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CELL…..BIOLOGY

Facts that Matter

• The smallest functional unit of life is cell, discovered by Robert Hooke
in 1665. A cell can independently perform all necessary activities to
sustain life. Hence cell is the basic unit of life. There are two types of
cells → plant cell and animal cell. The different cell organelles and their
functions are as follows:

1. Plasma/Cell membrane: This is the outermost covering of the cell

that separates the contents of the cell from its external environment.
The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some
materials in and out of the cell so the cell membrane is called a
selectively permeable membrane. Some substances like CO 2 or O 2 gases
can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion. The
movement of water molecules (liquid) through such a selectively
permeable membrane is called osmosis. Osmosis is the passage ot water
from a region of high water concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane to a region of low water concentration. If the medium
surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell, the
cell will gain water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as hypotonic
solution.
If the medium has exactly the same water concentration as the cell,
there will be no net movement of water across the cell membrane. Such
a solution is known as isotonic solution. If the medium has a lower water
concentration then the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is
known as hypertonic solution.

The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic

molecules called lipids and proteins. The flexibility of cell membrane
also enables the cell to engulf in food and other material from its
external environment. Such process is known as endocytosis. It is
observed in Amoeba.

2. Cell wall (Protective wall): Plants cells, in addition to the plasma

membrane have another rigid outer covering called cell wall. The cell
wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly
composed of cellulose. It is a complex substance and provides structural
strength to plant cells. When a living plant loses water through osmosis
there is shrinkage or contraction of contents of the cell away from cell
wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

3. Nucleus (Brain of a cell): The nucleus has a double-layered

covering called nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has pores
which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its
outside, i.e., to the cytoplasm.
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped
structures only when the cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain
information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation
in form of DNA [Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules. Chromosomes are
composed of DNA
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and protein. Functional segments of DNA are called genes. The nucleus
plays a central role in cellular reproduction.

Prokaryotic Cells: In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear

material is not enclosed by nuclear membrane and membrane bound cell
organelle are absent. Such nucleus is called nucleoid and such cells are
known as prokaryotic cell. Such cells have single chromosome.

Eukaryotic Cells: Cells having well defined nucleus and having

membrane bound cell organelle is termed as eukaryotic cell. Such cells
have more than one chromosomes.

4. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma

membrane. It also contains many specialised cell organelles. Each of
these organelles performs a specific function for the cell.

5. Cell Organelles: Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its

content separate from the external environment. The different
components of cell perform different function and these components are
called cell organelles.

(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Channels, Network for

transport): The ER is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and
sheets. It looks like long tubules or round or oblong bags.
There are two types of ER-Rough endoplasmic reticulum [RER]
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum [SER]. RER has particles called
ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes are the sites of protein
manufacture.
 The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids,
important for cell function. Some of these proteins and lipids help in
building the cell membrane. This process is known as membrane
biogenesis. Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and
hormones.

The one function of ER is to serve as channels for the transport

of materials between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus. The ER(3 also functions as a cytoplasmic
framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical activities of
the cell.
(ii) Golgi Apparatus (Packaging): The golgi apparatus, first
described by Camillo Golgi, consists of a system of membrane-bound
vesicles arranged approximately, parallel to each other in stacks called
cisterns.
The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and
dispatched to various targets inside and outside the cell through the
Golgi apparatus. It's function include the storage, modification and
packages of products in vesicles. In some cases complex sugar may be
made from simple sugar in the Golgi apparatus. It is also involved in the
formation of lysosomes.
(iii) Lysosomes [Suicide bags] (Cleanliness of
cell): Lysosomes are a kind of waste dispatch and disposal system of
the cell. Lysosome help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign
material as well as worn-out cell organelles. Foreign materials entering
the cells such as bacteria or food, as well as old organelles, end up in
the lysosome, which break them up into small pieces. They are able to
do this because they contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of
breaking down all organic material. Under abnormal condition, when the
cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their
own cell. Therefore they are also known as “suicide bags”
(iv) Mitochondria (Powerhouse, Energy
provider): Mitochondria are known as powerhouses of the cell. The
energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is
released by mitochondria in the form of ATP [Adenosine Triphosphate]
molecules. ATP is known as energy currency of the cell. Mitochondria
have two membrane coverings instead of just one. The outer

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membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded.

