Tasks
are usually divided up based on each member's skills.

2. Self-managed teams: Self-managed teams are groups of individuals from an

organization, who tied together to achieve a shared goal. These types of teams don't
need supervision as other types of teams. Leadership and responsibilities are shared
among the team members. You'll often find self-managed teams in startups and small
businesses. Giving valuable feedback can be a big help for the whole team.

3. Virtual teams: A virtual team is a band of individuals who work together remotely,
using digital tools. Each member of the team can be present anywhere at any instance of
time, such as in the same city, across the country, or even on the other side of the world.
These teams operate entirely from virtual offices, and many don't have a central home
base or visit a main office. The structure of virtual teams can vary, depending on the
industry, company, and department. They collaborate using technology, and trust and
solid communication are vital for a virtual team's success.

Advantages of Teams

1. Better ideas and feedback

Brainstorming as a team stimulates creativity because individuals often feel more confident and
propose unique solutions to problems when other people also help generate ideas. Feedback,
ideas and input from other team members encourage innovative, practical solutions.

Team interactions and discussions also provide an opportunity to view problems from different
perspectives, which can help develop unique solutions. Members can also receive constructive
feedback on their strengths and weaknesses, fostering improved work in the future.

2. Increased productivity

An effective team leader often divides work equally among members. Allocating work according
to a member's skills and strengths promotes equality and efficiency. This allows team members
to focus on producing their portion of work to a high standard. Increased productivity can help a
company increase its output and revenues.

3. Shared goals

When working in a team, each member can accomplish more than they might individually.
Teamwork can help create a sense of belonging and greater feelings of achievement and
satisfaction when completing tasks. These feelings often improve an individual's self-esteem and
happiness and increase job satisfaction, and shared goals help provide a sense of progression for
team members and mutual progress.

4. Reduced stress

Team members often rely on one another for guidance and emotional support. This support can
help reduce stress, enabling individuals to focus on tasks and complete projects. Dividing work
among team members also can help reduce an individual's stress and prevent mental exhaustion.

5. Trust-based relationships

Working together and relying on different team members builds trust and establishes strong
relationships, which can encourage innovation. Members of effective teams also feel comfortable
asking questions and seeking help. This can help team members handle confrontation efficiently
and improve workplace skills.

6. Enhanced soft skills

Working with team members who have different personalities requires effective communication
and other soft skills that apply to almost any position. Embracing differences and working
together to achieve a goal improves team members' communication and conflict-resolution skills.
Teamwork also enhances other soft skills, such as time management and listening skills.

7. Career progress

Teamwork may also help facilitate career progression. While collaborating, team members share
information and skills that increase everyone's knowledge. Additional skills and knowledge
enhance a resume and can help you pursue future career opportunities. The strong relationships
formed while working in a team may also help expand your professional network, which can
ultimately result in more job opportunities and knowledge about your industry.

8. Talent attraction and retention

Many talented professionals entering the workforce value collaboration and team-based
environments. Teamwork not only provides opportunities to collaborate but also creates a
pleasant work environment that can boost morale. Companies with a culture of teamwork and
employee appreciation not only attract talented individuals but may also be more likely to retain
those hires for the long term.

9. Increased innovation

Being innovative and creating products that provide practical solutions to problems separates a
business from competitors. Creating teams of diverse individuals with varied skills can increase
creativity, risk-taking and innovation. Organizations that encourage teamwork benefit from
innovative ideas, which often give them an advantage in their industry.

10. Improved decision-making

Working in a team with effective communication allows members to participate in discussions

and the reasoning behind a decision. Members of an effective team attain a better understanding
of a business's decision-making process and often are more invested in their company's success.

Model of Team Effectiveness

Rubin, Plovnick, and Fry's GRPI Model of Team Effectiveness

This model of team effectiveness was proposed by Rubin, Plovnick, and Fry as early as 1977. It
is also known by the acronym GRPI, which stands for Goals, Roles, Processes, and Interpersonal
Relationships. Represented as a pyramid diagram, this model outlines four parts teams need to be
effective:

• Goals: Well-defined objectives and desired results, plus clearly communicated priorities
and expectations

• Roles: Well-defined responsibilities and acceptance of a leader

• Processes: Clear decision-making processes as well as work procedures

• Interpersonal relationships: Good communication, trust, and flexibility

Because of its simplicity, the GRPI model is great when starting a team or when encountering a
team-related problem with an unknown cause.
The Katzenbach and Smith Model

After studying teams across several companies and their various work challenges, authors Jon
Katzenbach and Douglas Smith unveiled this team effectiveness model in 1993. Their book,
"The Wisdom of Teams," lays out their model of efficient teams in a triangular diagram with the
three points representing the larger deliverables of any team: collective work products,
performance results, and personal growth.

