ACECE 4 Circuits 1, Lecture

Module 3: DC Circuits Equivalent, Network Theorems and Bridge Circuits

This module tackles DC Circuits Equivalent, Network Theorems and Bridge Circuits focusing
on different network theorems and their circuit equivalents as well as tackling bridge circuits
in general. The topics covered involves their definitions, concepts and sample solved
problems as exercise.

In this lecture, it will focus on developing techniques for computing equivalent

representations of linear networks. Such representations are useful in deriving some simple-
yet general-results for linear circuits, as well as analyzing simple non-linear circuits. Put
another way, using these techniques includes isolation of specific parts of a circuit in order
to simplify the analysis and arrive to the objective of the problem.

Network Theorems
These are important concepts and methods to aid analysis on circuit networks.

Linear Circuit
A construction of independent sources and linear circuit elements that are having an
excitation response relationship which means doubling the excitation, doubling the
response. Tripling the excitation, tripling the response and so on.

Example:

At first instance, we have,

𝑉 12
𝐼= = =𝟔𝑨
𝑅 2

Doubling the voltage at 24 V, we have,

𝑉 24
𝐼= = = 𝟏𝟐 𝑨
𝑅 2

Bilateral Circuit
A construction of independent sources and bilateral circuit elements that are operating the
same upon reversal of the excitation, except that the response also reverses.
 Example:

Even at the reversal, we have,

𝑉 12
𝐼= = =𝟔𝑨
𝑅 2

Note that a diode is neither linear nor bilateral. That is,

Some theorems require deactivation of independent sources which means replacing all
independent sources by their internal resistances if stated. That is, ideal voltage sources
are replaced by short circuits, and all ideal current sources by open circuits. However,
take note that internal resistances are not affected nor are dependent sources which are never
deactivated in the application of any theorem that will be discussed at the extent of this
lecture.

Part 1: Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem are probably the most important network theorems. For
the application of either theorem, a network is divided into two parts, say A and B, joined by
the connecting wires a and b. One network is linear and bilateral and other can be anything.

Figure 3.1 Network with Applications of Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem

Figure 3.2 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

The figure above specifies the Thevenin’s theorem wherein for network A being a linear and
bilateral circuit should be replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit when applying
Thevenin’s theorem.

Generally, when viewed from the load, any network of ideal voltage and current sources, and
of linear resistors, may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage
source VTH in series with an equivalent resistance RTH.

Thevenin’s voltage (VTH) is the open circuit voltage required when terminals a and b are
open circuited.

Thevenin’s resistance (RTH) is the open circuit resistance at terminals a and b.

Methods of Getting the Thevenin’s Resistance, RTH

1. Killing of independent sources and combining resistances, that is,

So that, for this example,

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )||𝑅3 + 𝑅4

2. Connecting a short circuit wire across the open circuit terminals a and b and getting
the value of the short circuit current, ISC or IN.
 By Ohm’s Law, we have,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = =
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑁

3. If the circuit to consist dependent source, we connect a voltage source or a current

source to the open circuit terminals a and b to obtain for the value of the Thevenin’s
resistance, RTH. The appropriate value for the voltage or current source is 1 V or 1 A,
respectively.

To summarize, here are the steps in solving circuit networks using Thevenin’s Theorem:
1. Rearrange it in the form of two networks, A and B, connected by two wires. A is the
network to be simplified; B will be left untouched.
2. Disconnect network B (usually the load), leaving the two wire terminals open-
circuited.
3. Define the open circuit voltage VOC across the open load terminals.
4. Apply any preferred method to solve for VOC which will be equal also to the Thevenin
voltage, VTH.
5. For RTH, disconnect network B.
6. Zero all independent voltage and current sources.
7. Compute the total resistance between load terminals, with the load removed. This
resistance is equivalent to that which would be encountered by a current source
connected to the circuit in place of the load.
8. Reconnect the network B to network A where all currents and voltages in B will remain
unchanged.

Norton’s Theorem

Figure 3.3 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

The figure above specifies the Norton’s theorem wherein for network A being a linear and
bilateral circuit should be replaced by its Norton equivalent circuit when applying Norton’s
theorem.
Generally, when viewed from the load, any network composed of ideal voltage and current
sources, and of linear resistors, may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an
ideal current source IN in parallel with an equivalent resistance RN.

Norton Current (IN) is the short circuit current flowing through the short-circuited
terminals of a and b of network A.

Norton’s Resistance (RN) is the same as the Thevenin’s Resistance.

To summarize, here are the steps in solving circuit networks using Norton’s Theorem:
1. Rearrange it in the form of two networks, A and B, connected by two wires. A is the
network to be simplified; B will be left untouched.
2. Disconnect network B and replace the load with a short circuit.
3. Define the short circuit current ISC flowing through the short-circuited wire.
4. Apply any preferred method to solve for ISC which will be equal also to the Norton’s
current, IN.
5. For RN, disconnect network B.
6. Zero all independent voltage and current sources.
7. Compute the total resistance between load terminals, with the load removed. This
resistance is equivalent to that which would be encountered by a current source
connected to the circuit in place of the load.
8. Reconnect the network B to network A where all currents and voltages in B will remain
unchanged.
Sample Problem:
What resistance draws a current of 5 A when connected across terminal a and b
of the circuit below?

Solution:
Following the steps to solve for Thevenin’s theorem, assigning the networks A
and B, we have,
Solving for VTH,

Applying KVL, we have,

𝑉70 − 𝑉6 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉70 − 𝑉6

But,
𝑉6 = (0)(6) = 0 𝑉

Hence,
70(100)
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉70 =
75
𝑽𝑻𝑯 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑽

Solving for RTH,

5(70)
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = +6
75
𝑹𝑻𝑯 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 Ω
So that,

𝑉𝑇𝐻 93.333
𝐼𝑅 = = =5
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅 10.667 + 𝑅
𝑹= 𝟖Ω

Sample Problem:
Find the value of the resistor that draws a 5 A current of the previous example
using Norton’s Theorem.

Solution:

Solving for IN,

Using mesh analysis, we have,

75𝐼1 − 70𝐼𝑁 = 100
−70𝐼1 + 76𝐼𝑁 = 0
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟗. 𝟓 𝑨; 𝑰𝑵 = 𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑨
And,
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 10.667 Ω

Such that,

𝑅𝑁 (𝐼𝑁 ) 10.667(8.75)
𝐼𝑅 = = =5
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅 10.667 + 𝑅
𝑹= 𝟖Ω

Sample Problem:
A car battery has an open circuit terminal voltage of 12.6 V. The terminal
voltage drops to 10.8 V when the battery supplies 40 A to a starter motor. What
is the Thevenin equivalent circuit for this battery?

Solution:
Knowing that the initial open circuit terminal voltage is 12.6 V,
𝑽𝑻𝑯 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔 𝑽

By applying KVL, we have,

𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 40𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 10.8 = 0
𝑹𝑻𝑯 = 𝟒𝟓 𝒎Ω

For the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, we have,

Sample Problem:
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for a dc power supply that has a 30 V
terminal voltage when delivering 400 mA and a 27 V terminal voltage when
delivering 600 mA.

Solution:
By applying KVL, we have equation 1 and 2,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 0.4𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 30 = 0
𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 0.6𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 27 = 0

Then,
𝑽𝑻𝑯 = 𝟑𝟔 𝑽
𝑹𝑻𝑯 = 𝟏𝟓 Ω

For the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, we have,

Sample Problem:
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit of the previous example if the terminal
voltage is 28 V instead of 27 V if the power supply delivers 600 mA.
Solution:
By applying KCL we have equations 1 and 2,
30
𝐼𝑁 = + 0.4
𝑅𝑁
28
𝐼𝑁 = + 0.6
𝑅𝑁

So that,
𝑰𝑵 = 𝟑. 𝟒 𝑨
1 1
=
𝑅𝑁 10
𝑹𝑵 = 𝟏𝟎 Ω

Hence,

Sample Problem:
The figure below shows a transistor with a bias circuit. If IC = 50IB and if VBE = 0.7
V, find IB.
Solution:
Assigning first networks A and B,

Using Thevenin’s theorem, we have,

Applying KVL on the given loop,

𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 0.7 − 250𝐼𝐸 = 0

But,
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐵 + 50𝐼𝐵 = 51𝐼𝐵

Therefore,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 0.7 − 250(51𝐼𝐵 ) = 0

So that,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 0.7
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 12750
 However, for the network A, we have,

Hence,
(3000)(700)
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = = 𝟓𝟔𝟕. 𝟓𝟔𝟕 Ω
3000 + 700
700(9)
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟐 𝑽
3000 + 700

So that,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 0.7 1.702 − 0.7
𝐼𝐵 = =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 12750 567.567 + 12750
𝑰𝑩 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟐𝟗𝟐 𝝁𝑨

Part 2: Bridge Circuits, Input and Output Resistance

Delta-Wye (ΔY) – Wye-Delta (YΔ) Transformation

The figure (a) below is a Y (wye) resistor circuit and (b) is a Δ (delta) resistor circuit.

Additionally, to remember easily how to derive their conversion formulas, the figure below
can be drawn and memorized.
Delta-Wye (ΔY) Conversion Formulas
Considering the total resistance measured at terminals B and C (that is from equating
resistance between two lines to the Y when the third line to each is open), for the two
networks we have,
𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 = (𝟏)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Likewise, for the total resistance at terminals A and B, C and A, we have,

𝑅2 (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 )
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = (𝟐)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅1 (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐶 = (𝟑)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Adding equations 1 and 2, we have,

𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) + 𝑅2 (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 )
2𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐶 = (𝟒)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Subtracting equations 3 and 4, we have,

𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) + 𝑅2 (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) − [𝑅1 (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )]
2𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐶 − (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐶 ) =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
2𝑅2 𝑅3
2𝑅𝐵 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝟑
𝑹𝑩 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

Likewise,
𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝟐
𝑹𝑨 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝟑
𝑹𝑪 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

Note that each resistor of the Y is equal to the product of the resistors in the two closest
branches of the Δ divided by the sum of the resistors in the Δ.

Wye-Delta (YΔ) Conversion Formulas

To obtain the relationships necessary to convert from a Y to a Δ, first divide the RA and RB,
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝐴 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
=
𝑅𝐵 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝐴 𝑅3
𝑅1 =
𝑅𝐵

Then dividing RA and RC,

 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝐴 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
=
𝑅𝐶 𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝐴 𝑅3
𝑅2 =
𝑅𝐶

Substituting R1 and R2 in the equations for RC,

𝑅𝐴 𝑅3 𝑅𝐴 𝑅3
( 𝑅 ) 𝑅3 ( 𝑅 )
𝐵 𝐵
𝑅𝐶 = =
𝑅𝐴 𝑅3 𝑅𝐴 𝑅3 𝑅 𝑅
( 𝑅 )+( 𝑅 ) + 𝑅3 (𝑅𝐴 ) + (𝑅𝐴 ) + 1
𝐵 𝐶 𝐵 𝐶

Placing this over a common denominator, we obtain,

𝑅𝐴 𝑅3
( 𝑅 ) 𝑅𝐴 𝑅3 𝑅𝐶
𝐵
𝑅𝐶 = =
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶

Cancelling RC on both sides and equating for R3, we have,

𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑨 𝑹 𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝟑 =
𝑹𝑨

Likewise,
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑨 𝑹 𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝟏 =
𝑹𝑩
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑹𝑨 𝑹 𝑩 + 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝟐 =
𝑹𝑪

Note that the value of each resistor of the Δ is equal to the sum of the possible product
combinations of the resistances of the Y divided by the resistance of the Y farthest from the
resistor to be determined.

Note:
1. For Δ-Y, the denominators are the same which are the sum of the Δ resistances (different
delta), while the numerators are the product of the two delta resistances adjacent to the
wye (Y) resistance being found.
2. If all the delta resistances are the same, we have,
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝐵 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅∆ 𝑅∆ 𝑅∆2
𝑅𝐵 = =
𝑅∆ + 𝑅∆ + 𝑅∆ 3𝑅∆
𝑹∆
𝑹𝑩 = 𝑹𝑨 = 𝑹𝑪 =
𝟑
3. The numerators of the Y-Δ conversion formulas are the same which are the sum of the
product of two adjacent Y resistances, while the denominator is the Y resistance opposite
the Δ resistance being found.
4. If all Y-resistances are the same we have,
𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑌 + 𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑌 3𝑅𝑌2
𝑅1 = =
𝑅𝑌 𝑅𝑌
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟑𝑹𝒀

Sample Problem:
Find the total current delivered by the source of the circuit below.

Solution,
𝑉𝑇 196
𝐼𝑇 = =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇

But to solve for RT, we have to use Δ-Y transformation on the upper part of the
bridge circuit, that is,

𝑅𝑇 = 8 + 𝑅𝐶 + (𝑅𝐴 + 1.6)||(𝑅𝐵 + 20)

But,
(14)(16)
𝑅𝐴 = = 2.8 Ω
14 + 6 + 10
(10)(6)
𝑅𝐵 = =2Ω
14 + 6 + 10
(14)(10)
𝑅𝐶 = = 4.667 Ω
14 + 6 + 10

So that,
𝑅𝑇 = 8 + 4.667 + (2.8 + 1.6)||(2 + 20) = 16.334 Ω
196
𝐼𝑇 = = 𝟏𝟐 𝑨
16.334
Bridge Circuit
Note:
1. A bridge circuit can be formed by joining two Δ’s or two Y’s (Figure a) with a branch
shared. If the bridge circuit appears in this form, it is called lattice (Figure c). When the Δ
part of the bridge circuit is converted to Y and the Y is converted to Δ, it becomes
series/parallel.

2. A bridge circuit can be used for a precision resistance measurement. A wheatstone bridge
is a bridge circuit with its center branch to be a sensitive current indicator, such as a
galvanometer. Three of its branches are precision resistors, one of which is variable. The
fourth branch is a resistor with unknown resistance, RX, to be measured.

For a resistance measurement, the resistance R2 of the variable resistor is adjusted until the
galvanometer needle does not deflect when the switch in the center branch is closed. This
lack of deflection is the result of zero voltage across the galvanometer, and this means that,
even with the switch open, the voltage across R1 equals that across R2, and the voltage across
R3 equals that across RX. In this condition the bridge is said to be balance. That is,
𝑉1 = 𝑉2
𝑅1 𝑉 𝑅2 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅3 𝑅2 +𝑅𝑋
𝑉1 = =
𝑅3 𝑉 𝑅𝑋 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅3 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑋

So that,
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑋 =
𝑅1
 Sample Problem:
In the circuit shown below, what resistor RX replacing the 20-ohm resistor from
the previous problem, causes the bridge to be balanced and find I.

Solution,

𝑅2 𝑅3 (10)(1.6)
𝑅𝑋 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟑 Ω
𝑅1 14

Also,
𝑉𝑇 196
𝐼𝑇 = =
𝑅𝑇 8 + (14||10) + (1.6||1.143)
𝑰𝑻 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟏𝟕 𝑨

Input and Output Resistance

The resistance at the input terminals of an electronic circuit is the input resistance, R IN. For
a purely resistive circuit, the terms “total resistance”, “equivalent resistance” and just
“resistance” are far more popular.
Sample Problem:
Find the input resistance RIN of the circuit below.
 Solution:
Using an ideal current source to solve for RIN, that is,

Since,
𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝐼𝑁 =
1𝐴
𝑅𝐼𝑁 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁

Using nodal analysis, we have,

1 1
( + ) 𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 1 + 1.5𝐼
25 50

But,
𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝐼=
50

So that,
1 1 𝑉𝐼𝑁
( + ) 𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 1 + 1.5 ( )
25 50 50
𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 33.333 𝑉

Hence,
𝑹𝑰𝑵 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 Ω

An electronic circuit with a load has an output resistance, ROUT. If the load is disconnected
and if the source of the input of the electronic circuit is replaced by its internal resistance,
the output resistance of the electronic circuit is the resistance at its load terminals. It is the
same as the Thevenin resistance.
Sample Problem:
Find the output resistance of the circuit below.
 Solution:
Replacing the input source to its internal resistance (this case is short circuit) as
well as using a current source at the open output terminal of the circuit, we have,
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐶
𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑇 = =
1𝐴 1𝐴
𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶

By nodal analysis,
1
𝑉𝐶 ( ) = −25𝐼𝐵 + 1
40𝑘

But,
0.0004𝑉𝐶
𝐼𝐵 = −
2𝑘

So that,
1 0.0004𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝐶 ( ) = −25 (− )+1
40𝑘 2𝑘
𝑉𝐶 = 50 𝑘𝑉

Hence,
𝑹𝑶𝑼𝑻 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌Ω

Part 3: Maximum Power Transfer, Superposition and Millman’s Theorems

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

It is stated in maximum power transfer theorem that, a load will receive maximum power
from a linear bilateral dc network when its total resistive value is exactly equal to the
Thevenin resistance of the network as “seen” by the load. That is,

Since,
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝑅𝐿 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿 = ( ) (𝑅𝐿 )
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿

By maxima and minima concept of differential calculus, we have,

𝑑𝑃𝑅𝐿 2
𝑑𝑅𝐿
0= = 𝑉𝑇𝐻 ( )
𝑑𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2
 2 (𝑅 2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 ) (1) − 2𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )(1)
0=
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )4
0 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 2𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝐿2 − 2𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇𝐻 − 2𝑅𝐿2
2

𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑻𝑯

For the maximum power we have,

𝑉𝑇𝐻 2
( 2 )
𝑃𝑅𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝑽𝟐𝑻𝑯
𝑷𝑹𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 =
𝟒𝑹𝑻𝑯

Sample Problem:
What is the maximum power that can be drawn from a 12 V battery that has an
internal resistance of 0.25 Ω?

Solution:
Since,
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 122
𝑃𝑅𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 = =
4𝑅𝑇𝐻 4(0.25)
𝑷𝑹𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝑾

Sample Problem:
For the circuit below what is the value of the load resistor connected at the open
terminals a and b for it to absorb maximum power and what is the power?

Using the maximum power transfer theorem, we have,

2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝑅𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 =
4𝑅𝑇𝐻
 Solving for RTH we have,

(5)(6)
𝑅𝐴 = = 2.143 Ω
14
(3)(6)
𝑅𝐵 = = 1.286 Ω
14
(5)(3)
𝑅𝐶 = = 1.071 Ω
14
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = [(4 + 𝑅𝐴 )||(2 + 𝑅𝐵 ) + 𝑅𝐶
𝑹𝑻𝑯 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟐 Ω

Solving for VTH we have,

20
𝐼= = 2.123 𝐴
6 + (4||5) + (2||3)
𝑉6 = 6(2.123) = 12.738 𝑉
𝑉 ′ = 20 − 12.738 = 7.262 𝑉

By KVL we have,
𝑉5 − 𝑉4 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0
5(7.262) 4(7.262)
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = −
8 6
𝑽𝑻𝑯 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑽

Then,
2 (−0.303)2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝑅𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 = =
4𝑅𝑇𝐻 4(3.212)
𝑷𝑹𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝒎𝑾

Superposition Theorem
This specifies that in a linear circuit containing several independent sources, the voltage or
current for any circuit element is simply equal to the algebraic sum of the component
voltages or currents produced by the independent sources acting alone. Put another way, the
voltage or current contribution from each independent source can be found separately and
then all contributions are algebraically added to get the actual voltage with all the
independent sources in the circuit. In general,
Sample Problem:
Use superposition to find the current through the 12-ohm resistor in the figure
below.

Solution:
Using superposition theorem, we have,
′ ′′
𝐼12 = 𝐼12 + 𝐼12
But, solving for I’12, we have,

′
100
𝐼12 = = 5.556 𝐴
18

Solving for I’’12, we have,

′′
6(6)
𝐼12 = =2𝐴
18

Hence,
𝐼12 = 5.556 + 2
𝑰𝟏𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟓𝟔 𝑨
Sample Problem:
For the circuit below, use superposition to find VTH referenced positive on
terminal a.

Solution:
Using superposition theorem, we have,
′ ′′ ′′′
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉𝑇𝐻 + 𝑉𝑇𝐻 + 𝑉𝑇𝐻

But, solving for V’TH where the 30 V source is active, we have,

′
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 30 𝑉

Solving for V’’TH where the 20 A source is active, we have,

′′
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = −𝑉8 = −(8)(20)
′′
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = −160 𝑉

Solving for V’’TH where the 100 V source is active, we have,

′′′
(40)(100)
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉40 = = 80 𝑉
50
Hence,
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 30 − 160 + 80 = −𝟓𝟎 𝑽
Millman’s Theorem
This theorem is a method of reducing a circuit by combining parallel voltage sources to a
single voltage source. It is a special case of the application of Thevenin’s Theorem.

Sample Problem:
Use Millman’s theorem to find the current drawn by a 5-ohm resistor from four
batteries operating in parallel. The battery open circuit voltage and internal
resistances are 18 V and 1 ohm, 20 V and 2 ohms, 22 V and 5 ohms and, 24 V and
4 ohms.

Solution:
Using Millman’s theorem, we have,
𝑉𝑀 19.692
𝐼5 = = = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟕𝟐 𝑨
𝑅𝑀 + 5 0.513 + 5

But,
1 1 1
18(1) + 20 (2) + 22 ( ) + 24 (4)
𝑉𝑀 = 5 = 19.692 𝑉
1 1 1
1+2+ +4
5
1
𝑅𝑀 = = 0.513 Ω
1 1 1
1+2+ +4
5
Sources:
• Basic Circuit Analysis 2nd ed. by John O’Malley, Ph. D.
• Engineering Circuit Analysis 7th ed. by W. Hayt, J. Kemmerly and S. Durbin

Other references:
Thevenin’s Theorem EP.23 (Tagalog Electronics)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GO11_Xlg3Yo&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=23

Norton’s Theorem EP.24 (Tagalog Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FuEiSI7ejOw&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=24

Wye-Delta or Delta-Wye Transformation EP.15 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h9coEnV6J_E&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=15

Maximum Power Transfer EP.26 (Tagalog Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rgiSiNutc3A&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=26

Superposition Theorem EP.18 (Tagalog/English Electronics)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZK9JxdrZQs&list=PLy8CVak7-
Br6atMM75FWTjb9zDSzIEi16&index=18