19-01-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Evaluation Scheme

•Mid-Sem 25 %
•Quiz 10%
•Assignments 20%
•End-Sem 45%
 19-01-2025

INTRODUCTION
•Displays act as a man–machine interface for transmitting information to the
human visual system.
•Information conveyed through displays includes pictures, animations,
movies, and text.
•Basic functions of a display:
•Producing or reproducing colors and images.
•Traditional display mediums:
•Ink on paper in books or paintings, offering static content that is hard to
modify or update.
•Requires natural or artificial light for visibility.

INTRODUCTION
•Modern electronic displays:
•Use electronic signals to create images on panels.
•Stimulate the eyes without requiring external lighting.
•Overview of flat panel displays (FPDs) in this course:
•Classifications into emissive and non-emissive types.
•Non-emissive displays are further categorized into transmissive and
reflective displays.
•Specifications and technologies of FPDs to be outlined.
•Brief introduction to each FPD technologies covered later in detail.
 19-01-2025

Classification of Displays:

•Emissive displays:
•Emit light from each pixel to form an image.
•Examples: CRTs, LED panels, OLEDs.

Classification of Displays:

•Non-emissive displays:
•Modulate light through absorption, reflection, refraction, and
scattering to display colors and images.
•Require an external light source.
•Example: LCDs.
•Further categorized into:
•Transmissive displays
•Reflective displays
 19-01-2025

Display Technologies
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):
•Historically significant in home entertainment, enabling widespread
adoption of television (TV).
•Advantages:
•Self-emissive.
•Wide viewing angle.
•Fast response time.
•Good color saturation and image quality.
•Long lifetime.

Display Technologies (contd):

•Disadvantages:
•Bulky size and heavy weight.
•Depth is roughly equal to the length or width of the panel, e.g., a 19-
inch CRT monitor has a depth of ~40 cm.
•Limited portability and application due to size.
 19-01-2025

Display Technologies (contd):

1

•Flat Panel Displays (FPDs):

•Characterized by a thin profile (several centimeters or less), largely
independent of screen diagonal size.
•Technology selection and design depend on application and usage
conditions.
•Rapid FPD development offers numerous options and variations.

•Importance of understanding displays:

•Essential for product engineers to design and optimize display-based
products.
•Examples illustrate options and variations.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) 1

•Dominant FPD technology, available in sizes ranging from less than 1

inch (microdisplays) to over 100 inches.
•Driven by thin-film transistors (TFTs).
•Uses a liquid crystal cell as a light modulator (non-emissive).
•Requires a backlight module behind a transmissive LCD panel for a
complete display.
•Typically employs two crossed polarizers:
•Provides high contrast ratios.
•Limits maximum optical transmittance to ~35–40%, unless
polarization conversion is applied.
 19-01-2025

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) (contd): 1

•Optical performance issues at oblique angles:

•Crossed polarizers:
•Projections of optic axes are no longer perpendicular
to the light's E vector.
•Difficult to maintain a good dark state over wide
viewing angles.
•Liquid crystal (LC) birefringence:
•Electro-optic effects depend on the angle between
incident light and LC alignment.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) (contd):

•Solutions for wide viewing angles and uniform color rendering:
•Multi-domain architectures:
•Address light leakage at large angles.
•Phase compensation films:
•Uniaxial or biaxial films compensate for:
•Polarizer light leakage.
•Birefringent LC layer effects.
•Advantages of transmissive multi-domain LCDs:
•High contrast ratio and resolution.
•Crisp images and vivid colors (enhanced by quantum dots or narrow-band
LEDs).
•Wide viewing angles. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oNQTxWLYstk
 19-01-2025

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) (contd):

•Limitations under direct sunlight:
•Reflected sunlight from the LCD surface often brighter than the backlight.
•Greatly reduced ambient contrast ratio makes images less readable outdoors.
•Solutions for sunlight readability:
•Broadband anti-reflection coatings.
•Adaptive brightness control.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) (contd):

•Reflective LCDs for sunlight readability:
•Use ambient light for illumination, eliminating the need for a backlight.
•Benefits:
•Reduced weight, thickness, and power consumption.
•Example: wristwatches.
•Limitations:
•Inferior contrast ratio, color saturation, and viewing angles compared to
transmissive LCDs.
•Not readable in fully dark conditions, limiting applications.
 19-01-2025

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) (contd):

•Transflective Liquid Crystal Displays (TR-LCDs):
•Design:
•Combines transmissive (T) and reflective (R) functions within each pixel.
•T and R area ratio adjustable based on application:
•Outdoor use: ~80% R, 20% T.
•Indoor use: ~80% T, 20% R.
•Variants:
•Double cell gap:
•T sub-pixels have twice the thickness of R sub-pixels to balance
optical path lengths.
•Single cell gap:
•Uniform cell gap with other compensation techniques.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) (contd):

•Techniques for optical path-length balance in TR-LCDs:
•Dual TFTs.
•Dual fields: Stronger electric field in T regions, weaker in R regions.
•Dual alignments.

•Challenges and adoption of TR-LCDs:

•Improves sunlight readability while maintaining high image quality.
•Complicated fabrication process.
•Performance remains inferior to transmissive LCDs.
•Limited adoption in products.
 19-01-2025

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

•Made of a semiconductor p–n junction on a crystalline substrate.
•Operate under forward bias: Electrons and holes recombine to emit light.
•Emission wavelength is determined by the semiconductor bandgap.

•Wavelength emission and materials:

•Longer wavelengths (red and yellow):
•Use AlGaInP-based semiconductors.
•Tunable wavelength and lattice-matching with substrates like GaAs.
•Shorter wavelengths (green and blue):
•Nitride-based LEDs (e.g., InGaN) faced challenges:
•Lack of lattice-matched substrates.
•Technological hurdles in p-type doping and InGaN growth.

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) (contd):

•Key achievement:
•InGaN-based blue LED development recognized with the Nobel Prize in
Physics (2014):
•Awarded to Professors Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano, and Shuji
Nakamura.
•Blue LEDs combined with phosphors enable white light emission from a
single chip.
•Applications of LEDs:
•Traffic lights and large signage (over 100 inches).
•Backlights for LCDs & General lighting.
•Known for long lifetimes and high efficiency.
 19-01-2025

Organic Light-Emitting Devices (OLEDs)

•Basic Principle:
•OLEDs operate on electroluminescence (EL), like LEDs, but are made from
organic materials rather than semiconductors.
•Unlike LEDs, OLEDs do not require a crystalline substrate.
•Manufacturing Flexibility:
•OLEDs can be fabricated on large glass substrates, similar to LCDs.
•Flexible substrates are also possible with suitable fabrication processes.
•Device Structure:
•Composed of thin organic layers (~200 nm) sandwiched between anode and
cathode electrodes.
•Transparent conductors in both electrodes enable transparent displays.
 19-01-2025

Organic Light-Emitting Devices (OLEDs) (contd):

•A metallic cathode provides a mirror-like, reflective appearance when the

device is off.
•Visual Properties:
•Reflective when inactive, with superimposed information displayed on the
mirror-like background when active.
•Applications:
•Displays: High-resolution, flexible, or transparent displays.
•Lighting: Large-area, diffuse light sources ideal for general illumination,
contrasting with LED's point source and directional emission.

Reflective Display Technologies

•Overview of Technologies:
•Reflective displays reviewed include:
•Electrophoretic displays
•Reflective liquid crystal displays
•Interferometric modulator displays
•Electrowetting displays
•Key Features of Reflective Displays:
•Do not require an internal light source.
•Offer advantages like:
•Low eye strain. https://www.ynvisible.com/news-
inspiration/reflective-displays
•Low power consumption.
 19-01-2025

Reflective Display Technologies (contd):

•Excellent optical contrast, especially under high ambient light.

•Suitable for portable reading devices and outdoor applications.

•Power Consumption and Image Retention:

•Some displays need constant refreshing of the image.
•Bistable displays:
•Retain the image without power.
•Consume energy only during switching operations.

Reflective Display Technologies (contd):

•Performance Variations:
•Some reflective displays support video-rate switching, while others are
better for still images.
•Most monochrome displays meet the 10:1 contrast ratio standard of printed
images on paper.
•Reflectance in bright states is still below the 80% standard for white paper.
•Color Reflective Displays:
•Often rely on color filters or side-by-side pixel subdivision for color
reproduction.
•High brightness and saturation require multiple colors within the same
pixel area.
 19-01-2025

Flexible Displays and Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) :

•Fabricated on flexible substrates (e.g., LCD, OLED, electrophoretic
technologies).
•Benefits include being thin, robust, and lightweight.
•Applications:
•Direct-view displays for TVs, monitors, laptops, tablets, and
smartphones.
•Microdisplays with panel sizes <1 inch and pixel sizes in the micron
range.
•Microdisplays:
•Unsuitable for direct viewing but critical for head-mounted displays
(HMDs).
•Used in virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) systems.

Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs)

•HMD System Principles:

•Requires an optical system to direct light from the microdisplay to the
viewer's eyes.
•Configurations:
•Monocular HMD: Single microdisplay and optics for one eye; displays
2D images.
•Binocular HMD: Microdisplay and optics for each eye; supports
stereoscopic (3D) views.
•Advanced systems may render light fields, enabling true 3D visual
experiences.
 19-01-2025

Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) (contd):

•Types of HMD Systems:

•Immersive HMDs:
•Blocks the real-world view entirely.
•Provides a fully computer-rendered virtual environment (VR
experience).
•See-through HMDs:
•Combines real-world views with digital overlays.
•Enables experiences like augmented reality (AR), mixed reality
(MR), and spatial computing.

Head-Mounted Display (HMD) Systems

•Human Visual System Parameters:
•Review of critical parameters influencing HMD design.

•Key Topics:
•Paraxial Optical Specifications: Essential specifications for HMD
optical systems.
•Miniature Display Sources: Overview of common display sources used
in HMDs.
•Optical Principles and Architectures: Key principles and configurations
for HMD optics.
 19-01-2025

Head-Mounted Display (HMD) Systems (contd):

•Optical Design Methods: Techniques for achieving optimal performance.
•Performance Specifications: Criteria crucial to effective HMD system
design.

•Emerging Technologies in HMDs:

•Eye-tracking for user interaction and focus adjustments.
•Addressable Focus Cues to simulate natural vision depth.
•Occlusion Capability to enhance AR realism.
•High Dynamic Range (HDR) for improved image quality.
•Light Field Rendering for realistic 3D viewing.

Touch Panels (TP)

Definition and Role:
•A touch panel (TP) is not a flat panel display but provides an intuitive
input interface.
•Enhances the functionality of displays and is critical for many applications.

•Touch Functionality:
•Single-touch: Suitable for applications like ATMs.
•Multi-touch: Required for controlling devices like smartphones and
tablets.

•Working Principle:
•Detects touch by changes in electrical parameters (e.g., resistance or
capacitance).
 19-01-2025

Touch Panels (TP) (contd):

•Determines x–y positions of the touch for input functionality.

•Design Requirements:
•Must be transparent to be mounted on top of displays.
•Adding a separate TP increases the thickness of the display module.
•Integrating the TP with the display reduces module thickness.

Emissive vs Non-Emissive Flat Panel Displays (FPDs)

•Emissive Displays:
•Pixels emit light directly with varying intensity and color.
•Examples: CRTs, LED panels, OLEDs.
•Characteristics:
•Ideal emissive displays are Lambertian emitters, providing constant
luminance from all viewing angles.
•Suitable for low ambient light conditions due to self-emissive
properties.
•High contrast ratio under low ambient light, as they appear completely
dark when turned off (except for ambient reflections).
 19-01-2025

Emissive vs Non-Emissive Flat Panel Displays (FPDs) (contd):

•Non-Emissive Displays:
•Do not emit light directly; rely on an external light source.
•Example: LCDs.
•Liquid crystal molecules in each pixel act as light switches, controlling
light independently.

•Comparison:
•Emissive: Direct light emission, ideal for wide viewing angles and low-
light environments.
•Non-Emissive: Requires external illumination and operates via light
modulation.

Summary of LCDs and Reflective Display Concepts

•Liquid Crystal (LC) Control:
•An external voltage reorients the LC director, altering optical phase
retardation.
•Light from a backlight unit or ambient light is modulated through this
mechanism.
•High-contrast LCDs use two crossed polarizers:
•Voltage controls light transmittance through the polarizers.
•Types of Displays:
•Transmissive Displays:
•Use a backlight as the light source, positioned behind the display panel.
•Reflective Displays:
•Utilize ambient light for illumination, mimicking traditional media
like books.
 19-01-2025

Summary of LCDs and Reflective Display Concepts (contd):

•Power-efficient as they do not require an external light source.

•Technologies include:
•Electrophoretic displays.
•Interferometric modulator displays.
•Electrowetting displays.
•Reflective LCDs.

•Transflective LCDs:
•Combine transmissive and reflective properties.
•Address limitations of reflective displays in dark conditions

Summary of LCDs and Reflective Display Concepts (contd):

•Performance Comparisons:
•Reflective Displays:
•Perform well in high ambient light, leveraging increased ambient
luminance.
•Not suitable for dark environments.
•Emissive Displays and Transmissive LCDs:
•Can appear washed out under high ambient light due to reduced
contrast.
 19-01-2025

Display Specifications
General Specifications:
•FPDs are evaluated based on mechanical, electrical, and optical
characteristics.

•Size Categories:
•Projection displays: Smaller than 1 inch.
•Cell phones: 2–6 inches.
•Car navigation systems: 7–9 inches.
•Tablets and notebooks: ~8–20 inches.
•Desktop computers: ~10–25 inches.
•Direct-view TVs: ~30–110 inches.

Display Specifications (contd):

•Pixel Resolution:
•Requirements vary significantly depending on the display size and
application.
Key Performance Characteristics:
•Luminance and Color:
•Directly impact display performance.
•Depend on viewing angle and image uniformity.
•Contrast Ratio:
•Crucial parameter influenced by the ambient environment.
•Device Lifetime:
•A measure of durability and longevity.
 19-01-2025

Display Specifications (contd):

•Response Time:
•Affects display smoothness, particularly for fast-moving visuals.

These parameters collectively define the quality and suitability of FPDs for
specific applications.

Physical Parameters
Key Physical Parameters:
•Display Size:
•Measured diagonally in inches. Example: A 15-inch display
has a diagonal length of 38.1 cm.

•Aspect Ratio:
•Ratio of display width to height.
•Common ratios:
•4:3: Used in older monitors and standard VGA.
•16:9: Widescreen format common in HD/FHD displays.
•16:10: Alternative widescreen format.
 19-01-2025

Physical Parameters (contd):

•Display Formats: Abbreviation Full name Resolution

•Landscape: Width > Height (common in VGA Video graphics 640 × 480
TVs/monitors). array
SVGA Super video 800 × 600
•Square: Width = Height. graphics array
XGA Extended graphics 1024 × 768
•Portrait: Width < Height. array
•Resolution and Pixel Format: HD High definition 1280 × 720
FHD Full high 1920 × 1080
•FPDs use a rectangular dot matrix of definition
addressable pixels to display images and UHD (4K) Ultra-high 3840 × 2160
definition
characters. 8K 7680 × 4320
•Higher resolution generally improves Table 1.1 Resolution of FPDs.
image quality.

Physical Parameters (contd):

•Examples of standard resolutions:
•VGA: 640 × 480 (Aspect ratio: 4:3).
•FHD (2K1K): 1920 × 1080 (Aspect ratio: 16:9).
•UHD (4K): 3840 × 2160.
•8K: A proposed standard with even higher resolution.

•Resolution Scaling:
•Doubling the pixel count in both dimensions increases resolution by 4×.

Pixel Pitch and Density:

•Pixel Pitch: Distance between adjacent pixels.
 19-01-2025

Physical Parameters (contd):

•Example: A 5.5-inch display with 16:9 aspect ratio and FHD resolution has
a pixel pitch of ~63 μm.
•Pixel Density (PPI): Pixels per inch.
•The same example corresponds to ~401 ppi.
These parameters collectively determine the size, quality, and clarity of
images on an FPD.

HMD System Resolution and Pixel Characteristics

Microdisplay and Optical Magnification in HMDs:
•Microdisplay Source:
•Used in HMD systems for VR/AR applications.
•Perceived Resolution:
•Depends on the pixel resolution of the microdisplay and the optical
magnification of the viewing optics.
•Example:
•A VGA microdisplay with lower magnification can achieve angular
resolution comparable to or better than a
FHD microdisplay with higher magnification.
•Trade-off: Higher angular resolution reduces the field of view (FOV) of
the image.
 19-01-2025

HMD System Resolution and Pixel Characteristics (contd):

Pixel Design :
•Active and Inactive Pixel Areas:
•Not all panel area contributes to the displayed image.
•Inactive areas include inter-electrode gaps and other structures like stray
light barriers.
Pixel Fill Factor:

•Fill Factor (Aperture Ratio):

•Defined as the ratio of the active area to the total pixel size.
•Maximum value: 100%.

HMD System Resolution and Pixel Characteristics (contd):

•Example Calculation:
•Pixel size: 63 μm × 63 μm.
•Subpixel size (RGB): 21 μm × 63 μm each.
•Active subpixel area: 18 μm × 60 μm.
•Fill factor: ~82%.
Color Pixel Composition:
•RGB Subpixels:
•Each color pixel consists of red, green, and blue subpixels.
•These share the total pixel area to produce full-color images.
This summary highlights the balance between optical design, pixel geometry,
and perceived image quality in HMD systems.
 19-01-2025

RGB Subpixel Layouts

•Stripe Configuration:
•Advantages:
•Simplifies fabrication.
•Easier driving circuit design.
•Disadvantages:
•Provides poor color mixing
performance for a given display area
and resolution. (a) (b) (c)
•Mosaic and Delta Configurations: Figure 1.1 Subpixel layout of a FPD: (a) stripe,
(b) mosaic, and (c) delta configurations.
•Advantages:
•Offer better color mixing capabilities.
•Result in higher image quality.

RGB Subpixel Layouts (contd):

•Disadvantages:
•More complex fabrication process.
•Increased complexity in driving circuit design.

These layouts highlight the trade-off between manufacturing simplicity

and display performance.
 19-01-2025

Subpixel Rendering and Color Fringing

•Subpixel Rendering:
•Purpose: Smooths the edges of oblique patterns (e.g., black-on-white
edges)
by controlling the activation of individual subpixels in sequence.
•Mechanism:
•In a stripe subpixel configuration,
subpixels are switched row-by-row from top to bottom.
•Results in smoother edge appearance for patterns or text,
such as italicized letters.
•Color Fringing Artifact:
•Definition: Non-white colors appearing at edges due to selective subpixel
activation.

Subpixel Rendering and Color Fringing (contd:)

•Example:
•Red subpixel activates at the edge
of rows 1 and 4.
•Red and green subpixels activate
together at rows 2 and 5, creating
yellow at the edge.
•Visual Impact:
•Reduces the uniformity of edge
colors but enhances edge (a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.2 (a) White (red + green + blue)
smoothness. pixels lit-on at the edge of the slope, and (b)
with subpixel rendering in a stripe
configuration. (c) “m” in italic (2) without and
(3) with subpixel rendering on a display.
 19-01-2025

Subpixel Rendering and Color Fringing (contd:)

•Advanced Subpixel Rendering Algorithms:
•Adjust subpixel luminance values in addition to switching them
on/off.
•Further improves visual quality by minimizing artifacts while
maintaining smooth edges.
This technique balances the trade-off between smoothness of patterns and
potential color artifacts.

Photoreceptor Cells and PenTile Configurations in Displays

Human Photoreceptor Cells:
•Three types of cells respond to different
wavelengths of the visible spectrum:
•Long wavelengths: Red.
•Medium wavelengths: Green.
•Short wavelengths: Blue.
•This is the basis for using red, green, (a) (b) (c)
TM
Figure 1.3 (a) stripe, (b) PenTile RGRB, and (c) PenTile
and blue (RGB) as display primaries RGBW configurations
 19-01-2025

Photoreceptor Cells and PenTile Configurations in Displays (contd):

PenTile Configuration:
•Mimics the human eye's uneven photoreceptor distribution for improved
color mixing. (c)

•Structure:
•Derived from "penta" (Greek for five); five subpixels form one pixel.
•Example: RGBG format, where a green subpixel is repeated.
•Larger red and blue subpixels are used, enabling:
•Better color rendering.
•Ease of manufacturing at higher resolutions (important for OLEDs
where subpixel size is harder to reduce).

Photoreceptor Cells and PenTile Configurations in Displays (contd):

Benefits of PenTile Configuration:
1.Manufacturing Simplicity:
•Relaxed design rules for high-resolution displays.

2.Improved OLED Durability:

•Enlarged blue subpixels reduce current density, extending blue
subpixel lifespan.

3.Energy Efficiency (RGBW Layout):

•Adds a white subpixel for displays like LCDs.
•Reduces energy loss caused by filtering unwanted colors from a
white backlight, improving efficiency.
 19-01-2025

Photoreceptor Cells and PenTile Configurations in Displays (contd):

Comparison with Stripe Configuration:
•PenTile allows for larger subpixels while maintaining resolution.
•Examples include RGBG and RGBW arrangements, which
optimize both performance and durability.
This summary encapsulates the rationale, design, and advantages of
PenTile configurations.

Retina Displays
•Definition:
•A retina display has a pixel density so high that individual pixels cannot
be resolved by the human eye at a normal viewing distance.
•The pixel density exceeds the resolution of the photoreceptors in the
retina.
•Pixel Density Requirements:
•Phones (close viewing distance ~30 cm):
•Requires ~300 ppi for a retina display.
•TVs (larger viewing distances):
•Can achieve retina quality with lower ppi due to the increased distance.
 19-01-2025

Retina Displays (contd):

•Significance:
•Ensures crisp, sharp images with no visible pixelation.
•The pixel density requirement varies with the typical viewing distance of
the device.
•Further Discussion:
•Detailed explanation and examples of retina displays will be covered in
Chapter 2.
This concept highlights how pixel density and viewing distance combine to
create the perception of seamless image quality.

Luminance and Color Gamut in FPDs

Luminance:
•Definition:
•The brightness of a display, measured in cd/m² (candela per square meter).
•Impact on Viewing Conditions:
•High luminance: Essential for visibility under high ambient light; can
appear dazzling in the dark.
•Low luminance: May look washed out in bright conditions.
•Typical Luminance Levels:
•Indoor monitors: 200–300 cd/m².
•Large-screen TVs: 500–1000 cd/m².
 19-01-2025

Color Gamut (contd):

Color Gamut:
•Definition:
•The range of colors a display can reproduce.
•Key Factors:
•Purity of RGB primaries: Narrow-band primaries expand the color
gamut.
•Adding more primaries (e.g., yellow, cyan) can further increase the color
gamut and enhance color fidelity.
•Performance Benefits:
•Broader color gamut improves realism and richness of displayed colors.
•Optimized driving methods can reduce power consumption.

Color Gamut (contd):

Gray Levels and Color Depth:
•Gray Scale:
•Perceived brightness levels, divided into equal steps.
•Defined by the bit depth of RGB subpixels.
•Color Depth Example:
•An 8-bit system for each RGB subpixel provides 256 gray levels per
channel.
•Total colors: 256×256×256=16.8 million colors.
 19-01-2025

Color Gamut (contd):

Overall Importance:
•Luminance and color fidelity are essential for display performance under
various lighting conditions.
•A broader color gamut and higher gray levels enhance visual quality and
realism.

Contrast Ratio (CR) in FPDs

The device contrast ratio (CR) of a FPD is defined as:
CR = Lw∕LbCR = Lw∕Lb (1.1) where Lw and Lb are the luminances of the
white and black states, respectively.
•Definition of Contrast Ratio (CR):
•Ratio of luminance between the brightest ("on") and darkest ("off")
states of a display.
•Impact on Image Quality:
•Higher CR improves:
•Image quality.
•Color saturation.
•When CR ≤ 1:
•Display information is either lost or inverted.
 19-01-2025

Contrast Ratio (CR) in FPDs (contd):

•Emissive Displays and CR:
•For most emissive displays (e.g., OLEDs, LEDs):
•Off-state luminance = 0.
•Result: Infinite CR under perfectly dark viewing conditions.
•Practical Implications:
•Displays with higher CR are better suited for environments with varying
light conditions, enhancing both readability and visual depth.

Under ambient light conditions, surface reflections from the display

mean that Eq. (1.1) should be modified to:
CRA = (Lw + Lar)∕(Lb + Lar), (1.2)
where CRA stands for the ambient contrast ratio, and Lar is the luminance
from ambient reflection

Maintaining High Ambient Contrast in FPDs

Challenges with High Ambient Light:
•Increasing ambient light, especially outdoor sunlight, can severely degrade
contrast and wash out displayed content.
•Sunlight luminance is ~4 orders of magnitude higher than most FPDs.
 19-01-2025

Maintaining High Ambient Contrast in FPDs (contd):

Strategies to Improve Ambient Contrast:
1.Increase On-State Luminance:
•Boosting display brightness helps counteract ambient light but increases
power consumption.
2.Reduce Surface Reflectance:
•Minimizing reflectivity improves visibility by reducing glare and
reflections.
Sunlight Readability:
•A critical consideration for mobile displays used outdoors.
•Emissive and transmissive displays face significant challenges in direct
sunlight.

Maintaining High Ambient Contrast in FPDs (contd):

Reflective Displays:
•Reflective displays (e.g., reflective LCDs) rely on ambient light for
visibility.
•Adequate ambient light is necessary, similar to viewing traditional media
like books or newspapers.
•Performance degrades in low-light environments.
These considerations highlight trade-offs in display technologies for balancing
visibility across varying lighting conditions.
 19-01-2025

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics

Uniformity:
•Refers to unwanted changes in luminance or color across the display.
•Human eyes are sensitive to these changes:
•Adjacent pixels: A 5% luminance difference is noticeable.
•Gradual changes: Tolerable up to 20% over the entire display.
Viewing Angle:
•Luminance and color may change at oblique angles.
•Lambertian Emitters (e.g., CRTs):
•Good viewing angle performance.
•LEDs and OLEDs:
•Viewing profiles can be improved with engineering (e.g., packaging, layer
optimization).

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics (contd):

•LCDs:
•Viewing angles need careful management due to birefringent LC materials
and polarizers.
•Quantified by:
1.Luminance threshold.
2.Minimum contrast ratio (e.g., 10:1).
3.Maximum allowable color shift.
•Poor viewing angles can lead to contrast ratios below 1 or “gray level
inversion.”
 19-01-2025

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics (contd):

Response Time:
•Measures the speed of pixel transitions.
•Types of Response Time:
1.Rise and Fall Time: Switching from "off" to "on" and vice versa
(typically measured at 10%-90% luminance levels).
2.Gray-to-Gray (GTG): Transition between different gray levels; more
representative of real-world content.
•TFT LCDs:
•Use a set-and-hold voltage function, unlike CRT’s impulse response.
•Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT): Common metric for TFT LCDs,
details later.

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics (contd):

Longevity and Burn-In:
•Luminance Decay:
•Prolonged operation may reduce luminance, especially in emissive displays.
•Burn-In/Residual Image:
•Occurs when static images are displayed for extended periods.
•Visible as a faint “ghost image” even after the screen changes to a blank
white display.
•Solutions to Avoid Burn-In:
•Use moving images instead of static ones to ensure uniform decay across
all pixels.
These metrics and considerations are crucial for evaluating and optimizing FPD
performance in real-world applications.
 19-01-2025

Efficiency and Power Consumption in FPDs

Importance of Power Consumption:
•Mobile Displays:
•Lower power consumption extends battery life.
•Wall-Plugged Displays (e.g., TVs, Monitors):
•Reduces heat generation, simplifying thermal management.
•Supports environmental sustainability and reduces electricity costs.
Measurement of Power Efficiency:
•Power efficacy is measured in lumens per watt (lm/W).
•Higher optical efficiency translates to:
•Less heat dissipation.
•Improved energy savings.

Efficiency and Power Consumption in FPDs (contd):

Energy Standards:
•Energy Star Program:
•Defines power consumption benchmarks for electronic products,
including displays.
•Example: Energy Star Display Specification 7.1 (April 2017):
•Specifies maximum power consumption for displays based on:
1.Screen area.
2.Maximum luminance.
•Example: A 60-inch TV (4:3 aspect ratio) with maximum luminance of
500 cd/m²:
•Must consume less than 144 W during on-state operation.
 19-01-2025

Efficiency and Power Consumption in FPDs (contd):

Thermal Management:
•Particularly critical in small, portable devices where heat dissipation is
constrained by chassis size.
•This summary highlights the role of power consumption in display
efficiency, device performance, and sustainability efforts.

Flexible Displays
•Flexible FPDs aim to replicate the thin, lightweight, and conformable qualities
of paper.
•Compared to rigid, glass-based FPDs, flexible displays offer:
•Reduced weight and thickness.
•Potential for low-cost manufacturing via roll-to-roll processes.

Potential Substrate Materials:

1.Ultra-Thin Glass:
•Bendable but expensive.
2.Plastic:
•Suitable for flexibility.
•Limited by a low heat tolerance (~200°C) during manufacturing.
 19-01-2025

Flexible Displays (contd):

3.Stainless Steel:
•Bendable and resistant to high temperatures.
•Opaque, making it unsuitable for transmissive displays.

Challenges for Flexible Displays:

•Material selection.
•Development of specialized fabrication processes.
•Designing suitable device configurations and packaging. • Accurate
measurement techniques for flexible displays.

Flexible FPDs promise versatility & cost-efficiency but require overcoming

many technical hurdles for widespread adoption.

Applications of Flat Panel Displays

LCD Development and Types
Historical Development:
•Initial Stages:
• LC materials discovered over a century ago, but useful electro-optic
effects and stable materials emerged in the 1960s–70s.
• Passive Matrix LCDs: Early applications in calculators and
wristwatches.
•Advancements:
• Introduction of thin-film transistors (TFTs), color filters, and low-
voltage LC effects.
• Enabled Active Matrix LCDs to penetrate markets for notebooks,
monitors, and TVs.
 19-01-2025

Applications of Flat Panel Displays

Modern Applications:
• Found in smartphones, tablets, VR/AR displays, automotive systems,
navigation devices, and TVs.

Types of LCDs:
1.Transmissive LCDs:
a) Subtypes:
• Projection Displays: Typically used for larger audiences.
• Direct-View Displays: Used in monitors and mobile devices.

Applications of Flat Panel Displays (contd):

b) Pixel size examples:
• Smartphones: ~30–40 μm (requires high TFT aperture ratio for light
throughput).
 Poly-silicon (p-Si) TFTs: Higher electron mobility enables smaller
TFTs and larger aperture ratios.
• Large TVs (e.g., 65 inches): ~350 μm.
 Amorphous silicon (a-Si) TFTs: Adequate for large displays due
to ease of fabrication and good uniformity.
2. Reflective LCDs:
a) Projection Displays:
• Use Liquid-Crystal-on-Silicon (LCoS) with pixel sizes as small as
~4 μm.
 19-01-2025

Applications of Flat Panel Displays (contd):

• High aperture ratio (>90%) achieved by hiding driving circuits under a
metallic reflector.
b) Direct-View Displays:
• Use a-Si TFTs with a circular polarizer for excellent sunlight
readability.
• Require a thin front light for readability in dark environments.

Applications of Flat Panel Displays (contd):

3. Transflective LCDs (TR-LCDs):
a) Hybrid of transmissive and reflective technologies.
b) Each pixel has two subpixels:
1.Transmissive mode for dark/normal ambient light.
2.Reflective mode for direct sunlight.
c) Advantages:
1.Wide dynamic range; works in all lighting conditions.
d) Challenges:
1.Complex fabrication and higher cost limit widespread
application.
 19-01-2025

Applications of Flat Panel Displays (contd):

•Poly-Silicon (p-Si):
• High electron mobility; suitable for small, high-resolution displays.
•Amorphous Silicon (a-Si):
• Low mobility but easy to fabricate; dominates large screen markets.
•Crystalline Silicon (c-Si):
• Used in LCoS for high aperture ratio and smooth image quality.

LED Technology and Applications

LED Basics:
•Type: Electroluminescent (EL) device using crystalline semiconductors.
•Operation:
• Electrical power is converted to optical power through carrier
injection and recombination.
• Emission wavelength: Determined by the semiconductor material and
fine-tuned through device design.
 19-01-2025

LED Technology and Applications (contd):

Fabrication and Packaging:
•Wafer Size: Limited to ~8 inches due to challenges in growing large
single crystals.
•Device Size:
• Packaged LEDs are typically several millimeters in size.
• Large pixel size makes them suitable for large-area displays (e.g.,
outdoor signage).
Key Advantages of LEDs:
•Energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and versatile across
applications.
•Long lifespan, robustness, and safer operation make them a preferred
lighting and display technology.

LED Applications
1.Direct-View LED Displays:
•Used in outdoor signage, traffic signals, and general lighting.
•Benefits over light bulb-based systems:
•Lower power consumption.
•Greater robustness.
•Longer lifetime.
•Lower driving voltage (safer to use).
•Can scale up to outdoor screens exceeding 100-inch diagonals with
millions of LED pixels.
2.LEDs in Backlighting (LCDs):
•Replaces conventional cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs).
 19-01-2025

LED Applications (contd):

•Advantages over CCFLs:
 Better color performance.
 Faster response time & Longer lifetime.
 Mercury-free, making them environmentally safer.
3.General Lighting:
•Broad emission spectrum simulates natural sunlight for accurate color
rendering of reflective objects.
•Different spectral requirements compared to:
•LED Displays: Narrow spectrum for precise color reproduction.
•LCD Backlights: Narrow spectrum for efficient backlighting.

OLED Technology and Applications

Overview:
•Type: Electroluminescent (EL) device similar to LEDs.
•Material: Organic thin films with amorphous structures.
• Amorphous materials have much lower carrier mobility (~5 orders
of magnitude lower than crystalline semiconductors).
• Results in higher driving voltage and shorter operational lifetime
compared to LEDs.
Fabrication Characteristics:
•Film Thickness:
•Total thickness of organic layers: 100–200 nm.
•Thin films reduce driving voltage to manageable levels (<10 V).
 19-01-2025

OLED Technology and Applications (contd):

•Challenges:
•Thin-film formation on large substrates is technically demanding.
•Proposed fabrication methods include:
•Physical vapor deposition.
•Spin-coating.
•Ink-jet printing.
•Laser-assisted patterning.

OLED Applications
1.Displays:
• Widely used in TVs, smartphones, and other mobile devices.
2.Lighting:
• Suitable for flat, large-area light sources.

Advantages of OLEDs:
1.Fabrication Flexibility:
• Low process temperature enables compatibility with various substrate
materials, including flexible substrates.
2.Large Panel Production:
• Amorphous material characteristics allow fabrication of large displays
(e.g., 55-inch panels).
 19-01-2025

OLED Applications (contd):

3. Cost Potential:
• Manufacturing cost for OLEDs can be lower than LEDs due to
scalability.
Challenges and Development Goals:
•Improve:
• Driving voltage efficiency.
• Operational lifetime.
•Aim to match or approach the performance of LEDs.
Future Prospects:
OLEDs could replace LEDs in some applications due to their:
• Better performance potential.
• Lower fabrication costs.

Reflective Display Technologies

Overview:
•Reflective displays vary significantly in working principles and
performance.
•They are categorized by their response speed and suitability for different
applications.

 Fast-Response Reflective Displays:

•Examples:
• Interferometric modulator displays.
• Electrowetting displays.
• Guest-host polymer dispersed liquid crystal displays.
 19-01-2025

Reflective Display Technologies (contd):

•Capabilities:
• Support video frame rate operation.
•Challenges:
• Limited color gamut.
• High power consumption for video-rate operations.
•Commercial Viability:
• Not widely successful due to the above limitations.

 Bistable Reflective Displays:

•Examples:
• Electrophoretic displays.
• Cholesteric liquid crystal displays.

Reflective Display Technologies (contd):

•Capabilities:
• Suitable for displaying quasi-static images with low power
consumption.
• Do not require constant refreshing to retain an image.
•Advantages:
• Low power consumption.
• Good outdoor readability.
•Applications:
• Portable reading devices: e.g., e-book readers and electronic paper
displays.
• Wearable devices: e.g., electronic paper watches, wristbands.
• Signage and labeling: Thin, flexible displays for billboards and shelf-
edge labels.
 19-01-2025

Reflective Display Technologies (contd):

Key Characteristics:
•Reflective displays are typically thin and flexible, making them suitable for
mobile and portable applications.
•Their paper-like qualities enhance user experiences in outdoor or low-
power environments.

Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs)

Definition and Origins:
•HMDs (Head-Worn or Near-Eye Displays):
• Devices attached close to the user’s eye, requiring an optical system to
project light from a microdisplay into the eye.
•Historical Background:
• Originates from Sir Charles Wheatstone’s stereoscope (1830s) for
viewing 3D static photographs.
• Evolved over a century into modern HMD systems with electronic
displays, advanced optics, sensors, and computing capabilities.
 19-01-2025

Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) (contd):

Modern HMD Configurations:
•Basic HMD:
• Combines a microdisplay with a simple eyepiece for monocular display
(e.g., navigation, information access).
•Advanced HMD:
• Incorporates:
• High-performance microdisplays.
• Sophisticated optics.
• Advanced sensors, computing hardware, and software.
• Supports applications such as virtual missions, interactive systems, and
light field rendering for true 3D experiences

Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) (contd):

HMD Applications:
•Key enabler for Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)
systems.

•HMD Types:
• Immersive HMDs (VR):
• Blocks the real-world view, immersing users in a fully virtual
environment.
• See-Through HMDs (AR):
• Blends real-world views with digital overlays, either optically or
digitally.
 19-01-2025

Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) (contd):

Optical Considerations:
•Shared Optical Principles:
• Both immersive and see-through HMDs share fundamental optics for
image projection.
•Unique Challenges for See-Through HMDs:
• Optical Combiner: Critical for blending real and virtual views.
• Examples: Simple beamsplitters or complex holographic
waveguides.

Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) (contd):

Recent Advances and Drivers:
•Technology Boosts:
• Increasing VR/AR interest.
• Enhanced wireless network bandwidth and accessibility.
• Miniaturization of electronics and computing power growth.
•Rapid HMD advancements are reshaping their role in diverse fields.
 19-01-2025

Touch Panel (TP) Technology

Basic Principle:
•Touch panels detect touch by measuring changes in electrical, optical, or
magnetic parameters.
•Common methods:
• Changes in resistance or capacitance.

Types of Touch Panels:

1.Resistive TPs:
a) Structure:
1.Two substrates with transparent resistive layers separated by an air
gap.
2.Outer substrate is deformable.

Types of Touch Panels (contd):

b) Operation:
1.Touch causes contact between the upper and lower conductive layers.
2.Contact position changes resistance, which is read by the driving
circuit.
c) Limitations:
1.Low optical transmittance due to the air gap, reducing luminance.
2. Capacitive TPs:
a) Operation:
1.A conductive object (e.g., a finger) acts as a capacitor connected to
the ground, altering measured capacitance.
 19-01-2025

Types of Touch Panels (contd):

b) Configurations:
1.Self-capacitance: Measures capacitance at individual electrodes.
2.Mutual-capacitance: Measures capacitance between pairs of
electrodes.
c) Requirements: Conductive object needed to activate touch.

Touch Panel (TP) Technology (contd):

Integration Configurations:
1.Out-Cell TPs:
1.TP is stacked physically on top of the display.
2.Adds to module thickness and complexity.
2.On-Cell TPs:
1.TP is fabricated onto the outer glass substrate of the display.
2.Reduces module thickness.
3.In-Cell TPs:
a) TP is integrated inside the display:
1.Utilizes the bottom substrate of the TFT panel.
2.Requires a suitable layout and driving scheme.
b) Simplifies fabrication and reduces overall thickness further.
 19-01-2025

Touch Panel (TP) Technology (contd):

Use Cases and Considerations:
•Resistive TPs: Suited for diverse input methods, but with lower luminance.
•Capacitive TPs: Popular for finger touch interfaces (e.g., smartphones),
requiring conductive input.
•Integration types (on-cell and in-cell) are focused on thinner, streamlined
designs.
 17-02-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Color Science and Engineering

Introduction
•Essential for evaluating performance in color image display systems.
•Perception of colors involves a four-stage process:
1.Light Source: Natural or man-made light required for visibility.
2.Light-Object Interaction: Reflection, absorption, and transmission of light.
3.Eye Stimulation: Photons detected by the human eye.
4.Brain Recognition: Interpreting signals as colors.

Human Eye and Light Interaction

 Sunlight is a "white" light source, covering the full visible spectrum.
 No light source means no photons, hence no color perception.
 Objects absorb some photons and reflect others, determining perceived color.

1
 17-02-2025

Introduction
Example of Light-Object Interaction
•Yellow Ink: Absorbs blue light; reflects red
and green light, perceived as yellow.
•Green Ink: Absorbs red and blue light;
reflects green light.
•White Paper: Reflects all light components
equally, appearing white. Figure 2.1 Formation of colors.

Dependence on Incident Light Spectrum

•Color of objects changes with the spectral content of light.
•E.g., Under red light, yellow ink may appear similar to white paper.

Introduction
Parameters of Light Waves
•Intensity: Perceived brightness.
•Wavelength: Determines color (violet to red, 380–780 nm).
•Phase and Polarization: Not resolvable by the human eye.
Human Eye Sensitivity
•Photosensitive cells (cones and rods) detect different wavelengths, leading to
color perception.
•Light intensity impacts perception of brightness or darkness.
Human Eye and Color Perception
•Individuals with normal color vision have three types of cone cells, each
with different spectral sensitivities.

2
 17-02-2025

Introduction
•Enables the use of three primary colors (red, green, and blue) to generate
and describe many colors quantitatively.
•This system is known as trichromatic space.

CIE 1931 Colorimetric System

•Proposed by the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) in 1931.
•Represents all colors using distinct coordinates (X, Y, Z).
•Also indicates the brightness of the object.
•Convenient for color description but limited in certain applications:
o Does not quantify perceived differences between two colors.
o Designed for self-luminous objects without ambient references, limiting
some display applications.

Introduction
Uniform Color Spaces (CIE 1976)
•Introduced to address limitations of the CIE 1931 system.
•Examples include (L*u*v*)- and (L*a*b*)- spaces.
•Key features:
o Allow specification of numerical color differences between two colors.
o Ensure just-distinguishable color differences are consistent across
diagrams, e.g., between similar greenish or reddish colors.

Color Production in Displays

•Trichromatic space is quantitatively described by CIE systems.
•Colors are produced or reproduced in display devices by mixing three
primary emitters.

3
 17-02-2025

Introduction
Metamerism
•Phenomenon where different spectral power distributions produce identical
perceived colors.
•Enables the human visual system to perceive a "real" object and its display
representation as the same color, despite differing reflection spectra.

Photometry
Perception of Brightness
•The human eye's spectral sensitivity influences brightness perception of light
sources with identical optical power (in Watts) at different wavelengths.
•Sensitivity peaks at 555 nm (green region), defined by V(𝜆) under photopic
vision.

Photometric Units and Luminous Flux

•Lumen (lm): Luminous flux from 1/683W of monochromatic light at 555 nm.
•E.g., At 650 nm, V(𝜆) = 0.1, requiring 1/68.3W to achieve 1 lm.
•Candela (cd): Primary photometric unit; defined as 1 lumen per steradian
(lm/sr), representing luminous intensity.
•Initially based on the luminous intensity of a standardized candle.

4
 17-02-2025

Photometry (contd):
Illuminance and Luminance
•Illuminance (E): Light intensity on a surface, measured in lux (lm/m²).
•Luminous Exitance (M): Apparent emission from an object, also measured in
lux.
•Luminance (L): Perceived brightness of an object, measured in cd/m² or nits.

Photometry (contd):
Conceptual Flow of Light and Perception
•A light source (e.g., a candle) emits luminous flux (lm) in all directions.
•Human eyes perceive luminous intensity (cd) within a limited solid angle.
•Light illuminates an object, modulating the light (reflected, transmitted,
scattered, or absorbed).
•Modulated light re-emits as luminous exitance (lux) and is perceived by the
eye within a certain angular range as luminance (cd/m²).

Figure 2.2 Illustrations of photometric units.

10

5
 17-02-2025

Photometry (contd):
Summary of Photometric Units
•The table summarizes units like lumen, candela, lux, and nit with their
applications.

Photometric terms Symbol Units Definition

Luminous flux 𝐹 Lm Lm

Luminous intensity 𝐼 Cd lm/sr

Illuminance 𝑀 Lux lm/m

Luminous exitance 𝐸 Lux lm/m

Luminance 𝐿 Nit cd/m

Table 2.1 Definitions of photometric units.

11

The Eye
•Incoming light passes through several structures:
•Cornea: Performs primary refraction at the air/cornea interface.
•Aqueous humor, eye lens, and vitreous body: Guide light to
the retina.
•The retina receives the light and forms an image.

Figure 2.3 (a) Cross section of the eye;

(b) and (c): formation of image in the human eye.

12

6
 17-02-2025

The Eye (contd):

Eye Lens Functionality
•Eye lens has a refractive index of n = 1.42, higher than surrounding media:
 Cornea, aqueous humor, and vitreous body: Refractive index range
n = 1.33–1.37.
•Focuses a clear image onto the retina (illustrated in Figures 2.3b, c).
•Adjustments in lens shape are made by the ciliary muscle for proper focusing.
Gaussian Lens Formula
•Approximation for the eye's optical system described as:
Where d1: Distance from object to the eye lens, d2: Distance from the eye lens to the
retina, typically 17 mm and f: Focal length.
•The retinal image is reversed (upside-down and right–left), but the brain
interprets it in normal orientation.

13

The Eye (contd):

Lens Shape Adjustments for Focusing
•Distant Objects: Eye lens becomes flatter to focus the image (Figure 2.3b).
•Nearby Objects: Ciliary muscle contracts, increasing lens curvature to focus
(Figure 2.3c).
Retina Structure (Multilayered)
1. Photoreceptor layer: Contains rod and cone cells.
2. Connecting nerve tissue: Includes plexiform, nuclear layers, and ganglion cells.
3. Optic nerve: Transmits processed signals to the brain.
Retina Functionality
•Converts incoming photons into bio-potential signals.
•Signals are processed within the eye and transmitted via the optic nerve to the
brain for interpretation.
14

7
 17-02-2025

The Eye (contd):

Photoreceptor Cells
 Rod Cells:
•Sensitive to light intensity, not color.
•Highly sensitive, but saturate under bright illumination (e.g., sunlight).
•Function well in low-light conditions (e.g., moonless night).
 Cone Cells:
•Sensitive to color, require bright conditions to function effectively.
•Enable color vision under brighter ambient lighting.
Diameter Length Quantity
Rod 2𝜇 m 40 − 60𝜇 m 100000000
Cone 2.5 − 7.5𝜇 m 28 − 58𝜇 m 6500000

Table 2.2 The dimensions and quantities of the cone and rod cells.

15

The Eye (contd):

Dim Lighting Conditions
 Under low illumination, rods dominate, leading to
grayscale vision (no color perception).

Spatial Distribution of Photoreceptors

 Cones: Highest density near the visual axis (central
part of the retina).
•Almost no rods on the visual axis, as cones occupy
this region.
 Rods: Increase in number and reach a maximum
away from the visual axis.
 Blind Spot: Located where the optic nerve passes Figure 2.4 Spatial distributions
of (a) cone and (b) rod cells.
through the retina, devoid of rods and cones.

16

8
 17-02-2025

The Eye (contd):

Bright Ambient Conditions
•Eyesight is most sensitive within a 10° viewing cone.
•Outside this region, colors are hard to distinguish.
Perception of a Complete Visual Scene
•Despite the blind spot, humans perceive a continuous field of vision due to:
 Eyeball movement and rotation: Capture information from different angles.
 Brain interpretation: Combines visual signals to construct a seamless scene.
Visualization and Data Source
•Figure 2.4a,b: Show spatial distribution of cones and rods, including
variations (mean and standard deviation).

17

The Eye (contd):

Temporal Response of the Human Eye
•Flicker experiments investigated how the eye perceives flashing light at
different frequencies.
•At high frequencies, flickers appear continuous due to persistence of vision.

Photoreceptor Response Times

•Cones: ~15 ms response time.
•Rods: ~100 ms response time.

Critical Flicker Fusion Rate

•Generally accepted range: 50–90 Hz, where flickers appear continuous.
•Under specific conditions, flicker artifacts may be perceived up to 500 Hz.

18

9
 17-02-2025

The Eye (contd):

Display Frame Rates
• Typical display frame rates (e.g., 60 Hz) align with the critical flicker fusion
rate.
• A 60 Hz frame rate provides 60 frames per second, ensuring smooth, flicker-
free visuals for the human eye.

Challenges in Moving Picture Displays

 Image Blurring:
•Occurs in displays with slower response times than cone cells (e.g.,
LCDs).
•Even with fast displays (e.g., OLEDs with ~μs response time), human eye
tracking can cause blurring.

19

The Eye (contd):

 Motion Blur Example (Figure 2.5):
•A moving pixel emits light during one frame but persists into the next
frame, causing blurred edges.
•Blurring affects both luminance and color, especially in field sequential
color displays (e.g., LCDs).
Methods to Reduce Motion Blur
 Black Frame Insertion:
•Insert black frames between display frames to
reduce motion lur.
•Reduces emission time (e.g., 4.2 ms for one 60
Hz frame, ~25% duty cycle).
•Requires higher peak luminance to maintain Figure 2.5 Illustration of a moving
object in a display
the same average luminance.
20

10
 17-02-2025

The Eye (contd):

Moving Picture Response Time (MPRT)
 Quantitatively describes the response time for moving objects in displays.
 Formula:
Where BEW: Blur Edge Width in pixels; v : Velocity of the moving
object in pixels/frame; and f : Frame time in ms/frame.
Spectral Sensitivity in Scotopic and Photopic Regions
 Scotopic Vision: Dominated by rods; sensitivity peaks at 507 nm (low
light levels).
• Rods cannot distinguish colors.
 Photopic Vision: Dominated by cones; sensitivity peaks at 555 nm (high
light levels).
• Cones enable color vision.

21

The Eye (contd):

• Overlap of Responsivity:
 Rods and cones can function simultaneously in intermediate light levels
(e.g., moonlight to indoor lighting).
 Rods saturate at high light levels; cones are inactive at very low light
levels.
• Cone Cell Types and Spectral
Sensitivity (Figure 2.6b)
 S-Cones: Sensitive to short
wavelengths (blue).
 M-Cones: Sensitive to
medium wavelengths (green). Figure 2.6 Spectral responses of (a) photopic and
 L-Cones: Sensitive to long scotopic regions, and (b) L-, M-, and S- cones
wavelengths (red).

22

11
 17-02-2025

The Eye (contd):

Key Observations
 Rods and cones contribute to vision across a range of light intensities,
with a transition between scotopic and photopic regimes.
 Peak sensitivity shifts from 507 nm (scotopic) to 555 nm (photopic) based
on light conditions.
Measuring Visual Acuity
 Patterns Used: Letters "C" and "E" with varying sizes and directions (Figure 2.7a).
 Standard Viewing Distance: 6 m.

Figure 2.7 (a) Two test patterns for vision acuity, and (b)
schematic diagram of the test pattern image into the human
eye (not in scale).

23

The Eye (contd):

Standard Visual Acuity (6/6 or 20/20):
 Visual angle of the entire character = 5’ (5 minutes, 5/60°).
 Gap in the "C" or "E" = 1’ (1/60°), corresponding to 1.75 mm at 6 m.

Interpreting Visual Acuity Ratios

 6/6, 20/20, or 1.0: Normal vision; can resolve a 1.75 mm gap at 6 m.
 6/12, 20/40, or 0.5: Reduced vision; can only resolve a larger gap (e.g.,
3.50 mm), corresponding to a viewing distance of 12 m (40 ft).
 6/3, 20/10, or 2.0: Superior vision; can resolve smaller gaps (e.g., 0.88
mm).

24

12
 17-02-2025

The Eye (contd):

Retinal Resolution and Visual Angle
 A gap of 1’ (1/60°) corresponds to ~5 μm on the retina (approx. the
diameter of a cone cell, Figure 2.7b).
 The "retina display" concept: Pixel size smaller than the 1’ visual angle is
indistinguishable to a standard observer with 1.0 visual acuity.

Display Pixel Size and Density

 For mobile phone viewing at ~25 cm, critical pixel size < 72.7 μm, or
pixel density > 349 ppi (approximation for 1.0 visual acuity).
 Display pixel arrangement differs from the cone cell arrangement in the
human retina.

25

Blue and Violet Light Effects

 Short Wavelengths, High Energy: Blue and violet light may damage retina
cells (rods and cones) under high intensity or prolonged exposure.
 Circadian Rhythm Impact:
• Blue light (~460 nm, FWHM ~100 nm) suppresses melatonin
production, leading to sleep disorders.
• Known as the "blue hazard", highlighting health concerns from blue
light exposure.
 Melatonin Suppression:
• Beneficial during daytime to maintain alertness and wakefulness.
• Detrimental at night, causing sleep issues; proper display usage is
important for health.

26

13
 17-02-2025

Blue and Violet Light Effects (contd):

Lighting and Blue Light Content

 Home Lighting: Typically yellowish, containing less blue light,
promoting relaxation and sleep.
 Workplace Lighting: Often white or bluish-white to enhance
concentration.

27

3D Perception and Displays

• Natural 3D Perception:
 Human eyes form different images; the brain combines them to perceive
depth.
 Focal length of the eye lens automatically adjusts based on object
distance.

• 3D Displays:
 Use different images for each eye to create the illusion of 3D.
 Flat screens in devices like VR headsets present images at a fixed
distance, conflicting with natural lens adaptation.
 This conflict causes binocular visual fatigue, leading to discomfort
during prolonged use.

28

14
 17-02-2025

Colorimetry
Color Recognition in Human Eyes
•Result of stimulation from three types of cone cells (L-, M-, and S-cones).
•Colors can be approximately matched by combining red, green, and blue lights.
 Note: This statement has exceptions, explained later.
Color-Matching Experiment Setup (Figure 2.8)
•Target Color:
 Arbitrary light illuminates the lower
half of a white screen.
 Viewed through a hole in a black barrier
to limit the angle of light and focus
stimulation on specific photoreceptors. Figure 2.8 Experimental setup of
color-matching experiments.

29

Colorimetry (contd):

•Matching Colors:
•Red, green, and blue lights illuminate the upper half of the screen.
•Intensities of RGB lights are adjusted until the upper and lower halves
appear identical to the observer.

Key Principle: The stimuli from the upper and lower halves of the screen
produce identical responses in L-, M-, and S-cones, even if the spectra differ.

30

15
 17-02-2025

Colorimetry: Trichromatic Space

Trichromatic Space (Figure 2.9)

•Based on the three types of cone stimuli, any color
stimulus can be represented in a 3D vector space:
•R, G, B: Unit vectors representing red, green, and
blue stimuli, respectively.

Unique Representation:
Figure 2.9 Tristimulus space of
 Any light Q can be expressed as a linear (R, G, B) primary colors.
combination of red, green, and blue vectors: Q
 RQ,GQ,BQ: Tristimulus values for red, green,
and blue.

31

Colorimetry: Trichromatic Space (contd)

Spectral Variations
 Wavelengths close in range (e.g., 630 nm and 650 nm) may both appear
as red but correspond to different vectors in the trichromatic space.

Tristimulus Values
• RQ,GQ,BQ: Represent the intensities of red, green, and blue components,
respectively.
• Example Interpretation (Figure 2.9):
 GQ>G: Stimulus Q has a larger green component.
 RQ,BQ<R,B: Stimulus Q has smaller red and blue components.

32

16
 17-02-2025

Colorimetry: Trichromatic Space (contd)

Stimulus Intensity
 The length of vector Q represents the overall intensity of the stimulus:
Longer vector = Higher intensity.
Intersection with RGB Plane
• Vector Q intersects the plane defined by the pure colors:
 R= (1,0,0) : Pure red.
 G= (0,1,0) : Pure green.
 B= (0,0,1) : Pure blue.
• The intersection point’s proximity to (0,1,0) (green) confirms that Q has a
stronger green component compared to red and blue.
•On this plane, we define:

33

Colorimetry(contd): Color Mixing and Tristimulus Values

Color Mixing in the Triangle
 Each point in the RGB triangle represents a distinct color.
 Lines between vertices (e.g., blue and red) represent mixed colors.
 Colors inside the triangle: Combinations of red, green, and blue.
• Unmatchable Colors
• Some colors cannot be matched solely by adjusting R,G,B intensities.
• Solution: Move one primary (e.g., "red") to the same side as the target color.
• Modified Color-Matching Equation
 Original Form: Q= RQR + GQG + BQB
 Rewritten Form: Q + RQR= GQG + BQB
Q= −RQR + GQG + BQB
Negative RQ: Tristimulus values can be negative for specific color matches.

34

17
 17-02-2025

Colorimetry (contd):
• Cone Responsivities and Overlap
• L-, M-, and S-cones have overlapping responsivities:
• Example: 450–500 nm excites all three cones simultaneously.
• Impossible to isolate stimulation of the M-cone without also exciting L-
and S-cones.
• Negative tristimulus values are required to match such colors, linking to
the color gamut.
• Additivity of Stimuli
• Two or more stimuli can combine linearly to form a new stimulus:
• Stimuli Definitions: Q1 = R1R + G1G + B1B
Q2 = R2R + G2G + B2B
• Combined Stimulus: Q= Q1+Q2= (R1+R2)R + (G1+G2)G + (B1+B2)B

35

CIE 1931 (R, G, B) System Overview

• Primary Colors and Wavelengths
 Based on three primary wavelengths: 700 nm (red), 546.1 nm (green),
and 435.8 nm (blue).
 Used to match all visible monochromatic lights.

• Broadband Light Representation

 A broadband light is a mixture of many monochromatic components:
E = ∫ E(λ) dλ
Where E(λ) : Monochromatic component of the equal energy spectrum E.

 E(λ) maintains constant optical power (in Watts) across wavelengths.

36

18
 17-02-2025

CIE 1931 (R, G, B) System Overview (contd):

• Tristimulus Values and Chromaticity
 Tristimulus equation for monochromatic light:
E(λ) = r(λ)R + g(λ)G + b(λ)B
Where r(λ), g(λ), b(λ) : Tristimulus values at wavelength λ.
 Normalization: r(λ) + g(λ) + b(λ) = 1 at all wavelengths.

CIE 1931 Chromaticity Diagram (Figure 2.10b)

• Represents all colors within a horseshoe-
shaped region:
 Bounded by the monochromatic light
locus (spectrum from 380-780 nm).
 Straight line connects the endpoints Figure 2.10 (a) Tristimulus value for different
(380 nm and 780 nm). wavelengths and (b) CIE 1931 (R, G, B)
chromaticity diagram

37

CIE 1931 (R, G, B) System Overview (contd):

• Negative Tristimulus Values
• r(λ) values are negative for matched wavelengths between 435.8 nm and
546.1 nm.
• Linear Summation
• Any color can be represented as a linear combination of monochromatic
components, enabling the use of RGB values for color representation.

Motivation for the (X, Y, Z) System

 Addressed issues with the CIE 1931 (R, G, B) system where some r-values
were negative for certain colors (undesirable).
 Introduced a linear transformation of the RGB tristimulus values to ensure
all coordinates are positive.

38

19
 17-02-2025

CIE 1931 (R, G, B) System Overview (contd):

Transformation Equations
• Conversion from r,g,b to x,y,z:

Key Features of the (X, Y, Z) System

 All colors are represented within the first quadrant, ensuring positive x,y,z
values.
 The CIE 1931 (X, Y, Z) chromaticity diagram displays the full range of
perceivable colors.

39

CIE 1931 (R, G, B) System Overview (contd):

Y Coordinate and Luminance
• The Y-value directly corresponds to the luminance of the stimulus in cd/m2.
• Relations for X,Y,Z based on luminance V:
• Luminance sensitivity V(λ) is identical to y(λ) : V(λ) ≡ y(λ)

Benefits of the (X, Y, Z) System

• Eliminates negative coordinates, simplifying color representation.
• Links directly to luminance, making it useful for practical applications in
display and lighting design.

40

20
 17-02-2025

CIE 1931 (R, G, B) System Overview (contd):

• To obtain the CIE 1931 (X, Y, Z) color
coordinates from a spectrum, we can use the
following equations, relying on the linear
summation of tristimulus values for each
wavelengths:

Figure 2.11 CIE 1931 (X, Y, Z)

where k = 683 lm/W which represents the unit chromaticity diagram.
transformation from radiometry (Watt) to photometry (lm),
and P(𝜆) is the spectral distribution of the stimulus in terms
of W/sr*m2.

41

CIECAM 02: The Color Appearance Model

Limitations of Previous Systems
• CIE 1931 (X, Y, Z) and CIE 1976 UCS:
 Suitable for describing single color patches or differences between
two colors.
 Ineffective for accounting for color appearance influenced by
background and surroundings.

Figure 2.12 Illusion of checkerboard with the shadow

42

21
 17-02-2025

CIECAM 02: The Color Appearance Model (contd):

• Illustrative Example (Figure 2.12a & b)
 A checkerboard with a light source casting shadows:
• Square A (black in shadow) appears darker than Square B (white
outside shadow).
• A uniform gray line proves the brightness of A and B is identical; their
perceived difference is due to surroundings.
 Such effects cannot be explained by traditional models, necessitating
CIECAM 02.
• Key Concepts in Color Appearance
 Brightness: Absolute luminance value (quantified by Y in CIE 1931).

43

CIECAM 02: The Color Appearance Model (contd):

 Lightness: Relative brightness influenced by surroundings.
• Example: A book's white page appears equally light under dim or bright
conditions, but the absolute brightness differs.
 Hue: Perceived color type (e.g., red, yellow, green, blue).
 Colorfulness: Color's difference from an achromatic color (e.g., white,
gray, black).
• Example: "Deep red" has a red hue and high colorfulness.
 Chroma: Relative colorfulness, analogous to how lightness relates to
brightness.
 Saturation: Degree of colorfulness relative to chromaticity boundaries.
• Highest saturation occurs with monochromatic light at the boundary of
the chromaticity diagram.

44

22
 17-02-2025

CIECAM 02: The Color Appearance Model (contd):

•Importance of CIECAM 02
 Accounts for complex phenomena like surroundings, brightness levels,
and contextual effects.
 Provides a more accurate description of how colors appear in real-world
scenarios, such as on displays or under varying lighting conditions.

Model Overview:
 The employed model, as depicted in Figure
2.13, examines how the color appearance
of a central region ("stimulus") is
influenced by its "background" and
"surrounding field." Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of
the observing model.

45

CIECAM 02: The Color Appearance Model (contd):

•Stimulus and Background Details: Both the stimulus and background are
uniform color areas, with angular sizes of 2° and 10° to the observer's eye,
respectively.

•Input Parameters for Calculation: The calculation incorporates the

following input parameters:
 1931 (X,Y,Z) values of the stimulus and the white reference.
 Luminance of the background and the surrounding field.
 Viewing conditions, categorized as average, dim, or dark surroundings.

•Color Appearance Parameters: A comprehensive description of color

appearance is achieved by determining the following parameters:
• Brightness, Lightness, Hue, Colorfulness, Chroma, Saturation.
46

23
 17-02-2025

CIECAM 02: The Color Appearance Model (contd):

• CIECAM02 Model: Despite certain limitations, such as its application to
static images without accounting for dynamic effects, CIECAM02 is
recognized as one of the most effective color appearance models for describing
the impact of surrounding elements on image perception.

• Perceptual Illusion Explanation: In the context of Figure 2.12a, although

the "brightness" of the shadowed region decreases gradually, this change is
often overlooked because human vision tends to focus on sharp edges, like
those defining the checks. Consequently, region "B" appears "brighter" than the
surrounding checks, resulting in a higher "lightness" and making it appear
"brighter" than region "A," even though the absolute physical brightness of
regions "A" and "B" is identical.

47

CIECAM 02: The Color Appearance Model (contd):

• CIE 1931 (X,Y,Z) Chromaticity Diagram: The boundary of the
horseshoe-shaped chromaticity diagram is formed by the monochromatic line
and the purple line, connecting the shortest and longest wavelengths.

• Stimulus Bandwidth and Chromaticity: A spectrum can be divided into

monochromatic components. The color coordinate of a stimulus with a
broader bandwidth lies further from the boundary of the chromaticity
diagram.

• White Point in Chromaticity Diagram: The center of the 1931 (X,Y,Z)

chromaticity diagram, at (0.33, 0.33), corresponds to white light with a
wavelength-independent energy spectrum.

48

24
 17-02-2025

Trichromatic Space and Color Gamut in Displays

• Trichromatic Color Space in Displays: Displays use three primary colors
to generate all colors in images, based on the trichromatic color space theory.
By mixing these primaries, colors within the triangle can be obtained.

• Color Gamut and Display Standards: The size of the triangle, known as
the "color gamut," indicates the range of colors a display can produce. A
larger triangle corresponds to primaries closer to monochromatic light,
allowing the display to demonstrate more colors.

49

Color Gamut in Displays

• NTSC and ITU-R BT.2020 Standards: Figure 2.14 shows triangles
defined by two standards:

NTSC: The smaller triangle with

red, green, and blue color
coordinates at (0.67, 0.33), (0.21,
0.71), and (0.14, 0.08), respectively.

 ITU-R BT.2020: The larger

triangle with red, green, and blue at
(0.708, 0.292), (0.170, 0.797), and
Figure 2.14 Color gamut of NTSC and BT
(0.131, 0.046), respectively. 2020 standards.

50

25
 17-02-2025

Light Sources
• Importance of Light Sources: Light sources are crucial for generating
color stimuli, as the same object may appear different colors under different
ambient lights. For example, people's skin can appear pale under street lights
at night.

• Impact on Reflective Displays: Light sources significantly affect

reflective displays, as they show different colors under different lighting
conditions.

• Purpose of Displays: Displays aim to reproduce realistic color images

illuminated by natural or artificial "white lights."

51

Light Sources (contd):

• White Standards in Displays: Displays include "white standards" to present
the same image stimuli as the real object. For example, a display typically
allows switching among different white standards based on the user's choice.

• Common White Standards: Two common white standards are D65 and D93,
corresponding to daylight with color temperatures of 6500 K and 9300 K,
respectively.

• Backlight Modules in Non-Emissive and Transmissive Displays: For non-

emissive and transmissive displays, a backlight module is needed, as such
displays act as light valves rather than emitters.

52

26
 17-02-2025

Sunlight and Blackbody Radiators

Sunlight as a Blackbody Radiator
• Sunlight exemplifies light emitted by a blackbody radiator, which emits a
spectral power distribution dependent solely on the emitter's temperature.

Blackbody Radiation Formula

• The spectral density of radiant power (with the unit of W/m3) of blackbody
radiation can be described by the equation:

where, c, h, and k are light velocity, Planck’s constant, and

Boltzmann's constant, respectively. c1 and c2 are constants with values:

53

Blackbody Radiators and Color Temperature

•Temperature and Spectral Characteristics
• As the temperature of a blackbody radiator
increases:
 Radiant power increases.
 Spectral peak shifts toward shorter
wavelengths (blue region).
•Blackbody Locus and Color Temperature
• Blackbody Locus: Defined on the CIE 1931
(X, Y, Z) chromaticity diagram. Figure 2.15 Power intensity spectrum of a
blackbody radiator at different temperatures
• Represents the chromaticity coordinates
of blackbody radiators at different
temperatures.

54

27
 17-02-2025

Blackbody Radiators and Color Temperature (contd):

• Color Temperature:
• Temperature of the blackbody radiator corresponding to the chromaticity
coordinates of a stimulus lying on the blackbody locus.

• Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

• For stimuli not on the blackbody locus, the CCT is defined:
 Construct a line in the CIE 1976 (L * u * v) chromaticity diagram
through the stimulus coordinates.
 Line is perpendicular to a tangent of the blackbody locus.
 Intersection point on the blackbody locus defines the CCT.

55

Blackbody Radiators and Color Temperature (contd):

• Examples of Blackbody Radiators
• Tungsten Lamp:
• Color temperature: 2856 K.
• Yellowish-white appearance, denoted as Illuminant A by the CIE.
• Sunlight at Earth's Surface:
• CCT ranges from 4000 to 25,000 K, varying with time and location.

• Air Mass and Sunlight Color

• Air Mass (m): Ratio of the sunlight’s atmospheric path length to the
atmosphere's thickness.
Example: At 30° solar elevation at the equator, m=2.

56

28
 17-02-2025

Blackbody Radiators and Color Temperature (contd):

• Shorter wavelengths are absorbed more than longer ones as air mass
increases.
 Result: Sunlight appears redder during sunrise/sunset (higher air mass).
• Sunlight appears whiter at noon (lower air mass).

• D65 Standard White Point

 D65: Standard for displays, representing sunlight with a CCT of 6500 K.
 Displays with a white point at 6500 K can appear differently under
varying lighting conditions (2800–9300 K):
• Bluish in warmer lighting conditions.
• Reddish in cooler lighting conditions (CIECAM 02 model).

57

Light Sources for Different Display Types

1. Transmissive Displays (e.g., LCDs)
• Backlight: Positioned behind the display to illuminate the screen.
• Criteria for Backlights:
 Sharp RGB peaks for primary colors.
 High efficiency to reduce power consumption.

• Backlight Technologies:
 Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamps (CCFLs) (previously dominant):
• Operates via glow discharge in mercury vapor and rare gas under low pressure.
• Produces "cold" light without a hot filament, offering efficiency > 60 lm/W.
• Environmental concerns due to mercury and fragility of the tubes.

58

29
 17-02-2025

Light Sources for Different Display Types (contd):

 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs):
• Now the primary backlight technology for LCDs.
• More robust and environmentally friendly compared to CCFLs.

2. Reflective Displays
• Front Light: Positioned above the display to illuminate it in dim ambient
conditions.
 Criteria for Front Lights:
• Must be transparent and thin.
• Minimizes light emission toward the viewer’s side to optimize
contrast ratio.

59

Light Sources for Different Display Types (contd):

• Front Light Configuration:
 Emitter Placement: CCFLs or LEDs are positioned at the side of the
display.
 Light Guide: Transparent structure guides light to the reflective display.
 Modulation: Reflective display modulates the light and reflects the image
back to the viewer.

3. Projection Displays
•Light Source Requirements:
• High brightness and efficiency to project large, clear images.

60

30
 17-02-2025

Light Sources for Different Display Types (contd):

•Light Source Types:
• Gas Discharge Lamps: Traditional choice for projectors.
• Lasers:
 Advantages:
• Narrow emission spectra significantly increase color gamut.
• Higher efficiency reduces power consumption.
 Challenges:
• Speckle Effect:
• Caused by interference from the laser’s coherent light.
• Reduces image quality but can be mitigated by destroying
laser coherence.

61

Color Rendering Index (CRI) Overview

Purpose of CRI
 Evaluates the ability of a light source to render the colors of reflective
objects compared to a blackbody radiator (e.g., sunlight).
 Reflective displays rely on external light sources; color and
brightness depend on the light source’s spectrum and intensity.

CRI Definition
 Indicates no color difference between the test light source and the
blackbody radiator.
• Maximum CRI value: 100
• Low CRI: Indicates significant color difference between the two light
sources.

62

31
 17-02-2025

Color Rendering Index (CRI) Overview (contd):

• Color Difference (ΔE∗):
Where ΔL∗, Δu∗, Δv∗: Differences in coordinates in the 1976 (L∗, u∗, v∗)
color system.

• CRI Calculation
 Based on eight standard reflective objects with varying colors (e.g.,
red, yellow, green, blue, violet, purple).
 Formula:

ΔEi∗: Color difference for each object under the test light source and a
blackbody radiator.

63

Color Rendering Index (CRI) Overview (contd):

• CRI and Light Source Spectrum
• High CRI:
 Requires a broad spectrum to reflect light from various wavelengths.
 Example: Incandescent bulbs (continuous spectrum).
• Low CRI:
 Light sources with discrete emission wavelengths result in low CRI.
 Example: Fluorescent lamps (~50 CRI).
• Monochromatic Light: CRI value can be negative due to insufficient
spectral coverage.
 Practical Example
• A green apple under sunlight appears yellow under a high-pressure
sodium light due to the narrow spectrum of the sodium light.

64

32
 17-02-2025

Production and Reproduction of Colors in Displays

Purpose of Displays
• Produce and reproduce color images using three primary colors: red,
green, and blue (RGB).
• Based on the trichromatic color space of the human eye, stimulating the
L-, M-, and S-cones similarly to real objects.

• Real vs. Displayed Colors

 Example of a Basketball (Figure 2.16):
• Under Sunlight: Measured spectrum shows a continuous curve.
• On an LCD Monitor: Spectrum consists of discrete RGB emissions,
differing from the original object.
 Despite spectral differences, the perceived colors appear identical.

65

Production and Reproduction of Colors in Displays (contd):

• Role of Metamerism
 Definition: Different spectral power
distributions can produce identical
color perceptions.
 Enables displays to replicate real-
world colors using RGB emissions,
even with non-identical spectra.
• Key Insight
• Color reproduction on displays relies
on the principle of metamerism to Figure 2.16 Spectra of a basketball from
ensure accurate visual matches to real- (a) the real object and (b) the display

world objects.

66

33
 17-02-2025

Display Measurements Overview

Importance of Measurements
• Essential for scientific, technological, and industrial purposes.
• Provides a standardized approach to characterizing electronic displays.

 Information Display Measurements Standards (IDMS)

• Compiled by the International Committee for Display Metrology
(ICDM) under the Society for Information Display (SID).
• Offers templates and protocols for measuring different display types
(e.g., emissive and 3D displays).

67

Display Measurements Overview (contd):

Key Measurement Parameters
1. Luminance and Color
 Luminance (L): Measured in cd/m2.
 Color: Reported in CIE 1931 (X, Y, Z) coordinates.
 Data collected from predefined positions (e.g., 5 or 9 points) for
uniformity assessment.
2. Contrast Ratio (CR): Bright and black states are measured to calculate
the contrast ratio.
3. Additional Measurements
 Correlated Color Temperature (CCT).
 Chromaticity Differences (Δu′v′).
 Uniformity: Luminance and chromaticity uniformity across the display.

68

34
 17-02-2025

Display Measurements Overview (contd):

Additional Characterization
• Physical, Mechanical, and Electrical
• Includes:
 Display strength.
 Power consumption.
• 3D Displays
• Specific metrics:
 Optimized viewing distance.
 Crosstalk levels.
• Touch Panels
• Special characterization protocols introduced for touch sensitivity and
performance.

69

35
 17-02-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Thin Film Transistors (TFTs)

Introduction
• Primary Role of TFTs: Used as electronic switches to control pixels in
active-matrix (AM) LCDs and OLEDs.

• Materials Used for TFTs: Commonly made from amorphous or poly-

crystalline silicon wafers.

• Reasons for Choosing Disordered Silicon:

 Size Limitation of Crystalline Silicon Wafers: Maximum diagonal
size is 12 inches, unsuitable for large displays.
 Opacity of Silicon Substrates: Not suitable for transmissive LCDs.
 Challenges in Growing Epitaxial Si on Glass: Glass softens below
600°C, much lower than Si’s required 1200°C.
2

1
 17-02-2025

Introduction
•Advantages of Amorphous Silicon:
 Can be uniformly grown on large substrates (e.g., up to 2160 mm × 2460 mm).
 Compatible with LCD fabrication via low-temperature plasma-enhanced
chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).
 Meets basic requirements for LCD driving.

• Poly-Crystalline Silicon (Poly-Si): Produced by excimer laser melting and

recrystallization of amorphous silicon.

• Benefits:
 Higher Carrier Mobility: Enables smaller TFTs, increasing aperture ratio.
 System-on-Panel (SOP) Integration: Supports advanced transistor
performance.
3

Introduction
•Drawbacks:
Non-uniformity from recrystallization.
Higher leakage current due to surface roughness.

•Current Dominance of Amorphous Silicon TFTs:

Preferred for large-size LCD applications due to fewer technological
issues.

•Progress in Oxide Semiconductor TFTs:

Significant advancements in indium–gallium–zinc oxide (IGZO) TFTs.
IGZO is now used in high-end display production.

2
 17-02-2025

Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials

• Definition of Semiconductors:
Solid-state materials with electrical conductivity between insulators (e.g.,
glass, quartz) and conductors (e.g., Ag, Al, Au).
Typical conductivity range: 10−8 to 103 S/cm.

• Comparison with Insulators and Conductors:

Insulators: Conductivity too low for carrier transport.
Conductors: Electrons and holes move with minimal obstruction.

• Tunable Conductivity: Conductivity can be adjusted via electric fields or

impurity concentrations, enabling diverse electronic applications.

Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials (contd):

• TFT Application: TFT conductivity is modulated by an electric field,
functioning as an " electronic switch."

• Doping in Semiconductors: Adding impurities creates:

 p-type: Conducts holes.
 n-type: Conducts electrons.

• p–n Junctions:
Formed by contact between p- and n-type materials.
Enables unidirectional carrier transport, a fundamental structure for
LEDs.

3
 17-02-2025

Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials (contd):

• Types of Semiconductors:

 Elementary Semiconductors:
• Consist of a single atom type.
• Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) from Group IV of the periodic
table.

 Compound Semiconductors:
• Combine two or more elements.
• Example: Gallium arsenide (GaAs) from Group III (Ga) and Group V
(As).

Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials (contd):

• Focus on Silicon (Si):
 Widely used in TFT switches for its:
• High performance.
• Mature fabrication techniques.
• Low cost.

 Limitation for LEDs: Single-crystal Si cannot efficiently emit light due to

its indirect bandgap.

• LED Materials: Compound semiconductors like GaAs are used for efficient
light emission.

4
 17-02-2025

Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials (contd):

• Atomic Structure of Single-Crystal Semiconductors:

 Atoms are arranged in a 3D periodic array (lattice).
 Group IV atoms (e.g., Si) have four valence electrons and form four
covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms.
 Atoms in the lattice achieve a stable closed-shell electron
configuration.

Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials (contd):

Structure of Silicon (Si) and Compound Semiconductors:
 Silicon: Atoms are equidistant and arranged at vertices of an equilateral
tetrahedron (Figure 3.1a).
Compound Semiconductors (e.g., GaAs): Similar bonding
configuration to Si but with mixed ionic and covalent character due to
differing atomic attractions (Figure 3.1b).

(a) (b)
Figure 3.1: 3D crystalline structures of (a) Si and (b) GaAs

10

5
 17-02-2025

Band Structure of Crystalline Semiconductor:

• Energy Levels in Single Atoms:

 Governed by solutions to the Schrödinger equation.

 Discrete energy levels are filled by electrons from lowest to highest energy.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.2: Energy levels in (a) an isolated atom, (b) two atoms, and (c) a crystal structure.
Solid and dashed lines depict the occupied and unoccupied energy states (bands), respectively.

11

Band Structure of Crystalline Semiconductor (contd):

• Electron Filling:
 Each energy state can hold two electrons (Pauli’s exclusion
principle).
 Electrons occupy states in order of increasing energy, starting with
the inner shells.
• Valence Electrons:
 Outermost electrons that partially or fully fill the highest occupied
energy levels.
 Play a key role in chemical bonding and electrical conduction.

• Electron Confinement: Low-energy electrons are spatially confined near

the nucleus.

12

6
 17-02-2025

Band Structure of Crystalline Semiconductor (contd):

• Energy Bands in Crystals: Crystals consist of many atoms (~1023 cm−3).
In a crystal, energy levels of individual atoms split into
closely packed states due to interactions, forming
continuous "energy bands.“

Figure 3.3: Energy band structure

13

Band Structure of Crystalline Semiconductor (contd):

Conduction Band: Next higher energy band, unoccupied at 0 K, where
electrons can be excited to conduct electricity.
 Valence Band: Highest energy band completely filled by electrons at 0 K.

• Bandgap (Eg): Energy difference between the conduction and valence bands;
no intermediate energy levels exist.
• Due to the wave properties of a particle, an electron exhibits a De-Broglie
wavelength (𝜆) of :
λ=h∕p ……….. (3.1) or
λ = 2𝜋 ∕ k ……….. (3.2)
−34
Where h = 6.626×10 (J-sec) is the Planck constant, p and k are the
momentum and wave number of the electron “wave,” respectively.

