●​ Define:

Data communication: The term data communication can be defined as “the process of
using computing and
communication technologies to transfer data from one place to another, and vice
versa”.

●​ List the components of data communication

The main components of data communication are: Sender, Receiver, Message,
Transmission Medium, and Protocol—all working together to enable reliable data
exchange.

●​ List any two channelization protocols

1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

●​ State any two applications of wireless LAN

Two common applications of Wireless LAN (WLAN) are:
1. Internet access in homes, offices, and public places like cafes, airports, and
libraries.
2. File and printer sharing within a wireless network environment.

●​ What is routing?
routing is the process of selecting the best path for data to travel from the source to
the destination across a network.

●​ What is internetworking?
internetworking is the process of connecting two or more different networks to
function as a single, larger network.

Network:A network is defined as, “an interconnected collection of autonomous computers”.

Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable of exchanging
information.

Computer network:A computer network is "an interconnection of computers and computing

equipment
like printer, scanner etc. using either wires or radio waves (wireless) made to share
hardware and software resources".

●​ What is star topology? State the advantages and disadvantages of star

topology.
star topology is a network configuration where all devices (nodes) are connected to a central
hub or switch. This central device acts as a conduit to transmit messages between the
nodes.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install, reconfigure and wire.
2. Centralized management which helps in monitoring the network.
3. Fast as compared to ring topology.
4. Multiple devices can transfer data without collision.
5. Eliminates traffic problems.
6. No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
7. It is easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.
Disadvantages:
1. If the central node (hub or switch) goes down then the entire network goes down.
2. More cabling is required than bus or ring topology, so more expensive.
3. Performance is dependent on capacity of the central device.

●​ What is mesh topology? State advantages and disadvantages of its.

•In a mesh network topology, each of the network nodes, computer and other devices,
are interconnected with one another with dedicated point to point link.
•Mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, as a backbone connecting
the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies
advantages:
Advantages:
1. Each connection can carry its own data load due to a dedicated link.
2. Eliminates traffic problems.
3. Mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not affect other
systems.
4. Privacy or security because of dedicated lines.
5. Point-to-point links make fault identification easy and simple.
Disadvantages:
1. More cables are required than other topologies.
2. Overall cost of this network is very high.
3. Installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.
4. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult.
5. Expensive due to hardware requirements such as cables.

●​ State the Advantages and disadvantages of LAN,WAN,MAN.

Advantages of LAN:
1. The reliability of LAN is high because the failure of one computer in the network
does not affect the functioning for other computers.
2. Addition of a new computer to the network is easy and simple.
3. High rate of data transmission is possible.
4. Peripheral devices like magnetic disk, printer etc. can be shared by other
computers.
5. Less expensive to install.
Disadvantages of LAN:
1. Used for small geographical areas (less than 1 km).
2. Limited computers are connected in LAN.
3. Special security measures are needed to stop unauthorized users from using
programs and data.
4. LANs need to be maintained by skilled technicians.
5. In LAN if the file server develops a serious fault, all the users are affected.

Advantages of WAN:
1. WAN covers a large geographical area.
2. WAN shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
3. Using WAN messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network.
4. Expensive things (like printers or phone lines to the internet etc.) can be shared by
all the computers on the network.
5. WAN adds fluidity to user’s information communication.
Disadvantages of WAN:
1. WANs are expensive.
2. WANs need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the
network.
3. Setting up a network can be an expensive and complicated experience. The bigger
the network the more expensive it is.
4. Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use
information from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds
more complexity and expense.
5. Slower than LAN and MAN.

Advantages of MAN:
1. MAN spans a large geographical area (5 to 50 km) than LAN.
2. MAN falls in between the LAN and WAN therefore, increases the efficiency of
handling data.
3. MAN saves the cost and time attached to establish a wide area network.
4. MAN offers centralized management of data.
5. MAN enables us to connect many fast LANs together.
Disadvantages of MAN:
1. Implementation cost is high.
2. Speed is slow.
3. In MAN there are high chances of attacking hackers on the network compared to
LAN. So data may be leaked.
4. To set up MAN it requires technical people that can correctly set up MAN.
Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP Models

●​ Explain the similarities between OSI reference model and TCP/IP.

1. Layered Architecture:
Both OSI and TCP/IP models use a layered approach to divide network
communication tasks into manageable sections. Each layer performs a specific
function and communicates with the layers directly above and below it.

