Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology

1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology

Accredited by NBA and Approved by AICTE (Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow)

LABORATORY MANUAL

COURSE: B.TECH. (All Branch) SEMESTER: I/II

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

(Accredited by NBA)
2024-25

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 1

 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

VISION & MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

Vision of Institute:

To be a leading educational institution recognized for excellence in engineering education &

research producing globally competent and socially responsible technocrats.

Mission of Institute:

 To provide state of art infrastructural facilities that support achieving academic excellence.
 To provide a work environment that is conducive for professional growth of faculty & staff.
 To collaborate with industry for achieving excellence in research, consultancy and
entrepreneurship development.

VISION & MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

The vision of the department:

To be recognized as a center of excellence in Electronics and Communication Engineering for the

quality and global education, interdisciplinary research and innovation, to produce committed graduates
who can apply knowledge and skills for the benefit of society.

The mission of the department:

 To provide quality education by providing state of the art facility and solutions for global
challenges.
 To provide a framework for promoting the industry-institution collaboration and empower the
students in interdisciplinary research.
 To transform students into socially responsible, ethical and technically proficient engineers
with innovative skills and usage of modern tools.
 To make the students corporate ready with spirit and necessary interpersonal skills.

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 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

The graduates will be able to:

PEO 1: Graduates will excel in Electronics and Communication Engineering by utilizing AI, IoT,
VLSI and wireless communication to develop innovative solutions to global challenges.

PEO 2: Graduates will use their skills in robotics, smart grids and sustainable electronics to create
ethical and sustainable solutions that address societal needs.

PEO3: Graduates will demonstrate leadership and teamwork in niche areas of emerging technologies
within Electronics & Communication Engineering to drive industry innovation and research excellence.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

PSO 1 Graduates will design and implement advanced analog and digital electronic systems using
modern technologies like VLSI, IoT, and embedded systems, ensuring energy efficiency and
sustainability.

PSO 2 Graduates will develop reliable communication systems using wireless communication and AI
based communication protocols, focusing on ethical practices and societal impact.

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 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

The Program Outcomes (POs) are described as.

PO1: Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2: Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design / Development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues, and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader
in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. Understand basic electronic components: Learn about the identification, function, and application
of components like resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and LEDs.
2. Develop circuit-building skills: Gain hands-on experience in constructing and analyzing basic
electronic circuits using breadboards or printed circuit boards (PCBs).
3. Measure and analyze circuits: Learn how to use basic electronic testing and measurement
equipment such as multimeters, oscilloscopes, and function generators to measure voltage, current,
resistance, and signal waveforms.
4. Understand the working of basic semiconductor devices: Explore the behavior and applications of
semiconductor devices like diodes and transistors in rectification, amplification, and switching circuits.
5. Learn safety precautions in electronics labs: Understand the necessary safety measures and best
practices when working with electronic equipment and circuits.

COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of this course students will demonstrate the ability to:
CO1 Demonstrate the behavior of various applications PN junction diode.
CO2 Conduct experiments illustrating the characteristics of BJT and applications
of OPAMP.
CO3 Implementation and truth table verification of various logic gates.

MAPPING OF CO’S AND POs & PSOs

Semester I
Course BEC-151/251
Code
Course BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB
Name
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO2
CO 7 8 9 10 11 12 1

CO1 3 3 2 3 3 - - - - - - 3 2 -
CO2 3 3 2 3 3 - - - - - - 3 2 -
CO3 3 3 2 3 3 - - - - - - 3 2 -
Average 3 3 2 3 3 - - - - - - 3 2 -

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 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

GENERAL SAFETY GUIDELINES

Following safety guidelines must be followed while performing lab experiments:

1. Student entry in the lab is ensured strictly as per the allocated time slots or seeking prior proper
permission from the lab faculty or instructor.
2. Students are expected to conduct themselves in a responsible manner while working in the
laboratory.
3. They should keep their bags on the shelf provided outside the lab and carry only essential items
such as lab record, manual, pen-pencil, copy and calculator etc. inside the lab.
4. Students are not allowed to carry food items (not even chewing gum), beverages and water bottles
while working in the laboratory.
5. They are expected to observe good housekeeping practices and ensure equipment, sitting stools
and components to be handled carefully and kept at proper place after finishing the work to keep
the lab clean and tidy.
6. While working in the lab
 Avoid stretching electrical cables and connectors while using the equipment.
 Rig the circuit and get it verified from the lab instructor before connecting it to
power source.
 Pay proper attention towards earthling of electrical equipment. Ensure proper
ventilation in the lab while working.
 Ensure use of wire clippers, insulating tape, plug-pins to prevent any electrical
shocking hazards.
 In case of any short circuit, sensing burning smell or observing any smoke switch
off power supply and immediately report to the faculty/lab instructor available in
the lab.
7. In case of any minor injury please contact the lab instructor or lab faculty.
8. In case of any fire emergency, contact the faculty or lab instructor. For your information, the fire
safety equipment is available on each floor near notice board.

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 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS FOR WRITING THE RECORD

In the record, the index page should be filled properly by writing the corresponding experiment
number, experiment name, date on which it was done and the page number.

On the right-side page of the record following has to be written:

1. Title: The title of the experiment should be written in the page in capital letters.
2. In the left top margin, experiment number and date should be written.
3. Aim: The purpose of the experiment should be written clearly.
4. Apparatus/Tools/Equipment/Components used: A list of the Apparatus/Tools/ Equipment’s/
Components used for doing the experiment should be entered.
5. Theory: Simple working of the circuit/experimental set up/algorithm should be written.
6. Procedure: Steps for doing the experiment and recording the readings should be briefly described
(flow chart/ Circuit Diagrams / programs in the case of computer/processor related experiments)
7. Results: The results of the experiment must be summarized in writing and should be fulfilling the
aim.

On the Left side page of the record following must be recorded:

1. Circuit/Program: Neatly drawn circuit diagrams for the experimental set up.
2. Design: The design of the circuit components for the experimental set up for selecting the
components should be clearly shown if necessary.
3. Observations:
 Data should be clearly recorded using Tabular Columns.
 Unit of the observed data should be clearly mentioned
 Relevant calculations should be shown. If repetitive calculations are needed, only show a
sample calculation, and summarize the others in a table.

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 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EVALUATION SCHEME

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 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AS PER AKTU SYLLABUS

1. Study of various types of Active & Passive Components based on their ratings.
2. Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering Techniques.
3. Soldering shop: Soldering and disordering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering and disordering of IC in PCB.
Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB.
4. Study of Lab Equipment’s and Components: CRO, Multimeter, and Function Generator, Power supply-
Active, Passive Components and Bread Board.
5. P-N Junction diode: Characteristics of PN Junction diode - Static and dynamic resistance Measurement
from graph.
6. Applications of PN Junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of Vrms, Vdc, and ripple
factor.
7. Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical measurement of forward
and reverse resistance.
8. Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration.
9. To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.
10. Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.
11. Implementation of the given Boolean function using logic gates in both SOP and POS forms.
NOTE: Instructor may choose any 10 experiments from above and may also change any two of the above.

Experiments available on virtual lab

P-N Junction on diode: Characteristics of http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp5/index.html

Junction diode - Static and dynamic
resistance measurement from graph.
Applications of PN Junction diode: Half &
Full wave rectifier-Measurement of V http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp6/index.html
rms, Vdc,
and ripple factor http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp7/index.html
Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp10/index.html
characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical
measurement of forward and reverse
resistance.
Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp11/index.html
configuration.
To study Operational Amplifier as Adder http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp17/index.html
and Subtractor
http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp18/index.html
Verification of Truth Table of Various https://de-iitr.vlabs.ac.in/digital-electronicsiitr/
Logic Gate
exp/truth-table-gates/

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 9

 Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Study of various types of Active & Passive Components based on their ratings.
2. Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering Techniques.
3. Soldering shop: Soldering and disordering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering and disordering of IC in PCB.
Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB.
4. Study of Lab Equipment’s and Components: CRO, Multimeter, and Function Generator, Power supply-
Active, Passive Components and Bread Board.
5. P-N Junction diode: Characteristics of PN Junction diode - Static and dynamic resistance Measurement
from graph.
6. Applications of PN Junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of Vrms, Vdc, and ripple
factor.
7. Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical measurement of forward
and reverse resistance.
8. Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration.
9. To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.
10. Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.
11. Implementation of the given Boolean function using logic gates in both SOP and POS forms.

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 10

 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 01

AIM: To Study of Active and Passive Components based on their ratings.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Apparatus / Components Specification Quantity

1. CRO with Probe Dual Trace (30MHz) 1

2. Function Generator 3 MHz (Scientific) HM5030 1

3. Digital Multimeter (DMM) Mastech ( MAS830L) 1

4. Active and passive components IN4007, BC547,548, 1 no. each

(Diode, Transistor, Resistance , R=1k,10k,100k, C=0.1pf,
Capacitance) 0.01pf and 10pf/25V etc.

5. Bread Board 5 to15V @ 1Amp. 1

6. Power supply +5V, 0-30V Variable 1

THEORY:
Basic Components: Basic components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, light emitting diode
(LED) and transistors can be divided into 2 categories:
(i) Passive components like resistors and capacitors and Inductors.
(ii) Active components like diodes, transistors and all Semiconductor Devices.
Passive Components: -
These components interact with electrical energy in a circuit but do not consume power like active
components do. Examples of passive components include capacitors, inductors, resistors, and substrates.
Passive components do not require energy to operate barring the AC circuit. Unlike the Active component,
they are unable to augment the signalpower and also cannot amplify it. There are majorly two types of
passive components namely
Lossy or Dissipative: These cannot absorb power from an external circuit. Resistors are an example of
lossypassive components.
Lossless: These do not have any input or output net level flow. A few examples of lossless components are
inductors, transformers, and gyrators.

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Active Components: -
Active components are devices that can amplify an electric signal and produce power. Any characteristic
activecomponent will comprise an oscillator, transistor or an integrated circuit. An active component
functions as analternating current circuit in devices. This helps the device to augment power and voltage.
This component canexecute its operations because it is powered by a source of electricity. All active
components necessitate somesource of energy which commonly is extracted from a DC circuit.
Resistors: Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or variable resistors.
Variable resistors Besides the fixed value resistors, there also exist variable resistors.
The resistance of variable resistors can vary in steps or continuously. Potentiometer is also an example of
continuously varying resistor.

Fig.1. Different types of Resistors

Capacitors
Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one circuit to another
and for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates separated by dielectric materials.
Electrolytic Capacitors: There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors:
(i) Axial where the leads are attached to each end (220µF in picture) and
(ii) Radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture) Refer fig 4.

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

(iii) Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1µF): Small value capacitors have their values printed but without a
multiplier. For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the unit is placed in between 2 digits indicating
a decimal point. For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Inductors: Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is used to vary the
impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning.

Fig.6. Different Types of Inductors

Diode: A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials.. Its main function is to rectify an
ac signal although other special purpose diodes like Zener and LED’s are used for other purposes. A normal
diode comes in a black casing whereas a zener diode has a transparent casing. Their pictures and symbols
are given in fig. 7.

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED’s are p-n junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction.

Fig.8 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages, current and are
also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It’s a two junction and 3 terminal devices made of three layers
of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter, base and collector.
Fig 9 gives some of the transistors with the symbols and some of the casings for NPN and PNP. and fig 9
illustrates the three-terminal name: emitter(E), base(B)and collector(C).

RESULTS: All Active & Passive components have been identified and tested; all results are indicated in
Tables.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: All the active and passive components have been identifying and
measured their values successfully.

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make all electrical connections should be tight.
2. All the Measurements observations should be taken carefully.
3. Switch off all equipment power supply after completed experiments.
4. Use all Equipment carefully and don’t rotate knobs of equipment unnecessary.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1) What are Active Components?

2) What are Passive Components?
3) What are types of inductors?
4) How are capacitors and inductors used together?

================

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 5

 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO-2

Aim: -Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering Techniques.

Components required:
1. Various types of PCB
2. Soldering Iron 35W
3. Solder Wire
4. Flux or Rasin
5. Wire Cutter
6. General Purpose PCB
7. Resistance, Capacitors & Other Components etc.

Theory:
The acronym of the printed circuit board is PCB; it is a self-contained board with interconnected electrical and
electronic components found in various devices ranges from beepers to pagers, radios, and radar and computer
systems. The circuits are produced by a slight layer of conducting material deposited on the outside of an
insulating board called as the substrate. Separate components are located on the surface of the substrate &
soldered to the connected circuits. The construction of the PCB can be done in three ways, namely single
sided, double sided and multi layered.
Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards
PCBs have copper tracks to connect the holes where the various components are located, they are specially
designed for each and every circuit and build construction very easy. Though, making the PCB necessitates
special tools. The different types of printed circuit boards mainly include the following:

 Single Sided PCBs

 Double Sided PCBs
 Multilayer PCBs
 Rigid PCBs
 Flex PCBs
 Rigid-Flex PCBs

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 1

 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Single Sided PCBs
This single sided printed circuit board includes just one layer of base material or substrate. One end of the
substrate is coated with a thin layer of metal, usually copper because it is a good electrical conductor.
Generally, a protecting solder mask be seated on the peak of the copper layer, and a last silkscreen coat may
be applied to the top to mark elements of the board. This PCB consists of various circuits and electronic
components on the only single side.

Fig. 1 Single Sided Printed Circuit Board

Double Sided PCBs
This type of PCBs is much more familiar than single-sided boards. Both sides of the board’s substrate include
metal conductive layers, and elements attach to both sides as well. Holes in the PCB let circuits on a single
side to attach to circuits on the other side.

Fig. 2 Double Sided Printed Circuit Board

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

These kinds of circuit boards used to connect the circuits on every side using one of two techniques: through-
hole & surface mount technology. Through-hole technology engages feeding small wires, called as leads
through the holes & soldering every end to the suitable component.

Multilayer PCBs
These PCBs further enlarges the density and complexity of PCB designs by adding extra layers beyond the
top & bottom layers seen in a configuration of double sided. With the accessibility of over many layers in
multilayer printed circuit board configurations, multilayer PCBs let designers to make very thick and highly
compound designs.

Fig. 3 Multilayer Printed Circuit Board

In addition to having different numbers of layers & sides, Printed circuit boards can also come in changing
inflexibilities. Most customers usually think of inflexible PCBs when they image a circuit board. Rigid
printed circuit boards use a solid, rigid substrate material like fiberglass that remains the board from twisting.
A motherboard within the tower of a computer is the best example of an inflexible PCB.

Fig. 4 Rigid PCBs

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 3

 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Flexible PCBs
Generally, the substrate in a flexible board is a flexible plastic. This fundamental material permits the board
to fit into forms that inflexible boards cannot & to turn or shift during use without harmful the circuits on the
printed circuit board. Though flex boards tend to charge more to intend and create than rigid PCBs, they
come with a number of advantages. For instance, they can restore heavy or bulky wiring in superior gear like
satellites, where weight & space matter. Flex boards can also come in three formats, namely single sided,
double-sided or multilayer formats.

Fig. 5 Flexible PCBs

Rigid-Flex PCBs
Rigid flex boards merge technology from both flexible and rigid circuit boards. An easy rigid-flex board
comprises of a rigid circuit board those joints to a flex circuit board. These boards can be more compound if
design requests demand. Thus, this is all about different types of printed circuit boards, which includes Sided
PCBs, Double Sided PCBs, Multilayer PCBs, Rigid PCBs, Flex PCBs, Rigid-Flex PCBs, etc.

Fig. 6 Rigid Flexible PCBs

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 4

 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Soldering Techniques for Building Printed-Circuit Boards (PCBs)

Printed-circuit board (PCB) design is important not only to evaluate circuit ideas before integrating them
onto a chip but also because the performance of integrated prototype chips is highly dependent on the
evaluation board used to test them. Consequently, developing PCB-building and soldering skills are
important, which is why the purpose of this document is to review some basic soldering tools and techniques.

Different Methods of Soldering

The methods of the soldering process can be classified into two, namely soft soldering and hard soldering.

Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is a process for fitting very minute compound parts possessing low liquefying temperature,
whichhave been broken during the procedure of soldering is performed at high temperature. In this
process, a tin-leadalloy is used as space filler metal. The liquefying temperature of the space filler alloy
must not be less than 400oC / 752oF. A gas torch is used as a heat source, for the procedure. Some of
the examples of this kind of soldering metals include tin-zinc for bonding aluminium, tin-lead for general
usage; zinc-aluminium foraluminium, cadmium-silver for power at high temperature; lead-silver for strength
higher than room temperature, weakening confrontation, tin-silver & tin-bismuth for electrical products.
Hard Soldering
In this type of soldering a solid solder unites two elements of metals by spreading out into the holes of
the component that are unlocked due to high temperature. The space filler metal grips a higher
temperature of more than 450oC/840oF. It comprises of two elements: silver soldering and Brazing.

Fig. 6 Basic Soldering Tools

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Basic Soldering Tools:

 Soldering Iron – Used to melt solder and connect component pins to board pads. A cheap soldering
pencil may be sufficient, but a temperature-controlled solder station is best for high performance
boards.
 Solder – An alloy of tin and lead with a low melting point. Based on diameter and metallic and
core content, various soldering solutions are available. For example, thick and thin solders are
useful for connecting power devices and surface mount technology (SMT) components,
respectively.
 Flux or Rosin – A substance used to channel solder flow and prevent oxide formation. Rosin was
first used for this purpose, but it is a bit messy. Flux is better and therefore more popular today.
 Solder Wick or De-soldering Braid – A tool used to extract solder and de-solder components
from the board, for which a pump is sometimes helpful, if large amounts of solder are present.
 Pliers, Knife, Multi-Meter, and Magnifier – Pliers are used to cut, bend, and sometimes strip
component leads; a knife to strip wires and trim traces; multi-meters to test electrical connectivity;
and a magnifier for soldering small SMT chip components.
 Test connectivity – Examine and evaluate solder connections both visually and electrically (with
a multi- meter), especially for small joint connections.
RESULTS:
We have studies & identified various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering Techniques with
basic Soldering Tools.
PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Do not twist or fold the given PCB.
2. Connections must be made according to circuit diagram.
3. Power must be switched on after checking the connections.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1) What are the soldering techniques?
2) What are soft and hard solder?
3) What are different types of PCB?
4) Which material is used in PCB?
5) What is a 2-layer PCB?

================

Basic of Electronics Engineering Lab (BEC-151/251) 6

 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. -3

Aim: - Soldering shop: Soldering and de-soldering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering and de-soldering of IC in
PCB. Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB.

Components required: -
1. Soldering Equipment (35-W Iron with Stand)
2. DE soldering pump(Suma) or DE soldering Wik
3. Solder wire
4. Wire Cutter
5. Solder Flux
6. And Electronic Components etc
Theory:
Soldering is defined as "the joining of metals by a fusion of alloys, which have relatively low melting points".
In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to adhere the surfaces to be soldered together.
Soldering is more like gluing with molten metal than anything else. Soldering is also a must have skill for all
sorts of electrical and electronics work. It is also a skill that can only be developed with practice. The steps
involved with soldering will be explained later in the document.
Soldering Equipment:
Soldering requires two main things: a soldering iron and solder. Soldering irons are the heat source used to
melt solder. Irons of the 15W to 30W range are good for most electronics/printed circuit board work. Using
anything higher in wattage and you risk damaging either the component or the board. Note that you should
not use so-called soldering guns. These are very high wattage and generate most of their heat by passing an
electrical current through a wire. Because of this, the wire carries a stray voltage that could damage circuits
and components. The choice of solder is also important. One of the things to remember is to never use acid
core solder. Acid core solder will corrode component leads, board traces and form conductive paths between
components. The best solder for electronics work is a thin rosin core solder1

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Soldering Procedure:
1. Surface Preparation
A clean surface is very important if you want a strong, low resistive solder joint. Since you already have a
PCB design, you don’t have to worry about your board being clean. But, make sure that your component
leads are clean.
2. Component Placement
Bend the leads as necessary and insert the component through the proper holes on the board. To hold the part
in place while you are soldering, you may want to bend the leads on the bottom of the board at a 45 degree
angle, refer to figure 3 below.

3. Apply Heat
Apply a very small amount of solder to the tip of the iron. This helps conduct the heat to the component and
board, but it is NOT the solder that will make up the joint. Now you are ready to actually heat the component
and board. Lay the iron tip so that it rests against both the component lead and the board. Normally, it takes
one or two seconds to heat the component up enough to solder, but larger components and larger soldering
pads on the board can increase the time.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

4. Apply Solder and Remove Heat
Once the component lead and solder pad has heated up, you are ready to apply solder. Touch the tip of the
strand of solder to the component lead and solder pad, but NOT the tip of the iron. If everything is hot enough,
the solder should flow freely around the lead and pad.
Don't move the joint for a few seconds to allow the solder to cool. If you do move the joint, you will get
what's called a "cold joint". A cold joint is a joint in which the solder does not make good contact with the
component lead or printed circuit board pad. Cold joints occur when the component lead or solder pad moves
before the solder is completely cooled. Cold joints make a really bad electrical connection and can prevent
your circuit from working.
Cold joints can be recognized by a characteristic grainy, dull gray colour, and can be easily fixed. This is
done by first removing the old solder with a de soldering tool or simply by heating it up and flicking it off
with the iron. Once the old solder is off, you can resolder the joint, making sure to keep it still as it cools.
Refer to figure 5 for a picture of correctly applying solder.

De-soldering
At some stage you will probably need to de-solder a joint to remove or re-position a wire or component.
There are two ways to remove the solder:
1. With a de-soldering pump:
This is also known as a 'solder sucker'. It is best to use one with an ESD (electrostatic discharge) nozzle
to protect some ICs which can be damaged by static electricity.

1. Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks.
2. Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
3. Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.
4. Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the molten solder into the tool.
5. Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.
6. The pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

2. With solder remover braid:
The copper braid acts as a wick for the molten solder which readily flows onto the braid, away from the
joint.

1. Apply both the end of the copper braid and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
2. As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the braid, away from the joint.
3. Remove the braid first, then the soldering iron.
4. Cut off and discard the end of the braid coated with solder.

After removing most of the solder from the joint(s) you may be able to remove the wire or component lead
straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool). If the joint will not come apart easily apply your soldering
iron to melt the remaining traces of solder at the same time as pulling the joint apart, taking care to avoid
burning yourself.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: We have studies and successfully done soldering and de-soldering
process of Resistor, and Capacitor in PCB.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. That is very hot (about 400 C) and will burn.
2. Hold wires to be heated with tweezers or clamps.
3. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.
4. Turn unit off or unplug it when not in use.
QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1. What is soldering?
2. What is de-soldering?
3. What are the steps to solder a resistor on a PCB?
4. Why is it important to clean the PCB pads before soldering?
5. How do you de-solder a resistor from a PCB?
6. What precautions should be taken when soldering an IC?

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 04

AIM: To Study of lab equipment and components: CRO, Digital Multi-meter, Function Generator, Power
supply- Active, and Passive Components & Bread Board.

Component required:

Sr. No. Apparatus / Components Specification Quantity

1. CRO with Probe Dual Trace (30MHz) 1

2. Function Generator 3 MHz 1

3. Digital Multimeter (DMM) MAS830L 1

4. Active and passive components IN4007, BC547,548, 1 no. each

(Diode, Transistor, Resistance , R=1k,10k,100k, C=0.1pf,
Capacitance) 0.01pf and 10pf/25V etc.

5. Power supply & Bread Board +5V, 0-30V Variable 1

Theory:
CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
The oscilloscope is one of the most important electronic instruments available for making circuit
measurements. It displays a curve plot of time-varying voltage on the oscilloscope screen. The oscilloscope
provided with Multisim Electronics Workbench is a dual trace oscilloscope that looks and acts like a real
oscilloscope. A dual trace oscilloscope allows the user to display and compare two time-varying voltages at
one time.
The controls on the oscilloscope are as follows:
1. The TIME BASE control adjusts the time scale on the horizontal axis in time per division when Y/T is
selected. When B/A is selected, the horizontal axis no longer represents time. The horizontal axis now
represents the voltage on the channel A input and vertical axis represents the voltage on channel B input.
When A/B is selected, the horizontal axis represents the voltage on the channel B input and the vertical axis
represents the voltage on the channel A input. The X_POS control determines the horizontal position where
the curve plot begins.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

2. The CHANNEL A control adjusts the volts per division on the vertical axis for the channel A curve plot.
The Y-POS control determines the vertical position of the channel A curve plot relative to the horizontal
axis. Selecting AC places, a capacitance between the channel A vertical input and the circuit testing point.
Selecting ―0‖ connects channel A vertical input to ground.
3. The CHANNEL B control adjusts the volts per division of the vertical axis for the channel B curve plot.
The Y-POS determines the vertical position of the channel B curve plot relative to the horizontal axis.
Selecting AC places, a capacitance between the channel B vertical input and the circuit test point. Selecting
―0‖ connects the channel B vertical input to ground.
4. The trigger settings control the conditions under which a curve plot is triggered (begins to display).
Triggering can be internal (based on one of the input signals) or external (based on a signal applied to the
oscilloscope external trigger input). With internal triggering AUTO, A, or B. If A is selected, the curve plot
will be triggered by channel A input signal. If |B is selected, the curve plot will be triggered by channel B
input signal. If you expect a flat input waveshape or you want the curve plot displayed as soon as possible,
select AUTO. The display can be set to start on positive or negative slope of the input by selecting the
appropriate EDGE selection. The trigger LEVEL control determines the voltage level of the input signal
waveform, in divisions on the vertical axis, before the waveform will begin to display.

Fig.1. Block Diagram of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)

Function Generator
The function generator is a voltage source that supplies different time-varying voltage functions. The Multi-
sim Electronics Workbench can supply sine wave, square wave, and triangular wave voltage functions. The
wave shape, frequency, amplitude, duty cycle, and dc offset can be easily changed. It has three voltage output
terminals.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Fig.2. Block Diagram of Function Generator

Connect the COM terminal to ground symbol. The +ve terminal provides output voltage that is positive
with respect to the COM terminal and the –ve terminal proves an output voltage that is negative with
respect to the COM terminal.

The controls on the function generator are as follows:

1. You can select a wave shape by clicking the appropriate wave shape on the top of the function generator.

2. The frequency control allows you adjust the frequency of the output voltage up to 999 MHz. Click up or
down arrow to adjust the frequency, or click the frequency box and type the desired frequency.

3. The AMPLITUDE control allows you to adjust the amplitude of the output voltage measured from the
reference level (common) to peak level. The peak-to-peak value is twice the amplitude setting.

4. The OFFSET control adjusts the dc level of the voltage curve generated by the function generator. An
offset of 0 positions the curve plot along the x-axis with an equal positive and negative voltage setting. A
positive offset raises the curve plot above the x-axis and a negative offset lowers the curve plot below the x-
axis.

Multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring
instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include
features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.

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Fig.3. Block Diagram of Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—Analog multi-meters (AMM) and Digital Multi-meters (often
abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on micro ammeter whose pointer moves
over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display
digits, but may display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. A multimeter can be a
hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure
to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of
industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power
supplies, and wiring systems.

Power Supply
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to one or more electric loads. The term is most
commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer
to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated
power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held
nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy
source.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Fig.4. Block Diagram of Power Supply

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while
performing that task, from an energy source.

Active Elements & Passive Elements

The elements within a circuit will either control the flow of electric energy or respond to it. Those elements
which control the flow of electric energy are known as active elements and those which dissipate or store
the electric energy are passive elements.
The three linear passive elements are the Resistor, the Capacitor and the Inductor. Examples of non-linear
passive devices would be diodes, switches and spark gaps. Examples of active devices are Transistors, Triacs,
Varistors, and Vacuum Tubes, relays, solenoids and piezo electric devices.

Bread Board

Fig.5. Active & Passive Components

A breadboard (proto-board) is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. The term is commonly used
to refer to solder-less bread-board (plug-board). Because the solder-less bread-board does not require
soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with
circuit design.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: CRO, Digital Multi-meter, Function Generator, Power supply-
Active, and Passive Components & Bread Board has been studied successfully.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid short circuits: short circuits between the power and ground buses can cause the breadboard to
melt and the wires to get hot enough to burn you. If you smell or see smoke, you should immediately
disconnect the battery pack.
2. Be careful with components: Avoid using oversized wires, excessive force, or flat-blade electrical
components that could damage the breadboard. You should also handle ICs carefully.
3. Make connections tight: Ensure that connections are tight.
4. Test components: Test components before you start working.
QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1) What is CRO?
2) How do you use a Multimeter?
3) Mention the function of CRT? Mention the function of CRT?
4) Give examples of active components and passive components?
5) What is function generator and its application?

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 05
AIM: To study of P-N Junction Diode: Characteristics of PN Junction Diode. Static and Dynamic -
resistance measurement from graph.
Components required:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity

1. Diode 1N4007 1

2. Digital Multi-meter (DMM) Mastech (MAS830L) 2

3. Connecting leads Single Core 4

Theory: - A PN junction diode is a unidirectional two terminal semiconductor device. It conducts only in
forward bias (i.e., when its anode is at higher potential w.r.t. its cathode) & offers high resistance in other
direction. The two terminals of diode are called anode & cathode. When a diode is forward biased, the
barrier potential at junction reduces and the majority carriers cross the junction easily. This causes current
to flow through the diode. In reverse bias, the barrier potential increases and almost no current can flow
through the diode.
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN- JUNCTION DIODE: - If diode is used as a circuit in an electrical
circuitthere may be a requirement to know how it responds or behaves in electric circuit. This type of
information maybe obtained by a curve known as ―Volt- Ampere‖ (V-I) characteristics of a diode. The
entire V-I characteristics may be divided into two parts-
1. Forward Characteristics
2. Reverse Characteristics
1. FORWARD BAISING: -When the anode of an external battery is connected to the P side and the
cathode to the N side, it is called forward biasing as shown in Fig. 1. If the applied potential difference
is higher thanthat of the barrier potential, holes would be forced to move towards N side and electrons
towards P side. Thus, current starts flowing through the junction in the external circuit. The forward
current increases exponentially with the applied potential difference.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

2. REVERSE BAISING: - When the anode of an external battery is connected to the N side and the
cathode to the P side, it is called Reverse biasing as illustrating in Fig1(b).

(a) (b)
Fig.-1 (a)-(b)Circuit Diagram in forward & reverse bias

Fig.-1 (b) V-I characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

In this case the polarity of the fictitious battery is the same as that of the external battery. Thus, It leads
to the increases in the potential barrier, and electron in N type and hole in Ptype are drawn away from
junction, and hence hardly there is any current lowing in the external circuit.
Procedure:
For forward bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), the least count and zero error should be noted.
4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter, rheostat should be brought near the
negative end by inserting the key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved towards the positive
end. The current remains zero.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter, increase the VF to 0.4 V.
8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the VF becomes 0.7 V, the
current will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward breakdown stage.
10. Take out the key if the forward current won’t change as VF increased beyond forward breakdown.
11. Record the observations.

For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the key K and bring the
rheostat near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the negative end so as to flow the
reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When VR becomes 20 V, the current
will increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse breakdown stage.
Record the current reading and take off the key.

Record the observations.

OBSERVATIONS:
Forward Bias:

Sr. No. Input Voltage (Volt) V𝑭 (Volt) IF (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Reverse Bias:

Sr. No. Input Voltage (Volt) VR (Volt) IR (µA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Calculation:
The static resistance of the diode as RF = VF /IF
The dynamic resistance of the diode as RF = δ VF / δ IF.
Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment, do not exceed the rating of the diode. This may lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1. What is p-n junction diode?
2. Where we use p-n junction diode?
3. What is cut in voltage in p-n junction diode?
4. What is barrier potential in p-n junction diode?
5. What is the effect of temperature on p-n junction diode?

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 06
AIM: Applications of PN junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of VRMS, VDC, and ripple
factor.

Components required:

S.No. Apparatus / Software Used Specification Quantity

1. Diode 1N4007 4

2. CRO Dual Trace (30MHz) 1

3. Function Generator 3MHz 1

4. Transformer Centre Tapping 6V-0-6V @ 300mA 1

5. Bread-Board -----

6. Connecting Wire Single Core 4

Theory: Rectifier circuit is used to convert AC signal into dc signal. Rectification is of two types:
1. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER: -In half wave rectifier during half cycle of input signal, the diode is
forward biasand conducts. Current flow through the load resistance R L and voltage is developed
across it. During negative (-ve) half cycle of input signal, the diode gets reverse biased & no current
flows through the load resistor RL.

Fig.1 Connection diagram for half wave rectifier.

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A transformer couple a.c. input voltage to the rectifier circuit. In this type of rectifier circuit only the positive
half cycle is utilized. The circuit diagram of HWR with its input and output wave forms is shown in Fig.1

2. FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS: -Unlike a half wave rectifier, a full wave rectifier conducts in both
half cycles of ac voltage. Full wave rectifier can be implemented in two ways
Full wave bridge rectifier

Fig.2. Connection diagram for full wave rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier: Bridge rectifier uses four diodes. When input AC signal is applied across the bridge
rectifier,during the positive half cycle diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and allows electric current while
the diodesD2 and D4 are reverse biased and blocks electric current. On the other hand, during the negative half
cycle diodesD2 and D4 are forward biased and allow electric current through load resistance while diodes D1
and D3 are reverse biased and blocks electric current. During the positive half cycle, the terminal A becomes
positive whilethe terminal B becomes negative. This causes the diodes D1 and D3 forward biased and at the
same time, it causes the diode D2 and D4 reverse biased. Full wave Bridge type full wave rectifier with its
input and output wave form is shown in Figure 2.
Full wave centre tap rectifier

Fig.3. Connection diagram Full wave centre tap rectifier.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

This is another method to obtain full wave rectification. In this method only two diodes are using. But it
requires a canter tap transformer. During the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts. In the negative half cycle
diode D2 conducts so in both half cycles current flowing through load in same direction. Thus, rectification
can be obtained.
PROCEDURE:
For half wave & Full Wave rectifier circuit:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1. It becomes a half wave rectifier circuit since only diode D1 is
in circuit, note L is short circuited and C open.
2. Switch on the power.
3. Measure AC across the transformer secondary.
4. Note the reading of dc voltage from filter meter as VDC. Calculate the theoretical value and
compare it with found value, where theoretical value VDC={VAC(RMS) * √2/ᴨ}.
5. Connect the AC voltmeter at the dc output socket fitted at +ve of RL side.
6. Note the AC ripple voltage as VR. Calculate the ripple factor as
7. Ripple factor R= VR / VDC.
OBSERVATIONS

Sr. No & Name VM (Volt) Vrms(Volt) VDC (Volt) Ripple Factor

For HWR

For FWR (Centre Tape)

For FWR (Bridge Rectifier)

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

Measurement of VRMS, VDC, and ripple factor for half wave and full wave rectifier is calculate &
noted in Observational Table.

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment, do not exceed the rating of the diode. This may lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1. What is Half-wave rectifier?
2. Define PIV.
3. What is ripple factor?
4. What do you mean by efficiency of rectifier?
5. What are the applications of rectifier?

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 Galgotia’s College of Engineering & Technology
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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 07
AIM: Properties of junctions: Zener diode characteristics. V-I characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical
measurement of forward and reverse resistance.
Components required:

S. No. Apparatus / Software Used Specification Quantity

1. Zener diode BZX56 (5.1V, 12V) 1

2. Voltmeter (DMM) ( 0-20V) Variable 1

3. Ammeter (DMM) (0-200mA) 1

4. Bread Board 5 to15V @ 1Amp. 1

5. Connecting wires Single Core 6-8

Theory:
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. It is acting as
normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as break down voltage, at which the
diode break downs while reverse biased. In the case of normal diodes, the diode damages at the break down
voltage. But Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region.
(a) Forward I-V characteristics of Zener diode

Fig.1. (a)Connection diagram Forward biased Zener diode. Range 5.1V.

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The basic principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, it’s depletion
region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there will be very strong
electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus, heavy current flows.
This is known as Zener break down. So, a Zener diode, in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode.
In reverse biased mode, after the break down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the
voltage across it remains constant.
(b) Reverse-biased I-V characteristics of Zener diode

Fig.1. (b)Connection diagram Reverse biased Zener diode.

Fig.-2 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode Forward & Reverse Biased

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

PROCEDURE:
For Zener diode forward breakdown characteristics of given Zener diode BZX56.
1. Connect the given diode as shown in fig.1a. Identify the voltage polarity meter and diode’s polarity.
Select voltmeter range to 1V. Select mode switch towards VZ mode.
2. Keep supply control to minimum (fully counter-clockwise). Switch on the power.
3. Gradually increase the supply voltage in small steps and note the forward breakdown voltage
4. Increase the supply further and note the current IZF . Increase further supply till current meter
approaches to maximum.
5. Plot the forward bias curve with the reverse bias in 1stquadrent. From the curve it is found that the
Zener diodes exhibit very low resistance after forward breakdown in forward and reverse bias.
For Zener diode reverse breakdown characteristics of given Zener diode BZX56.
1. Connect the given diode as shown in fig.1b. Identify the voltage polarity meter and diode polarity.
Select voltmeter range to 10V. Select mode switch towards VZ mode.
2. Keep supply control to minimum (fully counter-clockwise). Switch on the power.
3. Gradually increase the supply voltage in small steps and note the readings VZ, IZ with each increment
till mA meter approaches to maximum.
4. Bring supply control to minimum. Select mode towards VS. Now again increase the supply and note
the input voltage VS with current IZ.
5. Plot the reverse bias curve from the observations. Find out the knee of the curve at minimum current.

OBSERVATIONS:

Sr No. Input Voltage (Volt) Zener Voltage VF Zener Current IF (mA)

(Volt)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

CALCULATION:
The Forward resistance of the diode as RF = VF /IF
The Reverse resistance of the diode as RR = VR / IR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION: The V-I characteristic of Zener diode is plotted in graph which is true
according to theory.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep your hand away from the main supply.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1. What is breakdown voltage?

2. Give applications of Zener diode.
3. What is the value of Zener resistance of ideal Zener diode?
4. Differentiate the Zener and Avalanche breakdown mechanisms
5. Define Knee Zener current.

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1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 08
AIM: Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration.
Components required:

Sr. No. Components/ Instruments Specification Quantity

Used

1. Transistor NPN BC 147 or CL-100 1

2. Power Supply 5V, 15V Variable 2

3. DMM as Voltmeter (0-20V) Mastech ( MAS830L) 2

4. DMM as Ammeter (0-20mA) Mastech ( MAS830L) 2

5. Resistance 1KΩ 2

6. Connecting Wires Leads Single Core 8-10

Theory:
A transistor is a 3-terminal device. It can be considered as the combination of two diodes. In a transistor
there are 3 regions: 1. emitter 2. base 3. Collector. In an NPN transistor the emitter and collector are n
types, and base is p type. In any transistor emitter is heavily doped, base is lightly doped and collector is
moderately doped. For the proper working of transistor, the emitter base junction should be forward biased
and collector base junction should be reverse biased. In a common emitter configuration, emitter is
common to both input and output.

Fig. 1: Common emitter circuit.

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Transistor (bipolar transistor-BJT) is a current controlled device. The input characteristics are a plot between
the base current and base emitter voltage. The dynamic input resistance can be calculated by taking the slope
of the input characteristics by keeping the output voltage constant. The output characteristic is a plot between
collector current and collector emitter voltage by keeping the input current constant. Now the common
emitter current gain ß can be calculated as a ratio between collector current and base current at a particular
value of output voltage (collector emitter voltage).
The input characteristics:
To draw input characteristic the input supply VBE is varied and corresponding current IB is noted with each
incremental step, while the output supply is kept constant throughout the step.

The input impedance, Ri = VBE / IB at VCE constant (1)

Fig.2 Input characteristic curve of CE configuration

The output characteristics: To draw output characteristics the output supply VCE is varied and corresponding
current IC is noted with each incremental step, while the input current IB is kept constant throughout the step.

The output impedance, Ro = VCE / IC at IB constant (2)

The current gain, β = IC / IB at VCE constant (3)

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Fig.3 Output characteristic curve of CE configuration

PROCEDURE: To plot the input and output characteristics of given transistor in common emitter
configuration as in fig. 1.
(A) For input characteristics. (Fig.2)

1. Keep VCE supply at dc 5volt i.e., VCE =5V.

2. Slowly increase VBE supply in small steps. Note IB and VBE for each incremental step.
3. Tabulate all observations.
4. Plot the input characteristic curve from the observations between IB and VBE. Find out the slope
of the curves as given in relation see fig2.
(B) For output characteristics. (Fig.3)

1. Keep VCE =0. Adjust IB =40µA.

2. Slowly increase VCE supply in small steps. The µAmmeter deflects back as the VCE get increased.
This is due to reverse saturation current ICEO. Re correct IB to determined value 40µA. Note IC
and VCE with each incremental step.
3. Repeat step2 for different values of IB say 80µA increment for each step. Care should be taken
to re-correct IB through the steps.
4. Tabulate the observations.
5. Plot the output characteristic curves from the observations, between IC and VCE. Fix an operating
point in the middle of the curves; find out the slope of the curve as given in relation (2) and (3). See
fig3.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

OBSERVATIONS:
(A) For input characteristics.

Sr. VCE=1Volt VCE=2Volt VCE=3Volt

No.
VBE (Volt) IB (mA) VBE (Volt) IB (mA) VBE (Volt) IB (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
(B) For output characteristics.

Sr. IB (µA) IB (µA) IB (µA)

No.
VCE (Volt) IC (mA) VCE (Volt) IC (mA) VCE (Volt) IC (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Result And Discussion:

Thus, the input and output characteristic of CE configuration is plotted.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power supply voltage should be zero before starting the experiment.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1. What is meant by CE amplifier?
2. What are the advantages of BJT CE amplifier?
3. Why CE configuration is used as an amplifier?
4. What is range of current gain in CE configuration?
5. Name all the h parameters with their units.

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1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 09
AIM: To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.
Components required:

Sr. No. Apparatus Used Specification Quantity

1. Function generator 3 MHz (Scientific) 1

HM5030

2. Regulated power supply +5V, 0-30V Variable 1

3. CRO Dual Trace (30MHz) 1

4. IC 741 5V-15V @ 20mA 2

5. Resistors (1KΩ)—4 1KΩ/ 14 W 4

6. IC bread board trainer 5 to15V @ 1Amp. 2

7. Connection Wire Single core As Required

Theory: -
An operational amplifier (or an op-amp) is an integrated circuit (IC) that operates as a voltage amplifier.
An op-amp has a differential input. That is, it has two inputs of opposite polarity. An op-amp has a single
output and a very high gain, which means that the output signal is much higher than input signal. The
two input terminals are:

1. Inverting Terminal 2. Non- Inverting Terminal

Input at the Inverting terminal is amplified and phase shifted by 180˚ while the input at the non-inverting
terminal is amplified without phase shift. OP-Amp basically amplifies difference of signals at the two
terminals.

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Fig. 1 (a) Pin Diagram of IC 741 (b) Symbol of Op-amp

The adder can be obtained by using either non-inverting mode or differential amplifier. Here the inverting
mode is used. So, the inputs are applied through resistors to the inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal
is grounded. This is called ―virtual ground‖, i.e., the voltage at that terminal is zero. The gain of this summing
amplifier is 1, any scale factor can be used for the inputs by selecting proper external resistors.

Output of adder Vo = - (V1+V2)

Fig.(a) Circuit diagram of Adder

The subtractor circuit, input signals can be scaled to the desired values by selecting appropriate values for
the resistors. When this is done, the circuit is referred to as scaling amplifier. However, in this circuit all
external resistors are equal in value. So, the gain of amplifier is equal to one. The output voltage Vo is equal
to the voltage applied to the non-inverting terminal minus the voltage applied to the inverting terminal; hence
the circuit is called a sub-tractor.
Output of Sub tractor Vo = - (V1-V2)

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Fig.(b) Circuit diagram of Subtractor

Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in circuit diagram choosing R1, R2, Rf = 10KΩ each. Use 0- ±12V
terminal output to provide supply to the IC.
2. Using 0 – 30V and 5V terminals of the power supply, apply two inputs at the inverting terminal.
Measure each input with multi-meter.
3. Measure the output with multi-meter for at least five input combinations.
4. Compare the output with the sum of the two inputs for Adder.
5. And compare the output with the difference of the two inputs for sub tractor.

Observation Table/Observations:
a) For Adder
S.No. V1 (V) V2 (Volt) V= V1+ V2 (Volt)

1.

2.

3.

b) For Subtractor
S.No. V1 (Volt) V2 (Volt) V=V1 - V2 (Volt)

1.

2.

3.

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Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
We have designed and analyzed OPAMP as adder and Subtractor circuit IC 741.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power supply voltage should be zero before starting the experiment.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
4. Connections as per the circuit diagram.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1. Define slew rate of Op-Amp?

2. Discuss the principle of Op-Amp as integrator.
3. Define common mode gain.
4. Define slew rate.

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1, Knowledge Park II, Greater Noida – 201 310 (UP) INDIA

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
AIM: Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.
Components required:
Digital trainer kit, connecting wires, breadboard, TTL IC’s-AND 7408, OR 7432, NAND 7400, NOR 7402,
NOT 7404, XOR 7486.
Theory: -

The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic gates perform the
basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion, Exclusive-OR, Exclusive- NOR.

AND gate: - Function of AND gate is to give the output true when both the inputs are true. In all the other
remaining cases output becomes false. Following table justifies the statement.

OR gate: - Function of OR gate is to give output true when one of the either input is true. In the remaining
case output becomes false. Following table justify the statement.

NOT gate: -Function of NOT gate is to reverse the input. It converts true input to false and vice versa.
Following table justifies the statement.

Universal Gates
NAND gate: -Function of NAND gate is to give true output when at least one input or both the provided
inputs are false. In the remaining case output is false.

NOR gate: - NOR gate gives the output true when both the two provided inputs are false. In all the other
cases output remains false.

Advanced Gates

XOR gate: - The function of XOR gate is to give the output true if one and only one of the inputs to the gate
is true.

XNOR gate: - The function of XNOR gate is to produce a high output when both inputs are the same, and a
low output when one input is high and the other is low.

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Summary Of Logic Gates:

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PIN diagram of each Logic gate IC

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PROCEDURE: -
1. Get the components required for the experiment.
2. Fix the IC which is under observation between the half shadow line of bread-board, so that there is no
shortage of voltage.
3. Connect the wire to the main voltage source (Vcc) whose another end is connected to last pin of the IC
(14 place from the notch).
4. Connect the ground of IC (7th place from the notch) to the ground terminal provided on the digital trainer
kit.
5. Give the input at any one of the gates of the IC by using connecting wires (in accordance to IC provided).
6. Connect output pins to the led terminals on digital trainer kit.
7. Switch on the power supply.
8. If led glows, then output is true else output is false, which is numerically denoted as 1 and 0 respectively.
RESULT: -
All gates are verified. Observed output matches with the truth table values

PRECAUTIONS: -
1. All connections should be made neat and tight.
2. Digital lab kits and ICs should be handled with utmost care.
3. While making connections, main voltage should be kept off.
4. Never touch any live wires.

QUESTIONS FOR VIVA-VOICE:

1. Name two advantages of digital data as compared to analog data.

2. What is meant by an IC?
3. Design EX-OR gate using NAND gates only.
4. What is Duty cycle?
5. Design AND gate using NOR gates only.

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