They are able to make some of their own protein.
(v) Plastids: Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are two
types of plastids chromoplasts and leucoplasts. Chromoplasts are the
coloured plastids present in leaves, flowers and fruits. Plastids
containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. They are
important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also contain various
yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll. Leucoplasts are
found primarily in organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and
protein granules are stored. The internal organisation of the plastids
consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in a material called
stroma. Plastids are similar to mitochondria in external structure.
Plastids have their own DNA and ribosomes.
(vi) Vacuoles (Storage): Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or
liquid contents. Vacuoles are small-sized in animal cells while plant cells
have very large vacuoles [50% to 90% cell volume].
In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity
and rigidity to the cell. In Amoeba, the food vacuole contain the food
items that is consumed by it and contractile vacuoles expels excess
water and some wastes from the cell.

Cell Theory

Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839) gave the 'cell theory’.

The cell theory is as follows

1. All organisms are composed of cell and cell products.

2. All metabolic reactions take place in cells. Thus, cells are structural and
functional unit of life
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells only
4. Every organism start its life as a single cell.

 Types of Organisms on the Basis of Number of Cells-

 There are two kinds of organisms on the basis of cells:
(i) Unicellular Organisms: The organisms that are made up of
single cell and may constitute a whole organism, are named as
unicellular organisms.
 For example: Amoeba, Paramecium, bacteria, etc.
  (ii) Multicellular Organisms: The organisms which are composed
of a collection of cells that assume function in a coordinated
manner, with different cells specialized to perform particular tasks in
the body, are named as multicellular organisms.

For example: Plants, human beings, animals, etc.

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Shape and Size of Cells-

→ Cells vary in shape and size. They may be oval, spherical, rectangular,
spindle shaped, or totally irregular like the nerve cell.

→ The size of cell also varies in different organisms. Most of the cells are
microscopic in size like red blood cells (RBC) while some cells are fairly
large like nerve cells.

Types of Cells
The cells can be categorized in two types:
1. Prokaryotic Cell 2. Eukaryotic Cell

1. Prokaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cells are cells in which true nucleus is absent. They are
primitive and incomplete cells. Prokaryotes are always unicellular
organisms. For example, archaebacteria, bacteria, blue green algae are all
prokaryotes.
2. Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryobc cells are the cells in which true nucleus is present. They are
advanced and complete cells. Eukaryotes include all living organisms
(both unicellular and multicellular organisms) except bactera and blue
green algae.

Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

Cells:
S. No. Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Size of cell is generally small (1-10 mm). Size of cell is generally large (5-100 mm).

2. Nucleus is absent. Nucleus is present.

3. It contains single chromosome. It contains more than one chromosome.

4. Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present.

Memrane bound cell organelles are Memrane bound cell organelles such as
absent. mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic
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reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, etc., are
present.

Cell division takes place by fission or Cell division takes place by mitotic or meiotic
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budding. cell division.
Structure of Cell
Cell is generally composed of three basic components:

(i) Cell wall and cell membrane

(ii) Nucleus

(iii) Cytoplasm

(i) Cell membrane or Plasma membrane:

Plasma membrane is the covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its external environment.

It is a living part of the cell and is present in cells of plants, animals and microorganisms.

It is very thin, delicate, elastic and selectively permeable membrane.

It is composed of lipid and protein.

Function:
As it is selectively permeable membrane, it allows the flow of limited
substances in and out of the cell.

(ii) Cell wall:

cell wall is non-living, thick and freely permeable covering made up of cellulose.

It is present in eukaryotic plant cells and in prokaryotic cells.

Functions:

→ It determines the shape and rigidity to the plant cell.

→ It protects the plasma membrane.

→ It prevents desiccation or dryness in cell.

→ It helps in the transport of varous substances in and out of the cell.

(iii) Nucleus:

Nucleus is dense and spherical organelle.

Nucleus is bounded by two membranes, both forming nuclear envelope. Nuclear envelope contains many pores
known as nuclear pores.

The fluid which present inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.

Nucleus contains chromosomes and chromosomes contain genes which are the centres of genetic information.

Functions:
→ Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.

→ It regulates the cell cycle.

→ Nucleus is the storehouse of genes.It is concerned with the transmission

of hereditary traits from the parent to offspring.

(iv) Cytoplasm:

It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance that occurs between the plasma membrane and the
nuclear membrane.

The aqueous ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol that contains a variety of cell organelles and other
insoluble waste products and storage products, like starch, glycogen, lipid, etc.

Functions:
→ Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like amino acids, proteins,
sugars, vitamins, etc.
→ It is the site of certain metabolic reactions, like glycolysis, synthesis of
fatty acids, nucleotides, etc.