2. Standard-Based Models:
Both models are based on standard protocols and are designed to allow
interoperability between different hardware and software vendors.

3. Transmission of Data:
Both models facilitate data transmission over networks, from the source to the
destination, using a step-by-step process involving multiple layers.

4. Encapsulation:
In both models, data is encapsulated with headers (and sometimes trailers) as it
moves down the layers, and decapsulated as it moves up the layers at the receiving
end.
5. Similar Layer Functions:
-The Application, Presentation, and Session layers in OSI map to the Application layer
in TCP/IP.
-The Transport layer is present in both models and is responsible for end-to-end
communication.
-The Network layer (OSI) corresponds to the Internet layer (TCP/IP).
-The Data Link and Physical layers in OSI are combined into the Network Access layer
in TCP/IP.

6. Network Communication Support:

Both models aim to support reliable communication and networking between
computers across different types of network architectures.

●​ Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 4000Hz transmitting a signal

with two signal levels.what will be the maximum bit rate?
To calculate the maximum bit rate of a noiseless channel, we use Nyquist's Theorem:

Nyquist Bit Rate Formula:

Maximum bit rate=2×bandwidth×logbase2 (L)
Where:
Bandwidth = 4000 Hz
L = Number of signal levels = 2
log₂(L) = log base 2 of number of levels

---
Calculation:
Maximum Bit Rate= 2×4000 ×logbase2(2) = 2 ×4000×1 = 8000bps
The maximum bit rate is 8000 bits per second (bps)

●​ Difference between OSI reference model and TCP/IP model:

OSI reference model TCP/IP model

1.OSI refers to Open Systems 1.TCP refers to Transmission Control

Interconnection Protocol/ Internet Protocol.

2.OSI model had Seven (7) layers. TCP/IP model has five (5) layers.

3.OSI is less reliable. TCP/IP is more reliable.

4. Developed by ISO (International Developed by the Department of Defense

Standard Organization). (DoD

5. OSI is a conceptual model. TCP/IP is a client-server model, i.e. when

the client requests for service it is provided
by the server.

6. Protocol independent standard. Protocol dependent standard.

 7. OSI follows a horizontal approach TCP/IP follows a vertical approach.

8. OSI model follows a bottom-up TCP/IP follows a top-bottom approach.

approach.

9. In the OSI model, model was In the TCP/IP model, protocol were
developed before the development developed first and then the model was
of protocols. developed

●​ State the difference between LAN,WAN and MAN:

PARAMETERS LAN WAN MAN

1.stand for Local area network Wide area network Metropolitan area
network

2.area covered Covers Small area Covers large Covers larger

i.e within the geographical areas
building ( less than areas, like than LAN and
1km) country, state etc. smaller than WAN
like cities.

3.error rates Lowest Highest Moderate

4. Transmission High Low Moderate

speed

5.equipment cost Uses inexpensive Uses most Uses moderately

equipment. expensive expensive
equipment. equipment

6. Example Offices, cyber cafe Internet ATM,FDDI,etc

7.data transfer rate High Low Moderate

8.set up cost Low High Moderate

9.ownership Owned by private Ownership can be Ownership can be

organisation private or public private or public

●​ Define the following:

LAN:LAN (Local Area Network) is a type of network that connects computers and devices
within a limited geographical area, such as a home, office, school, or campus.

MAN:MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is a network that spans a city or a large

campus, covering a larger area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

WAN:WAN (Wide Area Network) is a type of network that covers a very large geographical
area, such as a country, continent, or even the whole world.
Protocol: protocols are a set of rules and standards that define how data is transmitted and
received over a network.

●​ Circuit switched network:

a circuit-switched network is a type of communication network where a dedicated
communication path (or circuit) is established between two devices for the duration of
the session.
Key Features:
1.Connection-oriented: A path is established before data is transmitted.
2.Dedicated path: The entire bandwidth is reserved for the call/session.
3.Commonly used in traditional telephone networks.
4.The circuit remains active until one party disconnects.
Example:
A voice call made through a landline phone uses circuit switching. A fixed route is
reserved for the call until it's ended.
Advantages:
1.Guaranteed data transfer rate.
2.Consistent and reliable communication.
Disadvantages:
1.Inefficient use of resources (the path stays reserved even if no data is sent).
2.Setup time required before communication starts.

