A review of Probability

❑ Sample outcome- referred to the possible results of an experiment.

❑ Sample Space- a set of all possible outcomes and usually denoted by S.

❑ Event- is a subset of the sample space S of an experiment.

Probability

• is a measure of the likelihood of occurrence of an event.

• Suppose an experiment has a sample space 𝑆, and let 𝐴 be an event defined on 𝑆.

The probability of the event 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑃 𝐴 , and we formulate the following

axioms of probability:

❑ Axiom 1:

• The probability of event A, is a real number between 0 and 1; that is 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐴) ≤

1.

❑ Axiom 2:

• The probability that the outcome of an experiment will be an element of the sample space S is
1; that is, 𝑃 𝑆 = 1.

❑ Probability of an Event

𝐏 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭= 𝐧(𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭)

𝐍(𝐒𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐞 𝐒𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞)

L1: Random Variable

❑A random variable is a function that assigns a unique real number to each element in the
sample space.

❑A random variable is a real-value function whose domain is the sample space S.

STEPS

1.Assign letters that will represent each outcome.

2.Determine the sample space (All possible outcomes).

3.Count the number of the random variable

L2: DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLE AND CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLE

❑ If a sample space of a random experiment consists of a finite number of elements or has an

❑ A random variable defined over a discrete sample space is a discrete random variable.

❑ Continuous Sample Space

▪ If the sample of a random experiment consists of uncountably infinite

number of outcomes.

❑ Continuous Random Variable

▪ A random variable defined over a continuous sample space

Discrete- Can be count by yourself

Continuous- Cannot be count by yourself you need tools

L3: Mean and Variance of Discrete Random Variable

❑ Standard Deviation

o The positive square root of the variance is called the Standard Deviation of the random
variable 𝑋, and is denoted by 𝜎𝑥.
❑ Coefficient of variation

o the coefficient of variation, or CV, is a measure relative dispersion that expresses the standard
deviation as a percentage of the mean.

The coefficient of variation of a random variable 𝑋 is computed as

STEPS

1.Find the mean of the probability distribution.

2.Subtract the mean from each value of the random variable 𝑥.

3.Square the results.

4.Multiply the results by the corresponding probability

Normal Distribution

❑ The mean and standard deviation are called the parameters of the normal distribution which
specify the form of the normal distribution.

❑ The mean μ is a location parameter where as the standard deviation is a scale parameter.

❑ The graph of the normal distribution is called a normal curve

PROPERTIES OF A NORMAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

1. The distribution curve is a bell shaped.

2. The curve is symmetrical about its center (mean).

3. The mean, median and mode coincide at the center.

4. The curve is asymptotic to the horizontal axis.

5. The total area under the curve, bounded by the horizontal axis is equal to 1 or 100%

Two factors that the graph of the normal distribution may depend on;
1. Mean: determines the location of the center of the bell-shaped curve, thus a change of the
value of the mean shift the curve of the graph to the right or to the left.

2. Standard Deviation: determines the shape of the graph particularly the height and width.

: large value of the standard deviation makes the normal curve short and wide.

: small value of the standard deviation yields to a skinner and taller normal curve.

Areas Under the Normal Curve

❑ The empirical rule specifies that in any normal distribution, approximate 68.26% of the
values lies within one standard deviation away from the mean; 95.44% of the values lies within
two standard deviations away from the mean; and 99.74% of the values lies within three
standard deviations away from the mean.

❑ A value that has a z-score lower than -3 or larger than 3 is considered an outlier.

Random Sampling

▪ selection of 𝑛 elements derived from a population 𝑁 which is the subject of the investigation or
experiment where each sample point has an equal chance of being selected using the
appropriate sampling technique.

Population

▪ the totality of items, things, or people under consideration.

▪ the entire group that is being under study or investigation.

Examples of Population

1.Total number of enrolled students in a school.

2.Total number of people in Philippines.

3.Ages of all vendors in a public market.

4.List of all countries in the world.

Parameter

▪ any measurable characteristics of the population 𝑁.

Examples of Parameter

1. Average weight of all males in the Philippines.

2. Average allowance of all students in a class.

3. Typical age in a country.

4. Overall income of a company.

5. Average daily temperature

Random Sampling

▪ selection of 𝑛 elements derived from a population 𝑁 which is the subject of the investigation or
experiment where each sample point has an equal chance of being selected using the
appropriate sampling technique.

Sample

• subset of the population

Examples of Sample

1. A group of patients undergoing chemotherapy in a hospital.

2. Philippines’ 50 richest.

3. Number of voters per town.

4. Top 10 for Licensure Exam.

5. Number of Grade 11 senior high school enrollees in University of San Agustin

Statistic
• any measurable characteristics of a sample 𝑛

Examples of Statistic

1. Average weight of 100 cats in Iloilo City.

2. Average test score of 20 students in a class.

3. 30% of 900 elementary students could not memorize the multiplication table of 7.

4. Typical income of faculty members in SHS department.

Types of Random Sampling

1. Simple random sampling

▪ Simplest and the most widely used way to take random sample.

▪ A selection of a subset of a population where each element has an equal chance of being
selected.

Sampling frame

▪ List of all members of the population that we will be sampling from.

Examples

a. Using table of random numbers

b. Lottery method

c. Wheel of names2. Systematic Random Sampling

▪ A random starting point is selected and the every

2. Systematic Random Sampling

▪ A random starting point is selected and the every kth member of the population is selected.

▪ The value of k is chosen by the researcher. In general, we divide the population size by the
desired sample size.
▪ It is important to note the physical order of the population before doing systematic random
sampling.

Example:

1.Taking a systematic random sample of size 4 for the population of size 24, then we have:

3. Stratified Random Sampling

▪ A selection of a simple random sample from each of a given number of subpopulation or

▪ The strata are based on the members’ shared attributes or characteristics.

▪ When doing stratified random sampling, it is customary to have the ratio of the elements from
each of the strata in the sample to be the same as that of the population.

4. Cluster Sampling

▪ A selection of clusters from the available clusters in the population. Each member of the
selected clusters is then included in the sample.

▪ Sometimes called area sampling, it is applied on a geographical basis.

▪ We wish for each cluster to be as varied as possible.

Types of Non-Random Sampling

1. Accidental Sampling

▪ Only those whom the researcher meets by chance are included in the sample when using this
technique.

2. Quota Sampling

▪ Includes a specified number of persons of certain type to be taken as sample

3. Convenience Sampling

▪ Most convenient and faster sampling technique that make use of the telephone, mobile
phones, or the internet.
4. Purposive Sampling

▪ Used in very sample sizes