To reach these goals, productive teams must have three necessary components. These make up
the sides of the triangle:

• Commitment: Teams are committed when they have a meaningful purpose, specific
goals, and a common approach to their work

• Skills: Team members need skills in problem-solving, technical skills to accomplish their
craft, and interpersonal skills to enhance teamwork

• Accountability: Team members must have personal and mutual accountability

The T7 Model of Team Effectiveness

In 1995, Michael Lombardo and Robert Eichinger developed the T7 Model to define the factors
that affect team effectiveness. They identified five internal and two external factors, all starting
with "T," hence the name.

The internal team factors are:

• Thrust: A common objective or goal

• Trust: The knowledge that your team has your back

• Talent: Skills to do the job

• Teaming skills: The ability to function as a team

• Task skills: The ability to execute tasks

The external team factors are:

• Team leader fit: Whether the leader works well with the team

• Team support from the organization: How the organization enables the team to work

For a team to be high-performing, all five internal factors must be present. However, no matter
how complete the internal factors are, if leadership and organizational support are lacking, the
team's effectiveness will be hampered.

The LaFasto and Larson Model

Authors Frank LaFasto and Carl Larson proposed a model in 2001 called "Five Dynamics of
Teamwork and Collaboration." They gathered insights from investigating 600 teams across
various industries to answer the question, "What is an effective team?"
The resulting model features five layers or components that increase the likelihood of team
effectiveness:

• Team member: What are their skills and behaviors? Picking the right person is the first
step.

• Team relationships: The right behavior in a team builds healthy working relationships
between its members.

• Team problem-solving: Good team relationships make it possible to work together to

solve problems.

• Team leadership: The right leadership enhances a team's success.

• Organization environment: The right processes and company culture in an organization

promote commitment from teams.

The Hackman Model of Team Effectiveness

Richard Hackman proposed an effectiveness model in his 2002 book, "Leading Teams: Setting
the Stage for Great Performances." It outlines five conditions that must be present for teams to
work together successfully.

Hackman's study of analytic teams in the U.S. intelligence community confirms the validity and
effectiveness of these five conditions:

• Being a real team as opposed to a nominal team: Effective teams have a boundary that
delineates who is a part of the team, the members are interdependent, and membership is
typically stable.
 • Having a compelling direction that everyone works toward: This means setting
goals that are clear, challenging, and of sufficient consequence to motivate team members
to strive together.

• Having an enabling structure that allows for teamwork: The team's structure — its
conduct and the way it organizes and works on its tasks — has to enable teamwork and
not impede it. For example, if only one person gets to approve the work of 20 people,
then that structure is hampering the team's effectiveness.

• Having a supportive context within the organization that allows the team to work
efficiently: This means the team receives adequate resources, rewards, information, and
the cooperation and support needed to do their work.

• Having expert coaching and guidance available to the team: Effective teams in
business are those with access to a mentor or a coach who can help them through issues.

The Lencioni Model

Patrick Lencioni's 2005 book "The Five Dysfunctions of a Team" lays out a work team
effectiveness model based on the causes of dysfunctions, conflicts, and political maneuverings in
a workgroup. He mapped out five qualities effective teams do not want. To know your team's
dysfunction is to understand how to cure it. The five dysfunctions are:

• An absence of trust: If team members are afraid to be vulnerable or afraid to ask for
help, then they won't turn to their teammates for assistance.

• A fear of conflict: If everyone tried to preserve peace at all costs, there wouldn't be any
dynamic conflicts that result in productive ideas.
 • A lack of commitment: If people aren't committed to their work or team, then they won't
follow through on their decisions or deadlines.

• Avoidance of accountability: This is another drawback of the fear of conflict where no

one wants to hold others accountable for their work.

• Inattention to results: If personal goals become more important than the success of the
group, no one will monitor and optimize team performance.

Lencioni's team effectiveness leadership model is illustrated as a pyramid, where you tackle each
dysfunction one by one from the bottom up.

Stages of Team Development

Forming stage

The forming stage involves a period of orientation and getting acquainted. Uncertainty is high
during this stage, and people are looking for leadership and authority. A member who asserts
authority or is knowledgeable may be looked to take control. Team members are asking such
questions as “What does the team offer me?” “What is expected of me?” “Will I fit in?” Most
interactions are social as members get to know each other.

Storming stage

The storming stage is the most difficult and critical stage to pass through. It is a period marked
by conflict and competition as individual personalities emerge. Team performance may actually
decrease in this stage because energy is put into unproductive activities. Members may disagree
on team goals, and subgroups and cliques may form around strong personalities or areas of
agreement. To get through this stage, members must work to overcome obstacles, to accept
individual differences, and to work through conflicting ideas on team tasks and goals. Teams can
get bogged down in this stage. Failure to address conflicts may result in long-term problems.

Norming stage

If teams get through the storming stage, conflict is resolved and some degree of unity emerges.
In the norming stage, consensus develops around who the leader or leaders are, and individual
member’s roles. Interpersonal differences begin to be resolved, and a sense of cohesion and unity
emerges. Team performance increases during this stage as members learn to cooperate and begin
to focus on team goals. However, the harmony is precarious, and if disagreements re-emerge the
team can slide back into storming.

Performing stage
In the performing stage, consensus and cooperation have been well-established and the team is
mature, organized, and well-functioning. There is a clear and stable structure, and members are
committed to the team’s mission. Problems and conflicts still emerge, but they are dealt with
constructively. (We will discuss the role of conflict and conflict resolution in the next section).
The team is focused on problem solving and meeting team goals.

Adjourning stage

In the adjourning stage, most of the team’s goals have been accomplished. The emphasis is on
wrapping up final tasks and documenting the effort and results. As the work load is diminished,
individual members may be reassigned to other teams, and the team disbands. There may be
regret as the team ends, so a ceremonial acknowledgement of the work and success of the team
can be helpful. If the team is a standing committee with ongoing responsibility, members may be
replaced by new people and the team can go back to a forming or storming stage and repeat the
development process.

Power and politics

Power and politics are pervasive aspects of organizational life, impacting decision-making,
resource allocation, and interpersonal relationships. Power refers to the ability to influence
others, while politics refers to the use of power to achieve personal or organizational goals. Both
power and politics can have positive and negative effects on organizational outcomes.

Sources of Power

Legitimate Power

Also known as positional power and it comes from the position the person has in the
organisation’s hierarchy.

Typically, managers and leaders who delegate work and set tasks for others are described as
having legitimate power. The person who holds the power to exercise it correctly, they have to
have been seen (or at least perceived) to have earned it. This may be through time in the role,
experience in the role and the results that they have delivered.

Examples of this in an organisation might be the CEO.

This type of power can be unstable. If the person loses the title or their position, their power
disappears.

Expert Power
Having expert power comes from having expertise in a particular area. These people are valued
in organisations for their problem-solving skills. People will look to them to influence decisions,
have input into problems and are held in high regard by their colleagues.

People with expert power may be seen as ideal candidates for promotion in the organisation.

Referent Power

Referent power comes from the interpersonal relationships that a person builds with others in the
organisation. People have referent power when other people respect them and like them.

It comes from influence through the behaviour that they demonstrate to others. If they are liked,
others are more likely to respect and trust them. This allows the person with referent power to
influence others.

This power can also come from the relationships this person forms with key people in the
organisation such as the CEO.

Coercive Power

This power comes from a person’s ability to influence through threats, punishment or sanctions.
Others will respond to this behaviour because of fear of reprimand. They ensure that others stick
to the organisation’s rules, policies and procedures.

The downside is, that you can only use this type of power in short bursts. If it’s used too much it
tends to push people away or even leave the organisation.

Reward Power

This power comes from the person’s ability to offer and influence incentives in an organisation.
This may be an increase in salary and promotions. They can use this power to motivate
employees and team members.

The problem with this power may be that the person cannot always deliver or they can’t always
make these decisions about rewards or incentives by themselves. They may need to seek the
permission of others who make the final decisions as to whether the reward can be sectioned.

Contingencies of power

In organizational behavior, "contingencies of power" refer to the situational factors that

determine how much influence a person or department has within an organization, primarily
including factors like substitutability, centrality, discretion, and visibility; essentially, the degree
to which someone can be replaced, how critical their role is to the organization's operations, their
ability to make independent decisions, and how visible their actions are to others within the
company.

• Substitutability:

If a person's role or skills can be easily replaced by someone else, their power within the
organization is reduced.

• Centrality:

A person who occupies a central position in the organizational network, interacting with many
different departments and individuals, has greater power due to their ability to influence
information flow.

• Discretion:

The degree of autonomy a person has to make decisions without needing approval from others
directly impacts their power.

• Visibility:

If a person's work and contributions are highly visible to key decision-makers, they are more
likely to wield significant power.

