PHY 111-Mechanics and Thermal Properties of Matter

Lecture 1: Measurements and Dimensions Analysis

G.T. Taulo

Department of Physics and Electronics, School of Natural and

Applied Sciences, UNIMA.
 Physics
• Physics is the branch of science that studies matter and energy and how they interact with
each other.
• The energy can take the form of motion, light, electricity, radiation, sound, etc.

• Physics provides an understanding of the physical world through theories based on

experiments.

• It is based on experimental observations and quantitative measurements such as:

• What is the temperature of liquid helium?

• What is the wavelength of light from this laser?

• What is the time interval between two clicks of counters?

 Scientific Measurements
• Each measurement that describes natural phenomena is associated with a physical quantity,
such as the length and temperature of an object.

• A physical quantity is a property of matter that is quantifiable (or measurable).

• Some fundamental quantities are length, mass, and time. Other quantities, such as pressure,
density, etc., can be expressed in terms of the fundamentals.

• When reporting results of a measurement, a standard must be defined. It would be

meaningless if a visitor from another planet were to talk to us about a length of 8 “glitches” if
we do not know the meaning of the unit glitch.

• Measurement standards used by different people must yield the same result. In addition,
standards used for measurements must not change with time.
 The International System of Units
• In 1960, an international committee established a set of standards for the fundamental
quantities of science. It is called the SI (Système International), and its fundamental units of
length, mass, and time are the meter, kilogram, and second, respectively. Other standards for
SI fundamental units established by the committee are those for temperature (the kelvin),
electric current (the ampere), luminous intensity (the candela), and the amount of substance
(the mole).
Base and derived units
• The SI is founded on base units for the fundamental quantities assumed to be mutually
independent.

• SI base units are, in general, those that can't be expressed in terms of others.

• The newton (N) is a derived unit because it is defined as the force required to accelerate 1 kg
at 1 ms-2.
 Definition of some base/fundamental units
• Meter (m): One meter is defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.

• Kilogram (kg): One kilogram is defined as the mass of a specific platinum-iridium alloy
cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France.

An accurate copy of the international standard Kg kept at Sèvres, France.

• Second (s): One second is defined as the time occupied by 9,192 631,770 vibrations of
light (of a specified wavelength) emitted by a cesium-133 atom.
 Some SI derived units
Derived Quantity Symbol Derived Unit

Energy Joule (J) Kg ∙ m2 Τs 2

Force Newton (N) Kg ∙ mΤs2

Frequency Hertz (Hz) s−1

Power Watt (W) JΤs = Kg ∙ m2 Τs3

Charge Coulomb (C) A∙s

Pressure Pascal (Pa) NΤm2

= Kg ∙ m−1 Τs2
 Use of Prefixes
• As a matter of convenience, when dealing with very large or very small numbers, we often
use prefixes. These are listed in the table below.
Factor Prefix Symbol
1018 Exa- E
1015 Peta- P
1012 Tera- T
109 Giga- G
106 Mega- M
103 Kilo- K
10-3 Milli- M
10-6 Micro- μ
10-9 Nano- n
10-12 Pico- p
10-15 Femto- f
10-18 Atto- a

• Thus, we can express a particular electric power output as;

• 2,350,000,000 watts = 2.35 x 109 watts = 2.35 gigawatts = 2.35GW

Assuming it has only three significant figures

 Significant Figures
• The significant figures of a (measured or calculated) quantity are the meaningful digits in it.

• Any digit that is not zero is significant. Thus, 549 has three significant figures and 1.892 has
four significant figures.

• Zeros between non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 4023 has four significant figures.

• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant. Thus, 0.000034 has only two
significant figures. This is more easily seen if it is written as 3.4x10-5.

• For numbers with decimal points, zeros to the right of a non zero digit are significant. Thus,
2.00 has three significant figures and 0.050 has two significant figures. For this reason, it is
important to keep the trailing zeros to indicate the actual number of significant figures.
 Significant Figures
• There are also specific rules on how to consistently express the uncertainty associated with a
number. In general, the last significant figure in any result should be of the same order of
magnitude (i.e., in the same decimal position) as the uncertainty. Also, the uncertainty
should be rounded to one or two significant figures.
• For example; 9.82 ± 0.02, 10.0 ± 1.5, 4 ± 1

• Check the following;

• 9.82 ± 0.02385 is wrong but 9.82 ± 0.02 is correct, 10.0 ± 2 is wrong but 10.0 ± 2.0 is correct, and 4 ±
0.5 is wrong but 4.0 ± 0.5 is correct.