14

7
 17-02-2025

Band Structure of Crystalline Semiconductor (contd):

• For a free electron, the kinetic energy (E) can be represented by:
E = p2 ∕ 2m ……….. (3.3) or
E = ( hk ∕ 2𝜋)2 ∕ 2m ……….. (3.4) or
d2E ∕ dk2 = ( h ∕ 2𝜋)2 ∕ m ……….. (3.5)

Where m is the mass of the electron.

• Dispersion Curve and Effective Mass:

The curvature of the dispersion curve (d2E ∕ dk2) is inversely proportional
to the mass of an electron.
As the De-Broglie wavelength approaches the lattice constant, diffraction
effects occur due to interaction with the crystal lattice.

15

Band Structure of Crystalline Semiconductor (contd):

Near the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum, the E-k curve
is approximately parabolic.
This allows one can modify eqs.(3.4) and (3.5) to describe the motion of an
electron in the conduction band of a semiconductor by:
E =( hk ∕ 2𝜋)2 ∕ 2m∗ ………..(3.6)
and
d2E∕dk2 =(h ∕ 2𝜋)2 ∕ m∗ ………..(3.7);
Where m∗ is the effective mass of an electron.
(a) (b)

Figure 3.4: Calculated E–k band structures of (a) Si and (b) GaAs
•
16

8
 17-02-2025

Basic Concepts of Crystalline Semiconductor Materials (contd):

•Direct vs. Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors:
Indirect Bandgap Semiconductor : Valence band maximum occurs at the
Γ-point and Conduction band minimum occurs at the X-point (different
momentum values).
e g.: Silicon (Si)

Direct Bandgap Semiconductor : e g.: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

•Valence band maximum and conduction band minimum coincide at the
Γ-point.
•Direct bandgap semiconductors have superior optical properties (e.g., for
LEDs) compared to indirect ones.

17

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors:

• Intrinsic Semiconductors: Materials that exhibit semiconductor behavior
without the presence of impurity atoms.

 Carrier Generation in Intrinsic Semiconductors:

• Thermal Excitation:
 Electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction band
due to thermal energy.
 This process simultaneously generates free electrons in the
conduction band and holes left behind in the valence band.

18

9
 17-02-2025

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors (contd):

 Electron and Hole Concentrations: The concentrations of free electrons
and holes are inherently equal in an intrinsic semiconductor.
n = p = ni
Where n and p are electron and hole concentrations, respectively;
ni is the intrinsic carrier density.
These concentrations depend on Temperature and bandgap energy
(Eg) of the material.

• Extrinsic Semiconductors: Semiconductors with intentionally added

impurities to alter their electrical conductivity.

19

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors (contd):

• Doping Process: Impurities are introduced into the crystal lattice of the
semiconductor (e.g., silicon).
Examples of impurities:
 n-type Doping : Group V atoms (e.g., arsenic, As) substitute for
silicon and add extra electrons to the conduction band.
 p-type Doping: Group III atoms (e.g., boron, B) substitute for silicon
and create extra holes in the valence band.
 Impact of Doping: Increases the carrier concentration (electrons or
holes), enhancing the material’s conductivity.
• Fermi Energy (EF): Represents the energy level at which the probability of an
electron occupying the state is 50%.
 Used to describe electron distribution in solids, which follows
Fermi–Dirac statistics.

20

10
 17-02-2025

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors (contd):

• Fermi–Dirac Distribution Function (F(E)):

1
F(E) = 1+ 𝑒𝑥𝑝[(E−EF) ∕ (kT ∕q)]

Where F(E) : Probability of finding an

electron at energy level E;
k : Boltzmann constant
(1.38×10−23 J/K);
T : Absolute temperature (in Kelvin);
q : Charge (1.6×10−19 C) Figure 3.5: F(E) vs. energy at
different temperatures

21

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors (contd):

1
F(E) =
1+ 𝑒𝑥𝑝[(E−EF) ∕ (kT ∕q)]

• Key Observations: When E= EF, F(E)=0.5 i.e.; The energy level has a 50%
probability of being occupied by an electron.

At higher temperatures, the distribution of electron occupancy spreads

over a wider range of energies.

• Higher temperatures cause the Fermi–Dirac distribution to broaden, indicating

increased thermal excitation of electrons.

22

11
 17-02-2025

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors (contd):

• Shifts in fermi level (EF) Indicates the likelihood of finding free electrons or
holes in a semiconductor.

 n-Type Semiconductors: EF shifts upward toward the conduction band (Ec).

 p-Type Semiconductors: EF shifts downward toward the valence band (Ev).
 Intrinsic Semiconductors: EF lies near the midpoint between Ec and Ev.

• Fermi Level and Semiconductor Type: The position of EF in the bandgap

indicates the type of semiconductor:
Upper half: n-type
Lower half: p-type

23

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors (contd):

• Theoretically, the electron concentration (n) can be found using the integral:
n = ∫ N(E)F(E)dE
Where N(E) : Density of states function at energy E

• Typically, carrier concentrations (intrinsic or extrinsic) can be described by:

Ei −EF E −E
p = ni exp ( ) = Nv exp (− F )
kT ∕q kT ∕q
E − Ei E −E
n = ni exp ( F ) = Nc exp (− C )
kT ∕q kT ∕q
Eg
pn = ni2 = NcNv exp (− )
kT ∕q

24

12
 17-02-2025

• For an extrinsic semiconductor under the complete ionization condition, one

can also write:
p = NA
n = ND
Where NA and ND are acceptor and donor concentrations, respectively.
Classification of Silicon Materials

Figure 3.6: Classification of Si by grain size together with their mobility values and process condition

25

Classification of Silicon Materials (contd):

• Crystallinity Classification of Silicon: Based on grain size, silicon is
categorized into different forms:
1. Amorphous Silicon (a-Si): Least ordered structure.
 Mobility: Electrons: ~1 cm²/V-s and Holes: ~0.01 cm²/V-s
2. Nano-crystalline Silicon (nc-Si): Domains in the range of several to
several tens of nanometers.
• Offers higher mobility than a-Si.
3. Microcrystalline or Polycrystalline Silicon (µc-Si or poly-Si): Grain
size in the range of hundreds of nanometers
to microns.
 Significantly higher carrier mobility than a-Si and nc-Si.

26

13
 17-02-2025

Classification of Silicon Materials (contd):

• Improving Crystallinity: Grain size increases from a-Si to nc-Si and µc-Si by
optimizing thin-film deposition parameters.

• Poly-Si Formation: Achieved through melting and recrystallization of a-Si.

 Requires high temperatures (~1200°C), exceeding the softening
temperature of glass substrates (~600°C).

• Alternative Poly-Si Formation Methods:

Laser Irradiation:
• Enables localized heating to create high-quality poly-Si thin films.
• Suitable for substrates like glass or even plastic, which cannot
withstand high global temperatures.

27

• Applications in Display Backplane Technology:

 a-Si and poly-Si: Widely used as active materials for driving displays.
 Poly-Si offers advantages in mobility and performance, but requires
advanced fabrication techniques.

Thin-Film Transistors
Fundamentals of TFTs:
• Basic Structure of a TFT: Three-Terminal Device
 Gate (G): Controls the conduction channel.
 Source (S): Terminal where carriers enter.
Figure 3.7: Schematic diagram
 Drain (D): Terminal where carriers exit. and notation of a TFT
• Conduction channel is switched on or off by applying a voltage to the gate.

28

14
 17-02-2025

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• Operation in an n-Channel TFT:
• Carriers: Electrons act as the conducting carriers.
• Current Flow: Electrons drift from the source to the drain under the
influence of an electric field applied between these terminals.

• Switching Mechanism: (Based on the metal–insulator–semiconductor

(MIS) structure).
 Voltage applied to the gate metal modulates the carrier concentration in the
semiconductor.
 Carrier Control: Voltage can attract or repel carriers at the semiconductor
side of the insulator.
 This changes the channel's conductance, switching the TFT between high
and low conductive states.
29

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• Applications: TFT switching technology is essential for displays and is
similar to techniques used in the integrated circuit (IC) industry with
crystalline silicon.

•Ideal Metal–Insulator–Semiconductor (MIS) Structure:

 Initial Conditions (VG= 0):
• Semiconductor is crystalline silicon (perfect lattice, no traps).
• Metal work function (Φm) aligns with the
Fermi level (EF) of the semiconductor.

30

15
 17-02-2025

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• Insulator Properties: Large bandgap, with no carriers present inside the
insulating layer.
• Bands in the semiconductor are flat (Figure 3.8a), representing the flat
band condition.
• Flat Band Condition: Occurs when
the energy bands of the semiconductor
remain flat across the structure.

 Indicates no net charge

distribution or electric field
within the semiconductor at Figure 3.8: Band diagram of an ideal MOS structures at
equilibrium. (a) VG = 0, and (b) VG > 0.

31

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• Effect of a Positive Gate Voltage (VG > 0): Positive voltage on the metal gate
attracts negative charges (electrons) to the interface between the semiconductor
and the insulator.
 Charge Accumulation: Increases electron density near the interface.
 Band Bending: Conduction (EC) and valence (EV) bands bend downward
near the interface (Figure 3.8b).

• Fermi Level Behavior: The Fermi level (EF ) must remain

flat throughout a uniform semiconductor layer.
 If EF were not flat, electrons would flow from regions
of high EF to low EF until equilibrium is achieved.

32

16
 17-02-2025

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

 TFT performance can be modeled and evaluated in a similar way to a
conventional MOSFET.

 Gate voltage affects the channel conductance and controls the switching
on and off of the channel.

 In an n-channel TFT,
• Current (ID) flows from the drain to the source.
• The source is typically grounded (VS=0).
• ID is modulated by Gate voltage (VG) and Drain voltage (VD).

33

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• The I–V characteristics of an n-channel TFT can be described by
the following equations:

………..(3.8)
………..(3.9)

Where 𝜇n is electron mobility (cm2/V⋅s), Ci is the capacitance per unit area of

the insulator layer (F/cm2),
W is the channel width, L is the channel length and VT is the threshold
voltage.

34

17
 17-02-2025

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• The following figures shows typical electrical characteristics of an a-Si TFT:

Figure 3.9: (a) Output characteristic, and (b) transfer characteristic, and (c) ID-VG at small VD value of an a-Si
TFT with channel width and length of 200μm and 27μm, respectively.

35

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

Current Flow in n-Channel TFTs:
• Conductive Channel Formation: For a sufficiently large positive gate
voltage (VG), mobile electrons accumulate in the channel, making it
conductive.
• Linear Region (VD < VG−VT):
 Drain current (ID) increases as drain voltage (VD) rises.
 The channel behaves like a resistor, where higher VD results higher current.
 This region is characterized by a linear relationship between ID and VD .
• Saturation Region (VD ≥ VG−VT ): Occurs when VD reaches VG−VT .
 At this point, the channel reaches its maximum current-carrying capacity.
 Further increases in VD do not result in higher ID.

36

18
 17-02-2025

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• Dependence on Gate Voltage (VG): A higher VG attracts more electrons to
the insulator-semiconductor interface.
 This increases the electron density in the channel, allowing for a greater
saturation current.

• Transfer Characteristic Curves: Plot of log(ID) vs. VG at fixed VD values,

illustrating how drain current (ID) responds to gate voltage (VG).
• Example behavior for VD =10 V (Figure 3.9b):
Low VG Region: ID is very low (~10−12 A) for VG < −1V.
Transition Region: ID sharply increases from 10−12 A to 10−6 A as VG
rises from 0 V to 5 V.
ON-State Current: Reaches ~10−5 A at higher VG .

37

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• ON/OFF Ratio: Ratio of ON-state current to the minimum measured current
(OFF-state current).
• Significance: A higher ON/OFF ratio is preferred:
 Higher ON Current: Improves pixel driving capability.
 Lower OFF Current: Reduces leakage and enhances device efficiency.
• Enhancing the ON Current: Increasing carrier mobility (μ) improves the ON
current, as shown in the governing equations.
• Linear Region Behavior (VD = 0.1 V):
• In the low ID region, the TFT operates in the linear region due to small VD.
• Drain current is approximated as:

• Neglecting the VD2 term due to its small contribution in equation (3.8).

38

19
 17-02-2025

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

TFT Structures and Configurations:
• TFT Classification Based on Gate Position:
Normal Structure: Gate electrode on top of the channel.
Inverted Structure: Gate electrode on the bottom of the channel.

• TFT Classification Based on Electrode Alignment:

Coplanar Structure: Drain/source and gate electrodes are on the same
side of the channel.
Staggered Structure: Drain/source and gate electrodes are on opposite
sides of the channel.

39

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

• Four Basic TFT Structures (Figure 3.10):
 Staggered Bottom-Gate: Commonly used in hydrogenated amorphous
silicon (a-Si:H) TFTs.
 Coplanar Top-Gate: Widely adopted for polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si)
TFTs.
 Staggered Bottom-Gate: Frequently used in organic TFTs.
 Coplanar Bottom-Gate: Also used in organic TFTs and oxide
semiconductor TFTs.

Figure 3.10: TFTs with different configurations

40

20
 17-02-2025

Thin-Film Transistors (contd):

•Material-Specific Trends:

1. a-Si:H TFTs: Primarily use the staggered bottom-gate structure for ease
of fabrication and reliability.
2. Poly-Si TFTs: Favor the coplanar top-gate structure, optimizing
performance and mobility.
3. Organic TFTs: Employ bottom-gate configurations, both staggered and
coplanar.
4. Oxide Semiconductor TFTs: Utilize all four structural configurations,
depending on application and performance requirements.

41

a-Si:H TFTs:
 widely used as switching devices in active matrix arrays.
 Device Structure: Configuration: Inverted staggered
structure with a SiNx gate dielectric.
Figure 3.11: Cross section of
• Fabrication Process: an a-Si:H TFT

 Gate Electrode Formation: Typically made of Cr, Ta, or Al, and

deposited first.
 Insulating Layer: Silicon nitride (SiNx) deposited uniformly using
PECVD.
 a-Si:H Layer Deposition: Deposited on top of the insulator to form
the MIS structure.

42

21
 17-02-2025

a-Si:H TFTs:
Fabrication Process (contd):
 Drain and Source Electrodes:
• Formed on either side of the a-Si:H layer.
• Consist of:
 Heavily doped n-type a-Si:H (n+-a-Si:H ) for ohmic contact.
 Cr or Al layers for better electron injection.

•Light Sensitivity of a-Si:H:

 The a-Si:H channel is sensitive to light, and shielding prevents light-
induced degradation.
 The bottom gate helps block light from the backside of AM-LCD
systems.

43

a-Si:H TFTs (contd):

• Band Bending Behaviour:
 Similar to crystalline Si but with minor modifications.
 Flat Band Condition: Typically valid for a-Si:H TFTs at VG = 0.
 Trap States:
 At small VG , trap states in a-Si:H dominate: Electrons first fill deep and tail
states (immobile, zero mobility).
 At VG > VT (threshold voltage): A thin layer of mobile carriers forms at the
interface between the SiNx gate insulator and the a-Si:H channel.

•Performance Metrics:
 Field-Effect Mobility: 1–1.5 cm²/V-s.
 Threshold Voltage (VT): 1– 3 V.
 ON/OFF Ratio: 106 to 108.

44

22
 17-02-2025

a-Si:H TFTs (contd):

• Advantages:
 Easy fabrication.
 Enhanced electrical performance.
 Bottom metal gate effectively shields the a-Si:H channel from light,
reducing degradation in active-matrix LCDs.

• Applications: widely used as switching devices in active matrix LCDs,

leveraging their easy fabrication, high ON/OFF ratios, and light sensitivity.

45

Poly-Si TFTs:
Performance Advantages of Poly-Si TFTs:
 Higher Field-Effect Mobility than a-Si:H:
• Electrons: 10 –500 cm²/V-s.
• Holes: 10 –200 cm²/V-s.
 High Mobility Benefits:
• Enables use as both driving and switching devices.
• Allows narrower channels, improving:
 Aperture Ratio: More light transmission in displays.
 Reduced Parasitic Capacitance: Enhances performance.

Applications: used in high-performance displays and circuits, leveraging

high mobility, CMOS compatibility, and integrated circuit capabilities.

46

23
 17-02-2025

Poly-Si TFTs (contd):

• CMOS Integration:
• Fabrication of both n-channel and p-channel TFTs in poly-Si enables
complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) circuits.
• CMOS Advantages:
Fully integrated circuits.
Low power consumption.
• Fabrication Method:
 Starting Point: Requires a flat, continuous silicon thin film (e.g.
recrystallized a-Si).
 Structure: Poly-Si TFTs are typically fabricated with a coplanar top-gate
structure for better performance and interface quality.
 Gate Insulator: SiO₂ is used, offering a high-quality interface with poly-Si
channels.

47

Poly-Si TFTs (contd): Fabrication Process Flow

 Buffer Layer: Deposited on the substrate.
 a-Si Layer: Deposited on the buffer layer.
 Crystallization: a-Si is converted to poly-Si using
excimer laser annealing.
 Gate Insulator: SiO₂ deposited by chemical vapor
deposition.
 Gate Deposition: a-Si gate is deposited and defined.
 Ion Implantation: Creates source and drain regions
and dopes the a-Si gate.
 Annealing: Furnace annealing activates the implanted
regions.
 Isolation and Contacts: Isolation oxide is deposited, Figure 3.12: Typical
contact holes are etched, and a metal layer is deposited and fabrication steps for coplanar
patterned for source, drain, and gate contacts. top-gate poly-Si TFTs

48

24
 17-02-2025

Organic TFTs (OTFTs)

• Advantages of OTFTs:
 Low-Temperature Fabrication: Compatible with flexible substrates,
enabling lightweight and bendable devices.

 Multiple Fabrication Methods:

• Thermal evaporation for low molecular weight organic
semiconductors.
• Solution processing using techniques such as spin-coating, ink-jet
printing, stamping, or imprinting.

49

Organic TFTs (OTFTs) (contd):

• Common Materials and Mobility:
 Pentacene: Frequently used for p-channel
OTFTs.
• Mobility depends on:
 Molecular stacking in crystallites.
 Surface morphology.
 Grain size.
• Improved grain size (~tens of nano-meters)
can achieve mobility up to ~1 cm²/V-s.
Figure 3.13: Molecule structure
 Rubrene: Single-crystal organic thin films offer of (a) pentacene, and (b) rubrene.

record mobility values (~20 cm²/V·s or higher).

50

25
 17-02-2025

Organic TFTs (OTFTs) (contd):

• Challenges in OTFTs:

1. Environmental Sensitivity:
• Vulnerable to water and oxygen, making long-term stability
challenging.
• Passivation layers are added during fabrication to protect the organic
thin film.
2. Lower Mobility and Current:
• Molecular thin films exhibit lower mobility than covalently bonded
semiconductors (e.g., a-Si:H, poly-Si).
• Electrical current output is typically smaller than that of a-Si:H or poly-
Si TFTs.

51

Organic TFTs (OTFTs) (contd):

3. Limited Doping Flexibility:
• Carrier concentration of molecules is difficult to modify intentionally,
restricting device design options.
4. Stability Issues: Long-term operation and storage stability remain
problematic.

• Device Configurations:

(a) (b)
Figure 3.14: Device configurations of OTFT: (a) top and (b) bottom contact.

52

26
 17-02-2025

Organic TFTs (OTFTs) (contd):

 Both configurations use inverted structures (gate insulator formed before
the organic thin film):
• Bottom Contact: Organic layer deposited over the pre-defined structure.
 High-resolution patterning (<1 µm) via photolithography.
• Top Contact: Organic material deposited first, followed by evaporation of electrodes
through a shadow mask.
 Resolution limited to tens of µm.
 Typically superior performance due to larger contact area and lower
contact resistance.
• Applications:
 Sensors: Sensitivity to environmental species like water and oxygen makes
OTFTs suitable for sensing applications.
 Displays: Less common due to lower stability and mobility compared to a-Si:H
and poly-Si TFTs.

53

Oxide Semiconductor TFTs: Transparent Thin-Film Transistors

(TTFTs)
Advantages of TTFTs:
 Light Insensitivity:
• Wide bandgap semiconductors like zinc oxide (ZnO) minimize visible light
absorption.
• Eliminates the need for opaque shielding, improving the aperture ratio in
displays.
 Transparency:
• Electrodes (Gate, Drain, Source): Made from transparent indium tin oxide
(ITO).
• Insulator: Aluminum–titanium oxide (ATO) is used, which is transparent.
• Performance: ~75% light transmission through the channel and source/drain
regions across the visible spectrum.

54

27
 17-02-2025

Oxide Semiconductor TFTs (contd):

Oxide Semiconductor Advantages:
 High Mobility: Typically in the range of tens of cm²/V·s, outperforming
a-Si:H.
 Amorphous Phase Preference:
• Reduces surface roughness and leakage current.
• Maintains mobility comparable to the crystalline phase due to
efficient electron transport via wavefunction overlap along
networks of large metal atoms.

Figure 3.15: (a) Device structure and (b) Transmission spectra of TTFT

55

Oxide Semiconductor TFTs (contd):

Material Requirements for Oxide TFTs:
1. Amorphous Phase Formation: Materials should form an amorphous
phase during physical vapor deposition (PVD).
2. High Carrier Mobility: Ensures efficient charge transport.
3. Low Carrier Concentration: Reduces OFF current for better
performance.
4. Low-Temperature Process: Enables fabrication on flexible substrates.
IGZO (Indium–Gallium–Zinc Oxide) TFTs:
• Performance Leader: Demonstrates the best performance among oxide-
based TFTs.
• Composition Effects:
Indium Content: Increases field-effect mobility and background
carrier concentration.

56

28
 17-02-2025

Oxide Semiconductor TFTs (contd):

Gallium Content: Suppresses background carrier concentration by
bonding strongly with oxygen.
• It shifts threshold voltage to more positive values.

Mechanism of Electron Transport: Wavefunction overlap

• Electrons propagate along networks of large metal atoms with strong
wavefunction overlap, enabling efficient conduction in both crystalline and
amorphous phases.

Fabrication Techniques for Oxide TFTs: Formed via physical vapor

deposition (PVD) Methods:
Sputtering.
Pulsed laser deposition.

57

Oxide Semiconductor TFTs (contd):

Applications:
Display Technologies: TTFTs increase aperture ratio and improve optical
performance.
Durable Electronics: Transparent and light-insensitive characteristics
enable new possibilities for innovative designs.

Impact of Mechanical Strain on TFT Performance:

1. a-Si:H TFTs:
Field-effect mobility:
• Increases: Under tensile strain.
• Decreases: Under compressive strain.

58

29
 17-02-2025

Impact of Mechanical Strain on TFT Performance (contd):

2. Poly-Si TFTs:
Diverse observations:
• Increased electron mobility & decreased hole mobility
under tensile strain.
• Opposite effects for compressive strain.
• Some studies report no significant changes.

3. Oxide Semiconductor TFTs:

Mobility:
• Enhanced by tensile strain.
• Reduced by compressive strain.
Threshold Voltage: Shifts negatively under tension,
positively under compression.

59

Flexible TFT Technology

Advantages of Flexible Displays TFTs:
Physical Properties: Rugged, thin, lightweight.
Potential for Low-Cost Manufacturing: Can be fabricated
using roll-to-roll processes.
Substrate Types for Flexible TFT Backplanes:
1. Flexible Glass: Fragile and challenging to handle.
2. Metal Foil:
Advantages:
1.Durable, high-temperature compatible, dimensionally stable.
2.Acts as a heat sink and provides electromagnetic shielding.
Limitations:
1.Opaque (suitable only for reflective or top-emissive displays).
2.Surface imperfections require polishing or planarization.

60

30
 17-02-2025

Flexible TFT Technology (contd):

Substrate Types for Flexible TFT Backplanes (contd):
3. Plastic (Polymer) Film:
Advantages: Highly flexible, lightweight, optically transparent,
roll-to-roll compatible.
Challenges:
1.Low process temperature tolerance.
2.Poor dimensional stability and thermal expansion mismatch.
3.Requires permeation barriers against moisture and oxygen.

Materials for Flexible Conductors: Metal nanowires, carbon nanotubes,

graphene, nanoimprinted metal grids.
 Challenges: Balance between optical transparency and electrical
conductivity.

61

Flexible TFT Technology (contd):

• Fabrication Methods for Flexible TFTs:
1. Transfer Techniques:
 Devices fabricated on rigid substrates, then transferred to flexible substrates.
Examples: SUFLTA method (Seiko Epson).
Advantages: High performance.
Challenges: High cost.
2. Direct Fabrication Methods:
• Adhesive Lamination: Flexible substrate laminated onto a rigid carrier.
• Coat-Release: Sacrificial layer or release agent applied before device
fabrication.
• Examples: EPLaRTM (Philips), FlexUP (ITRI).
Advantages: Lower cost, scalable.
Considerations: Adhesive limits processing temperature.

62

31
 17-02-2025

Flexible TFT Technology (contd):

• Encapsulation for Flexible Displays:
 Single-Layer Encapsulation:
• Inorganic materials (SiO₂, SiNx, Al₂O₃) as permeation barriers.
• Limitations: Defects like pinholes degrade barrier properties.

 Multilayer Encapsulation:
• Alternating ceramic and polymer layers (e.g., Barix system).
• Advantages:
Suppresses defect propagation.
Improves mechanical flexibility.

• Applications and Ongoing Research: Improved flexible substrates and

encapsulation techniques for robust devices.

63

Passive Matrix (PM) and Active Matrix (AM) Driving Schemes

Passive Matrix (PM) Driving:
 Configuration: Electrodes are arranged in perpendicular stripes on two
glass substrates, forming row and column electrodes.
• The liquid crystal (LC) layer acts as a capacitor.

Figure 3.16: (a) Image displayed on PM-LCD, and the voltage during the (b) first, (c) second, (d) third,
and (e) fourth time slots on each row and column.
Solid black capacitors show where the pixel is being switched to the “on” state during the row
select time period.

64

32
 17-02-2025

PM Driving (contd):
 Operating Principle:
• Each row is selected sequentially by applying a scanning voltage (Vs).
• A data voltage (Vd) is applied to column lines, controlling pixel ON/OFF
states.
• Neighbouring pixels experience residual voltages ( Vd or − Vd ), leading
to crosstalk.
• LCs respond to the RMS voltage over multiple time slots.

65

PM Driving (contd):
RMS Voltage Analysis in PM-LCDs:

 Voltage Dynamics in a PM-LCD with N Rows:

• Selected Row (ON Pixel):
1
Voltage Vs+Vd applied for of the frame time.
N
N−1
Voltage Vd or − Vd applied for the remaining of the frame time.
N
• Non-Selected Row (OFF Pixel):
1
Voltage Vs−Vd applied for of the frame time.
N
N−1
Voltage Vd or − Vd applied for the remaining of the frame time.
N

66

33
 17-02-2025

PM Driving (contd):
• Since LCs respond to the RMS value of the applied voltage, the RMS
voltage applied to on and off-pixels from the above schemes can be
calculated:

For “on” pixels:

For “off” pixels:

Effect on RMS Voltage:

• RMS voltage determines the LC response, directly influencing display
contrast and performance.
• Reduced discrimination between ON and OFF states leads to poor
display quality in PM-LCDs.

67

PM Driving (contd):
Challenges in PM-LCDs:
1. Crosstalk: Voltage applied to a selected pixel affects neighbouring pixels, degrading
display contrast.
2. RMS Voltage Selection Ratio:
• Limited by , where n is the number of addressed lines.
• Rapidly approaches unity as n increases, reducing contrast.
3. Low Voltage Discrimination:
• Small voltage difference between ON and OFF pixels causes:
 Poor contrast.
 Slow switching speeds.
4. RC Network Effects:
• Addressing waveform distortion due to resistance and capacitance of pixels and
tracks.

68

34
 17-02-2025

PM Driving (contd):
• PM-LCDs:
Pixel Driving Mechanism:
• Each pixel is driven by setting the column voltage (± Vd) during the
time slot when the corresponding row is selected with Vs.
• ON/OFF states depend on the difference between Von and Voff.

Challenges with Increasing Row Count (N):

• Difference between Von and Voff diminishes as N grows.
• Finite voltage difference required for LC switching limits the
maximum number of addressable rows.
• Larger N leads to poor contrast as pixels fail to fully switch.

69

PM Driving (contd): PM-OLEDs

Pixel Driving Principle:
• Each pixel (represented by a diode) is turned ON when the row is
selected with a low voltage, and the column applies a high voltage.
• Pixels emit light only during the row’s time slot.
• Example for a 4×4 OLED display:
 First row is selected with a low voltage, and all four OLEDs in the row are
biased with high voltage to emit light.
 The process repeats row-by-row in subsequent time slots.

Figure 3.17: (a) Image displayed on PM-OLED, and their voltage at (b) first, (c) second, (d) third,
and (e) fourth time slots at each row and column.

70

35
 17-02-2025

PM Driving (contd): PM-OLEDs

Advantages of PM-OLEDs:
 Easy Fabrication: Simpler manufacturing process.
 Low Cost: Suitable for budget-friendly applications.
Limitations of PM-OLEDs:
Low Average Luminance:
• Each row emits light only during its allocated time slot.
• Average luminance is the peak luminance divided by the total number
of rows (N).
 High Peak Luminance Requirement: For displays with many rows,
the peak luminance must be high to maintain brightness, leading to:
• Increased power consumption.
• Shortened device lifetime.
Challenges: LCD's slow LC response may cause motion blur in dynamic content.

71

PM Driving (contd):
Comparison of PM-LCDs and PM-OLEDs:
 PM-LCDs: Challenges include limited row count and contrast reduction with
increasing N.
• Slower Response Time: LCs respond to the RMS voltage across the entire
addressing cycle, not instantaneous signals.
• Impact: Slower response can lead to image blur during motion.

 PM-OLEDs: Better suited for simple applications but suffer from luminance
and longevity issues with large row counts.
• Fast Response Time: Pixel luminance peaks during its slot and drops to near zero
afterward.
• Apparent Luminance: Averaged over the entire frame period.

72

36
 17-02-2025

PM Driving (contd):
• Light Emission Characteristics:
 Display rows are addressed sequentially.
 Each pixel emits light in short bursts during its time slot.
 The frame cycle must exceed 60 Hz (critical fusion frequency) for consistent
perceived light levels.
• Gray Levels with PM Driving:
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
• Adjusts the pulse width applied to each pixel to create multiple gray levels.
• Example: Divide the line addressing pulse into three intervals, resulting in 4
gray levels:
• 0 intervals bright = black.
• 1 interval bright = dark gray.
• 2 intervals bright = light gray.
• 3 intervals bright = white.
Figure 3.18: Four gray levels achieved by PWM.

73

Active Matrix (AM) Driving:

Advantages Over PM Driving:
 Uses thin-film transistors (TFTs) in each pixel for independent control of
turn-on/off states and gray levels.
 Eliminates crosstalk and achieves higher image quality.
 Enables high-resolution displays with better contrast and faster switching.

• AM Driving with TFTs:

Modern Displays: Used in high-resolution, large-area displays (e.g., AM-LCDs,
OLEDs).
AM-LCD Pixel Operation: Each pixel includes
a TFT, an LC pixel capacitance, and
a storage capacitor.
Figure 3.19: Equivalent circuit of AM-LCD

74

37
 17-02-2025

AM Driving (contd):
Operating Steps:
 A scan line is selected, turning on the TFTs in that row.
 Data line voltage (VD) charges the LC pixel capacitance and storage capacitor.
 Scan line is deselected, and the TFT switches off.
 Voltage Hold: The storage capacitor maintains the pixel's optical transmission
until the next frame.

Advantages of AM Driving:
 Hold-Type Display: Pixel state remains constant due to storage capacitor,
eliminating flicker.
 Reduced Crosstalk: Driving voltage is independent of the row number.
 Independent Gray Levels: Gray levels are controlled directly by VD applied
via the data lines.

75

AM Driving for OLEDs

Operating Principle of AM-OLED:
 Row-at-a-Time Addressing:
• Similar to AM-LCD driving, a row is selected with a scan pulse.
• Current-Driven Nature: OLEDs require a current-driven circuit
(unlike the capacitor-driven AM-LCDs).

Advantages of AM-OLED Driving:

1. Reduced Peak Luminance: Average brightness achieved without high
peak luminance, extending operational lifetime.
2. Large Displays: Enables larger screen sizes by maintaining consistent
brightness over the frame.

76

38
 17-02-2025

AM Driving for OLEDs (contd):

Pixel Circuit Configuration (2T1C): Each pixel requires:
 2 TFTs:
• Address TFT: Acts as a switch, controlled by the row select pulse.
• Drive TFT: Provides current to the OLED from the power line.
 1 Capacitor: Holds voltage after the scan line is de-selected, ensuring
continuous light emission during the frame.

Figure 3.20: Equivalent circuit of AM OLED

with two-transistor one-capacitor (2T1C)

77

AM Driving for OLEDs (contd):

Requirements for TFTs in AM-OLEDs:

1. Address TFT: High ON/OFF ratio for reliable switching.

2. Drive TFT: High current density capability and mobility to drive the
OLED effectively.
• Low-Temperature Polycrystalline Silicon (LTPS): Preferred for
backplanes due to its high mobility.
Challenges: Non-uniformity caused by the laser annealing process
affects consistent current density.
Solution: Use additional TFTs for compensation to ensure
uniformity.

78

39
 17-02-2025

AM Driving for OLEDs (contd):

• Challenges with Gray Levels:
• Voltage Modulation: Similar to AM-LCDs but less precise due to the
steep luminance-voltage relationship in OLEDs.
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Can provide more accurate gray
level control but increases:
Power consumption.
Complexity of the control system.
• Comparison with Passive Matrix (PM)-OLEDs:
Feature PM-OLED AM-OLED
Circuit Simplicity Simple, single transistor Requires 2T1C or more
Brightness Control High peak luminance required Average brightness maintained
Lifetime Shorter due to high peaks Prolonged due to lower peaks
Display Size Limited to small displays Suitable for large displays

79

PM and AM Driving Schemes

Table: Comparison of PM and AM Driving Techniques:
Feature PM Driving AM Driving
Row Addressing Sequential Independent control via TFTs
Gray Levels PWM with time intervals Direct 𝑉 application
Crosstalk Significant Minimal
Image Quality Motion blur in LCDs Clearer, stable images
Applications Simple, low-cost displays High-resolution displays

Applications and Considerations:

PM-LCDs: Suitable for simple, low-resolution displays.
AM-LCDs: Preferred for high-performance displays (e.g., OLEDs, high-
resolution LCDs) due to superior quality and efficiency.

80

40
 17-02-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Liquid Crystal Displays

Introduction:
Types of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)
1. Transmissive LCDs
 Utilize a backlight for illumination.
 Provide high luminance, HDR, and a wide color gamut.
 Feature multi-domain structures and phase compensation films for a wide
viewing angle.
 Commonly used in smartphones, tablets, notebooks, desktop monitors, and
TVs.
 Pixel size: 50–300 μm, depending on resolution density.

1
 17-02-2025

Introduction
Transmissive Microdisplays
 Used in projection displays (e.g., data projectors).
 Light source: High-power arc lamp or high-luminance LED array.
 Image magnification: Over 50× using a projection lens.
 Small LCD panel (<25 mm diagonal), pixel size: 20–40 μm.
 Typically based on poly-silicon thin-film transistor (TFT) LCD.

2. Reflective LCDs
 Utilize ambient light instead of a backlight, making them lightweight and thin
(<200 μm).
 Can be classified into direct-view and projection displays.

Introduction
Direct-View Reflective LCDs
 Examples: Twisted Nematic (TN) LCDs, Cholesteric Liquid Crystal (CLC)
LCDs, Bistable Nematic LCDs.

 CLC LCDs:
• Helical structure reflects colored light → No need for color filters or
polarizers.
• Reflectance in a given color band is ~50%.
• Bistable, meaning low power consumption if not frequently refreshed.
• Drawback: Poor readability under low ambient light.

2
 17-02-2025

Introduction
Reflective Microdisplays for Projection (LCoS)
 Used in augmented reality (AR) and other projection displays.
 Utilize Liquid Crystal on Silicon (LCoS) microdisplay panels.
 Reflector: Aluminum metallic mirror hides active matrix components →
Tolerates high light flux.
 High luminance images, ideal for see-through AR displays in bright
environments.
 Crystalline silicon enables small pixel size (<10 μm) and high aperture ratio
(>90%).
 Higher resolution and seamless images compared to transmissive
microdisplays (<50% aperture ratio).
 Viewing angle: Less critical in projection due to polarizing beam splitter and
wide viewing cone.

Introduction
3. Transflective LCDs
 Hybrid display combining features of transmissive and reflective LCDs.
 Transmissive mode: Backlight is on in dark environments.
 Reflective mode: Backlight is off in bright ambient light.
 Ideal for outdoor and varied lighting conditions.
Future Focus of LCD Development
 TFT-addressed wide-viewing angle transmissive LCDs remain the mainstream.
 Key technologies:
• Twisted Nematic (TN), In-Plane Switching (IPS), and Fringe Field
Switching (FFS) displays, Multi-Domain Vertical Alignment (MVA)
technology.
 Phase compensation techniques for achieving wide viewing angles.

3
 17-02-2025

Transmissive LCDs
Device Structure and Optical Efficiency of Transmissive TFT-LCDs
1. LCD as a Non-Emissive Display
 LCDs function as two-dimensional spatial light modulators rather than emitting
light.
 Require a backlight for illumination.
 Two widely used backlight configurations:
• Edge-lit (Figure 4.1a): LED array at the edge
of the display panel. Light passes through a
light guide plate (LGP) before reaching the
LCD panel.
Figure 4.1 Device structure of (a) edge-lit
• Direct-lit (Figure 4.1b): Uses mini-LEDs in and (b) direct-lit transmissive TFT LCDs.
thousands of local dimming zones for better control.

Device Structure and Optical Efficiency of Transmissive TFT-LCDs

 Mini-LED based LCDs achieve a 1,000,000:1 contrast ratio, comparable to
OLEDs.
 Diffusers and optical films ensure uniform illumination and enhance brightness.

2. LCD Panel Structure and Pixel Design

 TFT Array: Controls each sub-pixel independently (e.g., ~24 million sub-
pixels for a 4K2K resolution LCD).
 Aperture Ratio:
• Reduced to ~80% due to the opaque mask shielding light-sensitive TFTs.
• Higher pixel density → Lower aperture ratio.

4
 17-02-2025

Device Structure and Optical Efficiency of Transmissive TFT-LCDs

 Liquid Crystal (LC) Layer:
• Sandwiched between two ITO substrates.
• Uses a thin (80 nm) polyimide layer or 30 nm photo-alignment layer.
• Cell gap: Typically 3–4 μm for a transmissive LCD.
 Surface Alignment Methods:
• Required for Twisted-Nematic (TN), In-Plane Switching (IPS), and
Fringe Field Switching (FFS) displays.
• Not required for Multi-Domain Vertical Alignment (MVA) and
Patterned Vertical Alignment (PVA).

Device Structure and Optical Efficiency of Transmissive TFT-LCDs

3. Color Filters and Backlight Efficiency
 Color Filters: Located in the top substrate, with three sub-pixels (Red,
Green, Blue) forming one color pixel.
 Sub-Pixel Size: ~80 μm × 240 μm in standard resolution displays.
 Light Transmission:
•RGB filters have broad transmission spectra
→ Higher light output
but lower color purity.
•Transmission efficiency:
Red (80%), Green (85%), Blue (95%).
•Each filter only transmits ~25% of incident
white light; the remaining 75% is absorbed.
Figure 4.2 Transmission spectra of RGB color filters
(dotted lines), and emission spectra of WLED backlight
(black line) and blue-LED pumped QDs(gray line).

10

5
 17-02-2025

Device Structure and Optical Efficiency of Transmissive TFT-LCDs

• As shown in Figure 4.2, the transmission spectra of RGB color filters are
relatively broad.
• The advantage of this is that more light is transmitted, however the color
purity is degraded.

 Color Gamut:
•Typical LCD: ~75% NTSC due to leaked light degrading color purity.
•Quantum Dot (QD) Enhancement: ~115% NTSC due to narrower
emission spectra.

11

Device Structure and Optical Efficiency of Transmissive TFT-LCDs

4. Optical Efficiency and Power Consumption
 Overall Optical Efficiency:
• Direct-view LCDs: ~7% efficiency after optical losses (polarizers,
color filters, aperture ratio).
• Wide-view technology reduces efficiency further to ~5%.
 Challenges of Low Optical Efficiency:
• Higher power consumption.
• More heat generation, impacting thin LCDs.
• Thermal dissipation is critical, especially for portable devices.

12

6
 17-02-2025

Device Structure and Optical Efficiency of Transmissive TFT-LCDs

 Power-Saving Technologies:
• Polarization conversion of the backlight.
• Two-dimensional local dimming LED backlight.
• Mini-LED backlight benefits:
 16-bit grayscale (8-bit from LED backlight + 8-bit from LCD).
 ~4× power reduction compared to standard backlights.
 Fast switching (~10 ns) for higher frame rates and reduced motion
blur.
 Remaining Challenges:
• Color shifts & power efficiency variations due to LED junction
temperature changes.
• Higher manufacturing costs.

13

Liquid Crystal Materials

Key Points on Liquid Crystals (LCs)
General Properties of Liquid Crystals
•Exhibit properties between crystalline solids and isotropic liquids.
•Fluid-like but maintain molecular structural order.

Types of Liquid Crystals

1.Thermotropic – Most studied; used in TFT-LCDs.
2.Polymeric – Applied in optical films, electronics, and high-strength
materials.
3.Lyotropic – Gaining attention due to unique molecular properties.

14

7
 17-02-2025

Liquid Crystal Materials (contd):

Importance of LC Materials in Displays
 Crucial for contrast ratio, response time, viewing angle, and operating
voltage.
 Refractive indices & cell gap → Affect phase retardation.
 Dielectric & elastic constants → Determine threshold voltage.
 Viscosity, elastic constants, cell gap, voltage, temperature → Influence
response time.

15

Liquid Crystal Materials (contd):

Thermotropic LC Phases
1. Smectic – Includes Ferroelectric LCs (FLCs):
• Bistable switching, layered structure, fast response (~microseconds).
• Used in microdisplays (~2 cm x 2 cm panels).
• Challenges for large panels: Alignment uniformity, mechanical stability.
2. Nematic – Used in mainstream TFT-LCDs (focus of this section).
3. Cholesteric (CLC) – Helical structure, reflects color without filters or
polarizers.
• Contrast ratio ~30:1, sufficient for electronic paper but not high-end
displays.
• Encapsulated CLCs → Used in flexible LCDs & e-books.

16

8
 17-02-2025

Liquid Crystal Materials: Phase Transition Temperatures

 Few LC compounds exhibit a mesogenic phase at room temperature (~23°C).
 The following compound, 4′-pentyl-4-cyanobiphenyl (best known as 5CB) is such
an example:

 5CB with a nematic range of 24–35.3°C.

 Due to super-cooling, 5CB remains liquid at room temperature, allowing easy
study without heating devices.
 For display applications, a wider nematic range (-40 to 90°C) is preferred.
 Eutectic mixtures (blends of multiple compounds) are used to expand the nematic
range.
 Commercial LC mixtures often contain 10–15 components to optimize viscosity,
dielectric constants, and elastic properties.

17

Liquid Crystal Materials: Eutectic Mixtures

• Let us use a binary mixture as an example to illustrate the working principles.
• Phase diagram of a binary mixture shows mesogenic ranges of two components.
• Figure 4.3 shows the phase diagram of a binary mixture.
• Tmp1,2 (melting temperatures) & Tc1,2 (clearing
temperatures) define phase transitions of compounds 1 & 2.
• Horizontal axis (X₂) represents molar concentration
of compound 2.
• As X₂ increases, the melting point of the mixture decreases
until it reaches a minimum at a specific composition.
• This composition is called the eutectic point,
where the mixture has:
• Lowest melting point Figure 4.3: Diagram showing eutectic
formulation of a binary mixture
• Widest mesogenic range

18

9
 17-02-2025

Liquid Crystal Materials: Eutectic Mixtures (contd):

• If X₂ increases beyond the eutectic point, the melting temperature rises again.
• Clearing point follows a linear interpolation between the two compounds.
• The optimal mixing ratio of a eutectic mixture is predicted by the Schröder–Van
Laar equation, formulated as:
Δ𝐻 1 1
ln 𝑋 = −
𝑅 𝑇 𝑇

where Tmp is the mixture’s melting temperature (in unit of K), Ti is the melting
point, Δ Hi is the heat fusion enthalpy (in unit of cal/mol), Xi is the mole
concentration of the component i, and R is the gas constant (1.98 cal/mol/K).
• To solve above equation, necessary Boundary Condition:
 The sum of molar fractions must equal 1, i.e.

19

Liquid Crystal Materials: Eutectic Mixtures (contd):

Assumptions for an Ideal Eutectic Mixture
1. No mixed crystals – The two components crystallize in their pure form and do not
form mixed crystals.
2. Ideal liquid phase – The mixture behaves thermodynamically as an ideal solution.
3. Small heat capacity differences – Molten and crystallized forms have minimal
heat capacity variations.

Clearing Temperature (Tc):The clearing temperature (Tc ) of the eutectic mixture

can be calculated as:
 Final clearing temperature of the binary mixture is a weighted sum of the
clearing temperatures of the individual components: 𝑇 = ∑ 𝑋 𝑇
 LC compounds with high Tci help increase the Tc of the mixture.
 However, melting points and enthalpy changes (ΔH) must also be
considered.

20

10
 17-02-2025

Liquid Crystal (LC) Alignment

 LC mixtures are anisotropic liquids at room temperature and must be confined and
aligned between glass or plastic substrates.
 Alignment layer (~80 nm thick) is applied to substrates to align LC molecules.
 Common LC Alignment Methods:
1. Mechanically rubbed polyimide (PI) – Simple fabrication, used in large screen
displays.
2. Ion beam etched PI – Provides controlled alignment via etching process.
3. Evaporated SiOx – Robust, withstands high-intensity illumination, used in
projection displays.
4. Photo-alignment – Uses polarized UV light to induce alignment; offers
advantages over rubbing:
• Contactless process.
• Forms multi-domain alignment for wide viewing angles.
• Excellent uniformity, crucial for high-resolution displays.

21

Liquid Crystal (LC) Alignment (contd):

Pretilt Angle and LC Cell Geometry
 Pretilt angle (~3°–5°) ensures uniform LC molecule reorientation under an external
field.

Figure 4.4: (a) Rubbing and (b) ion beam etching induced pretilt angle on a PI coated substrate.
 Pretilt direction influences LC cell types:
• Homogeneous cell → Rubbing in opposite directions (~3°–5° tilt).
• Homeotropic cell (Vertical Alignment) → Large pre-tilt angle (~85°–90°).
• Twisted-Nematic (TN) cell → Orthogonal rubbing with low tilt.
• Super Twisted Nematic (STN) cell → TN cell with chiral dopant, creating a twist >90°.
• Polymer-Dispersed LC (PDLC) → Forms droplets, no surface treatment needed.

22

11
 17-02-2025

Liquid Crystal (LC) Alignment (contd):

Widely Used LC Alignments in Displays

1. 90° TN cell – Standard LC alignment.

2. Homogeneous low-tilt cell – Used in IPS & FFS devices.
3. Multi-domain Vertical Alignment (MVA) – Uses patterned homeotropic
alignment.
4. Bend (π-cell) – Uses parallel rubbing, intermediate tilt angle between
homogeneous & homeotropic cells.

Impact of Electrode Configuration: Besides LC alignment, the electrode

configuration also determines the performance of a LCD.
 Electrode design affects LCD performance, especially viewing angles.

23

Homogeneous Cell Alignment

Homogeneous Alignment in Different Applications

 Used in IPS, FFS, and phase-only modulators, depending on electric field

direction:
• IPS & FFS cells → Transverse electric field (field is parallel to substrates,
wide viewing angle).
• Phase-only spatial light modulators → Longitudinal electric field (field is
perpendicular to substrates, narrow viewing angle).
• Laser beam steering & AR/Head-up displays use longitudinal alignment.

 Wide-viewing angles require compensation films for direct-view displays.

24

12
 17-02-2025

Homogeneous Cell Alignment

Electrically Controlled Birefringence (ECB) Cell
 Substrates rubbed in antiparallel directions (x, -x) → Creates opposite pretilt
angles (~3°).
 If alignment is parallel & pretilt is in the same direction → π-cell is formed.

Figure 4.5: LC director profile in a homogeneous cell. (a) V = 0, and (b) V ≫ 𝑉

 Freedericksz transition threshold (Vth):
• Voltage needed to overcome elastic restoring torque and reorient LC molecules.
• Given by: 𝑉 = 𝜋 𝐾 / 𝜀 Δ𝜀
• Lower anchoring energy → Lower 𝑉 but slower response time.

25

Homogeneous Cell Alignment

 Effect of applied voltage (E in z-axis, longitudinal field):
• LC layers near substrates remain anchored.
• LC molecules tilt out of the plane, following pretilt direction.
• Without pretilt, LC molecules may rotate randomly, causing optical
patchiness & light scattering.
• Positive dielectric anisotropy (Δε > 0) → LC aligns along the field.
• Negative dielectric anisotropy (Δε < 0) → Field does not reorient LC
molecules; requires transverse electric field (fringe field) for alignment.

26

13
 17-02-2025

Homogeneous Cell Alignment

LC Director Distribution vs. Voltage
• Below Vth →Minimal reorientation due to pretilt angle.
• At ~3-4 ×Vth →Most LC molecules are reoriented; central layer (~Z/d = 0.5)
rotated >80°.
• At ~10×Vth →Bulk layers fully reoriented; only near-surface layers remain.

Figure 4.6: LC director distribution profile of a homogeneous cell under different voltages.

27

Homogeneous Cell Alignment: Phase Retardation Effect

 When a plane wave is incident normally on a planar aligned uniaxial liquid crystal
layer sandwiched between two polarizers, it splits into:
• Extraordinary (e) wave – Travels with refractive index nₑ.
• Ordinary (o) wave – Travels with refractive index nₒ.

 Because nₑ ≠ nₒ, the two waves propagate at different speeds inside the LC
medium, leading to a relative phase retardation (𝛿): 𝛿 = 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 2𝜋dΔ n⁄𝜆,
where, d is LC layer thickness; Δn is the birefringence, and λ is wavelength
of incident light.
 When a homogeneous cell is sandwiched between two polarizers, the normalized
light transmittance is governed by the following equation:
𝑇 = cos 𝜒 − sin2𝛽sin2(𝛽 − 𝜒)sin (𝛿/2);
where 𝜒 is the angle between polarizer and analyzer, 𝛽 is the angle between the
polarizer and the LC director.

28

14
 17-02-2025

Twisted Nematic (TN)

TN Cell Overview
 Widely used in small displays & notebooks (where wide viewing angles are less
critical).
 Normally White (NW) operation:
• Voltage-off state: Light passes through (bright state).
• Voltage-on state (~5Vrms): LC directors align perpendicular to substrates, light
is absorbed (dark state).

LC Director Alignment in TN Cells

 Top LC alignment → Parallel to the optic axis of the top polarizer.
 Bottom LC alignment → Rotated 90°, parallel to the bottom analyzer.
 Two operational modes:
• e-mode → LC directors align with the transmissive axis of the polarizer.
• o-mode → Polarizer's transmissive axis is orthogonal to the front LC director.

29

Twisted Nematic (TN)

Optical Performance & Waveguiding Effect
 When dΔn meets Gooch-Tarry first minimum condition, light follows the
molecular twist and transmits efficiently.
 Waveguiding is broadband→ Transmission variation across RGB wavelengths is < 8%.
 TN cell essentially acts as a broadband half-wave plate.

Voltage-On (Dark State) Behavior

 LC reorients perpendicularly, minimizing phase change.
 Boundary layers remain orthogonal, ensuring:
• Residual phases compensate each other.
• No stray transmission (acts as thin uniaxial slabs).
 Results in a dark state at relatively low voltage (~5V rms).
Performance Metrics
 Typical contrast ratio of an active matrix TN LCD: ~1000:1.
 If twist angle ≠ 90° → Dark state degrades, operating voltage increases.

30

15
 17-02-2025

In-Plane Switching (IPS)

Introduction to IPS
 Developed in the 1970s and implemented in TFT-LCDs in the 1990s.
 Designed to solve the narrow viewing angle issue of TN LCDs.
IPS Structure & Electric Field
 Interdigitated electrodes are placed only
on the lower substrate (top substrate has
no electrodes).
 The electric field is primarily in-plane,
though some fringing fields occur at
electrode edges.
 As shown in Figure 4.7, LC directors
rotated within the plane of the cell when Figure 4.7: (a) IPS electrodes, electric fields,
a field is applied. and LC director orientations in a voltage-on state
 As a results; a wide viewing angle.

31

In-Plane Switching (IPS): Device Structure

 Interdigitated electrodes are on the same substrate.
 Uses LC with positive dielectric anisotropy (Δε > 0).
 LC is homogeneously aligned with a ~10° rubbing angle offset relative to electrode
stripes.
 Polarizer transmission axis options:
• e-mode → Parallel to LC director.
• o-mode → Perpendicular to LC director.
 Crossed analyzer ensures light modulation via phase retardation.
LC Director Behavior Under Electric Field
 In-plane electric field twists LC directors, altering light polarization → Allows
transmission.
 Above electrodes, vertical electric field dominates, causing LC molecules to tilt
instead of twist.
• Result: Lower transmittance in electrode regions.

32

16
 17-02-2025

In-Plane Switching (IPS)

Light Efficiency & Dielectric Anisotropy
 Conventional IPS (Δε > 0) → ~75% light efficiency compared to TN LCDs.
 Using negative dielectric anisotropy (Δε < 0) LC → Light efficiency improves to
~85%.
 On-state voltage depends on:
• Electrode gap
• Dielectric anisotropy (Δε) of LC material
 Preferred operating voltage for low power consumption < 5Vrms.

Key Advantages of IPS

 Wider viewing angles compared to TN displays.
 More consistent color reproduction across different viewing angles.

33

In-Plane Switching (IPS): Voltage-Dependent Transmittance

 Figure 4.9 depicts the voltage-dependent light transmittance at RGB wavelengths
corresponding to the IPS device structure shown in Figure 4.8.
 The threshold is ∼1.5 Vrms and maximum transmittance occurs at ∼5 Vrms for all
the wavelengths.
 Due to absorption, the maximum transmittance of the two polarizers (without
the LC cell) is 23.7%, 25.4%, and 21.4% for RGB wavelengths, respectively.

Figure 4.8: The LC director distribution, electric field profile (dashed Figure 4.9: Voltage-dependent light
lines) and corresponding light transmission of an IPS cell at V = 5 Vrms transmittance of the IPS LCD.

34

17
 17-02-2025

Fringe Field Switching (FFS) LCDs: Advancements Over IPS

Key Differences Between IPS and FFS
 FFS LCDs are based on IPS structure but improve upon its drawbacks.
 Electrode spacing in FFS is smaller than the display cell thickness, which:
• Concentrates the in-plane electric field near the lower substrate.
• Reduces dark lines (dead zones) over electrode areas.

Advantages of FFS LCDs

 Used widely in smartphones & tablets due to:
• Wide viewing angles (suitable for multiple viewers).
• High resolution, reducing the "screen-door effect."
• High transmittance (~88%) for low power consumption & long battery life.
• Pressure resistance, making it ideal for touchscreens.

35

Fringe Field Switching (FFS) LCDs

Positive dielectric anisotropy in FFS (p-FFS)
 p-FFS (positive Δε LC):
• High Δε (~10) & low viscosity → Lower operating voltage & faster response time.
• Drawbacks:
 Peak transmittance limited to ~88%.
 Voltage-dependent transmittance (VT) curves don’t overlap for RGB →
Requires three gamma curves, increasing driver complexity.
 Electro-optic effect is sensitive to cell gap variations.
 Noticeable image flicker due to splay-induced flexoelectric effect.
Flexoelectric Effect in FFS LCDs
 FFS has strong, non-uniform electric fields (both lateral & longitudinal).
 LC directors experience splay & bend, leading to:
• Flexoelectric polarization → Causes minor image flicker.

36

18
 17-02-2025

Fringe Field Switching (FFS) LCDs: Device Configurations

 Figure 4.10 depicts the device structure (side-view), LC director distribution, and
electric field distribution of a FFS cell in the voltage-on state.
 The bottom substrate comprises a common
electrode (ITO), a thin dielectric passivation
layer, pixel electrodes, and a thin LC
alignment layer.
 The passivation layer lies between the
common and the pixel electrodes, providing
a built-in storage capacitor (Cst ) for each
pixel.
Advantages of the Built-in Storage Capacitor (Cst)
 Increases aperture ratio & optical efficiency.
 Especially important for high pixel density Figure 4.10: Device configuration and electric field
displays (e.g., smartphones & VR headsets). distributions of a FFS structure in a voltage-on state

37

Fringe Field Switching (FFS) LCDs: Device Configurations

Optical Behavior in Voltage-Off and Voltage-On States

•Voltage-Off State:
 LC directors are homogeneously aligned & perpendicular to the optical axis of
the polarizer.
 Incoming light remains linearly polarized, is blocked by the crossed analyzer,
creating a good dark state.
•Voltage-On State:
 Strong electric fields between pixel & common electrodes twist LC directors.
 Narrow electrode width (W ≈ 3μm) & small gap (G ≈ 3μm) reduce dead zones
compared to IPS.
 Transmittance is 10–15% higher than IPS for the same electrode width & gap.

38

19
 17-02-2025

Fringe Field Switching (FFS) LCDs: Device Configurations

Impact of LC Rubbing (Photoalignment) Angle

 Varies from 0° to ~10° relative to pixel electrodes.

 Effects of alignment angle:
1. Larger angle (~7° typical) → Faster rise time, but higher operating voltage.
2. Zero rubbing angle (0° special case):
• 4× faster response time due to molecular rotation symmetry.
• Tradeoff: Lower transmittance due to virtual walls in switched structure.

39

Comparison: IPS vs. FFS Electric Field Distribution

• IPS:
 Electrode gap larger than LC cell gap (d).
 Horizontal electric field dominates across full LC thickness.
• FFS:
 Electric field is concentrated near the surface, decreasing rapidly through LC
bulk.
 Double-twist LC director behavior → Less wavelength sensitivity in voltage-
transmittance curves.
 Stronger electric field reorients LC directors above pixel electrodes → Reduces
IPS transmission dips (dead zones).

40

20
 17-02-2025

Comparison between Positive (p-FFS) and Negative (n-FFS)

Experimental Setup for Fair Comparison
 Electrode width (W): 2.5 μm
 Electrode gap (G): 3.5 μm
 Pretilt angle: 2°
 Rubbing angle:
• p-FFS: 7°
• n-FFS: 83°
 Passivation layer:
• Material: Si₃N₄
• Thickness (dp): 150 nm
• Dielectric constant (εp): 7
 Polarization Setup:
• Cell sandwiched between crossed polarizers.
• Bottom polarizer’s transmission axis parallel to rubbing direction.

41

Comparison between Positive (p-FFS) and Negative (n-FFS)

Key Optical Differences Between n-FFS and p-FFS
 Preferred dΔn values for peak transmittance @ λ = 550 nm:
• n-FFS: 320 nm and p-FFS: 340 nm
 Reason: n-FFS achieves more efficient LC director reorientation, leading to
higher effective birefringence.
 Peak Transmittance & Operating Voltage (Vp):
• n-FFS: 93.5% transmittance @ 4.8 Vrms
• p-FFS: 87.1% transmittance @ 5.5 Vrms
• To reduce p-FFS Vp to 4.8 V,
Δε must be increased to 6.2.
 Flexoelectric Effect:
• Weaker in n-FFS than in p-FFS.
Figure 4.11: Simulated VT curves of n-FFS with
Δ𝜀 = −4.4 and p-FFS with Δ𝜀 = 4.4 and 6.2

42

21
 17-02-2025

Comparison between Positive (p-FFS) and Negative (n-FFS)

Table: Pros & Cons of n-FFS vs. p-FFS

Feature n-FFS ( Negative Δ𝜀) p-FFS (Positive Δ𝜀 )

Peak Transmittance 93.5% 87.1%

Operating Voltage (Vp) 4.8 V rms 5.5 V rms (or 4.8 V rms with
Δ𝜀 = 6.2 )
Flexoelectric Effect Weaker Stronger
More noticeable
Grayscale Inversion Less noticeable
(1D structure)
Response Time Faster due to better LC
Slower than n-FFS
orientation
Practical Use Requires 2D structure for
More stable in 1D structure
high-end LCDs

43

Vertical Alignment (VA) LCDs

 Vertical alignment (VA), also called homeotropic alignment.
 Used in both transmissive direct-view displays & reflective projection displays.
 LC molecules are aligned perpendicular to the substrate in the voltage-off state.
 Highest contrast ratio among all LCD modes.
 Contrast remains stable regardless of:
• Incident light wavelength
• LC layer thickness
• Operating temperature
Figure 4.12: Schematic drawing of a VA LC cell
Applications of VA LCDs with a pretilt angle and boundary conditions.

 Projection Displays: uses single-domain VA in reflective Liquid Crystal on

Silicon (LCoS) devices.
 Direct-View LCDs: requires Multi-domain VA (MVA) to achieve wide viewing
angles.

44

22
 17-02-2025

Vertical Alignment (VA) LCDs: Voltage-dependent transmittance

 Figure 4.13 shows the voltage-dependent transmittance of a VA cell with
dΔn = 350 nm between crossed polarizers.
Voltage-Dependent Transmission Behavior
 Freedericksz threshold voltage (Vth):
~2.1Vrms.
 LC directors begin reorienting as voltage
increases, leading to light transmission.
 Peak transmittance varies for RGB
wavelengths:
• Blue (~4V rms)
• Green (~6V rms) Figure 4.13: Voltage-dependent normalized
transmittance of a VA cell.

45

Vertical Alignment (VA) LCDs: Voltage-dependent transmittance

Transmittance Optimization for VA Cells
 For 100% transmittance, the ideal optical path difference: 𝑑𝛥𝑛 ≈
• For green light (λ ≈ 550 nm) → 𝑑𝛥𝑛 ≈ 275 nm.
• However, achieving 100% transmittance at a reasonable voltage (V < 6V rms)
requires 𝑑𝛥𝑛 ≈ 330 nm (~0.6λ).

Contrast Ratio Considerations

 Dark state quality is crucial → Even minor light leakage significantly
degrades contrast.
 On-state luminance variations are less critical to contrast ratio perception.

46

23
 17-02-2025

VA LCDs: Multi-domain VA (MVA) & Patterned VA (PVA) LCDs

Single vs. Multi-Domain VA
 Single-domain VA → Narrow viewing angle, used in projection displays only.
 Multi-domain VA (at least 4 domains) → Required for direct-view displays to:
• Eliminate grayscale inversion.
• Widen the viewing angle.
• Align LC directors at 45° with respect to the polarizer’s axis for maximum
transmittance.
Types of Multi-Domain VA (MVA) Technologies
1. Protrusion-Type MVA : Developed by Fujitsu.
 Uses physical protrusions to create multi-domain alignment.
2. Patterned VA (PVA) : Developed by Samsung.
 Uses slits to generate fringing fields instead of physical protrusions.
 Higher contrast ratio than MVA due to better dark state.

47

VA LCDs: Multi-domain VA (MVA) & Patterned VA (PVA) LCDs

Patterned VA (PVA) Mechanism
 Voltage-Off State: LC molecules aligned
perpendicular to the substrates → Produces a
very good dark state.
 Voltage-On State: Fringe fields from slits
create two opposite tilted domains (dashed
circles in Figure 4.14).
• Zigzag electrodes with 90° tilt angle form a
four-domain VA structure.
• A-plate & C-plate compensators enable 100:1
contrast over an 85° viewing cone.
Figure 4.14: (a) LC directors of PVA at V = 0, and (b) LC
directors of PVA in a voltage-on state.
The fringe fields generated by the top and bottom slits create
two domains with opposite tilt directions in this cross-section.

48

24
 17-02-2025

PVA Improving Response Time: PS-VA (Polymer-Sustained VA)

 Issue: PVA has no pretilt angle, leading to slow response time (especially rise
time).
 Solution: Surface Polymer-Sustained VA (PS-VA)
• A small amount (~0.2 wt%) of reactive mesogen monomer & photoinitiator is
added to negative Δε LC.
• Voltage is applied to form four tilt domains → UV light cures monomers, which
adsorb onto surfaces.
• Result:
 Pretilt angle is created, guiding LC reorientation.
 Rise time improves by nearly two times, while decay time remains unchanged.

49

Comparison: Multi-Domain VA(MVA) vs IPS vs FFS

Table: Comparison between MVA, IPS, and FFS

Feature MVA IPS FFS

Contrast Ratio Higher than
Moderate Moderate
(Central 𝟐𝟎∘ Cone) IPS/FFS

Contrast Ratio
Drops quickly More stable More stable
Beyond 𝟐𝟎∘
Good, but worse Widest
Viewing Angle than IPS/FFS viewing
Wide

Color Shift at Least

More noticeable Moderate
Oblique Angles noticeable

Touch Panel Less ideal

Better Best (no ripples)
Suitability (ripples may appear)

50

25
 17-02-2025

Ambient Contrast Ratio

Understanding Contrast Ratio (CR)
 CR measures image quality by comparing the brightness of white vs. black areas
on a display.
 Emissive displays (OLEDs, microLEDs) → Extremely high CR (~1,000,000:1)
because individual pixels emit light and can turn off completely.
 Non-emissive LCDs → Lower CR (~5,000:1 for MVA LCD TVs) since they rely
on backlighting and liquid crystal modulation.

Sunlight Readability & ACR Considerations

 OLED excels in dark rooms but struggles under direct sunlight.
 LCD with high brightness & anti-reflective coatings → Better outdoor readability.
 Mini-LED & local dimming improve LCD contrast by controlling backlight zones
dynamically.

51

Ambient Contrast Ratio

Ambient Contrast Ratio (ACR): Real-World Viewing Conditions
 ACR is a better measure of display performance in real-world lighting (e.g.,
offices, outdoor settings).
 OLED’s ACR drops in bright conditions due to:
• Lower peak brightness (~1000 nits max in most models).
• Higher reflectivity of OLED panels (since there’s no backlight).
 LCDs (especially with mini-LED local dimming) perform better in bright
environments due to:
• Higher peak brightness (~2000–3000 nits in high-end LCDs).
• Lower reflectivity with anti-glare coatings.

52

26
 17-02-2025

Ambient Contrast Ratio

Table: OLED vs LCD Contrast Performance
LCD
Feature OLED
(MVA, IPS, FFS)
Dark Room CR 1,000,000: 1 ∼ 5,000: 1
Backlight leakage limits true
Blacks True black (pixels turn off)
black
Reduced due to reflections
Maintains better contrast due to
CR in Bright & low brightness
higher brightness

Risk of burn-in &

Lifespan Longer lifespan, no burn-in
degradation
Power Efficiency Backlight always on (unless mini-
Lower power (off pixels)
(Dark Mode) LED or local dimming is used)

53

Ambient Contrast Ratio: Modeling of Ambient Contrast Ratio

 ACR is an important parameter to quantitatively evaluate the sunlight readability
of display devices.
 It is generally defined as:

where Lon (Loff ) stands for the on-state (off-state) luminance value of an LCD
or OLED, Lambient is ambient luminance (i.e. illuminance divided by 𝜋), and

RL is the luminous reflectance defined as:

where V(𝜆) is the human eye sensitivity function, R(𝜆) is the spectral
reflectance of the display device, and S(𝜆) is the spectrum of the ambient light.

54

27
 17-02-2025

Ambient Contrast Ratio of LCD

 Figure 4.15 shows the schematic diagram for analyzing the ACR of an LCD, where
the main reflection occurs at the first interface (R1 ).
 The ambient light entering the LCD panel is mostly absorbed by the crossed
polarizers and other optical components.
 Typically, R2 is smaller than 1% and can be neglected. Then the ACR of the whole
device can be simplified as:

where 𝜃 and 𝜙 represent the polar angle and azimuthal angle, respectively.

Figure 4.15: Schematic diagram for analyzing the ACR of an LCD

55

Ambient Contrast Ratio of OLED

 Unlike an LCD, a conventional OLED uses metal (e.g. Ag or Al) as one electrode
(i.e. cathode); hence, the OLED itself is a highly reflective device.
 To suppress ambient light reflection, a broadband circular polarizer (CP) is
commonly used, as shown in Figure 4.16.
 The conventional circular polarizer comprising a linear polarizer and a quarter-
wave (𝜆/4) film is a narrowband device.

Figure 4.16: Schematic diagram for analyzing the ACR of an OLED display

56

28
 17-02-2025

Ambient Contrast Ratio of OLED

 To broaden the spectral bandwidth, we need to laminate a 𝜆/2 plate between the
linear polarizer and the 𝜆/4 plate.
 However, such a circular polarizer has a relatively narrow acceptance angle.
 At large oblique angles, light leakage is quite severe.
 Thus, in addition to surface reflection, circular polarizer light leakage (R2 in Figure
4.16) should also be considered for OLED displays:

57

Ambient Contrast Ratio: Simulated ACR for different devices

Figure 4.17: Calculated ACR as a function of different ambient Figure 4.18: Calculated ACR as a function of different
lighting conditions for LCD and OLED based smartphones ambient lighting conditions for LCD and OLED TVs

58

29
 17-02-2025

Ambient Contrast Ratio: Improving LCD’s ACR

Key Factors Affecting ACR
 ACR depends on:
• Ambient light illuminance (brighter environments reduce contrast).
• Surface reflection (glossy screens reflect more light, reducing contrast).
• Display luminance (higher brightness helps maintain visibility).
• Light leakage in the dark state (reduces black level performance).

Strategies for Improving ACR for LCDs:

 Leveraging High Brightness & Local Dimming
 Strength of LCDs: High brightness maintains ACR under strong ambient light.
 Weakness: Under low ambient light, LCDs need to reduce light leakage to
enhance contrast.

59

Strategies for Improving ACR for LCDs:

 Two major approaches to increase dynamic range:
1. Mini-LED Backlight:
• 10,000+ local dimming zones suppress halo effect.
• Achieves 1,000,000:1 contrast ratio.
2. Dual-Panel LCD:
• Combines two panels:
Lower resolution B&W panel (1920 × 1080) → Controls brightness
with 2M dimming zones.
High-resolution color panel (3840 × 2160) → Displays image content.
• Achieves an even higher 1,000,000:1 dynamic contrast ratio.

60

30
 17-02-2025

Strategies for Improving ACR for OLEDs:

Improving ACR for OLEDs: Managing Reflections & Light Leakage
 Strength of OLEDs: Self-emissive pixels → Infinite contrast in dark
environments.
 Weakness: Highly reflective surface (metal electrodes) → Poorer ACR in
bright conditions.
 Solution:
• Circular polarizers reduce reflections but introduce light leakage at
oblique angles.
• Alternative approach: Increase OLED peak brightness (e.g., Micro-LEDs
can exceed 3000 nits).

61

Strategies for Improving ACR for OLEDs:

LCD vs. Mini-LED LCD: ACR Comparison
Mini-LED backlit LCDs significantly improve ACR:
• Normal viewing direction: 2× higher ACR (7312.5 vs 2931.3 for conventional
LCD).
• High ACR region (e.g., 2000:1) is widened, improving visibility at different
angles.

Conclusion: Best Display for ACR?

 Best in dark environments: OLED (self-emissive, true blacks, no light leakage).
 Best in bright environments: Mini-LED LCD (higher brightness, local dimming,
lower reflection).
 Future trend: MicroLED (combining OLED contrast & LCD brightness for the
best ACR).

62

31
 17-02-2025

Strategies for Improving ACR for OLEDs:

Enhancing OLED Peak Brightness & Reducing Light Leakage with a New
Circular Polarizer
1. OLED’s True Black Advantage & Brightness Limitation
 OLEDs achieve true blacks → Excellent ACR in dark environments.
 Main issue in bright environments: Limited peak brightness reduces ACR.
 Two solutions to improve OLED brightness:
• Material enhancements (higher efficiency emitters).
• Device configuration optimizations (e.g., improving light extraction efficiency).
2. Light Leakage & Circular Polarizer Optimization
 Conventional OLED circular polarizer → Uses uniaxial films to suppress
reflections.
 Drawback: Significant off-axis light leakage, reducing contrast at wide
viewing angles.
 New proposed solution: Replacing uniaxial films with biaxial films

63

Strategies for Improving ACR for OLEDs:

3. New Biaxial Circular Polarizer Configuration
 Biaxial Film #1:
• Thickness (d): 78.57 μm
• Refractive indices (550 nm): nx = 1.5124, ny = 1.5089, nz = 1.50978
 Biaxial Film #2:
• Thickness (d): 39.29 μm
• Refractive indices (550 nm): nx = 1.5124, ny = 1.5089, nz = 1.51055
4. Performance Comparison: Conventional vs. New Circular Polarizer
 New circular polarizer has much lower light leakage:
• Within ±40° viewing angle: Leakage < 2%.
• Peak light leakage is only ~10% (compared to higher leakage in
conventional CPs).

64

32
 17-02-2025

Strategies for Improving ACR for OLEDs:

5. Impact on ACR & Viewing Angle
 Simulated ACR results using new CP:
• Significantly wider high-contrast viewing zone.
• ACR ≥ 500 zone expands to ±60° (vs. ±40° for conventional CP).

Conclusion: Key Benefits of the New Circular Polarizer

 Reduces light leakage at off-axis angles → Better contrast retention.
 Expands viewing angle with high ACR (≥ 500 up to ±60°).
 Maintains OLED’s deep blacks while improving sunlight readability.

65

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

Introduction of TFT LCD
 First introduced in the mid-1980s.
 Became widespread after decades of material research, device innovation, and
investment in manufacturing.
 Used in TVs, monitors, personal computers, tablets, smartphones, gaming
monitors, AR/VR systems.

Comparison: LCD vs. OLED

 LCD Advantages:
• Longer lifespan, higher peak brightness, lower cost.
• Comparable to OLED in resolution, pixel density, power consumption,
ACR, and viewing angle.
 OLED Advantages: Better black state quality, panel flexibility, color gamut, and
response time.

66

33
 17-02-2025

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

Comparison: LCD vs. OLED (contd:)
 LCD Improvements:
• Quantum-dot backlights for wider color gamut and lower power consumption.
• Local dimming to enhance dynamic contrast ratio (1,000,000:1).
• Major challenge: Response time with nematic LCDs being ~100× slower than
OLED (~0.1 ms).
 Both LCDs and OLEDs are holding-type displays, meaning images persist within a
frame time.
 Motion blur exists in both, depending on frame rate and response time.
 CRT displays (impulse-type) have an MPRT of ~1.5 ms, making them nearly blur-
free.
Required MPRT:
• <1 ms for clear moving objects at 960 pixels/sec.
• 2 ms is the minimum acceptable MPRT.

67

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

 Most LCD and OLED TVs run at 120 Hz (MPRT ~6.66 ms) → noticeable motion
blur for fast-moving content.
 Goal: Reduce MPRT to ~1.5 ms to eliminate motion blur.

Efforts to Improve LCD Response Time

Approaches under research:
 Polymer-stabilized blue phase LCs.
 Low viscosity nematic LCs.
 Ferroelectric LCs.
 Challenge: Achieving 0.1 ms response time while maintaining a low operating
voltage (5V).

68

34
 17-02-2025

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

 The image blur of a TFT LCD (or OLED) has been analyzed.
 A simple equation correlating MPRT (in ms) with LC (OLED) response time (𝜏 in
ms) and frame time (Tf = 1000/f ; where f is the frame rate in hertz) has been
derived as follows:

 From above eq., MPRT is governed by two important parameters:

• LC (or OLED) response time
• TFT sample and hold time.

69

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

 Figure 4.19 depicts the calculated MPRT versus LC (OLED) response time at four
frame rates: f = 60, 120, 240, and 480 Hz.
 There are three Important Trends in Motion
Picture Response Time (MPRT):

1. Effect of Increasing Frame Rate

• If LC response time (𝜏) is slow (e.g.,
10 ms), increasing the frame rate from
60 Hz to 120 Hz significantly
improves MPRT.
• Further increasing the frame rate to
240 Hz or 480 Hz shows diminishing Figure 4.19: (a) LC response time versus
MPRT at four specified frame rates.
returns in improvement.
• This aligns with experimental findings.

70

35
 17-02-2025

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

2. Effect of Reducing LC Response Time at a Fixed Frame Rate
• At a fixed frame rate (e.g., 120 Hz), decreasing the LC response time leads to a
linear decrease in MPRT, which then gradually saturates.
• If 𝜏 = 2 ms, the MPRT is only 4% longer than at 𝜏 = 0.
• This means an LCD with 𝜏 = 2 ms has MPRT performance comparable to
OLEDs, even if OLED response time is 0.

3. Effect of Increasing TFT Frame Rate

• As the TFT frame rate increases, the limiting MPRT (assuming 𝜏 = 0) decreases
linearly.
• The limiting MPRT follows the relation: MPRT = 0.8Tf (Tf = frame time).

71

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

Backlight Modulation and Duty Ratio (DR)
 Motion blur and optical efficiency are influenced by both LC response time and
backlight modulation.
 Backlight modulation determines how long the backlight (e.g., LED) remains on
during each frame time (Tf).
 Duty Ratio (DR) is defined as:

where A is the duration the backlight is turned on within one frame time
Tf.

Figure 4.20: Definition of backlight duty ratio: A is the duration

of backlight-on in a given frame time (Tf )

72

36
 17-02-2025

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

Impact of Backlight Duty Ratio on Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)
MPRT Formula for Fast LC Response (𝜏 ≤ 2 ms):
 If the LC response time is fast, the LC director reaches its final state before
the backlight turns on.
 Under this condition, MPRT can be expressed as:

 This shows that MPRT can be reduced by either decreasing the duty ratio
(DR) or increasing the frame rate (f).

73

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

Simulation Results (Frame Rate = 144 Hz):
 At 144 Hz (common in gaming monitors), the
limiting MPRT (𝜏 = 0) decreases linearly with a
lower duty ratio.
 Reasons:
• Obscuring slow LC transitions by delaying
backlight illumination.
• Suppressing the sample-and-hold effect,
making the operation similar to CRT impulse
driving.
Figure 4.21: LC response time versus MPRT
with different duty ratios at f = 144 Hz

74

37
 17-02-2025

Motion Picture Response Time (MPRT)

1.Real-World Applications of Duty Ratio Reduction:
 Sony’s OLED TVs use a 50% duty ratio to suppress motion blur.
 LG’s OLED head-mounted displays (HMDs) use a 20% duty ratio for even
lower MPRT.
2.Target MPRT for High-Speed Gaming & Sports:
 Aiming for 1.5 ms MPRT, similar to CRTs.
 At 144 Hz with a 20% duty ratio, MPRT ≈ 1.1 ms, achieving high motion
clarity.
3.Trade-off: Luminance Loss & Compensation:
 Lower duty ratios reduce brightness since the backlight is on for a shorter time.
 To compensate, increase LED backlight current to maintain adequate
luminance.

75

Wide Color Gamut

Backlight Technologies for LCDs and Their Impact on Display Performance
Importance of Backlight in LCDs
 Affects color gamut, optical efficiency, dynamic range, and viewing angle.
 White LEDs (1pc-WLED), based on blue LED + yellow phosphor (YAG:Ce³⁺),
are widely used due to:
• High efficiency, long lifespan, low cost, and simple optical setup.
• However, they provide a limited color gamut (75% NTSC) due to the
broad yellow spectrum.

Advancements in Color Gamut Standards

 sRGB → NTSC → Rec.2020 (Ultra-HD TVs).
 Rec.2020 covers nearly twice the area of sRGB, demanding advanced backlight
technology.

76

38
 17-02-2025

Wide Color Gamut

Methods to Expand Color Gamut
1. RGB LED Backlight
 Uses separate red, green, and blue LEDs to expand the color gamut.
 Challenges:
• Requires three LED driving circuits.
• Green LED efficiency is still limited (the "Green Gap" issue).
2. Two-Phosphor WLED (2pc-WLED)
 Uses two phosphor layers to improve color accuracy.
 Pros: Stable, efficient, and cost-effective.
 Cons: Green phosphor (β-sialon:Eu²⁺) FWHM is broad (~55 nm), reducing
color purity.
• Red phosphor (KSF:Mn⁴⁺) has narrow emission bands (~625 nm),
close to Rec.2020 red (633 nm).
• Color filter crosstalk limits color gamut expansion.

77

Wide Color Gamut

Methods to Expand Color Gamut (contd:)
3. Quantum Dot (QD)-Enhanced Backlight
 Rapidly gaining popularity for superior color performance.
 Key Advantages:
• Tunable emission wavelength (adjustable via nanoparticle size).
• Narrow Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) (~20–30 nm),
improving color purity.
• High photoluminescence efficiency.
• Simple device configuration.
 How It Works:
• A blue LED excites green/red quantum dots, generating highly
saturated RGB colors with well-separated peaks.
• Results in wider color gamut and vivid colors

78

39
 17-02-2025

Wide Color Gamut: Device Configurations

 Three QD backlight geometries have been developed:
(i) on-chip, (ii) on-edge, and
(iii) on-surface, as depicted in Figure 4.22.

(a) QD is placed within an LED package.

(b) QD is placed between LED
and light guide plate (LGP),
or known as quantum rail.
(c) QD is placed on the top surface of LGP,
or known as quantum dot
enhancement film (QDEF).

Figure 4.22: Schematic diagram for three device

geometries implementing QD materials.

79

Wide Color Gamut: Device Configurations

Table: Comparison of different device configurations

QD Geometry Pros Cons Best for

High temperature
Low material use, fully Compact devices, cost-
affects QD
compatible with sensitive applications
On-Chip stability,
existing
requires expensive
backlights
sealing

Optical losses, Large TVs, where QD

Longer QD lifetime,
On-Edge (QD Rail) heat sensitivity is a
moderate material use complex assembly concern

Most stable, long

lifetime (>30,000 Higher QD material
consumption, High-end TVs,
On-Surface (QDEF) hours), high reliability premium displays
cost still decreasing

80

40
 17-02-2025

High Dynamic Range

 HDR Requirements:
•Peak luminance: >1000 nits
•Black state: <0.01 nit
•Gray level: >10-bit
•Contrast ratio: >100,000:1

 Wide color gamut

•OLED vs. LCD for HDR:
•OLED: Achieves true black easily, but high brightness reduces lifespan.
•LCD: Can reach 1000 nits brightness, but lowering black level is difficult.

81

High Dynamic Range

 LCD Contrast Ratio & Local Dimming:
• Typical MVA LCD CR: ~5000:1 (20× lower than HDR needs).
• Local dimming: Backlight divided into zones to improve contrast.
• Halo effect: Light leakage from backlight causes glow around bright objects.
• Halo magnitude depends on LCD’s contrast ratio and number of dimming
zones.

 Bit Depth & Grayscale for HDR:

• SDR uses 8-bit depth, while HDR requires 10-bit or higher.
• Higher bit depth improves image quality but increases TFT driving
complexity.

82

41
 17-02-2025

High Dynamic Range

• Required on-state voltage for grayscale levels:
1. 10-bit (1024 levels): 5.12V
2. 12-bit: 20.48V
3. 14-bit: 81.92V
• Higher voltage → higher power consumption.

 Emerging HDR LCD Technologies:

• Mini-LED backlit LCD – Improves local dimming and contrast.
• Dual-panel LCD – Uses two layers for better grayscale and contrast.

83

Future Directions
 Recently, LCDs have faced a strong challenge
from OLEDs, especially in small and medium
panels.
 Figure 4.23 shows a spider chart comparison of
nine performance metrics: cost, lifetime, peak
brightness, color, resolution density, power
consumption, MPRT, contrast ratio (CR), and
panel flexibility.
 We can find that LCD is leading in cost, lifetime,
and peak brightness. LCD is comparable to
OLED in color (with quantum dots), resolution
Figure 4.23 Performance comparison of LCD
density, power consumption, and MPRT. (solid line) versus RGB OLED (dashed lines)
 However, LCD is trailing behind OLED in CR, in nine categories.
and flexibility.

84

42
 17-02-2025

Future Directions
Table: Performance comparison of LCD versus RGB OLED
Performance Metrics LCD RGB OLED
Cost Lower Higher

Lifetime Longer Shorter (organic degradation)

Peak Brightness Higher Lower (risk of burn-in)

Color Comparable (with QD) Comparable
Resolution Density Comparable Comparable
Power Consumption Similar (depends on content) Similar
Comparable with high refresh
MPRT (Motion Clarity) Excellent
rates

Contrast Ratio (CR) Lower (backlight limitations) Infinite (true blacks)

Flexibility Rigid Foldable, rollable, flexible

85

43
 25-03-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Operation Principle of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
 Electrons and holes recombine in a semiconductor, generating photons.
 The emission wavelength depends on the material, active-layer design, and
device structure.
1960s: GaAsP-Based Red LEDs
 Red LEDs manufactured using GaAsP on a GaAs substrate.
 Challenge: Lattice mismatch (GaAs: 5.65 Å, GaAsP: 5.45 Å) → misfit
dislocations → higher non-radiative recombination.
 Increasing phosphorus shifts emission to blue but reduces efficiency due to a
direct-to-indirect bandgap transition at 50% P mole fraction.

1
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
1970s: Isoelectronic Impurity-Enhanced LEDs:
 Introducing impurities (N, Zn:O) into indirect bandgap materials (GaP, GaAsP)
created trap levels, allowing emission in orange, yellow, and green.
1980s: AlGaAs-Based LEDs:
 Advantage: Low lattice mismatch (AlAs: 5.66 Å, GaAs: 5.65 Å) → high-
quality crystalline films → reduced non-radiative recombination.
 Impact: Enabled heterojunctions and quantum wells for better carrier
confinement and emission tuning.
 Limitation: Direct-to-indirect transition occurs at 621 nm when Al content
reaches 45%, restricting AlGaAs/GaAs LEDs to red wavelengths.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
1990s: Introduction of AlGaInP LEDs:
 Key benefits: Lattice matching to GaAs by adjusting Al/Ga ratio.
 Shorter direct-indirect transition wavelength (555 nm; yellow-green),
improving efficiency.
Current Standard: AlGaInP used for long-wavelength (red, orange, yellow) LEDs.
Introduction to Group III-Nitride Materials: GaN, InGaN, and AlGaN are key
Group III-nitride semiconductors used in short-wavelength LEDs.
 They cover the spectrum from UV to blue and green.
Challenges in Group III-nitride LEDs:
 Lattice mismatch (lack of a suitable substrate).
 Difficulties in p-type doping due to hydrogen passivation.
 Indium incorporation issues at high growth temperatures.

2
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:

Figure 5.1: Power efficiencies of LEDs with time for “long wavelength (GaAsP, AlGaAs, and AlInGaP),” and “short
wavelength (nitride)” materials, and for white lighting systems

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Overcoming Growth and Doping Challenges
(i) Lattice Mismatch and Epitaxial Growth
 Issue: No native substrate for III-nitrides (unlike GaAs for III–P LEDs).
 Solution: Low-temperature buffer layer (AlN or GaN) grown on sapphire
(Al₂O₃) substrate to improve epitaxial quality.
(ii) p-Type Doping in Nitride Semiconductors
 Issue: Acceptor dopants (Mg) in GaN are passivated by hydrogen atoms during
growth.
 Solution: High-temperature annealing in nitrogen ambient removes hydrogen,
activating p-type conductivity.

3
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Overcoming Growth and Doping Challenges (contd):
(iii) Indium Incorporation for Blue Emission
 Issue: High vapor pressure of indium at GaN growth temperatures (~1000°C)
makes In incorporation difficult.
 Solution: Redesigning epitaxial growth equipment to improve InGaN film
quality.
 Impact: Enabled high-efficiency blue LEDs, leading to the 2014 Nobel Prize in
Physics for Akasaki, Amano, and Nakamura.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
White Light Generation Techniques
Since GaN-based LEDs emit in the UV or blue range, white light requires color
mixing:
(i) Multi-Color LED Mixing
 Uses red, green, and blue LEDs to create white light.
 Pros: High efficiency, tunable color temperature.
 Cons: Expensive, complex control circuits, potential color shift over time.
(ii) Phosphor-Based Down-Conversion
 A blue or UV LED pumps a phosphor, which absorbs high-energy light and re-
emits yellow/orange light, creating white light.
 Pros: Cost-effective, compact, widely used in commercial LEDs.
 Cons: Some efficiency loss due to Stokes shift (energy loss when converting
blue to longer wavelengths).

4
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Key Factors for High-Performance LEDs
(i) Efficient Carrier Injection & Transport
 Minimizing injection barriers & ohmic losses is crucial.
 p–n diode structures with low resistance are preferred.
 Ohmic contacts are essential for efficient carrier flow, avoiding Schottky
barriers.
(ii) Maximizing Radiative Recombination
 Radiative recombination must be greater than non-radiative recombination.
 Heterojunctions, electron-blocking layers (EBLs), and quantum structures
confine carriers in the active region for higher efficiency.
(iii) Efficient Light Extraction
 Light trapped inside the LED can be lost due to internal reflections.
 Surface texturing, patterned substrates, and transparent contacts improve light
extraction.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Active Layer Engineering for Wavelength Control
 The bandgap of the active layer defines the LED’s emission wavelength.
 Quantum structures allow tuning of the emission spectrum beyond the bulk
bandgap energy.
 Density of States (DOS) in Quantum Structures:
 Bulk semiconductors: Continuous energy states → Broad emission spectrum.
 Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dots: Discrete energy states → Narrower spectral
width, tunable emission.
 Full-Width at Half-Maximum (FWHM) & Temperature Stability:
 Quantum structures modify the FWHM of the emission peak and temperature
dependence of the emission wavelength.
 Quantum dots provide the best spectral purity and stability.

5
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Table- 1. Comparison of Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dots in Light Emission
Structure Effect on Emission Advantages
Confinement in 1 Improved efficiency, wavelength
Quantum Wells(2D)
dimension tunability

Confinement in 2 Further spectral tuning, increased

Quantum Wires(1D)
dimensions radiative recombination

Confinement in all 3 Sharp emission peaks, reduced

Quantum Dots (0D)
dimensions temperature sensitivity

 Carrier confinement (heterojunctions, quantum wells, wires, dots) enhances LED

efficiency and spectral control.
 Future research focuses on quantum-dot LEDs, micro-LEDs, and perovskite-based
LEDs for higher efficiency and better color control.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Photon Extraction & Efficiency Optimization in LEDs
 Once photons are generated in the active layer of an LED, the next challenge is to
efficiently extract them from the semiconductor and radiate them outward.
 Several optical and material-related factors influence the light extraction efficiency.
Challenges in Photon Extraction
(i) Isotropic Emission & Optical Losses
 Spontaneous emission in LEDs is isotropic, meaning photons are emitted in
all directions.
 Photons may experience:
 Absorption by defect states.
 Reabsorption through band-to-band or free carrier absorption.
 Scattering at defects or material interfaces.

6
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Challenges in Photon Extraction (contd):
(ii) Substrate Absorption
 If the substrate has a smaller bandgap than the emitted light, it can absorb
photons.
 Example: GaAs substrate (Eg = 1.424 eV, 870 nm) absorbs infrared and visible
light → up to 50% light loss.
(iii) Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
 When photons travel from a high-refractive-index semiconductor (n ≈ 3.5) into
a low-refractive-index epoxy layer (n ≈ 1.5), they can be totally internally
reflected.
 Critical angle from Snell’s Law ≈ 25° → Light at greater incidence angles is
reflected back into the LED, reducing extraction efficiency.
 Trapped photons may be reabsorbed by defects or the substrate, reducing efficiency.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Improving LED Emission Efficiency
Several techniques help increase light extraction and reduce optical losses:
(i) Surface Texturing & Reflectors
 Disrupts waveguiding effects and redirects light outward.
 Increases scattering, allowing more light to escape.
(ii) Transparent Substrates (e.g., GaP)
 Prevents absorption of emitted photons by the substrate.
 GaP is transparent to visible light, improving external quantum efficiency.
(iii) Transparent Electrodes (e.g., Indium Tin Oxide - ITO)
 Replaces reflective metal electrodes, allowing light to pass through.
 Enhances light extraction efficiency without obstructing emission.

7
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
LED Fabrication & Efficiency Optimization
1. Epitaxial Growth for LEDs
 LPE & VPE: Growth from liquid-phase or gas-phase sources.
 MOCVD: Most common method using organometallic precursors for ultra-thin,
high-quality layers.
 Controls: Doping, defect density, and alloy composition for bandgap tuning.
2. Device Design & Fabrication
 Low Contact Resistance: Thermal annealing minimizes power loss.
 Optimized Contact Layout: Ensures uniform current flow and better light
extraction.
 Etching for Light Extraction: Enhances efficiency but requires post-etch
annealing to prevent defects.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
LED Fabrication & Efficiency Optimization (contd):
3. LED Packaging & Thermal Management
 Protection: Shields LEDs from damage and contaminants.
 Light Extraction: Uses reflectors, lenses, and phosphors.
 Heat Dissipation: Heat sinks and conductive materials prevent overheating.

Applications of LEDs in the Display Industry

1) Traffic Signals:
 Higher power efficiency and lower power consumption than incandescent
lamps.
 Longer lifetime reduces maintenance costs.
2) Electronic Signage & Large Displays: Used in very large area displays
(several hundred inches diagonal).

8
 25-03-2025

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Applications of LEDs in the Display Industry (contd):
3) LCD Backlighting:
 Replaces cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), which contain harmful Hg.
 Provides a wider color gamut and better efficiency.
 Offers long lifetime and fast response times.
 High power efficiency and long lifespan.
 Operates at low voltage (<5V), making them safer and easier to use.
4) Micro-LED Technology:
 Uses miniaturized LEDs for high-resolution displays.
 High efficiency, brightness, and fast response for various applications (e.g.,
projectors, watches, TVs).
 Enables flexible, wearable, and stretchable displays by transferring LEDs to
different substrates.

Material Systems
The material system used in an LED plays a crucial role in:
 Emission wavelength (color of light emitted).
 Radiative recombination efficiency (how effectively electrons and holes
recombine to emit photons).
Key factors:
 Epitaxial active layer:
 The light-emitting layer, which determines the bandgap energy and thus the
wavelength of emitted light.
 Can be made of binary, ternary, or quaternary compound semiconductors.
 Direct bandgap materials are preferred for higher efficiency.
 Substrate selection:
 Must be lattice-matched to the epitaxial layer to minimize defects and non-
radiative recombination (which lowers efficiency).

9
 25-03-2025

Material Systems
Direct vs. Indirect Bandgap Materials
 Direct bandgap materials: Efficient radiative recombination → Suitable for
LEDs.
 Indirect bandgap materials: Low photon emission efficiency → Not suitable for
LEDs.
1. Elemental Semiconductors (Group IV) – Indirect Bandgap
 Ge (Germanium), Si (Silicon), C (Diamond) → Not suitable for LEDs.
2. III–V Compound Semiconductors – Direct Bandgap
 Used for LEDs, as they allow direct electron-hole recombination with high
photon emission efficiency.
 Binary compounds (e.g., GaAs, GaP), Ternary compounds (e.g., GaInP,
AlInP) Quaternary compounds (e.g., AlGaInP) forms the basis of LED
materials.

Material Systems
Ternary and Quaternary Compound Semiconductors
 Ternary compounds: Created by alloying two binary
materials (e.g.: GaInP, AlInP).
 Quaternary compounds: Formed by combining two
ternary materials that differ in one atom type
(e.g., AlGaInP).
 Benefit: Enables precise tuning of bandgap and
lattice constant, optimizing emission efficiency and
color range.

• Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between

bandgap, emission wavelength, and lattice
constant for these materials. Figure 5.2: Bandgap and emission wavelength
versus lattice constant for III–V semiconductors of
(a) AlInGa-P and (b) AlInGa-N material systems

10
 25-03-2025

Material Systems
Bandgap Trends & Emission Wavelength
Bandgap vs. Atomic Size
 Bandgap energy (Eg) is higher for smaller atoms due to stronger bonding.
 General trend: As lattice constant increases, bandgap decreases, and emission
wavelength increases.
 Example (Group V elements in III-V compounds):
 GaAs < GaP < GaN → Bandgap increases as atom size decreases (As > P > N).
 InN < GaN < AlN → Bandgap increases as atom size decreases (In > Ga > Al).
Emission Wavelength Control by Material Choice
 As- and P-based semiconductors: Emit in red, orange, yellow, and green regions.
 Nitrides (e.g., GaN, InGaN): Used to achieve shorter wavelengths (blue and UV
emission), due to the smallest Group V atoms (N).

Material Systems
Lattice Matching in LEDs
 Lattice mismatch (Δa/a₀) = The difference in lattice constants between the
substrate and epitaxial layer, normalized to the substrate value.
 Ideal lattice mismatch: ≤ 0.1% for high-quality epitaxial growth.
 Why is lattice matching important?
 This prevents residual strain in the epitaxial layer.
 It reduces formation of dislocations, which increase non-radiative
recombination and decrease efficiency.

11
 25-03-2025

Material Systems
Table- 2. Common Substrate Materials
Substrate Bandgap Pros & Cons

1.424 eV (IR) Lattice-matched to AIGaAs & (AIGa)0.5 In0.5 P, but

GaAs
absorbs visible light, reducing efficiency.

𝐈𝐧𝐏 Low bandgap Not lattice-matched to suitable ternary/quaternary P-

based materials.

High bandgap Not lattice-matched to suitable ternary/quaternary P-

GaP
based materials.

- Used for GaN growth despite lattice mismatch (low-

Sapphire Al2 O3
temperature pre-growth of GaN overcomes this issue).

Material Systems
Direct vs. Indirect Bandgap Materials in LED Efficiency

Figure 5.3: Energy versus momentum curves for semiconductors with (a) direct, (b) indirect, and
(c) near direct-indirect bandgaps

12
 25-03-2025

Material Systems
Direct vs. Indirect Bandgap Materials in LED Efficiency (contd):
 Direct Bandgap Materials: Conduction band minimum and valence band
maximum align in momentum space → Efficient radiative recombination.
 Optical transitions are vertical (photon emission occurs without momentum
change).
 Indirect Bandgap Materials:
 Conduction band minimum does not align with valence band maximum.
 Requires phonons (lattice vibrations) to conserve momentum, reducing
emission efficiency.
 Direct–Indirect Bandgap Transition
 As Al concentration increases in AlGaAs and (InGa)₀.₅Al₀.₅P, a direct-to-
indirect bandgap transition occurs, lowering efficiency.
 No abrupt efficiency drop—some electrons may still occupy indirect states near
the transition region (Boltzmann distribution effect).

Material Systems
Material Choices for Different LED Colors
 (AlGa)₀.₅In₀.₅P LEDs:
 Lattice-matched to GaAs.
 Direct bandgap for red to amber emission.
 To improve external quantum efficiency (EQE), the GaAs absorbing substrate
can be removed and replaced with transparent GaP.
 InGaN LEDs:
 Increasing “In” concentration shifts emission from blue to green.
 Used for shorter wavelength LEDs (high efficiency from blue to green).
 LED Spectrum Coverage:
 III–N (blue-green) + III–P (amber-red) LEDs can cover the entire visible
spectrum.
 Different substrates (sapphire for III–N, GaAs for III–P) make it difficult to
produce broadband white light from a single LED chip.

13
 25-03-2025

Material Systems
White LED Generation Techniques
Since a single LED chip cannot efficiently emit white light, two major techniques are
used:
(i) Multi-LED Assembly
 Advantages:
 Combines red, green, and blue LEDs to create white light.
 Each LED can be optimized individually for efficiency, voltage, and
wavelength.
 Disadvantages:
 Expensive and bulky.
 Color shift issues due to different lifetime performance of each LED over time.

Material Systems
(ii) Phosphor-Coated White LEDs
 Advantages:
 Uses a blue LED with a yellow phosphor coating, which absorbs blue light and
re-emits yellow light, creating white light.
 Compact, cost-effective, and stable color output.
 Disadvantages:
 Lower efficiency than multi-LED systems due to Stokes energy loss (phosphor
emission wavelength is longer than absorption wavelength).
White LED Optimization
 White LEDs must achieve specific CIE coordinates in the chromaticity diagram
to appear as true white.
 High Color Rendering Index (CRI) is required to ensure colors appear natural
under LED lighting.

14
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics
Formation of a p–n Junction :
 When p-type and n-type layers contact, a p–n
junction forms.
 Carrier movement:
 Holes diffuse from p-side to n-side.
 Electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side.
 Recombination at the junction creates negative &
positive space charges, forming an internal electric
field (E-field) from n → p. Figure 5.4: Band diagram of a p–n
junction under thermal equilibrium

Diode Characteristics
Depletion Region & Band Bending:
 Depletion region: Nearly free of carriers under thermal equilibrium.
 The Poisson equation relates dopant concentration to built-in voltage.
 Fermi levels align due to band bending at equilibrium.

Forward Bias: Reduces built-in voltage; current flows exponentially above threshold
voltage (Vth ≈ Eg in eV).

Efficiency Loss & Solutions:

 Carrier leakage reduces recombination efficiency.
 Heterojunctions & Electron-Blocking Layers (EBLs) prevent leakage.
 Quantum structures (wells, wires, dots) improve confinement & wavelength
tuning.

15
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics: p- and n-Layer

Doping & Carrier Mobility in LEDs
n-Type Doping:
 Group IV (Ge, Si) & Group VI (S, Se, Te)
dopants replace Group III/V atoms.
 Example: Se in GaAs donates an electron,
forming a donor state near the conduction
band.
p-Type Doping:
 Group II (Cd, Zn, Mg, Be) & Group IV (C,
Si) dopants create acceptor states near the
valence band.
 Example: Zn in GaAs replaces Ga, creating
Figure 5.5: Schematic diagram of bonding of
holes in the valence band. GaAs with (a) Se and (b) Zn impurities

Diode Characteristics: p- and n-Layer

Doping & Carrier Mobility in LEDs (contd):
Doping Challenges:
 p-Doping is less efficient (higher ionization energy).
 Impurity contamination (e.g., oxygen in AlGaAs, hydrogen passivation in
nitrides) requires post-annealing.
 Site mismatch issues (e.g., Mg in GaN needs Low Energy Electron Beam
Irradiation (LEEBI) to enhance hole concentration).
Carrier Mobility & Resistance Trade-Off:
 Electron mobility > Hole mobility in III–V compounds (e.g. GaAs: μn = 5000
cm²/V-s, μp = 300 cm²/V-s).
 Higher doping → Lower mobility due to impurity scattering.
 Reducing resistance: Increasing carrier concentration compensates for lower
mobility.

16
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

 In this section, describes two important parameters of the depletion region, the
built-in voltage and the depletion width.
 The built-in voltage originates from the band bending in the depletion region.
 On the other hand, in the p- and n-layers, the band is still flat.
 Assuming that the acceptors and donors are fully ionized, the hole and electron
concentrations can be represented as:
𝐸i − 𝐸Fp 𝐸Fn − 𝐸i
𝑝 = 𝑛i exp = 𝑁A 𝑛 = 𝑛i exp = 𝑁D
𝑘 𝑇 Τ𝑞 𝑘 𝑇 Τ𝑞

where p and n are hole and electron concentrations far away from the
depletion region, respectively.
ni is the intrinsic concentration.
Ei, EFp, and EFn are the Fermi energies of intrinsic, p-doped, and n-doped
layers respectively, in units of eV.

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Flat Fermi Level:
 In equilibrium (no external bias), the Fermi level
(EF) remains constant throughout the junction.
 However, the conduction band (EC) and valence
band (EV) are at different energy levels in the p-
type and n-type regions.
Band Bending:
 Due to the difference in carrier concentrations, the
bands bend to maintain thermal equilibrium. Figure 5.4: Band diagram of a p–n
 The conduction and valence bands shift relative to junction under thermal equilibrium
the Fermi level on both sides.

17
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Electrostatic Potential (ψp & ψn):
 ψp (in p-region) and ψn (in n-region) represent the electrostatic potential in each
region.
 The potential difference between these regions defines the built-in voltage:
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
Vbi=ψn−ψp ; 𝜓P = − 𝐸i − 𝐸Fp = −
𝑞
ln A
𝑛i
and 𝜓n = − 𝐸i − 𝐸Fn =
𝑞
ln D
𝑛i

 Therefore; the built-in voltage depends on the acceptor (NA​) and donor (ND)
concentrations:
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑁
𝑉bi = 𝜓n − 𝜓p = 𝑞
ln A𝑛2 D ……eq. (1)
i
where, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, and ni is the
intrinsic carrier concentration.
 This built-in potential prevents further diffusion of majority carriers.

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Effect of Increased Doping:
 Higher dopant concentrations increase built-in voltage (Vbi).
 In LEDs, heavily doped p–n layers reduce resistance and power consumption.
 The Fermi levels in the p- and n-layers shift close to the valence and conduction
bands, respectively.
Forward Bias Condition:
 Applying a voltage V >Vbi reverses the band bending.
 Holes and electrons move freely across the junction, leading to exponential
current increase.
Electrostatic Theory:
𝜌
 Gauss's Law: 𝛻 ⋅ 𝜀𝐸 = 𝜌 and Poisson's Equation: 𝛻 2 𝑉 = − 𝜀
where 𝐸 = Electric field, 𝜖 = Permittivity, 𝜌 = Charge density.

18
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Electric Field Distribution:
 Charge distribution in depletion region:
−𝑞𝑁𝐴 , −𝑥𝑝 < 𝑥 < 0
𝜌(𝑥) = ቊ
+𝑞𝑁𝐷 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛

 Maximum Electric Field at the junction:

𝑞 𝑞
𝐸max = 𝜖 𝑁𝐷 𝑥𝑛 = 𝜖 𝑁𝐴 𝑥𝑝
 Total depletion width : 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑊
 The built-in voltage can be given by:
𝑉bi = (1/2)𝐸max 𝑊
or by solving for 𝑊 using above eq. : Figure 5.6: Charge density, electric field and
2𝜀 𝑁A + 𝑁D voltage distribution of an LED under thermal
𝑊= 𝑉bi equilibrium
𝑞 𝑁A 𝑁𝐷

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Effect of Bias on Depletion Region:
 Forward Bias (𝑽) :
 𝑉𝑏𝑖 is reduced to (𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉).
 Depletion width narrows, making carrier movement easier → high current
density.
 Reverse Bias:
 𝑉𝑏𝑖 is increased to (𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉).
 Depletion width increases, blocking carrier flow.
 This causes rectification, allowing current flow in one direction only.

19
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics: J–V Characteristics

 Carrier transport in a semiconductor can be divided into carrier diffusion and drift.
 Diffusion means that carriers move from high to low concentration regions.
 Drift current means carrier transport driven by an electric field.
 The total current density is the sum of the electron and hole contributions. Take
the hole current density Jp. This can be described by the expressions:
𝐽p = 𝐽p,diff + 𝐽p,drift

𝐽p,diff = 𝑞Dp (d pΤd 𝑥 ൯

𝐽P,drift = P𝑞𝜇p E
where Jp,diff and Jp,drift are the hole diffusion and drift current densities,
respectively. Dp is called the diffusivity; μp is the hole mobility.

 The hole mobility defined as the velocity (in terms of cm/s) over the electric field (V/cm).

Diode Characteristics: J–V Characteristics

Thermal Equilibrium:
 Hole diffusion (p → n) is balanced by hole
drift (n → p) due to E-field.
 No drift current outside the depletion region
(flat bands).
(a)

Forward Bias Effect:

 Reduces energy band offset q(Vbi−V).
 Diffusion current dominates as carrier
barrier decreases.
 Net current flows from p to n region. (b)
Figure 5.7 Band diagram of a LED under
(a) thermal equilibrium and (b) forward bias

20
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics: J–V Characteristics

Carrier Distribution in LED under Forward Bias:
 Minority carrier concentrations (pn, np​) increase near depletion boundary.
 Leads to diffusion current in both layers.
Current Density (J) Approximation:
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛 𝑞 𝑉−𝑉𝑏𝑖
J=𝑞 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁 exp
𝜏𝑝 𝜏𝑛 𝐷 𝑘𝑇

where 𝜏𝑛 , 𝜏𝑝 = minority carrier lifetimes.

 Exponential current increases when 𝑉 > 𝑉𝑏𝑖 .

Threshold Voltage & Photon Emission:

 𝑉𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 ≈ 𝐸𝑔 /𝑞 (energy gap determines LED color). Figure 5.8: Carrier distribution
 The LED emits a photon at a wavelength 𝜆 = ℎ𝑐/𝐸𝑔 under forward bias

Diode Characteristics:
Heterojunction Structures in LEDs
Homojunction LED:
 Uses a single material with a fixed bandgap.
 Recombination zone depends on depletion region width.

Heterojunction LED:
 Composed of different bandgap materials.
 Carrier confinement in the active region enhances recombination efficiency
(IQE increase).

21
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics:
Heterojunction Structures in LEDs
Single Heterojunction (SH) LED
 p-layer has a smaller bandgap than the n-layer.
 Band offset effects:
 ΔEv (valence band offset) blocks hole
flow into the n-region.
 ΔEc (conduction band offset) traps
electrons, forming an energy well.
 High carrier concentration near the SH interface
Figure 5.9: Band structures of single-
→ enhanced recombination. heterojunction LEDs

Diode Characteristics:
Heterojunction Structures in LEDs
Double Heterojunction (DH) LED
 Active layer (smallest bandgap) is sandwiched
between two wide-bandgap cladding layers.
 Carrier confinement further increases
recombination rate. Figure 5.15: Band structures of
 Electron Blocking Layer (EBL) prevents double-heterojunction LEDs

electron leakage into the p-side due to higher

electron mobility (μn ≫ μp).

Figure 5.10: Band structures of LED with EBL

22
 25-03-2025

Diode Characteristics:
Quantum-Well, -Wire, and -Dot Structures in LEDs
Quantum Well (QW) LEDs:
 Thin low-bandgap layer (< 20nm) in the active
region defines the emission zone.
 Higher recombination rate (localized electron-hole
interactions).
 Reduces reabsorption probability due to small
bandgap & thin layer.
 Forms quantized energy levels due to layer being Figure 5.11: Band diagram of a
QW structure
smaller than electron/hole de Broglie wavelength.
 Precise emission wavelength tuning by adjusting
QW composition & thickness control.
 Strained layers possible without relaxation due to
ultra-thin nature.

Diode Characteristics:
Quantum-Well, -Wire, and -Dot Structures in LEDs (contd):
Quantum Wires & Quantum Dots (QD):
 Quantum Wires: Carrier confinement in
one dimension (1D).

 Quantum Dots: Carrier confinement in zero

dimensions (0D) → Discrete energy levels.
 Higher recombination efficiency due to
stronger quantum confinement.
 QD formation in nitrides can occur
spontaneously due to In-cluster fluctuations.
 More difficult fabrication (requires high-
resolution patterning & epitaxial regrowth). Figure 5.12: Structures of (a) Quantum Well,
(b) Quantum Wire, and (c) Quantum Dot.

23
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics
Radiative & Non-Radiative Recombination in LEDs
 In Radiative recombination, electron-hole pair emits photons (desired for LEDs).
 In Non-radiative recombination, energy lost due to defects → reduces efficiency.
 Minimizing non-radiative losses:
 High-quality epitaxial layers to reduce defects.
 Annealing to repair damage from fabrication & improves efficiency.
Recombination Process & Light Output:
 Langevin recombination rate ∝ (electron & hole concentrations).
 Injection current & light output follow a near-linear relationship under certain
conditions.
 Emission spectrum depends on DOS (Density of States) in bulk, Quantum Well
(QW), Quantum Wire, Quantum Dot (QD) structures.
 Carrier distribution affects wavelength & spectral width (FWHM).

Light-Emitting Characteristics
Photon Extraction Challenges:
 Total Internal Reflection (TIR): Limits light escape due to high refractive index
(n > 3).
 GaAs substrate absorption in III-P LEDs further reduces efficiency.

Recombination Model
 Radiative Recombination in LEDs involves electrons & holes meeting in the
spatial domain.
 Emission occurs, when carriers recombine and release energy as photons.
 Two-particle process governed by the Langevin formula: 𝑅rad = 𝑟rad 𝑛𝑝
where 𝑅rad is the radiative recombination rate;
n and p are electron and hole concentrations, respectively and
rrad is called the bimolecular recombination coefficient.

24
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Recombination Model (contd.)

 When the semiconductor is excited, electrons moves from valance band to the
conduction band, creating holes in the valence band.
 Excess carriers: Equal number of excited electrons & holes → Δ𝑛 = Δ𝑝.
Where Δ𝑛 and Δ𝑝 are excess electron and hole concentrations, respectively.
 For a p-type semiconductor: Majority carriers are holes under thermal
equilibrium, hence: 𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛0 ;
Where 𝑝0 and 𝑛0 are the hole and electron concentrations under thermal
equilibrium, respectively.
Low-Level Excitation ( 𝜟𝒑 ≪ 𝒑𝟎 ) case:
 Radiative recombination rate: 𝑅rad = 𝑟rad 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑟rad 𝑛 𝑝0 + Δ𝑝 ∼ 𝑟rad𝑛𝑝0 = 𝑛/𝜏rad

 Radiative lifetime: 𝜏rad = 1/𝑟rad 𝑝0

 Higher doping →Shorter radiative lifetime → faster recombination.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Recombination Model (contd.)

Non-Radiative Recombination & SRH Theory
 Non-Radiative Recombination:
 Energy relaxation via phonons (lattice vibrations), no light emission.
 Main cause: Defects in the crystal structure introduce trap states in the
bandgap.
 Trap-mediated transitions:
 Electrons/holes jump between bands
via phonons or photons.
Figure 5.13: Non-radiative
 Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) Recombination: recombination via deep-level traps

 Electrons & holes captured by traps → Recombination occurs.

 Shallow traps: Easily capture electrons, but holes recombine slowly.
 Deep traps (mid-gap): Higher recombination rate, affecting minority carrier
lifetime.

25
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Recombination Model (contd.)

Minority Carrier Lifetime & Recombination Rate:
 Non-radiative recombination rate: 𝑅non−rad = 𝑛/𝜏non−rad .
 Total recombination rate:

1 1 𝑛
𝑅 = 𝑅rad + 𝑅non−rad = 𝜏
+𝜏 𝑛= 𝜏
rad non−rad

where 𝑅rad , 𝜏rad and 𝜏non−rad are the radiative recombination rate,
radiative lifetime and the non-radiative lifetime, respectively.
 Minority carrier lifetime: 𝜏 represents the combined effect of radiative &
non-radiative recombination.
 Minority carrier lifetime (𝜏 ) depends on defect density & doping.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics

Carrier Continuity Equation
 Describes change in carrier concentration under electrical & optical excitation.
 For electron concentration in a p-type semiconductor under low injection:
𝜕𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑒 𝑛
= + 𝐺0 + 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 −
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏

where 𝑞 = Electron charge; 𝐽𝑒 = Electron current density; 𝜏 = Carrier lifetime;

𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 = Excess generation rate from optical excitation and
𝐺0 = Thermal equilibrium generation rate = recombination rate (𝑅0 = 𝑛0 /𝜏 )
 Rewriting the equation in terms of excess carrier concentration (Δ𝑛) :
𝜕Δ𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑒 Δ𝑛
= + 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 −
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏
 It shows how external excitation and current flow affect carrier concentration
over time.

26
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics (contd.)

Steady-State Electrical Pumping in LEDs
 Under steady-state conditions, the continuity equation simplifies to:
1 𝜕𝐽𝑒 Δ𝑛
0= −
𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏

Optical Power Emission in LEDs

 Optical power output ( 𝑃out ) is given by:
Δ𝑛
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝑃generated = 𝜂ext ℎ𝜈𝐴 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑

Where 𝜂ext = Photon extraction efficiency; 𝑃generated = Power generated inside the
LED; ℎ𝜈 = Photon energy; and 𝐴 = Device cross-section area.
 By substituting the relation for 𝐽𝑒 , the equation simplifies to:
ℎ𝜈𝐴 𝜏
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝐽𝑒 ( in ) − 𝐽𝑒 ( out )
𝑞 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑

Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics (contd.)

Impact of Carrier Recombination
 If all injected electrons recombine with an equal number of holes, the equation
simplifies further:
ℎ𝜈 𝜏
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝐼
𝑞 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑
where I (= J*A) is electrical current.
Key Insight: Optical power output is proportional to the electrical current.

Methods to Enhance Optical Power Output

 Increase extraction efficiency 𝜂ext
 Use wide-bandgap materials (higher photon energy, ℎ𝜈 )
 Reduce radiative recombination lifetime (smaller 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑 )

27
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics (contd.)

Challenges & Solutions for Light Extraction
 Total internal reflection at the semiconductor-air
interface limits efficiency (governed by Snell’s law).

Figure 5.14: Light escape cone of

LED due to the total internal reflection
 Solutions to improve light extraction:
 Corrugated structures: Disrupt planar geometry to enhance light
coupling.
 Die shaping: Redirects light out of the LED.
 Epoxy dome & reflector: Protects the LED and enhances extraction
efficiency.
 Transparent substrates: Replacing optically absorbing GaAs substrates
improves output in group III–P material systems.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Spectral Characteristics

Emission Wavelength of an LED is determined by:
 Product of Density of States (DOS) and number of carriers at each energy level.
 DOS (Density of States):
 Represents the number of available recombination states at a given
energy.
 In a bulk semiconductor, DOS increases from zero at the band edge as
energy increases.
 Carrier Distribution: Decreases exponentially as energy increases.

28
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Spectral Characteristics (contd.)

Emission Spectrum Characteristics
 Emission Peak Wavelength: Slightly
shorter than the bandgap wavelength.

 Spectrum Asymmetry:
 Long-wavelength side: Sharp cutoff
due to forbidden states within the
bandgap.
 Short-wavelength side: Smooth tail due
to the exponential carrier distribution. Figure 5.15: Emission spectrum from a LED

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Spectral Characteristics (contd.)

Quantum Well (QW) and Quantum Dot (QD) Structures
 Energy Quantization: Alters the DOS compared to
bulk semiconductors.
 DOS Behaviour:
 Bulk Semiconductor: Continuous increase.
 Quantum Well (QW): Step-function DOS.
 Quantum Dot (QD): Delta-function DOS
(discrete energy levels).
Figure 5.16: DOS of bulk,
 Impact on Emission Spectrum: QW and QD structures
 Narrower Full Width at Half Maximum
(FWHM).
 Wider color gamut (useful for display
applications).

29
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop

Light Output and Current Density
 Light output increases linearly with rising current density as per equation:
ℎ𝜈 𝜏
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝐼
𝑞 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑
 Theoretically, a small LED could achieve high light output by increasing
current indefinitely, but practical limitations exist.
Limitations of High Current Density
 Increased current density raises temperature, reducing LED efficiency.
 Even without temperature effects, efficiency drops at high optical power levels
(e.g., III-N LEDs for general lighting).
 External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) initially rises with current but later
declines. This is the "droop effect”.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

 External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) initially
rises with current but later declines. This is the
"droop effect" (Figure 5.17(a)).

Types of Droop
 Temperature Droop: EQE decreases as
(a)
temperature increases.

 Current Droop: At fixed temperatures,

EQE rises sharply at first but gradually
declines at high current densities.
(b)
Figure 5.17: (a) EQE versus electrical current
for the LED at different temperatures.
(b) Schematic diagram of Auger recombination.

30
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

Carrier Density and Recombination
 At high current densities, excess carrier density surpasses majority carrier
density.
 Recombination rate equation modifies to: 𝑅rad = 𝑟rad𝑛𝑝 = 𝑟rad𝑛 𝑝0 + Δ𝑝 ≈ 𝑟rad 𝑛(Δ𝑝)

𝑅rad ≈ 𝑟rad 𝑛2
Auger Recombination: A multi-electron process observed in semiconductors.
 Energy transfer occurs when an electron relaxes from conduction to valence
band, boosting another electron to a higher energy level (hot electron).
 Energy and momentum conservation require three carriers: an electron, a hole,
and a second electron.
 Under high current conditions, total recombination rate follows:
𝑅rad = 𝐴𝑛 + 𝐵𝑛2 + 𝐶𝑛3 ; where A, Bn, and 𝐶𝑛2 represents
the rates of SRH recombination, radiative recombination, and Auger recombination.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) Formula:
𝐵𝑛2 𝐵
IQE = 𝐴𝑛+𝐵𝑛2 +𝐶𝑛3 = 𝐴/𝑛+𝐵+𝐶𝑛

 At low current density (small 𝑛 ), SRH recombination dominates, increasing

IQE.
 At high current density (large 𝑛 ), Auger recombination reduces efficiency.
Factors Contributing to Efficiency Droop:
 Electron Leakage: Electrons overflow from the quantum well (QW) region to
the p-side.
 Current Density Distribution: Uneven current flow worsens droop in high-
density regions.

31
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

Strategies to Reduce Efficiency Droop:
1. Lower Current Density in the active region (increase QW thickness and
number).
2. Prevent Electron Leakage with:
 Optimized Electron Blocking Layer (EBL) and improved hole injection.
 Controlled polarization in epi-layers to confine carriers efficiently.
3. Improve Current Spreading to avoid carrier crowding in the lateral direction.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Device Fabrication

LED Fabrication Process
Epitaxial Growth on a Crystalline Substrate
 Grown on a crystalline substrate using techniques like LPE, VPE, and MOCVD.
 LPE (Liquid Phase Epitaxy): Simple, cost-effective, but limited to lattice-
matched compositions; struggles with thin layers.
 VPE (Vapor Phase Epitaxy): More flexibility in alloy composition;
includes chloride, hydride, and organometallic sub-types.
 MOCVD (Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition): A common VPE
method for precise layer thickness, composition, and doping.
Fabrication of p–n Junction
 Simpler than laser diodes or transistors.
 Requires proper electrode materials, annealing for ohmic contacts, and low serial
resistance.

32
 25-03-2025

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Device Fabrication

LED Fabrication Process (contd.)
Light Extraction & Efficiency Improvements
 Escape Cone Design: Allows light emission from bottom, top, and side walls.
 Chip Shaping & Surface Engineering: Prevents waveguiding light loss.
 Epoxy Encapsulation:
 High refractive index increases critical angle for better light extraction.
 Curved shape improves transition from epoxy to air.

Packaging Process
 Protects LED chips.
 Also; it enhances light extraction, and improves thermal dissipation for high-
power applications.

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth

Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE) for LED Production
 LPE Process: Uses high-temperature solvent (molten
metal or salt) with different saturated solutions for layer
growth.
 Growth Mechanism: GaAs substrate contacts different
melts, and layers grow under thermal equilibrium as
temperature decreases.
 Control Factors: Layer thickness depends on temperature
difference and contact time; oxidation must be minimized
Figure 5.18: Schematic
during melt transfers. diagram of LPE system.
 Advantages & Limitations: High growth rate (up to 2
μm/min) suits mass production but struggles with thin layer
growth, like quantum wells

33
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) for LED Growth
 Uses gas sources instead of liquid sources.
 Allows better control over thickness, doping, and multilayer growth.
Types of VPE: distinguished by source materials.

1. Chloride VPE: Uses solid group III sources and gaseous group V sources.
 Chemical reactions shift equilibrium to deposit epitaxial layers.

2. Hydride VPE: Uses gaseous AsH₃ and PH₃ for group V elements.
 More flexible than chloride VPE but involves toxic gases (arsine &
phosphine).

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) for LED Growth

Figure 5.19: Schematic diagram of (a) chloride and (b) hydride VPE systems
Advantages:
 Hydride VPE offers more flexibility
 Precise composition and thickness control.
 More flexible than LPE, especially for multilayer growth.
Drawbacks: it involves toxic gases (arsine, phosphine).

34
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

MOCVD (Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition) in LED Fabrication
 MOCVD : Uses metal alkyls (liquids/waxy solids) and hydrides as sources.
 Controlled gas flow allows precise composition and thickness control.
 Enables abrupt junctions, quantum structures, and varied emission wavelengths.
 Growth is non-equilibrium, offering more flexibility but low growth rates
(0.1–10 μm/h).

Figure 5.20: Schematic diagram of MOCVD systems

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

MOCVD in LED Fabrication (contd.)
Challenges: High dislocation density (~10⁸ cm⁻²) in
nitride-based materials.
Solutions: Two-flow MOCVD system (horizontal &
vertical gas flow) reduces dislocations.
 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth (ELOG):
 Uses a patterned rod morphology to (a)

improve film quality.

 Lowers dislocation density (<10⁷ cm⁻²)
but requires extra processing.
 Patterned Sapphire Substrate (PSS):
 Pre-patterned sapphire substrate enhances
lateral growth. (b)
Figure 5.21: (a) Two-flow MOCVD
 Improves film quality and light extraction. systems, and (b) gas flow in this system

35
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process:

Process Flow and Device Structure Design
 Figure 5.22(a), (b) shows typical device
structures of III–P and III–N LEDs,
respectively.
LED Electrode Design and Efficiency
 Carrier Injection & Light Emission:
 Electrons and holes recombine in the
active region, generating photons.
 III–P LEDs emit light from the top,
while III–N LEDs emit from top and (a) (b)
sides. Figure 5.22: Device structures of (a) III-P and
(b) III-N LEDs

LED Fabrication Process:

Process Flow and Device Structure Design
LED Electrode Design and Efficiency (contd.)
Material Choices for Ohmic Contacts:
 III–V (AlInGaP, AlGaAs) LEDs:
 n-type contacts: Au–Ge alloy
 p-type contacts: Au–Zn or Au–Be alloy
 Heavy doping improves conductivity.

 Nitride LEDs (GaN-based):

 n-type contacts: Ti/Al (TiN formation aids conduction).
 p-type contacts: Ni/Au (reduces Schottky barrier).
 Achieving heavily doped p-type layers is difficult.

36
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process:

Process Flow and Device Structure Design
Current Spreading Techniques:
 Challenges:
 Non-uniform hole distribution lowers recombination efficiency.
 Recombination mostly occurs under the opaque metal, blocking light.
 Solutions:
 Increase p-cladding thickness (better current flow, but increases resistance).
 Finger electrode patterns for improved current spreading.
 Transparent/semi-transparent electrodes (e.g., ITO, Ni/Au, Pt) for better
light extraction.
 III–P LEDs need thin GaAs cladding to reduce visible light absorption.

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Challenges in Light Extraction
 Limited by internal reflection at semiconductor boundaries.
 Photons in III–P devices may be absorbed by the GaAs substrate.
 Metal electrodes can impede light output.

Methods to Enhance Light Extraction:

1. Optimizing Device Shape: Redesigning the LED geometry redirects light for
better extraction.
2. Using Non-Planar Structures: Helps couple out waveguided modes.
3. Package Design Improvements:
 Increases critical angle.
 Redirects light more efficiently.

37
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Methods to Enhance Light Extraction (contd.):
4. Using a Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR):
 Reflects light back into the LED, preventing substrate absorption.
 Acts as a wavelength selector, but adds cost and complexity.
5. Fabricating Transparent Substrates: Prevents photon absorption compared
to traditional GaAs substrates.
Critical Angle & Escape Cone:
 Defined by Snell's Law: Light escapes if emitted within a specific angle.
 For standard materials with refractive indices: Semiconductor (𝑛 ≈ 3.5) and
epoxy resin packaging material (𝑛 ≈ 1.5), the critical angle (θc) is ≈ 25.38°.
 If the substrate absorbs light, the downward escape cone is lost, reducing
efficiency.

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction in III–P/GaAs
 Cladding Layer & Substrate:
 Transparent GaP is used for upper
cladding and substrate.
 MOCVD limits cladding thickness to
15 μm, insufficient for full side cone
extraction.
 VPE growth can add an upper
cladding layer up to 50 μm. Figure 5.23: (a) Absorbing substrate with a thin cladding
layer which has one full (upward) plus four partial
 GaAs substrate can be removed via (sidewall) escape-cones, and
etching and replaced with GaP using (b) Transparent substrate with thick cladding layers
which has six large escape-cones.
high-temperature annealing.

38
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction in III-Nitride LEDs
 Challenges:
 Difficulties in doping technology make thick cladding impractical.
 Internal absorption losses in the active layer reduce emitted light before it
escapes.
 Metal mesh electrodes improve conductivity but block light emission.

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction in III-Nitride LEDs
 Flip-Chip Structure:
 Inverted design emits light through
transparent sapphire substrate.
 Improves both conductivity & extraction
efficiency.
 Refractive index difference (GaN: 2.45,
Sapphire: 1.78) leads to total internal
reflection.
 Patterned Sapphire Substrate (PSS)
redirects light to enhance extraction.
Figure 5.24: (a) Mesh electrode providing a metallic
current spreading layer, (b) flip-chip III-nitride LEDs

39
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction with Structural Modifications
1. Edge Facets & Die Shape Adjustments:
 Side cones extract more light than expected due to imperfect planar
structures.
 Trapezoidal die structures reflect sidewall emission upwards, increasing
efficiency.
2. Reducing Total Internal Reflection:
 Surface roughening causes light scattering instead of reflection.
 Photonic micro- & nanostructures enable diffraction/plasmonic coupling
for better light extraction.
 Processing, cost, and layout remain challenges for integrating advanced
structures.

LED Fabrication Process: Packaging

Main Functions of LED Packaging
1. Protection : Shields LED and electrodes from mechanical and environmental
damage.
2. Improving Optical Extraction Efficiency
 Reflector cup redirects emitted light upwards.
 Epoxy encapsulation designed in hemisphere shape to enhance light extraction.
 High refractive index epoxy (1.5–1.8) minimizes internal reflection losses at
semiconductor-epoxy interface.
3. Heat Dissipation for High-Power LEDs
 Increased current → Higher temperature → Lower efficiency & red-shifted
emission.
 Thermal resistance of packaging must be optimized for high-power applications.
 Direct mounting on a heatsink improves heat dissipation.
 Silicone encapsulant preferred over epoxy due to better thermal stability.

40
 25-03-2025

LED Fabrication Process: Packaging

Main Functions of LED Packaging (contd.)
1. Protection : Shields LED and
electrodes from mechanical and
environmental damage.

2. Optical Efficiency: Reflector cup

redirects light; epoxy encapsulation
enhances extraction.
Figure 5.25: Illustration of a packaged LED
3. Heat Dissipation: Heatsink &
silicone encapsulant improve thermal
management for high-power LEDs.

Applications of LEDs
 Early Applications (1960–1980)
 Limited to indicators, alphanumeric displays, and dot matrix displays.
 Used mainly in consumer products and industrial equipment.
 Emitted only long-wavelength colors (e.g., red) due to material limitations.
 Modern Applications:
 Improved efficiency & wavelength range allow broader applications:
1. Direct-View Displays: Traffic signals, signage, stadium screens—require
high efficiency & accurate color.
2. LCD Backlighting: Replaces CCFLs, offering Hg-free, high color gamut,
long life, and fast response.
3. General Lighting & Reflective Displays: Requires accurate color
rendering (high CRI) & efficiency balance.

41
 09-04-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Organic Light-Emitting Devices

Introduction
Basic Principle:
 OLEDs operate similarly to semiconductor LEDs but use organic materials
instead of inorganic semiconductors.
 When voltage is applied, holes and electrons are injected from the anode and
cathode, recombining to emit light.

Figure 6.1: Two-layer OLED

 09-04-2025

Introduction
Energy Levels in Organic Materials:
 Charge carriers occupy molecular orbitals (MOs), which are combinations of
atomic orbitals (AOs).
 The highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) is the highest energy level filled
with electrons.
 The lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) is the next higher energy level.
 These correspond to the valence and conduction bands in inorganic
semiconductors.
 Excited electrons can relax radiatively (emitting light) or non-radiatively.
Fluorescence vs. Phosphorescence:
 Due to spin momentum differences, excited energy states can be singlet or triplet
states.
 Fluorescence (singlet state) occurs quickly, while phosphorescence (triplet state)
has a lower quantum efficiency at room temperature.

Introduction
Charge Carrier Injection & Transport:
 Charge injection is limited by energy barriers at metal/organic and organic/organic
interfaces.
 Modelled using Richardson–Schottky (RS) equations for thermionic emission.
 Organic molecules lack a well-defined band structure, leading to low charge
mobility (<10⁻³ cm²/Vs).
 Charge transport occurs by hopping between organic molecules in a disordered
structure.
 Trap-charge limited current (TCLC) and space-charge limited conduction (SCLC)
models describe transport behaviour.
 Thin organic films (~tens of nanometers) reduced driving voltage to <10V.
 Improved carrier injection using:
 Indium tin oxide (ITO) as a high work function anode.
 Mg:Ag alloy as a low work function cathode.
 09-04-2025

Introduction
Advancements in OLED Technology:
 Multi-layer structures enhance efficiency, lifespan, and voltage performance.
 Additional layers include:
 Hole-injection layer (HIL)
 Hole-blocking layer (HBL)
 Electron-injection layer (EIL)
 Emission wavelength can be tuned by changing the emitting material and device
structure.
Polymeric Light-Emitting Devices (PLEDs):
 In 1990, Burroughes et al. demonstrated electroluminescence from conjugated
polymers.
 PLEDs function similarly to OLEDs but differ in molecular weight and fabrication.
 Conjugated polymers cannot be sublimed under vacuum due to their large
molecular weight.

Energy States in Organic Materials

Molecular Orbitals (MOs) in Organic Molecules
Atomic Orbitals (AOs) and Quantum Numbers:
 Electrons occupy AOs, which are defined by four quantum numbers.
 These numbers determine the size, shape, orientation, and energy of each orbital.

Formation of Molecular Orbitals (MOs):

 When atoms bond, their electrons experience combined electrostatic attraction
from both nuclei.
 MOs are formed as a sum of AOs and can be predicted using orbital correlation
diagrams.
 09-04-2025

Energy States in Organic Materials: MOs in Organic Molecules

Types of Molecular Orbitals:
 Bonding MO:
 Formed by in-phase addition of AOs.
 Electron density is concentrated between
the nuclei, stabilizing the molecule.
 Antibonding MO: Figure 6.2: Interaction of AOs forming MOs

 Formed by out-of-phase combination of AOs.

 Contains a nodal plane (zero electron density), leading to destabilization.

MO Formation in Second-Row Elements (Organic Molecules):

 More AOs are involved, leading to complex correlation diagrams as in fig. 6.2(b).
 p-Orbitals contribute to bonding, with one aligning along the bond axis.
 MO energies depend on total electron occupancy in the molecule.

Energy States in Organic Materials (contd):

Influences on MO Structure in Organic Molecules:
 Organic semiconductors have many MOs distributed
across atoms.
 Unlike classical semiconductors, organic molecules do
not form extended band structures; their orbitals are
localized on single molecules.
Figure 6.3: HOMO and LUMO levels
HOMO and LUMO:
 Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO): The MO with the highest energy
among occupied orbitals.
 Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO): The MO with the lowest
energy among vacant orbitals.
 The energy difference between HOMO and LUMO determines excitation energy
for electronic transitions.
 09-04-2025

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials

1. Optical Absorption & Energy Relaxation
 Follows the Franck–Condon principle.
 Absorption of light excites an electron from HOMO to LUMO or a higher
vacant level.

2. Energy Relaxation Pathways

 Radiative (Light Emission):
 Fluorescence: Emission from singlet excited states.
 Phosphorescence: Emission from triplet excited states (requires spin
inversion, longer lifetime).

 Non-Radiative (Heat Dissipation): Energy lost through vibrational and

rotational transitions.

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials (contd):

3. OLED Efficiency Limitation
 Electrical excitation produces three times more triplet excitons than singlet ones.
 Only 25% of excitons contribute to light emission in conventional OLEDs.

4. Jablonski Diagram: Illustrates absorption, electronic transitions, and energy

relaxations in a molecule.

5. Excimer & Exciplex Formation: In organic semiconductors, energy transfer

between molecules can lead to the formation of:
 Excimers (Excited-state Dimers): Formed when two identical molecules
interact in the excited state.
 Emit light at a longer wavelength than the monomer fluorescence.
 Exciplexes (Excited-state Complexes): Formed when two different molecules
interact in the excited state.
 09-04-2025

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials:

Photon Energy Absorption and Molecular Excitation
 When a molecule absorbs a photon, the energy is used to excite electronic,
vibrational, and rotational transitions.
 The extent of excitation depends on the energy of the absorbed photon.

Types of Molecular Excitations:

1. Electronic Transitions:
 Occur between the HOMO (Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital) and
LUMO (Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital).
 Typically occur in the UV and visible range (several electron volts).
 Governed by quantum selection rules and can be observed in absorption and
emission spectra.

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials:

Types of Molecular Excitations (contd.):
2. Vibrational Transitions:
 Occur within an electronic state, where molecules transition between
different vibrational energy levels.
 Energy separation is typically a few tenths of an electron volt.
 Superimposed on electronic transitions and influence the shape of
absorption and emission spectra.

3. Rotational Transitions:
 Occur at very small energy separations (several hundredths of electron volt).
 Difficult to resolve at room temperature in condensed-phase spectra.
 Usually suppressed in solid-state materials.
 09-04-2025

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials:

Vibrational States in Molecules:
 At room temperature, most molecules are in
their ground vibrational state (ν = 0).
 Excitation to a higher electronic state
involves a transition to a higher vibrational
state (ν′), following selection rules.
 The probability of a transition depends on
the overlap of vibrational wavefunctions
between the initial and final states.
 Figure 6.4 illustrates potential energy Figure 6.4: Potential curves of electronic states with
curves of molecular electronic states with vibrational energy levels and wavefunctions
superimposed vibrational levels.

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials:

Franck–Condon Principle:
 Since electronic transitions occur much faster (∼1015 s⁻¹) than nuclear vibrations
(∼1013 s⁻¹), the atomic nuclei do not change positions during excitation.
 This results in a vertical transition on the potential energy curve of the molecule.
 The intensity of vibronic transitions depends on the overlap integral of vibrational
wavefunctions.
 The most intense transition is often to a vibrationally excited state (ν′ = 2) because
it has the greatest wavefunction overlap with the initial state.
 Figure 6.4 shows the Franck–Condon principle in action by highlighting
preferred transition pathways.
Absorption & Emission:
 Absorption excites electrons to higher electronic/vibrational states.
 Emission occurs from the vibrational ground state of the excited electronic state.
 09-04-2025

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials:

 Stokes shift = energy difference between
absorption and emission peaks.
 Absorption and emission spectra often
exhibit a "mirror image" relationship.
 Figure 6.5 displays absorption and
fluorescence spectra of
oligophenylenevinylenes (nPVs) in
solution.
 It also demonstrates how molecular
structure and chain length affect
absorption and emission properties.
Figure 6.5: (a) Spectra of absorption and emission, (b) Energy
levels of Stokes shift, and (c) Mirror image between absorption
and emission spectra of nPVs

Photo-physical Processes in Organic Materials:

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle & Electron Spins:
 Two electrons in the same orbital must have
opposite spins (paired electrons).
 This forms the singlet ground state (S₀).
 Absorbing light excites electrons while
maintaining opposite spins, forming the singlet
excited state (S₁).
Figure 6.6: Singlet ground, singlet
 In excited states, electrons can have the same excited and triplet states
spin, forming a triplet state (T₁).
 09-04-2025

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence (contd.)

Energy & Intersystem Crossing (ISC):
 Triplet state (T₁) is lower in energy than singlet excited state (S₁).
 Molecules may transition from S₁ to T₁ via intersystem crossing (ISC) with spin
inversion and energy loss.
 T₁ → S₀ transition is forbidden (zero wavefunction overlap due to spin rules).
 Only singlet excitons contribute to light emission.

Spin-Orbit Coupling & Phosphorescence:

 Real materials allow some T₁ → S₀ transitions due to weak electronic interactions.
 Spin-orbit coupling (interaction between spin and orbital angular momentum)
mixes singlet and triplet states.
 Phosphorescence occurs when T₁ → S₀ transition happens, but is inefficient due to
long carrier lifetimes.

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence (contd.)

Spin Angular Momentum & Quantum Statistics:
 Electrons have spin components in the z-direction
and non-zero momentum in the x-y plane.
 Two electrons in separate states can combine spins
to form either a singlet (1 possibility) or triplet
(3 possibilities).
 Triplet states are three times more numerous than
singlet states when molecules are excited via carrier
recombination.

Figure 6.7 (a) Spin angular moment, and

(b) coupling of spin angular momenta between
two electrons at different orbitals
 09-04-2025

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence (contd.)

OLED Efficiency & Quantum Yield:
 In an OLED, carrier recombination creates an excited molecule with electron/hole
pairs.
 Since only singlet excitons emit light, maximum internal quantum efficiency (IQE)
is limited to 25%.
Heavy Atom Effect: Atoms with large atomic numbers enhance spin-orbit coupling.
 This improves phosphorescence efficiency.

Photo-physical Processes: Jablonski Diagram

Jablonski Diagram (Figure 6.8):
 Describes energy transitions between electronic
states.
 Shows singlet ground state (S₀), singlet excited
states (S₁ and S₂), and triplet excited states
(T₁ and T₂).

Absorption & Excitation:

 Absorption occurs from S₀ to S₁ or S₂, governed
by the Franck–Condon principle. Figure 6.8 Jablonski diagram.
 The photon energy determines the final Abs.: Absorption; IC: Internal Conversion;
vibrational state in the excited state. ISC: Intersystem Crossing; F: Fluorescence; and
Ph: Phosphorescence
 09-04-2025

Photo-physical Processes: Jablonski Diagram

Energy Relaxation Mechanisms:
 Internal Conversion (IC):
 Non-emissive relaxation (thermal dissipation) from a higher excited state
(e.g., S₂ → S₁) without spin inversion.
 Fluorescence:
 Radiative transition from S₁ → S₀, emitting a photon.
 Emission wavelength is longer than absorption due to Stokes shift.
 Non-radiative recombination:
 Energy loss through vibrational/rotational relaxation from S₁ or S₂ to S₀.

Photo-physical Processes: Jablonski Diagram

Triplet State Transitions:
 Intersystem Crossing (ISC):
 Electrons in S₁ or S₂ can transition to triplet states (T₁, T₂) with spin inversion.
 Triplet–Triplet Absorption:
 Transition from T₁ → T₂ is allowed since both states have the same spin angular
momentum.
 Phosphorescence:
 Radiative transition from T₁ → S₀, occurring at a longer wavelength than
fluorescence.
 Longer lifetime due to forbidden spin transition.
 09-04-2025

Photo-physical Processes: Intermolecular Processes

Intermolecular Processes:
 Energy transfer and relaxation occur between multiple molecules.
 These processes go beyond intramolecular mechanisms described in the
Jablonski diagram.
Energy Transfer in OLEDs:
 Donor-acceptor energy transfer is essential for:
 Adjusting emission wavelength.
 Improving efficiency.
 Prolonging operational lifetime.

Photo-physical Processes: Intermolecular Processes

Excimers & Exciplexes:
 When molecules come close in the excited state, they form new orbitals.
 These excited molecular aggregates are classified as:
 Excimers: Aggregates of the same molecules.
 Exciplexes: Aggregates of different molecules.
Quenching Process:
 An excited molecule can transfer energy to a ground-state molecule or metallic
material.
 This results in non-radiative relaxation of energy.
OLED Quenchers:
 Impurities act as “quenchers” in OLEDs.
 They reduce quantum yield and negatively impact performance.
 09-04-2025

Intermolecular Processes (contd.)

Energy Transfer Processes:
 A molecule in an excited state (donor) can transfer its energy to another molecule
(acceptor).
 This is energy transfer, not electron transfer.
 After energy transfer:
 The donor returns to its ground state and
 The acceptor moves to a higher energy state.
 Represented as: D* + A → D + A*
Where D and A are the energy donor and acceptor,
respectively.
The “*” indicates the excited state.
Figure 6.9: Donor emission and acceptor
absorption spectra and their spectral integral

Energy Transfer Processes (contd.):

Radiative Energy Transfer:
 A two-step process where photons mediate the transfer:
1. Donor emits a photon: D* → D + hυ
2. Acceptor absorbs the photon: hυ + A → A*
 Efficiency depends on donor emission & acceptor absorption.
Non-Radiative Energy Transfer:
 Direct energy transfer occurs when donor and acceptor molecules are closer
than 10 nm.
 No photon involvement; instead it relies on energetic resonance.
 The transfer probability is proportional to spectral overlap (J) between donor
emission 𝐼 (𝑣) and acceptor absorption 𝜀 (𝑣) spectra, as follows:
J= 𝐼 (𝑣)𝜀 (𝑣)d𝑣
 09-04-2025

Energy Transfer Processes (contd.):

Mechanisms of Non-Radiative Energy Transfer:
1. Förster Energy Transfer (Dipole-Dipole Interaction):
 Efficiency depends on donor-acceptor distance (up to 10 nm).
 Governed by dipole resonance and follows the Franck–Condon principle.
 Selection Rule: Spin inversion is not permitted.
2. Dexter Energy Transfer (Electron Exchange Mechanism):
 A short-range process (effective within 1 nm).
 Involves electron exchange between donor and acceptor.
 Spin conservation allows both singlet and triplet transfers:
 ¹D* + ¹A → ¹D + ¹A*
 ³D* + ¹A → ¹D + ³A*
 Therefore, it determines the efficiency of this deactivation route.

Intermolecular Processes (contd.)

Excimer and Exciplex Formation
Excimers Formation:
 Formed when two identical molecules (M) (one in its ground state and the other
in its excited state) interact closely.
 New electronic states with lower energy form, loosely binding the molecules.
 This results in an excimer (excited dimer).

Figure 6.10: Excimer formation

 09-04-2025

Intermolecular Processes: Excimer and Exciplex Formation

Exciplex Formation (Charge Transfer Complex):
 Formed by two different molecules (D & A).
 Electron donor (D) gets excited and donates an
electron to acceptor (A).
 Electron relaxes back from LUMO of A to
HOMO of D.
 Different from Dexter transfer, which involves
two electrons moving oppositely.
Excimer & Exciplex Emission: Figure 6.11: Exciplex formation
 Emission wavelength is longer than original
molecules due to a smaller bandgap.
 They exist only in the excited state and
dissociate in the ground state.

Photo-physical Processes: Quantum Yield Calculation

Light Absorption in a Medium:
 Light intensity decreases as it passes through an absorptive medium.
 Absorption coefficient (𝛼): Defines the rate of intensity decrease.
Absorption Equation: Defined as: d𝐼 = −𝛼𝐼 d𝑥
where 𝐼 and 𝑥 represent the light intensity and the absorption
thickness, respectively.
 Integrating above eq. gives: 𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑒
where 𝐼 : Initial light intensity and 𝑑 : Sample thickness (cm).
 Thus, exponential decay of light intensity.
Beer–Lambert’s Law: Above eq. is conventionally written in the modified form as:
𝐴 = log 𝐼 /𝐼 = (1/2.303)𝛼𝑑 = 𝜀𝑐𝑑
where 𝐴 : Absorbance (or optical density). 𝜀: Molar absorption
coefficient (liters·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹) and 𝑐 : Concentration (moles/liter).
 09-04-2025

Photo-physical Processes: Quantum Yield Calculation (contd.)

Carrier Excitation & Relaxation:
 Carriers are promoted to an excited electronic state via optical or electrical
excitation.
 Their relaxation back to the ground state or other excited states is described
using a rate equation:
𝜕𝑛 𝑛
= 𝐺(𝑡) −
𝜕𝑡 𝜏
where 𝐺(𝑡) : Carrier generation rate (due to electrical/optical pumping);
n : Excited state carrier density and 𝜏 : Carrier lifetime of the excited state.
 Rate Equation can alternatively be written as: 𝜏 = 1/𝑘 , where 𝑘 is the rate
constant.
 The decay rate is proportional to carrier density and rate constant.
 Carrier decay follows an exponential function: 𝑛(𝑡) = 𝑛 𝑒

Photo-physical Processes: Quantum Yield Calculation (contd.)

Quantum Yield & Relaxation Pathways:
 The quantum yield of a relaxation process represents the fraction of the total
excited state carriers decaying through a specific process.
 From the Jablonski diagram, relaxation occurs via:
 Fluorescence (𝑘 )
 Internal conversion (𝑘 )
 Intersystem crossing (𝑘 )
 The sum of all quantum yields equals 1.
Rate Equation for Singlet Excited State 𝐒𝟏 :
= 𝐺(𝑡) − 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑆

 Fluorescence Quantum Yield ( 𝜙F ): 𝜙 =

 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED

Electroluminescence (EL) in Organic Solids & OLED Structure:
 EL Mechanism: As similar to LEDs, emission results from recombination of
injected carriers.
 OLED Fabrication: Built on an ITO-coated substrate.
 Thin organic layers (100–200 nm) include:
1. HIL (Hole Injection Layer) 2. HTL (Hole Transport Layer)
3. EML (Emissive Layer) 4. ETL (Electron Transport Layer)
5. EIL (Electron Injection Layer)
 A metal cathode is evaporated on top.
Charge Injection & Recombination:
 Charges injected from electrodes travel through organic layers.
 Injected charges recombine and forms excitons, which emit light upon
transition to lower energy states.

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED (contd.)

Charge Injection & Transport in OLEDs:
 Carrier Injection Mechanisms:
 Traditional Models (Fowler–Nordheim & Richardson–Shottky) only
partially explain charge injection due to:
1. Chemical reactions at interfaces forming interfacial layers.
2. Disordered nature of organic materials.
 Charge Transport in OLEDs:
 Organic thin films are amorphous (lack crystalline structure).
 Carrier transport occurs via hopping between localized states, leading to low
carrier mobility (<10⁻³ cm²/V-s).
 Excited states are highly localized, resulting in large exciton binding energy.
 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED (contd.)

Carrier Concentration & Conductivity:
 Low carrier concentration (<10¹⁰ cm⁻³) due to difficulty in generating free
carriers thermally.
 Conductivity (σ) : σ = nqμ
 Organic thin films have conductivity ~10⁻¹² (1/Ω·cm), lower than
semiconductors and even glass.
 Due to low conductivity, organic materials behave more like insulators than
semiconductors.
Charge Transport:
 Most carriers are injected from electrodes, form cations (positive) or anions
(negative).
 Carriers hop between molecules under an electric field.
 Charge mobility increases with a stronger electric field.

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED (contd.)

Current–Voltage (J–V) Relationship in OLEDs:
 Ohmic Region (I):
 Low voltage, current follows J ∝ 𝑉.
 Trap-Controlled Space-Charge-Limited Current
(TCLC) Region (II):
 Higher voltage, current follows J ∝𝑉 .
 In Region II, the line slope is (𝑙 + 1).
 Slower due to charge trapping.
 Space-Charge-Limited Current (SCLC) Region (III):
 Once traps are filled, current follows Figure 6.12: Typical J-V
characteristics of an OLED.
JSCLC ∝ 𝑉 .
 Slope = 2 on a double-logarithmic J–V plot.
 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED (contd.)

OLED Recombination & Optical Effects:
 Langevin Recombination:
 Due to low mobility, carrier transit time is long.
 Electrons and holes recombine immediately upon meeting.

 Interference Effects in Thin Films:

 Emission propagates through thin layers (~wavelength size).
 Strong interference influences output intensity, emitted spectrum and
device efficiency.

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED (contd.)

SCLC, TCLC, and Poole–Frenkel Mobility
Charge Transport in OLEDs:
 Described using time-dependent continuity equations, drift-diffusion current, and
Poisson’s Equation.
 Electron Transport in a Unipolar Organic Material (No Generation / Recombination):
 Continuity equation: =
 Under steady-state conditions = 0 , electron current density ( 𝐽 ) =
constant.
 Since thermal equilibrium carrier density is negligible, diffusion current is
ignored.
 Drift current equation: 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇 𝐸 ; Thus, electron density : 𝑛 =
where E is the electric field, 𝜇 is the electron mobility, q is the electron charge.
 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED (contd.)

SCLC, TCLC, and Poole–Frenkel Mobility (contd.)
 Voltage expression: 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑥

 Substituting into Poisson's Equation =− :

=− 𝑛

=− ⋅

where 𝜀 is the static dielectric constant.

 Similar derivation applies for hole transport.

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED

SCLC, TCLC, and Poole–Frenkel Mobility (contd.)
Space Charge Limited Current (SCLC) :
 Mott-Gurney Equation for SCLC (Trap-Free Case): 𝐽 =
 Represents maximum possible unipolar current in a trap-free dielectric layer.

Trap-Controlled Space-Charge-Limited Current (TCLC):

 When traps are present, current rises faster than quadratic dependence until all
traps are filled.
 TCLC equation: 𝐽 ∝
 Parameter 𝑙 depends on trap depth and trap density.
 TCLC applies at low fields, while SCLC is valid at high fields (where traps are
filled).
 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLED

SCLC, TCLC, and Poole–Frenkel Mobility (contd.)
Hopping Transport & Poole-Frenkel (P-F) Mobility:
 Charge transport in organic materials occurs via "hopping" between molecular
sites.
 Hopping = One-electron oxidation-reduction process between neutral
molecules & their charged derivatives.
 Carrier mobility is field-dependent, modeled by Poole-Frenkel behavior :
𝜇(𝐸) = 𝜇 exp(𝛽 𝐸)
 The PF mobility is very frequently observed in amorphous molecular
materials.
 This mobility is influenced by disorder effects and applied electric field.

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLEDs

Charge Recombination in OLEDs:
Formation and Diffusion of Excitons
 Oppositely charged carriers (electrons & holes) recombine, forming excitons.
 Excitons undergo 1D diffusion toward electrodes before relaxing.
Bimolecular Recombination (Langevin Theory)
 Recombination process follows Langevin theory, described by: 𝑅 = 𝛾𝑛𝑝
where 𝑅 = Carrier recombination rate; 𝑛, 𝑝 = Electron and hole densities and
𝛾 = Recombination coefficient of organic materials.
Exciton Diffusion
 Excitons are neutral species, so their movement is not influenced by applied
voltage.
 Exciton diffusion length (L) defines the recombination zone width (~a few nm).
 L is related to exciton diffusion coefficient (D) and lifetime ( 𝜏 ): 𝐿 = 𝐷. 𝜏
 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLEDs

Electromagnetic Wave Radiation:
Light Emission from Organic Thin Films:
 The emission follows a radiation cone governed by
Snell’s Law.
 This cone depends on the refractive index of
organic thin films and air

Photon Escape & Critical Angle: Figure 6.13: Escape cone from an OLED

 Only photons within the shaded region (defined by

the critical angle) can escape.
 The critical angle at the organic material-air
interface defines the photon escape region.

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLEDs

Electromagnetic Wave Radiation (contd.):
 For an organic layer with a refractive index of 𝑛 , the fraction of generated light
escaping from the substrate can be calculated by:
⋅∫ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
𝜂 = =∫ sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 1 − cos 𝜃
⋅

=1− =1− 1− ≅

where 𝜂 is the extraction efficiency, cos 𝜃 is the organic-air critical angle.

e.g. : 𝑛 is typically 1.6, which means the extraction efficiency is about 20%
and 80% of the photons remain trapped inside the OLED.
 However, a multilayer OLED cannot be accurately described by ray optics model
as the layers have thicknesses less than the wavelength of the emitted light.
 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLEDs

Electromagnetic Wave Radiation (contd.):
Optical Interference & Transfer Matrix Method in OLEDs:
 Ray optics model is insufficient to describe OLED
light emission accurately.
 Transfer matrix method accurately describes optical
interference effects in thin-film OLED structures.
 OLED structure consists of:
 Glass substrate
 Transparent anode (ITO)
 Organic layers (HIL, HTL,
EML, ETL and EIL)
 Reflective cathode Figure 6.14: A typical OLED structure

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLEDs

Electromagnetic Wave Radiation (contd.):
OLED as a Fabry-Perot Cavity:
 Photon emission originates from dipole oscillations in the organic layers.
 OLED structure behaves like a Fabry-Perot cavity, influencing emission spectra.
 Emission intensity in the normal direction follows:
( / )
𝐸out (𝜆) = 𝐸in (𝜆) ×
( / )

up 𝟐
where 𝑬out (𝝀) : Output light intensity;
𝟐
𝑬in (𝝀) : Free-space electroluminescence (EL) intensity;
𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 : Reflectivity of the cathode and ITO anode;
𝑻𝟐 : Transmittivity of the ITO anode; 𝒙 : Optical distance of the dipole from
the cathode; and 𝑳 : Total optical thickness of the cavity.
 09-04-2025

Carrier injection, Transport, and Recombination in OLEDs

Electromagnetic Wave Radiation (contd.):
Optical Thickness (L) of cavity:
 L is calculated as:
𝜙 𝜆 𝜙 𝜆
𝐿= + 𝑛𝐿 +
4𝜋 4𝜋

where 𝑛 , 𝐿 : Refractive index and thickness of the j -th layer.

𝜙 , 𝜙 : Phase shifts at the organic/anode and organic/cathode interfaces.

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization

OLED Device Design Considerations
 Electrical Optimization
 Lower driving voltage requires for efficient carrier injection and proper energy
level alignment.
 High carrier mobility and increased free carrier density improve performance.
 Energy barriers confine carriers in the emissive region, resembling
heterojunction structures in LEDs.
 Optical Optimization
 Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) Improvement:
 Using organic mixtures or guest/host (dopant/matrix) systems.
 External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) Enhancement: OLEDs have micro-
cavity structures (thin layers < wavelength of emitted light).
 Optical interference effects must be considered to maximize EQE.
 09-04-2025

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization

Fabrication Challenges:
 Small Molecule OLEDs: Precise thin-film deposition allows multi-layer
structures.
 Polymer OLEDs: Solution-based processes make multi-layer structures
difficult to fabricate.

OLED Display Driving Methods:

 Passive Matrix (PM) & Active Matrix (AM) driving methods, similar to LCDs.
 Key Difference from LCDs:
 OLEDs are current-driven, while LCDs use capacitive loads.
 AMOLED pixels require at least two transistors and one capacitor per pixel.

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization

OLED Lifetime & Degradation:
 Two types of degradation:
1. Extrinsic degradation – Can be minimized with encapsulation & controlled
fabrication environments.
2. Intrinsic degradation – Organic material degradation limits OLED lifespan.

Device Structure of Organic Light-Emitting Device (OLED):

 Multi-layer device: Organic layers sandwiched between two electrodes.
 Anode: ITO (high transparency, high work function).
 Organic layers : Formed using techniques like evaporation, spin-coating, ink-
jet printing. It can be single-layer or multi-layer structures.
 Cathode: Metal cathode applied on top.
 09-04-2025

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):
Single-Layer OLEDs:
 Simplest OLED design: One organic layer
between electrodes.
 For efficient carrier injection:
 Anode work function should match the
HOMO of the organic material.
 Cathode work function should match the
LUMO.
Figure 6.15: Device structure of a
 Organic material must support: Single-layer OLED

 Ambipolar charge transport → allows

both electron & hole movement.
 Light emission capability.

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):
Challenges with Single-Layer OLEDs:
 Difficult to find materials with both efficient charge transport & high emission
efficiency.
 Recombination zone control is difficult → Impacts emission efficiency.
 Electrode quenching effect: If charge recombination occurs near an electrode
→ Destructive interference reduces efficiency.
Improving OLED Performance:
 Two-layer & multi-layer OLED structures introduced to improve efficiency.
 Separate layers for each carrier injection, charge transport and emission.
 09-04-2025

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Two-Layer OLED Structure
Introduction & Materials
 First introduced by Tang et al.
 Consists of two organic layers: Figure 6.16: First two-layer OLED structure
 HTL (Hole Transport Layer): Aromatic diamine.
 ETL (Electron Transport Layer): Alq₃ (Tris(8-hydroxyquinoline) aluminum).
 Functions similar to a heterojunction in semiconductor LEDs.
Advantages Over Single-Layer OLEDs
 Improved efficiency due to better carrier confinement.
 Selective carrier transport:
 HTL → only transports holes.
 ETL → only transports electrons.
 Carrier recombination occurs at the HTL/ETL interface enhances efficiency.

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Two-Layer OLED Structure
Charge Transport & Recombination:
 Under forward bias:
 Electrons drift through ETL, but are blocked at the HTL/ETL interface (due
to HTL's lower LUMO).
 Holes enter the ETL easily (ETL’s HOMO is slightly higher than HTL's).
 Low hole mobility in ETL → High hole concentration near HTL/ETL
interface → Efficient recombination.
 ETL also acts as the Emissive Layer (EML) → Recombination occurs within 10
nm of the interface.
 09-04-2025

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Two-Layer OLED Structure
Recombination Probability ( P ) Formula:

𝟏
𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒄
𝑷𝑹 = 𝟏 +
𝝉𝒕
where 𝜏 : Carrier recombination time;
𝜏 : Carrier transit time (electrons moving from cathode to HTL/EML interface).
𝟏
𝒘
 Alternatively; it can be re-written as: 𝑷𝑹 = 𝟏 +𝒅
𝒆

where 𝑤 : Width of the recombination zone and 𝑑 : ETL thickness.

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Two-Layer OLED Structure
 Figure 6.17(a) shows the curves of current density, EL
intensity versus voltage.
 Figure 6.17(b) shows the EL spectrum of this device.
 It highlights the broader emission spectrum of an (a)

OLED compared to a semiconductor LED.

 The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of
approximately 100 nm.
 It indicates that the emitted light has a wider spectral
distribution due to the vibrational and rotational
(b)
modes of the organic materials.
Figure 6.17: (a) J-L-V curves, and
(b) EL spectrum of the two-layer OLED
 09-04-2025

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

HIL, EIL, and p-i-n Structure
Enhancing Carrier Injection in OLEDs:
 HTL & ETL materials have high carrier mobilities.
 So it can transport holes & electrons to the Emissive Layer (EML) for
recombination.
 EML (Emissive Layer) determines emission color and uses materials with high
fluorescence quantum efficiency.
 HIL (Hole Injection Layer) & EIL (Electron Injection Layer) in OLEDs:
 HIL improves hole injection from ITO anode to HTL.
 EIL improves electron injection from cathode to ETL.
 These layers optimize energy level alignment and reduce injection
barriers.

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

HIL, EIL, and p-i-n Structure
Example: HIL layer using m-MTDATA for Hole Injection (Figure 6.18(ii))
 Material: m-MTDATA inserted between HTL
(TPD) and ITO anode.
 Energy Level Alignment: Due to HOMO of
m-MTDATA:
 0.1 eV higher than ITO work function →
It improves hole injection. (i)
 0.4 eV lower than HTL (TPD) HOMO →
It forms a "ladder-like" energy alignment.
 Luminance & Efficiency:
 Device with HIL / HTL/ETL (Device (c) as
(ii)
shown in fig. 6.18(ii) ) has highest Figure 6.18: (a) Energy level diagram,
luminance due to better hole injection. (b) HIL device structures
 09-04-2025

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

HIL, EIL, and p-i-n Structure
Metal Dopant (MD) Technique:
 Uses alkali metals (Li, Na, Cs) to dope organic materials.
 Alkali metals release free electrons, improving carrier transport.
 Converts electrode-organic interface from Schottky barrier to ohmic contact,
enhancing carrier injection and reducing drive voltage.
p-i-n OLED Fabrication:
 Utilizes both p- and n-type doping for low drive voltage and high power
efficiency.
 Fabrication is difficult due to the strong acid/base nature of the dopants.
Challenges of MD Technology:
 Dopants can diffuse into the EML during operation.
 Causes exciton quenching, affecting operational lifetime.

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Transparent OLEDs
Conventional OLEDs: Uses transparent ITO anode & reflective cathode.
Transparent OLEDs (T-OLEDs):
 Replace reflective cathode with transparent conductive layer (e.g., ITO).
 Enables see-through displays.
Challenges in Transparent OLEDs:
 ITO cathode issue: High work function (~4.7 eV) makes it unsuitable for
electron injection.
Solution: Use a buffer layer (e.g., Mg:Ag, LiF/Al) to improve carrier injection
and protect organic layers.
 Trade-offs in Buffer Layer Design:
 Thick layers absorb more light, reducing luminance and transmittance.
 Thin layers may not sufficiently protect against sputtering damage.
 09-04-2025

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Transparent OLEDs
Challenges in Transparent OLEDs (contd.):
 ITO conductivity issue: Low (~10⁴ S/cm), requiring thick ITO cathodes
(~100s of nm) to reduce ohmic losses.
 Alternative to thick ITO: Use thin (20–30 nm) semi-transparent metal
cathodes (e.g., Sm, Ca/Mg, or LiF/Al/Ag) deposited by thermal evaporation.

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Top-Emission OLEDs (TE-OLEDs):
 Light emits through the top electrode, requiring
a reflective (metal) anode
(e.g., Ag, Au, Ti).
 AgOx (oxidized silver) layer formation:
Improves work function, forming an effective
HIL, while Ag provides good electrical
properties.
Figure 6.19: Schematic diagram of a
Optical Microcavity Effect: Top-emission OLED with dielectric layer

 Reflective anode + semi-transparent cathode cause multi-beam interference,

affecting EL intensity and spectrum.
 A dielectric layer (e.g., ZnSe) can optimize light outcoupling and angle-
independent emission spectra by tuning thickness.
 09-04-2025

Device Structure of OLED (contd.):

Polymer OLED (P-LED):
Classification of OLEDs : OLEDs can be distinguished by the molecular
weight of the organic materials.
1. Small Molecule OLEDs (SMOLEDs):
 Molecular weight < 1000 g/mol.
 Fabricated using thermal evaporation under high vacuum.
2. Polymer OLEDs (PLEDs):
 Molecular weight > 10,000 g/mol.
3. Intermediate Molecular Weight Materials (~1000–10,000 g/mol):
 Difficult to process.
 Rarely used in OLED fabrication.

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Fabrication
OLED Fabrication Considerations:
 OLED is highly sensitive to moisture and oxygen → Thin-film processing must be
done in vacuum or inert gas.
 Encapsulation or passivation is required immediately after deposition to prevent
degradation.
Substrate & Anode Considerations: Glass substrates are typically used.
 ITO (Transparent Conductive Layer) as the Anode: Allows light emission
through the ITO & glass.
 High resistivity (~10⁻⁴ Ω/cm) causes voltage loss, luminance non-uniformity,
and signal distortion.
Solution: Use low-resistance metal lines (Al, Cr) outside emissive regions to
improve current conduction.
 09-04-2025

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Fabrication
Pixel Design & Current Flow in OLEDs:
 Organic layers have low conductivity, allowing current flow mainly in the
vertical direction.
 Light emission occurs only where the anode and cathode overlap.
 Patterned insulating layers (e.g., polyimide) define emissive regions and
provide a flat surface for deposition.
 Active-matrix OLEDs (AMOLEDs) require Thin-Film Transistors (TFTs):
 At least 2 TFTs per pixel due to OLED diode characteristics.
 TFT Challenges:
 High mobility required for efficient current flow.
 Degradation effects: Mobility decrease & threshold shift due to current
stress

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Fabrication:
Thin-Film Deposition Techniques
 Small molecule OLEDs:
 Deposited via thermal evaporation under high
vacuum due to the low molecular weight of
materials.
 Organic layers and cathode materials are deposited
sequentially onto a patterned ITO glass substrate.
Figure 6.20: Illustration of
 Deposition rate can be precisely controlled Thermal evaporation
(~0.1 nm/sec).
 PLEDs (Polymer OLEDs):
 Require solution-based deposition due to high molecular weight.
 Common techniques: Spin-coating, inkjet printing.
 09-04-2025

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Fabrication:
Thin-Film Deposition Techniques
Shadow Mask Patterning
 Since wet processing is not allowed after deposition, patterns are defined
using shadow masks.
 Shadow mask:
 A metal plate with openings through which vaporized materials pass.
 Positioned close to the glass substrate to ensure precise patterning.
 Room temperature deposition: Prevents molecules from gaining excess
thermal energy and moving across the substrate.

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Fabrication: Thin-Film Deposition Techniques
Full-Color OLED Display Fabrication Methods:
 Challenge: Lithography cannot be used for OLED
thin-film formation.
 Three main methods:
1. Lateral Sub-pixelated Method: uses separate
red, green, and blue OLED subpixels.
2. White OLED + Color Filters: White OLED
uses a white light source to emit broad-spectrum
light and color filters extract RGB components.
3. Blue OLED + Color Change Materials
(CCMs): Blue OLED used as base → CCMs Figure 6.21: Fabrication methods for full
color OLED: (a) lateral sub-pixelated,
convert blue light into red/green. (b) white OLED with CF, and (c) CCM
 09-04-2025

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Fabrication: Thin-Film Deposition Techniques
Full-Color OLED Display Fabrication Methods (contd.):
Lateral Sub-pixelated OLED Structure:
 Uses fine-pitch shadow masks to
fabricate separate red, green, and blue
OLEDs in different locations.
 Advantages:
 Higher device efficiency.
 Longer operating lifetime.
 Each OLED color can be
optimized independently.
Figure 6.22: Fine-pitch shadow masks for full color OLED

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Fabrication: Encapsulation & Passivation
 Many organic materials are sensitive to moisture
and oxygen, so it must be done in an inert
environment.
 Encapsulation is essential for longer OLED
lifetime.
 Passivation Layers as an Alternative to Covers:
Figure 6.23: Illustration of
 Thin protective layer (~several μm) deposited an encapsulated OLED
directly onto OLED.
 Reduces display thickness (~0.55 mm).
 Requires low-temperature processing (<100°C).
 Must be free of cracks and pinholes to prevent
environmental damage.
 09-04-2025

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Structures for AM Driving
Challenges with Silicon-Based TFTs in AM-OLEDs:
 TFTs are sensitive to visible light → Require shielding with a black matrix.
 Reduced aperture ratio:
 Some pixel area is occupied by the TFT layout → Less space for light emission.
 Low aperture ratio → Lower display luminance.
 More transistors per pixel worsen the problem.

TE (Top-Emission) -OLED & TFT Integration:

 TFTs & OLEDs can be stacked without interfering with each other.
 a-Si TFTs (low mobility) can still drive TE-OLEDs.
 Fabrication & optical design differ significantly from bottom-emission OLEDs.

Structure, Fabrication and Characterization (contd.)

Device Structures for AM Driving
Top-Emission OLEDs (TE-OLEDs) for
Higher Aperture Ratio:
 Structure: (shown in fig. 6.24(b))
 Reflective anode. (a)

 Semi-transparent or transparent cathode.

 Light is emitted from the cathode side.
 Advantages:
 TFTs are placed beneath the reflective anode
→ More space for emission.
 Higher aperture ratio than bottom-emission
OLEDs. (b)
 Increased current density by adjusting the Figure 6.24: Cross section of an AM-OLED with
(a) bottom-emission, and (b) Top-emission
TFT channel W/L ratio. OLED configuration
 09-04-2025

Tandem Structure of OLED

OLED Luminance vs. Lifetime Trade-off:
 Higher luminance → Shorter operating lifetime.
 Solution: Connecting two or more OLEDs in
series (Tandem OLEDs).

Tandem OLED Structure & Operation:

 Multiple OLED units stacked in series.
 Charge Generating Layer (CGL) between OLED
units injects carriers.
 Each CGL generates one electron-hole pair per Figure 6.25: Structures of (a) a conventional
Emissive Layer (EML). OLED, and (b) a tandem device

 Enables multiple electron-hole pairs in the device

stack, increasing efficiency.

Tandem Structure of OLED (contd.)

Advantages of Tandem OLEDs:
 Higher Current Efficiency (cd/A): Scales linearly with the number of OLED
units.
 Same luminance at lower driving current & voltage: Improves power
efficiency and reduces heat generation.
 Extended Operating Lifetime: Due to reduced stress on individual units.
 High Efficiency OLEDs: Achieved by combining units emitting different
colors.

Applications & Enhancements:

 Multi-color tandem OLEDs → High-efficiency white OLEDs.
 Optimized layer structures → High external quantum efficiency & high color
purity.
 09-04-2025

Tandem Structure of OLED (contd.)

Concept of the Insulating Charge Generation Layer (CGL):
 Operates via a tunneling junction mechanism.
 A reverse-biased n–p junction is placed between two OLED units.
 Electron tunneling from the p-side valence band to the n-side conduction band
generates electron-hole pairs.
Advantages of Tunnelling CGL
(Inspired by Semiconductor LEDs & LDs):
 Reduces threshold current in laser diodes (LDs)
(as shown in Figure 6.26).
 Improves thermal stability.
 Increases Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE).
Figure 6.26: Energy band diagram of a tandem
semiconductor LEDs with magnified reverse
biased tunneling junction band energy diagram

Improvement of Extraction Efficiency

External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) in OLEDs:
 EQE 𝜂ex is determined by: 𝜼𝒆𝒙 = 𝜼𝒊𝒏 ⋅ 𝜼𝒆𝒙𝒕
where Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE, 𝜼𝒊𝒏 ): - Efficiency of light generation
within the OLED, and
Light Extraction Efficiency ( 𝛈ext ): - Efficiency of light escaping the device.
Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) Calculation: 𝜼𝒊𝒏 = 𝜼𝑭 ⋅ 𝝌 ⋅ 𝜼𝒓𝒆 ; where:
 𝜼𝑭 (Fluorescent Quantum Efficiency): Alq (ETL material) has ∼ 30% 𝜂 , but
can be improved to ∼ 100% with dopants.
 𝝌 (Exciton Utilization Efficiency): 1/4 for fluorescent OLEDs (due to singlet-
triplet spin statistics) and 1 for phosphorescent & TADF OLEDs (all excitons
contribute to light emission).
 𝜼𝒓𝒆 (Recombination Efficiency): Approaches 100% under charge-balanced
conditions.
 09-04-2025

Improvement of Extraction Efficiency (contd.)

Upper Limits of IQE:
 Fluorescent OLEDs → 25%.
 TTA-OLEDs (Triplet-Triplet Annihilation) → 62.5%.
 Phosphorescent & TADF OLEDs → 100%.
Light Extraction Efficiency (ηext):
 Due to Total Internal Reflection (TIR), only ~20% of light escapes the device.
 Estimated EQE limits:
 Fluorescent OLEDs → 5%.
 TTA-OLEDs → 12.5%.
 Phosphorescent & TADF OLEDs → 20%.

 It implies underestimated light extraction efficiency, causes low value of

External Quantum Efficiency → needs to enhance Extraction Efficiency.

Improvement of Extraction Efficiency (contd.)

Dipole Orientation & Light Extraction Enhancement:
 OLED emission originates from transition dipoles of
emissive molecules.
 Dipole Orientation in Amorphous Films:
 2/3 "horizontal" (parallel to substrate).
 1/3 "vertical" (perpendicular to substrate).
 Horizontal dipoles emit more light outwards,
Figure 6.27: Horizontal and vertical
improving extraction efficiency. dipoles in the organic thin film
 Vertical dipoles increase TIR & non-radiative losses.
Optimizing Dipole Orientation for Higher EQE:
 Criteria for increasing horizontal dipoles:
 Asymmetric emitter molecules.
 Transition dipole vector (TDV) should align
parallel to substrate.
 09-04-2025

Improvement of Extraction Efficiency (contd.)

Light Extraction Challenges in Bottom-Emission OLEDs:
Total Internal Reflection (TIR) & Light Extraction Solutions
 Photon Pathway: Light propagates through multiple
layers with different refractive indices:
 Organic layers (n = 1.8–2.0) → Glass
substrate (n = 1.5) → Air (n = 1.0).
 TIR at the air-glass interface leads to light
loss.
 Total Internal Reflection (TIR) causes light loss
via:
 Waveguiding modes: Light trapped in the Figure 6.28: External, substrate,
ITO and organic layers. and waveguiding modes in a
bottom-emission OLED
 Substrate modes: Light confined within the
glass substrate.

Improvement of Extraction Efficiency (contd.)

Techniques to Reduce TIR & Improve Light Extraction:
1. Microlens Array at Air/Glass Interface (Figure 6.29a):
 Breaks TIR, enhancing light outcoupling.
 Used in LED packaging but can blur images in displays.
2. Scattering Films (Figure 6.29b):
 Contains particles or air voids to scatter light & enhance
extraction.
 Issue: Can cause reduced image clarity & lower contrast
ratio in displays.
3. Patterned Microlens Arrays (Figure 6.29c):
 Reduces image blur effects from standard microlenses.
Figure 6.29: Methods for
 Issue: Also reflects ambient light, lowering display extracting substrate mode
contrast. in an OLED
 09-04-2025

Improvement of Extraction Efficiency (contd.)

Extracting Waveguiding Modes:
1. Via Nano-Structured Interfaces (Figure 6.30a):
 Nano-corrugated substrates: Induces Bragg scattering to extract waveguided light.
 Patterned Aluminum Zinc Oxide (AZO) Embedded in ITO: Utilizes refractive
index differences to scatter light.
2. High-Index Substrate to Prevent Waveguiding Modes (Figure 6.30b):
 Using a higher index glass (n = 1.8) eliminates waveguiding losses.
3. Low-Index Layers at Glass/ITO Interface (Figure 6.30c):
 Inserts a low-index material to reduce reflection losses at this boundary.

Figure 6.30: Methods for extracting waveguiding mode in an OLED

Improvement of Extraction Efficiency (contd.)

Plasmonic Loss & Its Reduction
Plasmonic Losses: occurs when light energy couples into
electron oscillations at the metal cathode surface.
 Cause: Surface plasmonic modes absorb light
energy instead of allowing emission.
 Reduction Strategies:
 Increase organic layer thickness (Figure (b)
6.31a) → Reduces plasmonic coupling.
 Nanostructures to re-couple plasmonic energy
into radiation (Figure 6.31b).
 Replace metal cathode with metal oxides (e.g.,
ITO, IZO) (Figure 6.31c): Prevents plasmonic (c)
modes from forming. Figure 6.31: Methods for extracting
plasmonic mode in an OLED
 09-04-2025

Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode (QLED)

Comparison of LEDs, and QLEDs
 LEDs:
 Narrow emission bandwidth, providing saturated colors but require epitaxial
growth on a crystalline substrate.
 QLEDs:
 Combine benefits of LEDs and OLEDs.
 Better color saturation than OLEDs.
 Direct electrical excitation (rather than optical) improves efficiency.
 Compatible with large-size displays and flexible substrates.

Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode (QLED) (contd.)

Quantum Dots (QDs) in QLEDs
 Narrow emission spectrum controlled by
core size.
 Common QD Structure:
 Core (e.g., CdSe) → Determines
emission wavelength.
 Shell (e.g., CdS or ZnS) → Higher
Figure 6.32: (a) Structure of QD for QLED.
bandgap, prevents Förster Resonant (b) Normal, and (c) Inverted QLED structure.
Energy Transfer (FRET) to improve
efficiency.
 09-04-2025

Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode (QLED) (contd.)

Similarity to OLEDs
 QLED structure is similar to OLEDs, with a QD layer sandwiched between:
 HTL (Hole Transport Layer) → Connected to the anode.
 ETL (Electron Transport Layer) → Connected to the cathode.
 HTL & ETL Materials:
 Inorganic HTL → NiOx
 Inorganic ETL → ZnO
 Organic HTLs → Various materials with high hole mobility
Normal vs. Inverted Structure
 Normal Structure (Figure 6.32b) : Anode first, followed by layers.
 Inverted Structure (Figure 6.32c) : Cathode first, followed by layers.

Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode (QLED) (contd.)

Material Considerations:
 CdSe/CdS: Small lattice mismatch, better crystallinity, but limited short-
wavelength emission.
 CdSe/ZnS: Used for green emission, better for shorter wavelengths.
 Complex core-shell structures (CdSe/CsS/ZnS) or ternary compounds (ZnSeS)
improve efficiency and emission tuning.
Efficiency Considerations in QLEDs:
 FRET Reduction: Thick shells help minimize energy transfer between QDs,
improving quantum efficiency.
 Ligands in QLEDs:
 Prevent QD aggregation in solution-based processing (spin coating, ink-
jet printing).
 Passivate dangling bonds, enhancing quantum efficiency.
 09-04-2025

Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode (QLED) (contd.)

 Impact on Fabrication:
 Normal Structure: The QD layer’s solvent may dissolve the underlying
organic HTL.
 Inverted Structure: The QD layer may get damaged during the sputtering of
inorganic NiOx HTL.
Solution Processing for QLEDs
 Challenge: Avoid etching lower layers while depositing QDs and charge transport
layers.
 Solution: Use orthogonal solvents to prevent layer dissolution.

Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode (QLED) (contd.)

Improving Charge Balance & Efficiency
 Adding Charge Injection & Blocking Layers → Enhances charge balance
and improves efficiency.
 Example:
 PMMA inserted between QDs & ZnO ETL improves charge transport.
 Double HTL structure helps balance charge injection.
 Results:
 EQE > 20%
 Turn-on voltage = 1.7V
 Red QLED having its emission peak = 640 nm.
 09-04-2025

Applications of OLEDs
 OLED technology enables fabrication on large and flexible substrates, making it
ideal for mobile and TV displays.

 Unlike LCDs, OLEDs do not require a backlight, allowing for thinner and lighter
designs.

 Transparent OLEDs are possible using semi-transparent electrodes, enabling novel

display applications.

 However, OLEDs face challenges such as shorter lifetimes, lower power

efficiency, and limitations in pixel resolution for high-definition displays.

Applications of OLEDs (contd.):

1. Mobile OLED Display: Advantages
 Thin & Flexible Design: OLED displays are ultra-thin (<1 μm) and can be
bendable or foldable, enabling innovative mobile designs like edge displays and
foldable screens.
 Power & Resolution Considerations: Mobile OLEDs focus on low power
consumption for battery efficiency, with AM-OLEDs required for screens larger
than 4 inches due to resolution limitations in PM-OLEDs.
 Optical Enhancements: Top-emission OLEDs improve brightness and efficiency,
while optical films help widen viewing angles.
 Sunlight Readability & Polarizers: Circular polarizers reduce ambient
reflections, but they increase cost and power consumption while slightly lowering
brightness compared to LCDs.
 09-04-2025

Applications of OLEDs (contd.):

2. OLED TV: Advantages
 Large-Scale & Immersive Viewing: OLED TVs have large panels (>50 inches),
longer viewing distances (>2m), and wide viewing angles, requiring high color
gamut, fast response times, and deep gray levels for a home theater experience.
 Fabrication Challenges & Efficiency: Manufacturing requires precise thin-film
control (<200 nm), large substrates, and thermal evaporation.
 Image Sticking & Lifetime Solutions: OLED TVs face image retention issues
due to pixel degradation. TFT compensation circuits, screen savers, and thin-film
encapsulation help maintain uniform brightness and extend lifetime.
 Optical Design & Ambient Reflection: Weak optical cavities and black matrix
designs optimize viewing angles and reduce reflections indoors, while bendable
OLED-TV designs enhance immersion without requiring foldability.

Applications of OLEDs (contd.):

3. OLED Lighting : Advantages
 OLED vs. LED Lighting: OLEDs provide diffuse, large-area lighting without
complex optics, while LEDs are better for direct lighting with careful optical
design.
 Advantages of OLED Lighting: Flexible and integrable into walls, tables,
mirrors, or windows, allowing custom shapes and designs.
 Fabrication & Efficiency: Easier to manufacture than OLED displays, with
lower costs and the potential for wet processing to improve throughput.
 Light Extraction & Performance: Unlike displays, OLED lighting can use light
extraction techniques to enhance efficiency, achieving 149 lm/W, 50% EQE, and
2.9V driving voltage.
 09-04-2025

Applications of OLEDs (contd.):

4. Flexible OLEDs: Advantages
 Flexible OLED Design: Requires flexible substrate, conductor, and TFT, along
with proper passivation and encapsulation for durability.
 Foldable Displays: Enables compact, portable devices that can expand into large
displays for better usability.
 Curved OLED Lighting: Used for innovative lighting designs, allowing bending
and shaping for aesthetic applications.
 Wearable OLEDs: Essential for smartwatches, clothing, and other wearable
displays, enhancing comfort and functionality.

Applications of OLEDs (contd.):

5. Novel Displays:
 Reflective & Transparent OLEDs: Reflective OLEDs appear as mirrors when off,
while transparent OLEDs resemble windows and can emit light from one or both
sides.
 Double-Sided OLED Displays: By dividing pixels into top- and bottom-emission
subpixels, displays can show different images on each side, controlled by separate
TFTs.
 Mechanical Protection & Durability: A cover glass is often added for protection
and longevity, or two glass substrates can be combined for double-sided OLEDs.
 VR & AR Applications: OLEDs are ideal for VR (high resolution, fast response,
low luminance need), while AR requires high brightness, transparency, and
advanced optical design.
 11-04-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Reflective Displays
Introduction
➢ Paper-Like Display: Reflective displays work without an internal light source,
mimicking paper for reduced eye strain and low power consumption.
➢ Ideal for Reading & Outdoors: They offer high optical contrast in bright light
and are great for portable reading and outdoor use.
➢ Bistable vs. Continuous Refresh: Bistable displays retain images without power,
while others require constant refreshing. Some support video-rate switching, while
others are more suitable for displaying static images.
➢ Technology Types: Reflective displays use different principles like
electrophoresis, reflective liquid crystals, optical interference, and electrowetting.

1
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays
➢ Electrophoretic Display Mechanism: Uses charged colloidal particles moving in
a dielectric fluid under an electric field to create images.
➢ Persistent Images: Particles are density-matched
to the fluid, allowing images to remain visible
after voltage removal.
➢ Early Design: Consisted of single-type charged Figure 7.1: Schematic of a vertical
electrophoretic display film containing
particles in dyed fluid between electrode surfaces, negatively charged particles in a dyed fluid.

switching color based on particle movement

(Figure 7.1).

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Switching Time Formula: The time for particle movement is approximated as t
≈ h² / (μV), where h is the cell gap, μ is electrophoretic mobility, and V is applied
voltage.
➢ Electrophoretic Mobility Definition: It is the ratio of particle velocity to applied
electric field.

❑ Formula for Mobility:

where ε = dielectric constant, η = fluid viscosity, ζ = zeta potential, q = particle

charge, and r = particle radius.

2
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Factors Affecting Mobility: Higher charge per particle (q) and lower fluid

viscosity (η) lead to faster switching speeds.

➢ Optimizing Switching Speed: To improve performance, small, highly charged

particles in low-viscosity fluid are preferred.

➢ Microcup® Electrophoretic Displays: Developed by SiPix Imaging, Inc., later

acquired by E Ink Corporation in 2012.

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Cell Structure: Formed using an embossed

polymer rib pattern filled with particle-dye

electrophoretic fluid as shown in Figure 7.2 (a).

➢ Fabrication Process: Uses a roll-to-roll

manufacturing technique, allowing efficient large-

scale production as seen from Figure 7.2 (b).

Figure 7.2 (a) Surface profiles of some typical

Microcup arrays. (b) Schematic process flow of the
SiPix roll-to-roll manufacturing process

3
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Advantages: Enables flexible, durable, and high-contrast reflective displays for

various applications.

➢ Pigment Composition: White pigment particles are polymer-encapsulated TiO₂,

dispersed in a dyed fluid.

➢ Rib Structure Function: Prevents lateral migration of particles, ensuring uniform

pigment distribution on the display surface.

➢ Gray-Scale Control: Achieved by adjusting pulse amplitude, pulse width, or

pulse count of the applied voltage.

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Color Display Implementation: Uses a side-by-side subpixel architecture with
different dyed fluids for color rendering, as shown in Figure 7.3

Figure 7.3: Schematic cross-section of a color Microcup EPD.

(Each Microcup is isolated and seamlessly top-sealed)

4
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ The E-ink Corporation use a dual-particle electrophoretic fluid formulation in its
microencapsulated black/white switching electrophoretic film to improve the
image contrast as shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Schematic illustration of microcapsule electrophoretic image display

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Switching Mechanism:
❑ Positive voltage → White particles move to the top (white display).
❑ Negative voltage → Black particles move to the top (black display).
➢ Image Contrast Improvement: Implemented by E-Ink Corporation using
microencapsulated electrophoretic film.
➢ Gray-Scale Control: Achieved through intermediate switching states between
black and white.

10

5
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Color Electrophoretic Display: Uses a black-and-white panel combined with an
RGBW color filter for color generation (Figure 7.5).
➢ White Subpixel: Enhances brightness in the white state for improved display
quality.

Figure 7.5: Schematic diagram of a full-color microencapsulated electrophoretic

display using a black and white panel with a RGBW color filter.

11

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Fuji Xerox Innovation: Proposed a
subtractive color mixing method using
cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY)
particles.
➢ Threshold Electric Fields: Each CMY
particle has a different threshold voltage,
Figure 7.6: Cross section of an electrophoretic
enabling selective color display as seen in display based on “independently movable
colored particles” technology.
Figure 7.6.

12

6
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Electrophoretic Particle Behavior: Colored particles adhere to the substrate until
an electric field exceeding the threshold moves them.
➢ White Particle Function: Small colloidal white particles hide colored ones and
remain suspended, unaffected by the field.
➢ Color Mixing Process: Light scattering from moved colored particles creates
high saturation and bright white states without a color filter.
➢ E-Ink Innovation: More recently developed a color filter-free display using
yellow, cyan, magenta, and white particles, enabling 32,000 colors.

13

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ Electrophoretic fluid contains yellow, cyan, magenta, and white particles (Figure
7.7).

Figure 7.7: Changes in electrical voltage move different combinations of pigment

particles to the surface of the color filter-free electrophoretic display.
❑ These particles differ in size, polarity, and charge strength and each particle
type reacts differently to applied voltage, enabling precise color control.

14

7
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)
➢ In-Plane Electrophoretic Display: Uses lateral
movement of charged particles to create images.
➢ Basic Electrode Setup: Consists of a collector
electrode and a large viewing electrode as seen
from Figure 7.8 (a).
➢ Advanced Design: Some designs, like Philips’s,
use four electrodes (collector, gate, and two
Figure 7.8: Schematic diagrams of in-plane
view electrodes) as shown in Figure 7.8 (b). electrophoretic pixels with (a) two-electrode and
(b) four-electrode configurations.

15

Reflective Displays
Electrophoretic Displays (contd.)

❑ When a repulsive voltage is applied to the gate electrode, no particles are

allowed to move in or out of the viewing area.
❑ Without voltage applied to the gate electrode, the particles can move across
freely, in a direction depending on the potential difference between the
collector and viewing area.
❑ A voltage gradient can be created between the two view electrodes to assist
the particle spreading in the viewing area.

16

8
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays
➢ Two Types of Reflective LCDs: Polarizer-based displays use one or two
polarizers and require constant refreshing, while polarizer-free displays rely on
absorption, scattering, or reflection.
➢ Drawbacks of Polarizer-Based LCDs: Low reflectance (due to >50% light
absorption), difficulty in flexible plastic fabrication, and constant power
consumption except for Zenithal Bistable Displays (ZBD®) used in retail signage.
➢ ZBD Technology: Achieves bistability through relief grating alignment, allowing
low-power operation similar to twisted-nematic LCDs (TN-LCDs), and can
function as a reflective display with a rear polarizer.

17

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)

❑ It has a similar structure to the twisted-nematic liquid crystal display (TN-

LCD)
➢ Polarizer-Free LCD Types: Includes guest-host LCDs (absorption-based),
polymer-dispersed LCDs (scattering-based), and cholesteric LCDs (reflection-
based) for different optical effects.
1. Guest–Host Liquid Crystals:
o Blend liquid crystals with dichroic dyes, where dye molecules align with
the liquid crystal molecules.

18

9
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
o Positive dichroism dyes absorb light when its polarization matches the dye’s
molecular axis.
o Unlike traditional LCDs, guest–host LC displays do not require polarizers.
o Example: The Cole–Kashnow display is a
well-known polarizer-free guest–host liquid
crystal display (Figure 7.9).
o Uses positive dielectric anisotropy liquid
crystals in a planar alignment with a quarter-
Figure 7.9: Schematic diagram of Cole–
wave plate at 45° to the liquid crystal. Kashnow reflective display

19

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
o In the unswitched state, light is linearly polarized; one component is absorbed by
the dye, while the other is converted into circularly polarized light by the quarter-
wave plate.
o After reflection, the light's circular polarization reverses, and passing through the
quarter-wave plate again rotates its polarization by 90°, allowing full absorption
by the liquid crystal layer.
o When voltage is applied, the liquid crystal and dye molecules reorient
perpendicularly, reducing light absorption and making the display appear bright.

20

10
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)

❑ Another polarizer-free guest–host liquid crystal display is the White–Taylor

display as shown in Figure 7.10.

Figure 7.10: Schematic diagram of the White–Taylor reflective display

o Uses cholesteric liquid crystals with positive dielectric anisotropy, forming

a helical structure in the unswitched state.

21

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)

o Dark State Mechanism: Light of any polarization is absorbed by the dye due to
the liquid crystal's alignment, creating a dark display.
o Bright State Activation: Applying voltage untwists the helical structure,
transitioning the liquid crystal into a nematic state with homeotropic alignment,
reducing light absorption and making the display bright.
o Full-Color Display: Achieves full-color performance using subtractive color
mixing with yellow, magenta, and cyan dyes in stacked, switchable LC cells.

22

11
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)

2. Polymer-dispersed Liquid Crystal:

o PDLC Structure: Composed of micron-sized liquid crystal droplets dispersed in
a polymer binder, with droplet size controlled by phase separation techniques
(e.g., polymerization induced phase separation).

o Light Scattering for Reflection: In the absence of an electric field, liquid crystal
molecules are randomly oriented, causing light scattering due to the refractive
index mismatch, creating a white appearance.

23

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
o Voltage-Driven Transparency: When voltage is
applied, the liquid crystal aligns, matching the
refractive index of the polymer, allowing light
to pass through, revealing an absorption layer
beneath (Figure 7.11).
Figure 7.11: Schematic diagram of a
polymer-dispersed liquid crystal display
o Fast Response Time: PDLC displays have a
switching speed of 1–10 ms and operate with a
driving voltage ranging from a few to tens of
volts.

24

12
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
3. Cholesteric Liquid Crystal:
o Cholesteric liquid crystals share the
same degree of molecular order as
nematic liquid crystals.
o Molecules are elongated and aligned
with their long axes parallel, similar
to the nematic phase.
o In the cholesteric phase, the
Figure 7.12: Schematic diagram of a bistable
molecular orientation (director) twists cholesteric liquid crystal display
along a helical axis (Figure 7.12).

25

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
o Pitch (P) is the distance over which the molecular direction rotates through 2π
radians.
o In a planar alignment state, the helical axis is perpendicular to the substrate.
o Due to their periodic structure, cholesteric LCs strongly reflect circularly
polarized light with the same handedness as the helical structure, via a Bragg
reflection-like mechanism.
o Reflection band properties:
• Centered at wavelength: λ₀ = ½(ne + no)P = nP
• Bandwidth: Δλ = (ne − no)P = ΔnP

26

13
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
where ne and no are the extraordinary and ordinary refractive indices of the
liquid crystal, and n and Δn are the average refractive index and birefringence
respectively.
o For polarized incident light with the same handedness as the cholesteric helical
structure:
• The reflectance at the center of the reflection band is given by:

where h denotes the cell thickness.

27

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
o With an average refractive index of ~1.6, >99% peak reflectance is possible
when: h = 2P / Δn
o For unpolarized incident light, 100% reflectance within the reflection band can
be achieved by stacking a left-handed cholesteric liquid crystal layer with a
right-handed one.
o Applying an electric field perpendicular to the substrate causes liquid crystal
molecules to align parallel to the field.
o If the voltage is insufficient, the liquid crystal enters the focal conic state:
• The helical structure is preserved in small domains (a few micrometers).

28

14
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
• The helical axis aligns parallel to the substrate, leading to a non-reflective
focal conic texture.
o Both focal conic and planar states can be stabilized using carefully selected
alignment layers.
o The resulting bistable cholesteric liquid crystal cell requires no holding voltage
in either the reflective planar state or the non-reflective focal conic state.
o A sufficiently large voltage fully unwinds the helix, switching the liquid crystal
to a nematic-like homeotropic state:
• Molecules align parallel to the electric field.

29

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
o Voltage removal speed affects relaxation:
• Fast removal → relaxes to planar state.
• Slow removal → relaxes to focal conic state.
o Both planar and focal conic states are poly-domain structures:
• Grayscale can be achieved by partially switching domains between these two
states.
o Full-color displays are possible by stacking cholesteric LC layers reflecting
red, green, and blue light.

30

15
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays (contd.)
o Limitations:
• Long relaxation time from homeotropic to planar makes dynamic image
display challenging.
o Solution:
• Applying a large in-plane electric field enables fast switching (~5 ms)
between reflective planar and non-reflective in-plane-field-induced states.

31

Reflective Displays
Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference
➢ The Interferometric Modulator Display (IMOD), branded as Mirasol® by
Qualcomm®, is a type of reflective display.
➢ It uses Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) to modulate light.
➢ Operating principle:
❑ Functions as an optical resonant cavity, similar to a Fabry–Perot etalon.
❑ Composed of:
o A movable fully-reflective mirror.
o A self-supporting deformable reflective membrane.
o A fixed partially-reflective mirror (thin-film stack on a transparent
substrate, usually the viewing side).

32

16
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference (contd.)
➢ The cavity thickness is determined by the
vertical position of the movable mirror:
❑ Controlled by:
o Electrostatic force (from applied
voltage).
o Restoring force (from the
membrane’s drumhead structure).
➢ Light behavior:
❑ Incident light reflects from both Figure 7.13: Interferometric modulator display structure
showing light reflecting off the top thin-film stack and the
the top thin-film stack and the bottom deformable reflective membrane to produce color

reflective membrane.

33

Reflective Displays
Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference (contd.)
❑ Constructive or destructive interference occurs based on cavity thickness
and light wavelength.
➢ Color selection:
❑ Specific wavelengths are reflected strongly; others are absorbed.
❑ Different sub-pixels have different cavity thicknesses, allowing reflection
of different colors.
➢ In the collapsed state:
❑ The reflection peak moves to the UV spectrum, absorbing visible light.
❑ This results in a visually black display state.
➢ Mirasol displays are bistable: No image refresh is needed until the image changes.

34

17
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference (contd.)
➢ Fast pixel switching:
❑ Pixels switch in ~7 ms, enabling video frame rate capability.
➢ Grayscale generation uses:
❑ Spatial dithering:
o Divides color subpixels into smaller, individually addressable elements.
o Human eye cannot resolve these, so grayscale appears via spatial
averaging.
o Lower power consumption than temporal dithering.

❑ Temporal dithering:
o Splits each refresh cycle into multiple time slots.

35

Reflective Displays
Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference (contd.)
o Grayscale is achieved by rapid pixel switching, creating a time-averaged
reflectivity.
o Increases power use but allows larger pixels, lower manufacturing
tolerances, and higher fill factor.
❑ Combined dithering: Spatial + temporal dithering improves gray level
representation.
➢ Color display structure:
❑ Uses side-by-side RGB subpixels, limiting maximum reflectance to ~33%.
❑ Interference-based color generation is more light-efficient than color filters
or polarizers.

36

18
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference (contd.)
➢ Challenges:
❑ Color and contrast depend on:
o Viewing angle and illumination conditions.
o Due to the angular dependence of cavity thickness, peak reflectance shifts
for off-angle light.
➢ Durability:
❑ Proven mechanical robustness, with reliability over 12 billion cycles.
➢ Flexibility issue:
❑ Flexible Mirasol displays are hard to fabricate.
❑ Due to materials and precise processing needs for maintaining MEMS gap
control to ensure color accuracy.

37

Reflective Displays
Reflective Display Based on Optical Interference (contd.)
➢ The Single Mirror Interferometric (SMI) display is the next-gen Mirasol display.
➢ Offers continuously tunable reflectance across the visible spectrum and high-
contrast black and white states.
➢ Improves brightness efficiency by eliminating the 67% loss from traditional RGB
sub-pixel structure.
➢ Each SMI pixel is a three-terminal device:
❑ Top electrode: fixed, semi-reflective (lets light partially pass).
❑ Middle electrode: movable mirror.
❑ Bottom electrode: fixed absorber.
➢ Uses an indium gallium zinc oxide active matrix backplane, supporting up to 240
Hz frame rate.

38

19
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrowetting Display
➢ Electrowetting is a microfluidic
phenomenon where the wettability of a
liquid on a solid surface changes when
voltage is applied.
➢ In the absence of an applied field, the
surface is preferentially wetted by a dyed,
insulating oil.
➢ When voltage is applied, a clear,
conductive, polar liquid displaces the Figure 7.14: (a) A continuous film of dyed oil is covers the
pixel area when no voltage is applied. (b) An applied voltage
dyed oil as shown in Figure 7.14. causes the polar liquid to wet the electrode, displacing the oil
into a droplet which partially covers the surface

39

Reflective Displays
Electrowetting Display (contd.)
➢ Electrowetting display features:
❑ Fast response time of ~1 ms, enabling video-speed switching.
❑ Full-color displays can be achieved by:
o Side-by-side monochrome subpixels.
o Vertically stacked monochrome subpixels.