Consequences of Power, Politics in organization

Positive Impact of Organizational Politics

 Organizational politics can create a positive work environment by promoting healthy

competition and encouraging employees to strive for excellence. It can motivate
employees to work harder and achieve their goals by rewarding those who perform well
and create a culture of excellence. This can lead to increased job satisfaction, employee
engagement, and a sense of camaraderie within the organization.

Negative Impact of Organizational Politics

• On the other hand, organizational politics can also have a negative impact on the
organizational environment. When politics becomes toxic, it can lead to conflict, distrust,
and an unhealthy workplace environment. This can create a toxic work culture that can
negatively impact the performance of employees and the overall success of the
organization.

• For example, when individuals or groups within an organization use their power and
influence to achieve their own interests, it can create a culture of mistrust and suspicion.
 Employees may feel that their colleagues are working against them or that they are not
being treated fairly. This can lead to increased conflict, decreased morale, and reduced
productivity.

Conflict and Negotiation in the workplace

• Conflict can be a common part of many workplaces. While conflict can encourage
change and inspire new ideas and processes, it's important to know how to negotiate
during conflicts.

• Conflict negotiation is communication focused on finding an agreement that addresses

the concerns of parties who want different outcomes.

Constructive & Relationship conflict

Constructive conflict occurs when individuals engage in passionate debates and discussions
while maintaining respect and a shared goal of finding the best solution. It is characterized by
open communication, active listening, and a willingness to consider different viewpoints. Here
are some key features of constructive conflict:

1. Encourages Creativity and Innovation

2. Enhances Problem-Solving Skills

3. Builds Stronger Relationships

• Relationship conflict is a specific type of organizational conflict that arises from

interpersonal differences among employees within a workplace. Unlike other types of
conflict, like task conflict or process conflict, which focus on work tasks and procedures,
relationship conflict in the workplace is rooted in personal interactions and often involves
emotions, misunderstandings, and personality clashes.

Common Causes and Triggers

• Personality Clashes: Employees with different personalities or working styles may find
it challenging to collaborate. For example, a highly meticulous person might struggle to
work effectively with someone who prefers a more laid-back approach, leading to
friction.
 • Miscommunication: Poor communication is a common trigger for relationship conflict.
Misunderstandings, unclear messages, or tone misinterpretations can quickly escalate into
significant disagreements.

• Differing Values and Beliefs: When employees hold conflicting values or beliefs,
especially about work ethics or social issues, it can create ongoing tension that disrupts
the workplace.

• Competition: A competitive atmosphere can breed jealousy and resentment, particularly

if team members feel they are not being recognized fairly. This can lead to conflict where
individuals feel undervalued or slighted.

• Task Interdependence: Task conflict often overlaps with relationship conflict,

especially when employees depend on one another to complete their work. Delays or
errors by one person can lead to frustration and blame.

• Process Conflicts: Disagreements about the methods or processes used to complete work
can also lead to relationship conflict, particularly when team members have strong
opinions about how tasks should be handled.

Conflict Process Model

Stage 1: Frustration

As we have seen, conflict situations originate when an individual or group feels frustration in the
pursuit of important goals. This frustration may be caused by a wide variety of factors, including
disagreement over performance goals, failure to get a promotion or pay raise, a fight over scarce
economic resources, new rules or policies, and so forth. In fact, conflict can be traced to
frustration over almost anything a group or individual cares about.

Stage 2: Conceptualization

In stage 2, the conceptualization stage of the model, parties to the conflict attempt to understand
the nature of the problem, what they themselves want as a resolution, what they think their
opponents want as a resolution, and various strategies they feel each side may employ in
resolving the conflict. This stage is really the problem-solving and strategy phase. For instance,
when management and union negotiate a labor contract, both sides attempt to decide what is
most important and what can be bargained away in exchange for these priority needs.

Stage 3: Behavior

The third stage in Thomas’s model is actual behavior. As a result of the conceptualization
process, parties to a conflict attempt to implement their resolution mode by competing or
accommodating in the hope of resolving problems. A major task here is determining how best to
proceed strategically. That is, what tactics will the party use to attempt to resolve the conflict?
Thomas has identified five modes for conflict resolution: (1) competing, (2) collaborating,
(3) compromising, (4) avoiding, and (5) accommodating. We will discuss these modes in
further detail below.

Stage 4: Outcome

Finally, as a result of efforts to resolve the conflict, both sides determine the extent to which a
satisfactory resolution or outcome has been achieved. Where one party to the conflict does not
feel satisfied or feels only partially satisfied, the seeds of discontent are sown for a later conflict.
One unresolved conflict episode can easily set the stage for a second episode. Managerial action
aimed at achieving quick and satisfactory resolution is vital; failure to initiate such action leaves
the possibility (more accurately, the probability) that new conflicts will soon emerge.

Approaches of Conflict process

• Integrative negotiation or win-win approach

In this approach, both parties achieve or exceed their goals in a value-creating process. Both
parties look for solutions that benefit each side, integrating the goals into one main approach. An
added benefit of this approach is that it creates a positive connection for future negotiations.

• Distributive negotiation or win-lose approach

A distributive negotiation is when only one party can gain benefits. This type of negotiation is
common when there's a limited resource or the team can only try one approach. Negotiating a
specific price for a product is often distributive negotiation, since there can be only one agreed-
upon price.

 Lose-lose approach

In a lose-lose approach, neither party receives the outcome they wanted. In some cases, each side
negotiates for part of their desired goal, but they don't get everything they expected.

 Compromise approach

In the compromise approach, both parties attempt to avoid a lose-lose outcome by

acknowledging they could benefit from accepting a result that limits negative consequences.
Structural sources of Conflict Management

• Power imbalances:

When one group or individual has significantly more power than others, it can lead to conflict
due to the ability to impose decisions without considering other perspectives.

• Resource scarcity:

When resources like budget, time, or personnel are limited, competition for access can cause
conflict between different groups.

• Incompatible goals:

If different departments or individuals within an organization have conflicting objectives, it can

lead to tension and conflict as they try to achieve their goals.

• Poor organizational design:

A poorly structured organization with unclear reporting lines or overlapping responsibilities can
create confusion and conflict.

• Lack of transparency:

When information is not readily available or is not shared effectively, it can lead to suspicion and
conflict among individuals or groups.

• Discriminatory practices:

Systemic biases or discriminatory policies within an organization can create conflict among
employees based on factors like race, gender, or ethnicity.

Resolving conflict through negotiation

1. Clearly define goals

It's important to define your desired outcome ahead of time to ensure you stay focused. Think
about the specific numbers, time frame and outcomes you want so you have something defined
for your negotiation. Specific goals can also help you make stronger and clearer arguments.

2. Consider the other party's background

Negotiations can sometimes involve international businesses or individuals from different

cultural backgrounds. A successful conflict negotiation strategy often involves being mindful of
how different organizations and professionals conduct business. Focus on the individuals you are
directly resolving a conflict with and how you both can mutually benefit from the process.

3. Be proactive

Being proactive can deescalate or eliminate conflict and encourage a positive atmosphere. If you
think you're close to a conflict with a coworker or witness a potential conflict among team
members, proactively identifying the challenge and attempting to resolve it can show that your
focus is on bettering your work relationships and environment.

4. Know your role

Depending on your position within a company, your role in conflict negotiation might be
different. If you're in a leadership position, it's probably your responsibility to understand your
company's guidelines for settling internal disputes and policies for entering negotiations with
vendors or third parties. As a team member, you might have the following roles:

 A mediator who suggests solutions to conflicts

 A witness who provides input for others' negotiations

 A teacher who shares conflict negotiation strategies

 A negotiator for yourself, responsible for representing your own interests

5. Use established forums for negotiating conflicts

Regardless of your role, it can be helpful for your workplace to have a designated time to discuss
issues that require negotiated solutions. Having a well-defined forum, such as a weekly meeting
or shared document where colleagues can share their concerns, can help team members feel more
comfortable expressing their opinions. For more private or sensitive conflict negotiations, you
may want to approach the other party separately or ask a human resources representative act as a
mediator.

6. Be flexible with time

How you use time in a negotiation often reflects what you wish to achieve. In some cases, being
firm with a resolution deadline can encourage a more direct and productive conversation. Other
conflict negotiations can take time to discuss various points and counterpoints. Being willing to
meet on multiple occasions over a longer period of time might produce a better negotiated
outcome.

7. Focus on creating value

Negotiations may begin because of conflicting positions, but a creative, value-oriented mindset
can produce the win-win results that leave both parties satisfied. When considering the other
party, know where your interests overlap and what your similarities are. Consider what trade-offs
you might be willing to accept or propose to the other party that could benefit both sides of the
deal.

Third-Party Conflict Resolution

• Third-party interventions are processes or techniques that involve an external person or

group who assists the conflicting parties in reaching an agreement or improving their
relationship. Third-party interventions can vary in terms of their level of formality,
neutrality, authority, and involvement. For example, some common types of third-party
interventions are mediation, arbitration, facilitation, coaching, and consultation.