Identify the number of significant figures in the following:

• (a) 3.0800 (b) 0.00418 (c) 7.09 x 10-5 (d) 91,600 (e) 0.003005

• (f) 3.200 x 109 (g) 250 (h) 780,000,000 (i) 0.0101 (j) 0.00800
 Significant Figures
• When multiplying several quantities, the number of significant figures in the final answer is
the same as the number of significant figures in the quantity having the smallest number of
significant figures. The same rule applies to division.
E.g. 2.34 3.003 = 7.03

• When numbers are added or subtracted, the number of decimal places in the result should
equal the smallest number of decimal places of any term in the sum or difference.
E.g. 2.34 + 3.003 = 5.34

You round up if the number next to the level of significance is >5, otherwise you round down.
Given 3.3343 to have 3 significant figures, the result will be 3.33.
 The Idea of Error
• The concept of error needs to be well understood. What is and what is not meant by "error"?
An error is the difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value obtained in
measurement.
• A measurement may be made of a quantity which has an accepted value which can be looked
up in a handbook (e.g.. The density of brass). The difference between the measurement and
the accepted value is not what is meant by error. Such accepted values are not "right"
answers.
• They are just measurements made by other people which have errors associated with them
as well.
• Obviously, it cannot be determined exactly how far off a measurement is to a correct value
• Error, then, has to do with uncertainty in measurements that nothing can be done about. If a
measurement is repeated, the values obtained will differ and none of the results can be
preferred over the others. Although it is not possible to do anything about such error, it can
be characterized. For instance, the repeated measurements may cluster tightly together or
they may spread widely and the pattern can be analysed.
 Classification of Error
• Errors are divided into two kinds, systematic and random errors.

• Systematic errors are errors that tend to shift all measurements in a systematic way so their
mean value is displaced. This may be due to such things as incorrect calibration of equipment,
consistently improper use of equipment, or failure to properly account for some effect. In a
sense, a systematic error is rather like a blunder, and large systematic errors can and must be
eliminated in a good experiment. But small systematic errors will always be present. For
instance, no instrument can ever be calibrated perfectly.

• Random errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition. It fluctuates
from one measurement to the next.

• They are caused by factors that are beyond the control of the observers.
• They may occur due to lack of sensitivity i.e. an instrument may not be able to respond to a small
change .
• They may occur due to noise.
• Wrong technique of measurement.
 Error Analysis: Mean Value
• Suppose an experiment was repeated, say N times to get the following results.
X1, X2, X3, … ,XN
• Random errors associated with each measurement result would differ in sign and magnitude.
So if the average or mean value of our measurements were calculated as follows,
σ𝑁𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
𝑋ത =
𝑁
• Some of the random variations would be expected to cancel out with others in the sum. This
is the best that can be done to deal with random errors
Standard error of the mean
• When you are carrying out measurements, one most important parameter is the standard
error of the mean. This is expressed by the formula below.
σ𝑁 ത 2
𝑖=1(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋)
𝑠=
𝑁−1
• NB. There are other important statistical parameters that are used, but in physics, the
standard error of the mean is widely used.
 Basic Rules in the Propagation of Errors
• Suppose two measured quantities X and Y have uncertainties, ΔX and ΔY, to report (X ± ΔX)
and (Y ± ΔY) results.
• From the measured quantities X and Y, a new quantity Z is calculated. What is the uncertainty,
ΔZ, in Z? We use a simplified version of the proper statistical treatment.
• The guiding principle in all cases is to consider the most pessimistic situation.
Let’s consider the following cases:

1 𝑍 =𝑋+𝑌
2 𝑍 =𝑋−𝑌
3 𝑍 = 𝑋𝑌
4 𝑍 = 𝑋Τ𝑌
5 𝑍 = 𝑋𝑚𝑌𝑛
6 𝑍 = ln 𝑋
7 𝑍 = 𝑒𝑋
 Propagation of errors
• If the output Z is the sum or the difference of inputs, i.e.
𝑍=𝑋+𝑌
𝑍=𝑋−𝑌
• The standard error ΔZ is calculated as:
∆𝑍 = ∆𝑋 2+ ∆𝑌 2
Example
• Suppose; W = (4.52 ± 0.02)cm, X = ( 2.0 ± 0.2)cm, Y = (3.0 ± 0.6)cm, Find Z = X + Y - W and its
uncertainty ΔZ.
• Z = X + Y - W = 2.0 + 3.0 - 4.5 = 0.5 cm
• The standard error is found as ΔZ = 0.633 cm.
• Notice that we round the uncertainty to one decimal place to match with the answer.
• Therefore Z = (0.5 ± 0.6) cm.
 Propagation of errors
• If the output Z is the product or the quotient of inputs, i.e.
𝑍 = 𝑋𝑌
𝑍 = 𝑋/𝑌
• The standard error ΔZ is calculated as:
2 2
∆𝑍 ∆𝑋 ∆𝑌
= +
𝑍 𝑋 𝑌
Example
• Suppose; W = (4.52 ± 0.02)cm and X = ( 2.0 ± 0.2)cm, Find Z = X·W and its uncertainty.
• Z = W·X = (4.52 cm)(2.0 cm) = 9.04 cm2.
• Standard error;
2 2
∆𝑍 0.02 0.2
= +
𝑍 4.52 2.0
• The uncertainty ∆𝑍 = 0.90488 𝑐𝑚2.
• The answer will be rounded to two significant figures and then the uncertainty will be rounded to
one decimal place.
• Therefore Z = (9.0 ± 0.9) cm2.
 Propagation of errors
• If the output Z is the product of an exact number (or a constant) with an input, i.e.
𝑍 = 𝑚𝑋
• The standard error ΔZ is calculated as:
∆𝑍 = 𝑚∆𝑋
Example
• The radius of a circle is X = (3.00 ± 0.2) cm. Find the circumference (C) and its uncertainty.
• 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑋 = 18.8 𝑐𝑚
• Standard error;
∆𝐶 = 2𝜋∆𝑋 = 1.257 𝑐𝑚
• Rounding the uncertainty to one decimal place to match with the answer.
• C = (18.8 ± 1.3) cm.
 Propagation of errors
• If the output Z is the product of powers of inputs, i.e.
𝑍 = 𝑋𝑚𝑌𝑛
• The standard error Δz is calculated as:
2 2
∆𝑍 𝑚∆𝑋 𝑛∆𝑌
= +
𝑍 𝑋 𝑌

• If the output Z is the natural log of inputs, i.e.

𝑍 = ln 𝑋
• The standard error ΔZ is calculated as
∆𝑋
∆𝑍 =
𝑋

• If the output Z is an exponential function of inputs, i.e.

𝑍 = 𝑒𝑋
• The standard error ΔZ is calculated as
∆𝑍
= ∆𝑋
𝑍
 Dimensional analysis
• The word dimension denotes the physical nature of a quantity. The distance between two
points, for example, can be measured in feet, meters, or furlongs, which are all different ways
of expressing the dimension of length.

• The technique used to check the correctness of an equation or to derive a mathematical

expression of a physical quantity is called Dimensional Analysis.

• In this lecture, L will be used to denote the dimension of length, T for time and M for mass.
The symbol of square brackets [ ] will mean dimensions of a certain quantity. For example, if v
denotes speed, then [v] would mean dimensions of speed, which are L/T.

• Dimensional analysis can be used to check the validity of an equation since dimensions can be
treated algebraically.
• Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions.
 Dimensional analysis
Example
• Show that the expression 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡, where 𝑣 represents speed, 𝑎 acceleration, and 𝑡 an instant
of time, is dimensionally correct.
Solution
𝐿
• Identifying the dimensions of 𝑣, 𝑣 =
𝑇

𝐿
• Identifying the dimensions of 𝑎 and 𝑡; 𝑎 = , 𝑡 =𝑇
𝑇2

𝐿 𝐿
• Therefore the dimensions of the right hand side of the equation will be; 𝑎𝑡 = ∙𝑇 = .
𝑇2 𝑇

• This result shows that dimensions of the left and right hand sides of the equation are the same
hence the equation is dimensionally correct.
 Dimensional analysis
Example
• Suppose we are told that the acceleration 𝑎 of a particle moving with uniform speed 𝑣 in a
circle of radius 𝑟 is proportional to some power of 𝑟, say 𝑟 𝑛 , and some power of 𝑣, say 𝑣 𝑚 .
Determine, using dimensions analysis, the values of n and m and write the simplest form of
an equation for the acceleration.
Solution
• An expression for acceleration would be; 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑟 𝑛 𝑣 𝑚 where k is the proportionality constant.

𝐿 𝐿
• Applying dimensions analysis to both sides of the equation; 𝑎 = , 𝑟 = 𝐿, and 𝑣 = .
𝑇2 𝑇

• Therefore;
𝑚
𝐿 𝑛
𝐿 𝐿𝑛+𝑚
= 𝐿 = 𝑚
𝑇2 𝑇 𝑇

• Therefore; 𝒎 = 𝟐, and 𝒏 + 𝒎 = 𝟏. After solving we find 𝒏 = −𝟏.

−1 2 𝒗𝟐
• Then the expression can be written as; 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑟 𝑣 →𝒂= 𝒌 .
𝒓
 Dimensional analysis
Exercise
𝐴∆𝑇
1. Given 𝑃 = 𝑘 ,where A is the area, ∆T is difference in temperature, l is length, and k is a
𝐼
𝑤
constant with SI units of 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 · 𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑚∙𝑘
, what are the SI units for P (rate
of thermal energy flow)?

2. The speed of sound 𝑣 might plausibly depend on some powers of pressure p, density ρ, and
volume V of the gas. Use dimensional analysis to determine the exponents x, y and z
𝑣 = 𝐶p𝑥 𝜌 𝑦 𝑉 𝑧

where C is a dimensionless constant. Hence write down the relationship between the said
quantities based on the derived exponents.
 The End
Thank you