❑ Not inherently bistable, but analog grayscale and color tones are possible
by applying intermediate voltage levels.

40

20
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Electrowetting Display (contd.)
➢ Bistable electrowetting display can be achieved by:
❑ Redesigning the pixel electrode structure.
❑ Using a single common electrode on one
substrate and two laterally separated electrodes
on the other (Figure 7.15).
❑ Applying an appropriate waveform to move
the colored fluid between two bistable
positions.
➢ Flexible bistable electrowetting
displays have been demonstrated on Figure 7.15: (a) Droplet-driven electrowetting principle
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) with common electrode and control electrodes E1 and E2.
(b) A droplet is moved from one bistable position (left) to
substrates. another one (right) by applying a waveform.

41

Reflective Displays
Comparison of Different Reflective Display Technologies
➢ Contrast & Reflectance: Most monochrome reflective displays achieve a 10:1
contrast ratio, but their reflectance (<80%) is lower than white paper.
➢ Power & Speed: Bistable displays (e.g., electrophoretic, cholesteric LCDs) use
power only when switching, while interferometric modulator and electrowetting
displays support video frame rates.
➢ Flexibility: Electrophoretic, polarizer-free reflective LCDs, and electrowetting
displays can be built on flexible substrates, enabling curved or flexible displays.

42

21
 11-04-2025

Reflective Displays
Comparison of Different Reflective Display Technologies (contd.)
Table 1: Comparison of various monochromic reflective display technologies
Electrophoretic Polymer-dispersed Cholesteric liquid Interferometric Electrowetting
liquid crystal crystal modulator display

Contrast Ratio 15:1 10:1 8:1 15:1 15:1

Reflectivity for
40% 50% 40% 50% 60%
White or Color
Lambertian yes no no no Partial
no
Bistable yes No Yes yes (yes with
"droplet driven")

<4V (lab)
Voltage (V) 15 5 5-10 15-20
25−40 V (product)

300 (vertical field

Switching speed switch)
100's 100 0.01's 10
(ms) 5 (in-plane field
switch)
Mechanical
yes yes yes no yes
Flexibility

43

22
 23-04-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Head-Mounted Displays for Virtual and Augmented Reality

Introduction
➢ Head-Mounted Display (HMD) technology is also known as Head-Worn
Display (HWD) or Near-Eye Display (NED).
➢ It involves a display system positioned close to the eyes, using an optical
system to guide light from a miniature image source into the user’s eye.
Basic Components per Eye in an HMD
➢ Modulated light source with drive electronics (e.g., microdisplay device for
image delivery).
➢ Optical viewer to guide modulated light into the eye.
➢ Opto-mechanical unit for housing optics and securing the device to the head.

1
 23-04-2025

Introduction (contd).
➢ Computer unit for image generation and data processing.
Additional Requirements for Modern VR/AR HMD Systems
➢ Sensor suite for posture, gesture, and environmental awareness.
➢ Communication channels for data exchange with remote sources (e.g., cloud
servers, nearby devices).
Sensor Suite Details
➢ Visual coupling system to display context-
appropriate images
❑ Responds to user’s location, head
orientation, and eye gaze direction. Figure 8.1: Conceptual illustration of a
monocular HMD system

Introduction (contd).
➢ Head tracker and eye tracker for motion and gaze tracking
➢ 3D depth sensors and built-in cameras to:
❑ Create depth maps of the environment
❑ Capture images of surroundings
Communication Capabilities
➢ Typically includes Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and other wireless methods
Computing Unit Configurations
➢ Can be fully integrated, separately wearable (e.g., pocket unit)
➢ Tethered/wirelessly connected to a standalone computer

2
 23-04-2025

Introduction (contd).
Display Modes
➢ Monocular HMD:
❑ Uses a single microdisplay and optical viewer.
❑ Displays an image to only one eye (e.g., Google Glass).
➢ Biocular HMD:
❑ Two identical optical assemblies, one per eye.
❑ Displays the same image to both eyes.
➢ Binocular HMD:
❑ Two optical assemblies.
❑ Displays slightly different images to each eye for stereoscopic (3D)
viewing.

Introduction (contd).
Categories by Visual Experience
➢ Immersive Displays:
❑ Block the user’s view of the real world completely.
❑ Present a fully computer-generated virtual environment.
❑ Examples: Oculus products.
❑ Optical viewers are placed directly in front of the eyes.
➢ See-Through Displays (blend real and virtual scenes)
1. Video See-Through:
❑ Blocks direct view of the real world.
❑ Uses cameras to capture and digitally blend real-world and virtual images.

3
 23-04-2025

Introduction (contd).
❑ Performance depends on camera quality (resolution, latency, etc.).
❑ Allows easier handling of mutual occlusion between virtual and physical
objects.
2. Optical See-Through:
❑ Uses an optical combiner to overlay virtual images onto the direct view of
the real world.
❑ Maintains full real-world resolution.
❑ Less intrusive, ideal for hand-eye coordination tasks.
❑ Preferred for applications where an unobstructed real-world view is
essential.

Note: A light-weight, non-intrusive, and comfortable HMD is crucial yet challenging

to develop for effective VR and AR experiences.

Human Visual System

Role of Human Visual System in HMD
➢ The HVS is a core element in designing and evaluating HMD systems.
➢ Traditional HMD designs focus on delivering high-quality 2D images to the
eye without compensating for:
❑ Eye optical aberrations
❑ Photoreceptor sampling characteristics on the retina
Emerging HMDs (e.g., light field HMDs) go beyond 2D rendering
➢ Require accurate modeling of the eye's optics
➢ Optimize retinal image formation as part of the system design

4
 23-04-2025

Human Visual System (contd).

Optical System of the Human Eye
➢ Understanding eye anatomy and optics is key to setting HMD requirements,
evaluating performance, and designing advanced, eye-aware systems.
➢ Key components: Cornea, pupil, crystalline lens, retina
➢ Fluids:
❑ Aqueous humor (between cornea and lens)
❑ Vitreous humor (between lens and retina)
➢ Optical power:
❑ Mean: 59.63 diopters [given as 1/f(in m)]
❑ Cornea: ~2/3 of total power Figure 8.2: Schematic layout of the
❑ Lens: ~1/3 of remaining eye optics.

Human Visual System (contd).

➢ Focal lengths:
❑ Front: ~17 mm
❑ Rear: ~23 mm
➢ Eye Accommodation:
Figure 8.2: Schematic layout
❑ Eye adjusts focus via the crystalline lens of the eye optics.
❑ Lens shape changes by contracting/relaxing ciliary muscles
❑ Can shift optical power by up to 10 diopters (age-dependent)
Eye Optics and Aberrations
➢ The human eye exhibits three main types of residual aberrations:
❑ Longitudinal Spherical Aberration (LSA): ~1.25 diopters for a 6 mm pupil
(difference between marginal and paraxial rays)

10

5
 23-04-2025

Human Visual System (contd).

❑ Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration (LCA): ~2.5 diopters between 400–700
nm (relative to 589 nm reference wavelength)
❑ Astigmatism: Can reach up to 12 diopters at field angles >60°
Pupil Behavior and Light Adaptation
➢ The pupil acts as the eye’s optical aperture, adjusting size to control light
intake.
➢ Iris muscles dilate or contract the pupil in response to ambient light levels:
❑ Quick adaptation to bright light (under 1 second)
❑ Slower adaptation to darkness (several seconds to ~1 minute)
➢ Pupil diameter range:
❑ ~2 mm in bright conditions (e.g., sunlight)
❑ Up to ~8 mm in darkness

11

Human Visual System (contd).

➢ Model for average pupil size based on luminance L (in cd/m²):

❑ According to the model: At 10 cd/m², average pupil diameter ≈ 3 mm

❑ The human eye is considered near-diffraction-limited at a 2 mm pupil
diameter
➢ The depth of field (DOF) decreases by 0.12 diopters per 1 mm increase in
pupil diameter
➢ Pupil location relevance for HMDs:
❑ The entrance pupil is ~3.05 mm behind the cornea
❑ Effective HMD design requires exit pupil alignment with the eye's entrance
pupil for optimal light coupling

12

6
 23-04-2025

Human Visual System (contd).

Human Eye Field of View and Movement
➢ The pupil acts as the eye’s optical aperture, adjusting size to control light intake.
➢ Iris muscles dilate or contract the pupil in response to ambient light levels:
❑ Quick adaptation to bright light (under 1 second)
❑ Slower adaptation to darkness (several seconds to ~1 minute)
➢ Instantaneous FOV (without eye or head movement):
❑ ~160° horizontally (60° nasal, 100° temporal)
❑ ~130° vertically (60° superior, 70° inferior)
➢ Stationary binocular FOV (both eyes combined):
❑ ~200° horizontally and ~130° vertically

Figure 8.3: Illustration of Human eye FOV

13

Human Visual System (contd).

➢ Binocular visual field (visible to both eyes simultaneously):
❑ ~114° during symmetric convergence
❑ Reduced with asymmetric convergence
➢ Eye movement capabilities:
❑ Rotation: ±35° horizontally and vertically
❑ Torsional movement (around visual axis): 2–10°
❑ Center of rotation: ~13 mm behind the cornea
➢ Functional significance:
❑ Eye movements keep images focused on the foveal pit for sharp vision
❑ Combined with movement, the HVS FOV extends to ~290° horizontally

14

7
 23-04-2025

Human Visual System (contd).

➢ Design implication for HMDs:
❑ The eye box (area where the display is visible) must account for full range
of pupil motion during eye rotation
Overview of Visual Acuity
➢ Visual acuity (VA): Measures the eye’s ability to perceive high-contrast fine
details
❑ Focuses on separable VA (distance vision)—ability to resolve closely
spaced lines
➢ Typical values:
❑ Normal VA: ~1 arcminute resolution
❑ Peak foveal VA: ~0.5 arcminutes within central 5° of vision

15

Human Visual System (contd).

❑ Rapid degradation beyond 10–15° from the fovea (At 10°, VA drops to 20–
25% of peak)
➢ Measurement:
❑ Common tool: Snellen eye chart
❑ Snellen fraction (SVA) defined as:

where D′: distance at which subject can read the line and Dnormal: furthest
distance from which a “normal” observer can read the same line
➢ Relative VA of human eye as a function of retinal eccentricity:

❑ e2: retinal eccentricity where spatial resolution drops to 50%

❑ ex,ey: horizontal and vertical retinal eccentricities in degrees

16

8
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays

Paraxial Optical Specifications in HMD Design
➢ HMD design begins with key system-level parameters:
❑ Field of view (FOV), Resolution, Microdisplay dimensions, See-through
capability
➢ These drive the paraxial specifications of the optical viewer (eyepiece),
including equivalent focal length (EFL), optical magnification, exit pupil
diameter (EPD), eye relief, etc.
Optical Layout and Virtual Image Formation
➢ Light from microdisplay is:
❑ Collected and projected by the eyepiece toward the exit pupil
❑ Forms a virtual display located at a perceptually distant point

17

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ When the viewer’s entrance pupil aligns with the eyepiece’s exit pupil, the
virtual image is properly perceived.

Figure 8.4: Schematic optical layouts of (a) an immersive and (b) optical see-through HMD

➢ In optical see-through HMDs (OST-HMDs):

❑ A beam splitter or optical combiner blends virtual display rays with the
real-world view

18

9
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

Field of View (FOV) in HMDs
➢ FOV defines the angular range within which a user perceives information
➢ Types of FOV based on HMD type:
❑ Immersive/video see-through HMD: FOV determined entirely by the
angular size of the virtual display
❑ OST-HMD: Has both a virtual display FOV and a see-through FOV
➢ Monocular virtual display FOV:
❑ Defined as the angular extent subtended by the virtual image
❑ Depends on: microdisplay diagonal size (DVD), virtual display distance
(ZVD), eyepiece magnification
➢ FOV calculation (diagonal):
➢ Horizontal (θH) and vertical (θV) FOVs can be derived using the aspect ratio of
the virtual display

19

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

Eyepiece Characterization
➢ Any eyepiece, regardless of design
complexity, can be described by:
❑ Equivalent focal length (EFL), fEP
❑ Cardinal points (principal planes:
P and P′)
➢ Key parameters:
❑ ZMD​: Distance from microdisplay
to front principal plane (P)
❑ ZER​: Distance from exit pupil to Figure 8.5: Illustration of cardinal points and
paraxial properties of an eyepiece
rear principal plane (P′)
❑ DMD​: Diagonal size of the
microdisplay

20

10
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ Virtual Display Calculation
❑ Apparent distance of the virtual display:

❑ Diagonal size of the virtual display:

➢ These expressions are derived by tracing chief rays from the microdisplay
edges through the eyepiece system.
Importance of Resolution in HMDs
➢ Resolution defines the spatial detail a viewer can perceive through the HMD.
➢ In immersive/video see-through HMDs:
❑ Resolution is determined solely by the virtual display’s resolution.
➢ In optical see-through HMDs (OST-HMDs):
❑ Two components: virtual display resolution and see-through resolution
(real-world clarity).
21

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

Limitations of Traditional Resolution Metrics
➢ Common metrics (e.g., pixel count, pixel pitch)
used for 2D displays are not reliable for HMDs.
➢ They do not reflect apparent image quality as
perceived by the eye.
Preferred Metric: Angular Resolution
➢ Resolution is better characterized by visual
angle per pixel (angular resolution,Δθ): Figure 8.6: Illustration of angular resolution of the
virtual display in an HMD
❑ Reflects how much visual angle a single
pixel occupies at the eye.
❑ Independent of FOV or virtual display
distance.

22

11
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ Formula for angular resolution:

where PVD is the pixel pitch of the virtual display.

➢ Some optical combiners, such as flat beam splitters, introduce nearly negligible
degradation to the optical resolution of the see-through path
➢ In contrast, some combiners such as freeform combiners may introduce significant
effects to the see-through path if not optimized properly.
Tradeoff Between Field of View (FOV) and Resolution in HMDs
➢ Wide FOV and high resolution are both desirable for high-performance HMDs.
➢ In practice, designers must balance FOV, resolution, weight, and volume based on
specific task requirements.

23

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ With a fixed pixel count in microdisplays:
❑ Increasing FOV leads to decreased
angular resolution.
➢ Figure 8.7 illustrates how angular resolution
(in arcminutes) drops as FOV increases for a
given number of pixels.
➢ For a given display:
❑ Angular resolution degrades as FOV
increases if pixel count remains constant.
➢ Ideal goal: Match HMD angular resolution to
Figure 8.7: Resolution and FOV tradeoff in an
the human visual system (HVS) — about 1 HMD system
arc minute.

24

12
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ Current VR displays often prioritize FOV over resolution, achieving angular
resolutions of about 5–10 arc minutes.
Microdisplay Sources in HMDs
➢ A modulated light source is essential for rendering images in all HMD
systems.
➢ Most commonly used: Microdisplay devices—pixel arrays that either:
❑ Emit light (self-emissive)
❑ Modulate an external light source (spatial light modulators, or SLMs)
Types of Microdisplay Technologies
➢ Self-emissive displays (generate their own light):
❑ Miniature CRT, OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode), Micro-LED, etc.

25

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ SLM-type displays (modulate light from external sources):
❑ AM-LCD (Active-Matrix LCD) – transmissive
❑ LCoS (Liquid-Crystal-on-Silicon) – reflective
❑ FLCoS (Ferroelectric LCoS) – reflective
❑ DMD (Digital Micromirror Device) – reflective
Alternative Light Sources
➢ Scanning-type displays:
❑ Use lasers or laser diodes to scan across the visual field
❑ Form 2D/3D images through scanning modulation
❑ Offer high brightness for demanding applications

26

13
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

OLED Displays
➢ Advantages:
❑ Self-emissive and compact—ideal for miniaturized HMDs
❑ Wide emission angle reduces need for telecentric eyepiece design → allows
simpler, smaller optics
➢ Drawbacks:
❑ Lower luminance than reflective SLMs
❑ Shorter lifespan, especially under high-luminance operation
Emerging Micro-LED Displays
➢ Offer higher luminance and lower power consumption
➢ Expected to enhance the performance and longevity of self-emissive HMD
displays

27

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

AM-LCD Microdisplays (SLM Type)
➢ Transmissive design:
❑ Requires only a backlit panel, avoiding bulky illumination units → allows for
more compact systems
➢ Wider viewing angle than reflective displays:
❑ Reduces constraints on incident light angle
❑ Enables more compact eyepiece designs with fewer telecentricity requirements
➢ Limitations of AM-LCDs
❑ Low transmission efficiency
❑ Relatively low contrast ratio
❑ Low dynamic range (LDR)
❑ Larger pixel size due to need for three subpixels per pixel for full-color display

28

14
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

Design Trade-offs by Microdisplay Type
➢ Self-emissive and backlit displays (e.g., OLED):
❑ Enable more compact HMD systems
➢ Reflective SLM displays (e.g., LCoS, FLCoS):
❑ Tend to result in bulkier systems but offers higher luminance
Impact of Microdisplay Size on HMD Performance and Design
➢ Smaller microdisplays:
❑ Enable more compact systems
❑ Require more optical magnification to achieve the same FOV as larger panels
❑ Typically result in a narrower FOV unless compensated by optics
➢ To maintain the same FOV with a smaller panel:
❑ Requires a shorter eyepiece focal length
❑ Leads to higher optical magnification
29

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ Throughput considerations:
❑ Smaller panels afford lower throughput for the same eyepiece numerical
aperture (NA)
❑ To match throughput of larger panels, a higher NA is needed, which
complicates optical design
➢ Design challenges with small panels:
❑ Need low effective aperture optics, which are harder to design
❑ Require smaller pixel pitch to maintain resolution
❑ Increase complexity in achieving adequate optical performance and image
quality

30

15
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

HMD Optical Principles
➢ Microdisplays are too small and close to the eye for direct viewing.
➢ An optical viewer (eyepiece) is essential in both immersive and see-through
HMDs.
➢ Functions:
❑ Collects light from the microdisplay
❑ Forms a magnified virtual image at a comfortable viewing distance
❑ Couples light effectively into the human eye
❑ Acts as the optical interface to the human visual system (HVS)
➢ Eyepiece development focuses on achieving:
❑ Compact size and lightweight construction
❑ High optical performance

31

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

Types of Optical Architectures in HMDs
➢ Broadly classified into:
❑ Non-pupil forming systems
❑ Pupil forming systems
1. Non-Pupil Forming Optical Designs
▪ No internal pupil in the eyepiece;
the viewer’s eye pupil acts as the
system’s stop aperture.
▪ Key advantages:
o Typically more compact Figure 8.8: Examples of (a) non-pupil forming
o Allows greater axial flexibility in eye and (b) pupil-forming optical design for HMDs
position (user can still see the image if
a light path exists from display to eye)

32

16
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

2. Pupil-Forming Optical Designs
▪ Forms an intermediary image conjugate to the microdisplay
▪ Includes an internal optical stop that controls ray bundles
▪ Design requirement:
o Must maintain optical conjugacy between the internal stop and the exit
pupil
o Mismatch can cause image clipping or disappearance
Major Optical Architecture Types for HMDs
➢ HMD optical designs fall into four main types: magnifier, objective-eyepiece
compound, projection, and retinal scanning.

33

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

1. Magnifier Type Optical Viewer (HMD Design)
▪ Simplest form of optical viewer in HMDs
▪ The microdisplay is placed at or near the
back focal point of the optics
▪ Creates a magnified virtual image of the
microdisplay
▪ Light rays exiting the optics are divergent or
collimated—they do not form a real image
detectable on a screen
▪ No intermediate image surface conjugate to Figure 8.9: (a) Examples of a magnifier

the microdisplay exists within the optics

▪ This design is classified as a non-pupil
forming system

34

17
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

2. Objective-Eyepiece Compound (HMD Design)
▪ Composed of Objective lens group and
eyepiece group
▪ Objective group:
o Acts as a relay lens.
o Forms an intermediary image of the
microdisplay.
Figure 8.9: (b) Examples of objective-
o Contains an internal stop (acts as the eyepiece compound
system aperture).
▪ Eyepiece group:
o Magnifies the intermediate image to create a virtual image for viewing.
o Relays the internal stop to form a conjugate image at the exit pupil.

35

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

3. Projection Type Viewing Optics (HMD Design)
▪ Objective group:
o Acts as a relay lens.
o Forms an intermediary image of the
microdisplay.
o Contains an internal stop (acts as the system
aperture).
▪ Miniature display is positioned beyond the
focal point of the projection lens.
Figure 8.9: (c) Examples of projection
▪ Projection lens projects a magnified real image
(unlike traditional virtual image designs).

36

18
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

▪ Beam splitter:
o Reflects the image from the lens toward the retroreflective screen.
▪ Retroreflective screen:
o Replaces conventional diffusing screens.
o Redirects light back to the beamsplitter in the opposite direction of
incoming rays.
o Forms a magnified virtual image viewable at the system’s exit pupil.
▪ Key Characteristics:
o Pupil-forming optical design.
o Virtual image location is fixed, regardless of retroreflective screen
placement.
o Virtual image can only be viewed at the exit pupil.

37

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

4. Scanning-Based Viewing Optics (HMD Design)
▪ Primarily used in Retinal Scanning Displays
(RSDs).
▪ Photonics module:
o Generates shaped light beams in various
colors.
o Uses LEDs or laser diodes.
o Incorporates beam shaping optics to
collimate and filter beams. Figure 8.9: (d) Examples of retinal scanning
▪ Video electronics module:
o Converts input video signals.
o Modulates beam intensity and color mixing.

38

19
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

o Generates timing control signals for the scanner module.
o Beam intensity is modulated either by varying the driving current of
LEDs/lasers or using acousto-optic/electro-optic modulators.
▪ Scanner module:
o Directs light beams to specific locations on the image plane.
▪ Exit pupil expander enhances the viewing experience.
▪ Scanning Techniques Used in RSD:
o Rotating polygons, galvanometers, piezoelectric deflectors, acousto-optic
scanners, holographic scanners, micro-electro-mechanical scanners
(MEMS).

39

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

Optical Combiners in OST-HMDs
➢ Essential component that blends virtual display content with the real-world view.
➢ Key influence on:
❑ Optical performance
❑ System compactness
❑ Overall design differentiation between OST-HMD systems
➢ Types of Optical Combiners
❑ Flat beam splitter
❑ Curved or freeform surface combiner
❑ Segmented contact lens
❑ Diffractive or holographic waveguide
❑ Geometrical lightguide

40

20
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ Schematic illustrations as well as design examples of these optical combiners.
Combiner Type Schematic Illustration Design Example
Flat combiner

Curved combiner

41

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

➢ Schematic illustrations as well as design examples of these optical combiners.
Combiner Type Schematic Illustration Design Example
Contact lens
combiner

Waveguide combiner

42

21
 23-04-2025

Fundamentals of Head-mounted Displays (contd).

Key Design Parameters
➢ Two critical factors define a combiner’s size and behavior:
❑ Orientation relative to the visual axis (α)
❑ Distance from the exit pupil of the display
➢ Combiner size equation (in one direction):

where LECLR​: Eye clearance distance, DEPD​: Exit pupil diameter, α: Combiner
orientation, θ: Maximum half-field angle for the corresponding direction
➢ Assumes symmetry in top and bottom halves of the FOV

43

Advanced HMD Technologies

Emerging HMD Technologies
➢ New methods are being developed to overcome persistent challenges in
conventional HMD design.
➢ These advanced technologies aim to enhance performance, realism, and user
comfort.
➢ Key emerging areas include:
❑ Eye-tracked and foveated displays
❑ Multi-channel displays
❑ Dynamic range enhancements
❑ Mutual occlusion capability (between real and virtual content)
❑ Addressable focus cues (for more realistic depth perception)
❑ Light field displays (to simulate natural 3D visual experiences)

44

22
 23-04-2025

Advanced HMD Technologies (contd).

Summary and Outlook on HMD Technology
➢ HMD technology has significantly advanced and is central to the future of spatial
computing.
➢ It will continue to drive growth in VR, AR, and related industries.
➢ Ongoing challenges remain, requiring:
❑ Innovative optical materials
❑ New components
❑ Advanced architectures
➢ There is a lack of sufficient psychophysical studies on how HMDs affect:
❑ User perception
❑ Health
❑ Social behavior

45

23
 23-04-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [email protected]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

Touch Panel Technology

Chapter Overview
Introduction Sequence:
➢ Resistive Touch panels.
➢ Capacitive Touch panels.
➢ Touch & Display panel integration (on-cell & in-cell).
➢ Optical sensing techniques:
❑ 1D sensing.
❑ 2D sensing.
❑ 3D sensing (for large-sized panels).

1
 23-04-2025

Touch Panel Technology

Introduction
Human Senses and Machine Interaction
➢ Humans interact with the world through five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell,
and touch.
➢ Displays stimulate human vision — a dominant sense.
➢ Machines (TVs, phones, laptops) output images (sight) and sounds (hearing).
Input Devices in Human-Machine Communication
➢ Input devices allow humans to communicate with machines:
❑ Remote control → TV
❑ Keyboard & mouse → Computer
❑ Touch panel → Phones, tablets, car systems

Touch Panel Technology

Introduction
Touch Panels: Integration with Displays
➢ Touch panels placed over displays must be optically transparent.
➢ Integration of sight (display) and touch (panel) offers intuitive user
experiences:
❑ Touch → Select items
❑ Dragging → Move images
❑ Gestures → Enhance user interaction
Touch Panel Resolution
➢ Touch panels need lower resolution than displays.
➢ Human fingers provide sufficient accuracy (mm resolution).

2
 23-04-2025

Touch Panel Technology

Introduction
Types of Touch Panels
1. Resistive Touch Panels
➢ Structure: Two conductive layers with a gap.
➢ Working Principle: Touch causes layers to contact → Current flows →
Resistance changes.
➢ Drawbacks:
❑ Needs mechanical pressure.
❑ Lower light transmittance.
❑ Increased module thickness.
2. Capacitive Touch Panels
➢ Working Principle: Finger touch provides a path for electric charge → No
mechanical deformation needed.
➢ Advantages over resistive: Higher transmittance and thinner modules.

Touch Panel Technology

Introduction
Capacitive Touch Panels & Their Limitations
➢ Commonly used for small to medium displays (less than 20 inches).
➢ Performance issues in larger displays due to:
❑ Limited conductivity of transparent conductor layer (usually Indium Tin
Oxide - ITO).
❑ Signal distortion and degraded performance.
Solutions for Large Touch Panels
➢ Replacement of ITO with:
❑ Thin metal mesh.
❑ Other advanced transparent conductors.

3
 23-04-2025

Touch Panel Technology

Introduction
Integration Methods of Touch Panels
A. On-Cell Configuration
➢ Touch sensor fabricated on the top substrate of LCD.
B. In-Cell Configuration
➢ Touch function embedded with Thin-Film Transistors (TFTs) within LCD's
substrate.
➢ Benefits: Reduced module thickness and fabrication cost.

Touch Panel Technology

Introduction
Optical Sensing Technology : A promising solution for large-size touch panels.
➢ Working Principle:
❑ Transmitters emit infrared light.
❑ Detectors receive light signals.
❑ Touch blocks or reflects light → Detects touch position.
Advantages of Optical Sensing:
➢ Capable of 2D and 3D sensing (detects depth).
➢ Enables machine vision → Interactive displays: Machines can "look at" and
respond to users.
Advanced Touch Differentiation:
➢ Distinguishes objects (e.g., pen vs. hand) touching the panel.
➢ Example: Touch pen with electromagnetic wave transmission.

4
 23-04-2025

Resistive Touch Panel

Resistive Touch Panel Structure consists of two substrates (Figure 9.1a) :
➢ Each substrate is coated with a transparent conductor
on the inner surface.
➢ Top substrate:
❑ Must be deformable (materials like PET or
Polyimide (PI) foil).
➢ Bottom substrate:
❑ Should be rigid or laminated onto an Figure 9.1: (a) Structure of resistive touch panel

inflexible surface.
➢ Substrates are separated by dot spacers:
❑ Prevent electrical contact without touch input.

Resistive Touch Panel

Working Principle of Resistive Touch Panel (Figure 9.1b)
➢ When touched:
❑ The top membrane deforms and
❑ Top and bottom conductors make contact.
➢ Detection mechanism:
❑ Different touch points cause changes in
resistivity.
❑ These resistivity changes allow detection of Figure 9.1:(b) the resistive touch panel
upon touch
touch position.

Important Design Considerations

➢ Top-substrate → Must be flexible to allow deformation.
➢ Bottom-substrate → Must be rigid to avoid false
contacts from panel flexing.

10

5
 23-04-2025

Resistive Touch Panel

➢ Figure 9.2 shows the structure and the operation principle of the 4-wire resistive
touch panel.
➢ It has four electrical connections, so referred to as a "4-wire Touch Panel."
➢ Working Principle of Resistive Touch Panel (4-Wire Type): Electrode
Arrangement:
❑ Top-substrate: Two parallel electrodes
create an electric field along the x-axis.
❑ Bottom-substrate: Electrodes generate a
potential gradient along the y-axis.
Touch Sensing Process:
➢ Apply a voltage difference (e.g., X1 = 5V, Figure 9.2: Electrode structure and operation
principle of 4-wire resistive touch panel
X2 = 0V) to top-substrate electrodes (Scan Signal).

11

Resistive Touch Panel

Touch Sensing Process (contd.):
➢ When touched:
❑ Top and bottom conductors make contact.
❑ Voltage at the touch point is sensed at the bottom substrate (Sensing Signal).
❑ Touch position along x-axis determined by the ratio of effective resistances R2
and (R1 + R2).
➢ Sensing the y-axis:
❑ Apply voltage difference to bottom electrodes.
❑ Sense voltage at the top conductive membrane.
❑ Position along y-axis determined from the measured potential.
➢ Characteristics:
❑ Touch position detection depends on resistance values in both x and y directions.
❑ Called a "Resistive Touch Panel“, because of reliance on resistivity.

12

6
 23-04-2025

Resistive Touch Panel

Material and Design Considerations of Resistive Touch Panels
➢ Transparent Conductor Material: Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) is commonly used.
➢ Challenges with ITO on Flexible Substrate:
❑ Continuous deformation from touch may cause ITO films to crack over time.
❑ Result: ITO is not ideal for scanning signals on the upper substrate.
Solution to ITO Limitations: 5-Wire Resistive Touch Panel
➢ Design Improvement: Four contacts placed at the
four corners of the bottom substrate.
❑ Entire top-conductor acts as the sensing
electrode.

Figure 9.3: Structure of 5-wire

resistive touch panel

13

Resistive Touch Panel

Working Principle of 5-Wire Resistive Touch Panel :
➢ For x-axis detection: UR and LR at 5V; UL and LL at 0V → Sense voltage on
top-conductor.
➢ For y-axis detection: UR and UL at 5V; LR and LL at 0V → Sense voltage on
top-conductor.
Advantage: Reduces stress and cracking issues on the top ITO layer.
Multi-Touch Capability
➢ 4-wire and 5-wire touch panels usually do not support multi-touch.
➢ Achieving Multi-Touch:
❑ Patterning ITO on top and bottom electrodes forms a matrix of multiple 4-
wire panels.
❑ Enables multi-touch detection.

14

7
 23-04-2025

Resistive Touch Panel

Figure 9.4: Light transmission from display through resistive touch panel to the human eye.

Limitation of Resistive Touch Panels:

➢ Refractive index of ITO ~2.0 causes ~10% reflection at each interface.
➢ Low optical transmittance due to reflection at ITO/air interfaces.
➢ With two ITO/air interfaces, total transmittance limited to ~80%.

15

Capacitive Touch Panel

Structure of Capacitive Touch Panel (Figure 9.5a)
➢ Consists of:
❑ Upper transmitter electrode supplied with an AC
signal.
❑ Grounded reference electrode.
➢ Forms a parallel-plate capacitor with initial capacitance
(Cs).
➢ When a finger touches the panel:
❑ Human body adds extra capacitance (Cf) by
providing a path to ground.
❑ Total capacitance increases: C = Cs + Cf .
(b)

Figure 9.5: (a) Structure of a capacitive touch panel,

and (b) Operation principle of surface capacitive sensor

16

8
 23-04-2025

Capacitive Touch Panel

Working Principle of Capacitive Touch (Figures 9.6(a))
➢ Measured capacitance is between sensing electrode
and ground → Known as self-capacitance.
➢ AC signal is sent from the four corners of the
transmitter electrode.
➢ Touch position is determined by analyzing the RC (a)

network created by the touch.

Equivalent circuit of Capacitive Touch Panel: As

shown in Figure 9.6(b).

(b)
Figure 9.6: (a) Schematic diagram of a touched point on
the capacitive touch panel, and its (b) Equivalent circuit

17

Capacitive Touch Panel

Features of Capacitive Touch Panels
➢ No mechanical deformation required for touch
detection.
➢ Only conductive objects (like a human finger) can
trigger the sensor.
➢ Non-conductive objects (like wood or plastic) are not
detected. (a)

Multi-Touch Function in Capacitive Panels (Figure 9.7)

➢ Achieved using a Projected Capacitive Touch Panel
design:
❑ Two transparent conductive layers arranged in
perpendicular stripes. (b)

❑ Layers are separated by an insulating layer. Figure 9.7: (a) Layout and (b) side view
of a projected capacitive touch panel.

18

9
 23-04-2025

Capacitive Touch Panel

Working of Projected Capacitive Touch Panel
➢ First, the diamond patterns are fabricated on each substrate and are stacked
together.
➢ They are bonded with an optically clear adhesive (OCA).
➢ Diamond-shaped patterns formed at intersections of x- and y-electrodes act as
small surface capacitors.
➢ Multi-touch Detection:
❑ Voltage pulses sent sequentially to x-electrodes.
❑ All y-electrodes connected as a common sensor.
❑ x-positions detected using self-capacitance values.
❑ y-positions detected by reversing the scan and sensing roles of x- and y-
electrodes.

19

Capacitive Touch Panel

Limitations of Self-Capacitance in Multi-Touch (Figure 9.8 (a),(b))
➢ Self-capacitance measurements cannot distinguish between overlapping multi-
touch points (e.g., positions [1,2] vs. [3,4] ).
➢ Ambiguity arises because self-capacitance is linked only to individual x- and y-
electrodes.

(a) (b)

Figure 9.8: The same responses from self-capacitance measurement by touching (a) (1, 2), and (b) (3, 4)

20

10
 23-04-2025

Capacitive Touch Panel

Introduction of Mutual Capacitance (Figure 9.9(a))
➢ Mutual-capacitance: Measured between intersecting x-
and y-electrodes (CM and CM′).
➢ Touch input affects mutual capacitance:
❑ Provides more precise detection of multiple touch
points. (a)

❑ Resolves ambiguity in self-capacitance-only systems.

Capacitance Behavior During Touch
➢ Self-capacitance increases with touch: Finger adds a
path to ground → Parallel capacitor effect.
➢ Mutual-capacitance decreases with touch: (b)

❑ Finger shields electric field lines → Less charge Figure 9.9: (a) Mutual capacitances between
electrodes, and (b) Electric field shielding in
reaches receiver. mutual capacitance measurement

21

Capacitive Touch Panel

GGG Configuration:
➢ Named for its three glass substrates (Figure 9.10a).
➢ Requires OCA (optically clear adhesive) between
substrates for optimal optical transmittance.
➢ Physically thick—less suitable for mobile devices.
GG Configuration Alternatives:
➢ DITO (Double-Sided ITO Patterning):
❑ ITO is deposited and patterned on both sides of a
single glass substrate (Figure 9.10b).
❑ Spacing between conductors is ~550μm (glass
thickness).
❑ Offers better touch performance due to less
parasitic capacitance. Figure 9.10: Projected capacitive
touch panel with different
configurations: (a) GGG, (b) DITO

22

11
 23-04-2025

Capacitive Touch Panel

➢ SITO (Single-Sided ITO Patterning):
❑ Requires an insulator to separate x- and y-
conductors at crossover points (Figure
9.10c).
❑ Spacing between conductors is ~3μm
(insulator thickness).
❑ Overlap regions cause higher parasitic
capacitance, reducing signal-to-noise ratio.
OGS (One Glass Solution):
➢ Touch function integrated directly onto the cover
glass (Figure 9.10d).
Figure 9.10: Projected capacitive
touch panel with different
configurations: (c) SITO, (d) OGS

23

Capacitive Touch Panel

Polymer Film Alternative:
➢ GFF (Glass-Film-Film):
❑ Replaces two glass substrates with two films.
❑ Easier fabrication than DITO-film.
❑ Good cost-performance balance due to low-cost ITO film and manageable
thickness/weight.

Figure 9.10: Projected capacitive touch panel with

different configurations: (e) GFF, and (f) DITO-film.

24

12
 23-04-2025

ON-CELL AND IN-CELL TOUCH PANEL

LCD Structure:
➢ LC material between two substrates; TFT
array on bottom.
➢ Top substrate often has transparent common
electrodes (except in IPS/FFS).
Touch Integration:
➢ Conductors arranged perpendicularly enable
touch function.
❑ On-cell: Touch conductors on top
substrate (Figure 9.11). Figure 9.11: On-cell touch panel
integrated with LCD
❑ In-cell: Touch conductors on bottom
substrate.
➢ Similar to OGS, but conductors are on CF
glass instead of cover glass.

25

ON-CELL AND IN-CELL TOUCH PANEL

OLED Displays:
➢ Use one substrate for display (TFT + OLED
layers).
➢ Top glass is for protection, allowing easy touch
panel integration (Figure 9.12).
Figure 9.12: On-cell touch panel
Touch + Display Integration: integrated with OLED.
➢ Touch circuits are simpler than display circuits.
➢ Possible to integrate both into TFTs (Figure 9.13).

Figure 9.13: Configuration of in-cell touch panel with (a) self-

and (b) mutual-capacitance mode.

26

13
 23-04-2025

ON-CELL AND IN-CELL TOUCH PANEL

➢ Supports self- and mutual-capacitance sensing.
➢ Time-domain signal separation required for hybrid
operation.
➢ Touch uses less time, but trade-offs arise with higher
resolution and frame rates.
Materials Used:
➢ Amorphous-Si and low-temperature poly-Si used in
TFTs and optical sensors due to strong light
absorption.
Touch via Optical Sensors:
➢ Optical sensors can be embedded in TFT arrays for
touch function (Figure 9.14a).
➢ Active Pixel Sensor (APS) at pixel center acts as light Figure 9.14: (a) and (b) Layout of in-
detector (Figures 9.14b). cell touch panel with optical sensor

27

ON-CELL AND IN-CELL TOUCH PANEL

➢ Extra voltage line (VDD) supplies sensor bias.
Sensor Layout:
➢ Not all pixels need sensors due to lower resolution of touch panels.
➢ Sensors detect backlight, ambient, and signal light—noise filtering is essential.
3D Sensing:
➢ Two photodetectors + optical shield integrated into
a single pixel enable depth sensing (Figure 9.15).
➢ Detects reflected/scattered light from nearby objects
➢ Measures backward-emitted light to determine
object position.
➢ No physical touch required—purely optical
detection.
➢ Different “viewing” angles of sensors allow precise Figure 9.15: Idea of the 3D optical sensing

3D location tracking.

28

14
 23-04-2025

OPTICAL SENSING FOR LARGE PANELS

Challenge with Larger Displays:
➢ Low conductivity of ITO increases RC value, distorting
touch signals.
➢ Metal mesh offers better conductivity but reduces
optical clarity.
Optical Sensing Solution:
➢ Uses infrared (IR) light, invisible and display-friendly.
➢ Two IR LEDs and linear sensor arrays placed at top
corners (Figure 9.16).
➢ Retroreflectors on edges reflect IR back; touch blocks
light, enabling position detection. Figure 9.16: Optical touch panel for
large display.
Design Considerations:
➢ Requires ~1cm sidewall for IR light confinement—ideal
for wall-mounted displays.

29

OPTICAL SENSING FOR LARGE PANELS

Waveguide Alternative:
➢ Light enters via side-emitting LED.
➢ Touch breaks total internal reflection (TIR), IR light scatters and is detected
(FTIR panel).
3D Camera Input:
➢ Detects object location and gestures without touch.
➢ Suitable for motion-based control over several meters.

30

15