Difference Between Animal Cell and Plant Cell:

S. No. Animal cell Plant cell

1. Animal cells are generally small in size. Plant cells are larger than animal cells.

Cell wall is absent. Plasma membrane of plant cell is surrounded by a

2.
rigid cell wall of cellulose.

Plastids are absent except in case of Plastids are present.

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protozoan Euglena.

Here vacuoles are many, small and They have a permanent and large central sap
4.
temporary. vacuole.

5. They have centrosome and centrioles. They lack centrosome and centrioles.

SOME DEFINITIONS-
Selectively Permeable Membrane:

Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit of certain materials in the
cells. Therefore, it is named as selectively permeable membrane.

Substances can pass through the plasma membrane by two

processes:

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis

Diffusion
It is the process of movement of substances from a region of high
concentration to the region of low concentration until uniform
concentration is finally acheived.

For example:

→ During the respiration, due to the difference of the concentration of

carbon dioxide (CO2), inside and outside of the cell, CO2 is given out a
waste product, moving out from region of high concentration to region of
low concentration.

→ Similarly, oxygen (O2) enters the cell by the process of diffusion when
level of concentration of O2 inside the cell decreases.

Osmosis

It is the process of movement of water from its high concentration region

to its low concentration region through semi-permeable membrane.

Different types of solutions exhibiting osmosis are:

(i) Hypotonic Solution:

If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than
the cell, i.e., if the solution is very dilute solution, then the cell will gain
water by osmosis. Such dilute solution is called Hypotonic solution.

Endomosis: Though water molecules are free to pass across plasma

membrane in both sides but more water will enter inside the cell. The cell
will therefore swell up and increase in volume. This process is
called Endosmosis.

(ii) Isotonic Solution:

If the medium surrounding the cell is of exactly the same water

concentration as inside the cell, there will be no net movement of water
across membrane resulting in no change in size of cell. Such solution is
called Isotonic solution.

(iii) Hypertonic solution:

If the medium surrounding the cell has a lower water concentration than
inside the cell, i.e., if the solution is highly concentrated, then the cell will
lose water through osmosis. Such concentrated solution is called
Hypertonic solution.
Exomosis: When the water moves out of the cell placed in a highly
concentrated solution, it wall cause the cell to shrink. This process is
known as Exosmosis.

Plasmolysis and Cytolysis:

The biological phenomena of exosmosis when a cell or tissue is placed

into a strong hypertonic solution, is termed as plasmolysis, whereas the
reverse process is cytolysis, which occurs if the cell is placed in a
hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external osmotic pressure and a
net flow of water into the cell.

Difference between Diffusion and Osmosis:


S. No. Diffusion Osmosis

1. It can take place in any medium. It can take place only in liquid medium.

2. Semipermeable membrane is not required. Semipermeable membrane is required.

Here the diffusing molecules may be solids, It involves the movement of solvent molecules
3.
liquids or gases. only.

It is dependent on the free energy of the Here the diffusion of the solvent molecules is
4. molecules of the diffusing substance only. affected by the presence of other substances
(solute) in the system.

An equilibrium in the free energy of the Equilibrium in the free energy of the solvent
5.
diffusing molecules is achieved. molecules is never achieved.

Mediated Transport:

Plasma membrane renders the transposrt of many molecules of biological

significance. Such essential molecules are moved across the membrane
by special proteins called transport proteins or permeases. This process of
forced diffusion of certain substances through the plasma membrane is
called mediated transport.

Note: Permeases used in the process are quite specific to the substance
they transport.

Types of Mediated Transport:

It is of the following two types:

(i) Facilitated transport/diffusion: Here, the permeases assists a

molecule to diffuse through the membrane that it cannot otherwise
penetrate.
(ii) Active transport: In this case, the energy is supplied to the system
to transport the molecules in a direction opposite to a concentration
gradient.

Endocytosis:

It is the process of ingestion of materials by the cells through the plasma

membrane.

It describes all three similar processes: phagocytosis (cell eating),

potocytosis (cell drinking) and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Phagocytosis: It is a method of intake of food materials by certain

organisms like protozoa (Amoeba). The flexibility of the
cell membrane enables the cell to engulf the solid particles of food and
other materials from its external environment.

Exocytosis:

In this process the membrane of a vesicle can fuse with plasma

membrane and extrude its contents to the surrounding medium. This
process is also named as cell vomiting.

Cells exhibit exocytosis to:

→ Remove the undigested residues od=f substances brought in by

endocytosis.

→ Secrete substances such as hormones, enzymes

→ Transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier.