Speech and Voice Science, 4th Edition

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Speech and Voice Science
FOURTH EDITION

Alison Behrman, PhD, CCC-SLP

With a Contribution by Donald Finan, PhD
5521 Ruffin Road
San Diego, CA 92123

e-mail: [email protected]
Website: https://www.pluralpublishing.com

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Behrman, Alison, author. | Finan, Donald, author.
Title: Speech and voice science / Alison Behrman, with a contribution by
Donald Finan.
Description: Fourth edition. | San Diego, CA : Plural Publishing, Inc.,
[2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021011279 (print) | LCCN 2021011280 (ebook) | ISBN
9781635503227 (paperback) | ISBN 9781635503234 (ebook)
Subjects: MESH: Speech--physiology | Voice--physiology | Case Reports
Classification: LCC QP306 (print) | LCC QP306 (ebook) | NLM WV 501 | DDC
612.7/8--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021011279
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021011280
Contents

Clinical Cases and Applications xv

Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxii
About the Illustrator xxiii
About the Contributor xxv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Clinical Usefulness of Speech and Voice Science 2
Scenario 1 2
Scenario 2 2
Scenario 3 3
1.2 Defining Speech Science 3
1.3 Advice for Students on Effective Study Techniques 5
Study as Though You Are Having a Test Every Week 6
Study With a Partner or Group 6
Reach Beyond Memorization to Understand the Material 7
Administer Self-Exams 7
Stay Mindfully Present in Class 7
Don’t Focus Only on the Slides! 8
Read Assignments Before and After Class 8
Use the Study Aids 8
Understand the Reason Why Facts Are Important 9
Create Diagrams and Charts 9
Do Not Rely on Index Cards 9
Talk It Out! 9
Look Over Your Tests and Quizzes for a Pattern of Errors 9
Work It Out! 9
Ask the Instructor 9
Make Sure That Your Study Time Is Focused Without Distractions 10
Don’t Wait Until the End of the Semester to Ask Your Professor for Help! 10
Advice for Synchronous or Asynchronous Online Classes 10

2 Describing and Explaining Motion 11

2.1 Systems of Measurement 12
2.2 Describing Motion: Speed, Velocity, Acceleration, and Deceleration 13
2.3 Newton’s Laws Explain Motion 14
The First Law of Motion 14
The Second Law of Motion 14
The Third Law of Motion 14
2.4 Momentum and Energy 15

v
vi  SPEECH AND VOICE SCIENCE

Momentum 15
Energy 16
Energy, Work, and Power 16
Kinetic and Potential Energy 17
2.5 Three States of Matter 18
Density 20
Elasticity and Stiffness 21
Pressure 23
Units of Measurement of Pressure 24
References 25

3 Sound Waves 27
3.1 Vibration 28
3.2 The Nature of Waves 28
Pulse Waves 30
Longitudinal Pressure Waves 30
3.3 Transfer of Energy in Waves 32
3.4 Visualizing a Sound Wave 35
3.5 Properties of Sound Waves 35
Frequency 35
Period 39
Intensity 40
Wavelength 44
Speed of Sound 45
3.6 The Perception of Sound Waves 46
Perception of Intensity 47
Perception of Frequency 48
3.7 Pure and Complex Tones 49
Power Spectra 52
Noise 55
3.8 Behavior of Sound Waves 56
Interference 56
Boundaries 58
Reflection 59
3.9 Resonance 59
Natural Resonant Frequency 60
Standing Wave Patterns 62
Rules Governing Standing Waves 63
Forced Vibration 65
Acoustic Resonators 68
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 69
References 69

4 Breathing 71
Clinical Case 1: Breath-Holding Speech 72
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Respiration 76
4.3 Balloons or Boyle’s Law? 76
 CONTENTS   vii

4.4 Anatomy of the Lower Airway 78

The Work of Muscles 82
Agonist-Antagonist Pairs 82
Muscles and Levers 83
The Muscles of Breathing 84
4.5 The Biomechanics of Breathing 87
The Biomechanics of Tidal Breathing 87
Lung Volumes and Capacities 91
The Biomechanics of Forced Inhalation and Exhalation 93
4.6 The Biomechanics of Speech Breathing 95
Relaxation Curve and Phonation 96
Running Speech 98
Phrase Breath Groups 99
Adaptation of Speech Breathing to Variable Internal and External Demands 101
Body Type 102
Cognitive-Linguistic Variables 102
Speech Breathing Personality 103
Respiratory Demands 104
4.7 The Work of Breathing 106
Airway Resistance 106
Laminar and Turbulent Airflow 108
Elastic Resistance 108
Viscosity 109
4.8 Instrumentation for Measuring Breathing Kinematics 110
Electromyography (EMG) 110
Respiratory Inductance Plethysmography 112
4.9 Clinical Application: Disorders Related to Breathing 112
Etiologies 112
Symptoms and Characteristics 113
Diagnostic Strategies 114
Therapeutic Approaches 114
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 115
References 115

5 Phonation I: Basic Voice Science 119

Clinical Case 2: Running Out of Breath 120
5.1 Overview 121
5.2 Anatomy of the Larynx 122
Structural Framework 122
Laryngeal Membranes and Cavities 124
Three Functions of the Larynx 127
Laryngeal Muscles 128
Intrinsic Muscles 130
Extrinsic Muscles 133
The Vocal Folds 135
Structural Overview 135
Lamina Propria 136
Mechanical Layers 137
viii  SPEECH AND VOICE SCIENCE

Cricothyroid Joints 139

Cricoarytenoid Joints 140
Blood Supply to the Larynx and Lymphatic Drainage 141
5.3 Neural Control of Phonation 142
Central Motor Control 142
Peripheral Motor Neural Control and Brainstem Nuclei 142
Peripheral Sensory Control and Brainstem Nuclei 145
5.4 Theories of Voice Production 145
The Bernoulli Effect 147
The Myoelastic-Aerodynamic Theory 150
5.5 Biomechanics of Vocal Fold Vibration 150
Viscoelastic Component 154
Vertical Phase Difference: The Mucosal Wave 154
The Importance of Vocal Fold Closure 156
Glottal Volume Velocity 156
Laryngeal Airway Resistance 157
Phonation Threshold Pressure 158
Phonation Onset 158
5.6 Biomechanical Stress-Strain Properties of Vocal Fold Tissues 160
5.7 Physiology of Phonatory Control 162
Fundamental Frequency (ƒo) 162
Natural Resonance of the Vocal Folds 163
Cover-Dominant Vibration 164
Body Plus Cover Vibration 166
Lung Pressure in the Regulation of ƒo 166
Differential Control of ƒo : Evidence From EMG Data 167
Control of Intensity 168
Auditory Feedback of Control of ƒo and Intensity 172
Biomechanical Forces During Phonation 173
5.8 Voice Quality 174
5.9 Clinical Application: Disorders Related to Voice Production 175
Etiologies 176
Symptoms and Characteristics 176
Diagnostic Strategies 177
Therapeutic Approaches 178
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 179
References 179

6 Phonation II: Measurement and Instrumentation 185

Clinical Case 3: Camp Voice 186
6.1 Measurement of ƒo and Intensity 187
ƒo Measures 187
Intensity Measures 189
Voice Range Profile (VRP) 190
6.2 Measurement of Phonatory Aerodynamics 193
Airflow and Lung Pressure 193
Vocal Efficiency 195
S/Z Ratio 197
 ix
CONTENTS  

Maximum Phonation Time 198

Phonation Quotient 198
6.3 Instrumentation for Exploring the Dynamics of the Vocal Folds 199
Stroboscopy 200
High-Speed Laryngeal Imaging 203
Videokymography (VKG) 203
Photoglottography (PGG) 203
Electroglottography (EGG) 206
Open Quotient (OQ), Speed Quotient (SQ), and Contact Quotient (CQ) 208
6.4 Vocal Registers 210
Modal Register 211
Vocal Fry 211
Falsetto 213
Clinical Case 4: Persistent Mutational Falsetto 214
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 215
References 215

7 The Production and Perception of Vowels 223

Clinical Case 5: Accent Management 224
7.1 Introduction 226
7.2 Acoustic Theory of Speech Production 227
Acoustic Characteristics of the Source 229
The Vocal Tract Transfer Function 231
Acoustic Characteristics of Lip Radiation 234
Resonance and Standing Waves 235
7.3 Vowels 237
Vocal Tract Constrictions and Formant Frequencies 237
First Formant Frequency (F1) 238
Second Formant Frequency (F2) 239
Third Formant Frequency (F3) 239
The Traditional Vowel Quadrilateral 239
Vowel Quality and Articulatory Posture 242
Acoustic Representation of Vowel Quality 243
Resonating Cavities of the Vocal Tract 245
Vowel Formant Normative Data 249
Tense-Lax Vowel Quality and Inherent Duration 249
Rhotacized Vowel Quality 251
Diphthongs 251
Intrinsic Pitch of Vowels 254
7.4 Language and Dialect Influences on Vowel Production 259
Accentedness — Everyone Has an Accent! 260
7.5 The Vocal Tract as a Regulator of Intensity 260
Harmonic Structure, Energy Loss, and Near-Periodicity 261
Revisiting the Voice Range Profile 261
Singer’s Formant and Formant Tuning 264
Speaker’s Formant 264
7.6 Acoustic Filters 265
7.7 Instrumentation for Measuring Vocal Tract Acoustics 268
x  SPEECH AND VOICE SCIENCE

Sound Spectrography 268

Narrowband and Wideband Spectrograms 269
Exploring Spectrograms 270
Visualizing Language and Dialectical Vowel Differences 274
Nearly Periodic Voice Source 275
Voiceprints: Voice Science or Science Fiction? 275
Quantitative Spectral Measures 275
Long-Term Average Spectrum 276
Harmonics-to-Noise Ratio 276
Cepstral Measures 277
Inverse Filtering 279
7.8 Vocal Tract Imaging: Current Research and Future Trends 279
Conventional Radiography (X-rays) 280
Computed Tomography (CT) 281
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 282
Ultrasound 285
Clinical Case 6: Ataxic Dysarthria 287
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 288
References 288

8 The Production and Perception of Consonants 293

Clinical Case 7: Facial Nerve Trauma 294
8.1 Introduction 295
8.2 Three Sources of Speech Sounds 298
Coarticulation 299
8.3 Phonetic Description of Consonants 299
Place of Articulation 299
Manner of Articulation 300
8.4 Acoustic Representation of Consonants 301
Stops 301
Stop Gap 301
Release Burst 301
Aspiration 303
Voice Onset Time 304
Formant Transitions 308
Released and Unreleased Stops 312
Glottal Stop 312
Fricatives 314
Approximants 324
Glides (Semivowels) 325
Liquids 327
Nasals 333
Vowel Nasalization 336
Affricates 337
8.5 Clinical Application: Speech Sound Disorders 341
Etiologies 341
Symptoms and Characteristics 341
Diagnostic Strategies 341
 xi
CONTENTS  

Therapeutic Strategies 342

8.6 Language and Dialect Influences on Consonant Production 342
Accentedness 343
8.7 Instrumentation and Measurement of Vocal Tract Aerodynamics 344
Intraoral Air Pressure 345
Nasal Airflow and Acoustics 345
Nasal Airflow 346
Nasalance 346
8.8 Instrumentation for Measuring Articulation 347
X-ray Microbeam 348
Electromagnetic Midsagittal Articulography (EMMA) 349
Optoelectronic Tracking 350
Strain Gauges 351
Electropalatography 352
Clinical Case 8: Articulation Errors 353
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 354
References 354

9 Prosody 361
Clinical Case 9: Parkinson’s Disease 362
9.1 Introduction to Prosody 363
9.2 Basic Building Blocks of Prosody 363
Intonation (ƒo Contour) 364
Timing (Duration and Juncture) 366
Loudness (Intensity Contour) 369
9.3 Syllabic Stress and Prominence 370
9.4 Speech Rhythm 374
Temporal Measurement of Rhythm 375
9.5 Accentedness and Prosody 376
9.6 In Summary of Prosody 376
Clinical Case 10: Gender-Diverse Speech and Voice 377
References 378

10 Theories and Models of Speech Production 383

Clinical Case 11: Spastic Cerebral Palsy 385
10.1 Introduction 386
10.2 Theories and Models 388
10.3 Theoretical Issues for Consideration 390
Degrees of Freedom 390
Motor Programs 391
Output Targets 392
Serial Ordering and Sensory Feedback 394
Unit of Analysis 395
Coarticulation 401
10.4 Models of Speech Production 404
Directions Into Velocities of Articulators (DIVA) 404
Dynamical Systems 405
Spatiotemporal Organization 406
xii  SPEECH AND VOICE SCIENCE

Connectionist Models 408

10.5 Investigational Considerations 408
Speaking Task 408
Perturbation Studies 409
Rate 411
10.6 Motor Learning Principles 413
10.7 Language and Speech 415
Clinical Case 12: Oral Motor Exercises 417
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 418
References 418

11 Theories of Speech Perception 427

Clinical Case 13: Visual Feedback 428
11.1 Introduction 428
11.2 Topics in Speech Perception 429
Lack of Invariance 429
Unit of Analysis Revisited 430
Lack of Segmentation 431
Perceptual Normalization 431
Specialized Perception of Speech 432
Duplex Perception 433
The McGurk Effect 433
Contextual Effect 434
11.3 Theories of Speech Perception 434
Updated Motor Theory of Speech Perception 435
Mirror Neurons 436
Acoustic Landmarks and Distinctive Features 437
11.4 What Babies Can Tell Us About Perception 438
Native Language Magnet Theory-Expanded 440
11.5 Perception of Speaker Identity 441
Indexical Properties 441
Sex, Gender, and Indexical Properties 441
Accentedness and Indexical Properties 442
Race and Ethnicity and Indexical Properties 442
Clinical Case 14: Auditory Feedback 443
Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning 444
References 444

12 Instrumentation 451
Donald Finan
12.1 Introduction to Measurement 452
12.2 Basic Principles of Measurement 452
Error in Measurement 454
Transduction 455
It’s Electric ! 457
12.3 Sensors for Capturing Speech 457
12.4 Microphones 459
Microphone Designs 459
 xiii
CONTENTS  

Microphone Transducer Types 460

Microphone Performance Characteristics 461
Directionality 461
Frequency Response 462
Sensitivity and Dynamic Range 463
Adequate Microphone Performance for Speech Analysis 464
12.5 Amplification 466
Amplifier Performance Characteristics 466
Gain 466
Frequency Response 467
Dynamic Range 467
Amplifier Compatibility 468
12.6 Making the Connection 469
12.7 Recording Environment 470
Ambient Acoustic Noise 471
Electromagnetic Interference 471
12.8 Data Acquisition: Let’s Get Digital 472
Sampling: Time Representation 473
Quantization: Amplitude Representation 476
Frequency-Based Error: Aliasing 476
Amplitude-Based Error: Quantization Noise and Peak Clipping 477
12.9 Data Storage 478
12.10 Balancing Cost, Complexity, and Accuracy in Digital Data Acquisition 480
12.11 Best Practices for the Use of Instrumentation 483
Sensor Performance and Use 483
Preamplifier Performance and Use 485
Data Acquisition System Performance and Use 486
12.12 Let’s Wrap This Thing Up! 486
References 487

Appendix A. Measurement Conversions 489

Appendix B. Reading Passages 491
Appendix C. Frequencies of the Musical Scale (A4 = 440 Hz) 497
Appendix D. The International Phonetic Alphabet 499
Index 501
Clinical Cases and Applications

Chapter 4. Breathing

Clinical Case 1: Breath-Holding Speech 72

An adult bilingual woman is having difficulty making herself heard in a noisy work environment
and feels that talking is hard work. The evaluation by the speech-language pathologist (SLP) reveals
inefficient speech breathing strategies. Features of speech breathing are addressed.

Clinical Application: Disorders Related to Breathing 112

An overview of breathing disorders that can impact speech production is presented, including cat-
egories of etiology, symptoms, diagnostic strategies, and therapeutic approaches. The connection
between speech breathing problems and the anatomy and physiology of breathing is emphasized.

Chapter 5. Phonation I: Basic Voice Science

Clinical Case 2: Running Out of Breath 120

An adult woman with a functional voice disorder is seen for a voice evaluation. Factors that con-
tribute to inefficient voice production are addressed.

Clinical Application: Disorders Related to Voice Production 175

An overview of voice disorders is presented, including categories of etiology, symptoms, diagnostic

strategies, and therapeutic approaches. The connection between voice disorders and the anatomy
and physiology of voice production is emphasized.

Chapter 6. Phonation II: Measurement and Instrumentation

Clinical Case 3: Camp Voice 186

A fourth grader with a voice disorder due to excessive voice use is seen for voice therapy. The
relationship between voice production and voice quality is addressed.

Clinical Case 4: Persistent Mutational Falsetto 214

A teenage boy with persistence of prepuberty pitch and voice quality is seen for voice therapy.
Differences in pre- and postpuberty vocal characteristics in boys are addressed.

xv
xvi  SPEECH AND VOICE SCIENCE

Chapter 7. The Production and Perception of Vowels

Clinical Case 5: Accent Management 224

An adult whose first language is Spanish wants to improve his pronunciation in English for his job
as a reading specialist. An SLP conducted accent management therapy with a focus on differences
in tense-lax vowel production. Acoustic features of tense and lax vowels are referenced.

Clinical Case 6: Ataxic Dysarthria 287

A man with Friedreich’s ataxia, a progressive disease, had difficulty coordinating the movements
for articulation and voice production. The combined effects of both a speech and voice disorder
are addressed.

Chapter 8. The Production and Perception of Consonants

Clinical Case 7: Facial Nerve Trauma 294

An adult with trauma to the facial nerve has speech and swallowing difficulties. The therapy
included strategies to increase oral articulatory movements for improved phoneme production.
Acoustic cues for consonant production and the effect upon prosody are addressed.

Clinical Application: Speech Sound Disorders 341

An overview of disorders of articulation of consonants is presented, including categories of etiology,

symptoms, diagnostic strategies, and therapeutic approaches. The connection between articulation
problems and the physiology and acoustics of consonant production is emphasized.

Clinical Case 8: Articulation Errors 353

A boy with articulation errors receives speech therapy in school. The SLP includes feedback on
the differences in pitch between correct and incorrect production of /s/. Acoustic cues for fricative
production are addressed.

Chapter 9. Prosody

Clinical Case 9: Parkinson’s Disease 362

A bilingual (Mandarin/English) adult with Parkinson’s disease receives speech therapy to work
on the decreased speech intensity and prosody that has increasingly interfered with his ability to
make himself easily understood. Prosody is addressed within the context of a tonal (Mandarin)
and nontonal (English) language.

Clinical Case 10: Gender-Diverse Speech and Voice 377

An adult in the process of transitioning from male to female receives speech therapy to help her
express the voice and speech characteristics that help her to feel authentic. Those characteristics
and the therapeutic approach are discussed.