●​ Packet switched network:

•In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks of
data known as packets.
•In other words, instead of the continuous communication we see between two
telephone sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of individual data
packets between the two computers.
•This allows us to make the switches function for both storing and forwarding
because
a packet is an independent entity that can be stored and sent later.
•A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and forward the
packet.

●​ What is channelization?list the methods of channelization.explain any one

method.
Channelization is the multiple access method in which the available bandwidth of a
link is shared in time, frequency or through code between different stations.

Methods of Channelization:
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
---
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):
1.In FDMA, the total bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency bands.
2.Each user is assigned a unique frequency band for the entire communication
session.
3.These frequency bands are separated by guard bands to avoid interference.
Example: Traditional radio broadcasting, where different stations operate on different
frequencies.
Advantages of FDMA:
1.Simple and easy to implement.
2.Less delay since channels are always available.
Disadvantages:
1.Inefficient use of bandwidth if some users are inactive.
2.Limited number of users due to fixed frequency allocation.

●​ What is computer network? Write any four characteristics of computer

network.
A computer network is a system in which two or more computers are connected to
share resources, such as files, printers, or internet access.
---
Four Characteristics of Computer Networks:

1. Resource Sharing – Allows users to share files, applications, and hardware like
printers.
2. Reliability – Offers backup paths and systems for continuous communication.
3. Scalability – Can grow by adding more devices without affecting performance.
4. Security – Protects data and resources through authentication and encryption.

●​ Define the following:

Bandwidth :the term bandwidth refers to the speed of data transmissions.
It is a measure of the data that can be transmitted from one point to another in a given
amount of time.

1. Bandwidth in Hertz (Hz): Bandwidth in hertz refers to the range of frequencies in

a composite signal or the range of frequencies that the channel can pass. For
example, the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4kHz.

2. Bandwidth in bits per second (bps): Bandwidth in bits per second refers to the
speed of bit transmission in a channel or link. For example, the bandwidth of a
Fast Ethernet network or the links is a maximum of 100 Mbps means this network
can send 100 Mbps

Throughput: •
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
Throughput is the rate of successful message delivery over a communication
channel/medium.

Latency:•
Latency is the time it takes for a packet to get across the network, from source to
destination.
Latency = Propagation time + Transmission time + Queuing time + Processing delay
jitter:jitter is a “packet delay variance”. The jitter is considered as a
problem when different packets of data face different delays in a network and the
data at the receiver application is time-sensitive, i.e. audio or video data.

1. ALOHA:
•ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared
communication
Networks channel.
•ALOHA was developed in the 1970s by Norman Abramson and his colleagues at the
University of Hawaii to solve the problem of channel allocation.
•ALOHA was designed for a wireless LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.

1. Pure ALOHA:
1.Concept: Any device can transmit data at any time without checking if the channel
is free.
2.If two devices send data at the same time, a collision occurs, and the data is lost.
3.Devices wait a random time and retransmit.

Example: Two computers on a shared network send packets at the same time →
collision → both wait randomly → retry sending.

Efficiency: About 18.4% (only this much of the time the network is used effectively).
---
2. Slotted ALOHA:
1.Improved version of Pure ALOHA.
2.Time is divided into equal time slots.
3.Devices can only transmit at the beginning of a slot.
4.Reduces the chance of collision.

Example: Devices wait for the next time slot before sending → fewer collisions.

Efficiency: About 36.8%, almost double that of Pure ALOHA.

●​ What is framing? explain any two framing methods with example

Framing is an important function of the data link layer. Group of physical layer bits
stream into units (messages) called frames. Breaking the bit stream into frames is
called framing.
1. Character Count:
-This method uses the first byte of the frame to indicate the number of bytes in the
frame.
-The receiver reads the first byte and counts that many bytes to get the complete
frame.
2. Flag-based Framing (Byte Stuffing):
-Uses special flag bytes to mark the start and end of a frame (commonly 01111110 in
HDLC).
-If the flag byte appears in the data, byte stuffing is used to escape it.

●​ What is flow control? Why is it needed

flow control is a technique used to manage the rate of data transmission between a
sender and a receiver to ensure efficient and reliable communication.
Flow control is needed to ensure reliable data transmission by preventing data loss,
avoiding congestion, maintaining smooth communication, and synchronizing devices
with different speeds.

●​ Explain the important design issues of the data Link layer

Important Design Issues of the Data Link Layer
1. Framing
-Framing is the process of dividing the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.
-It helps in data synchronization and error detection.

2. Error Control
-The Data Link Layer ensures that frames are delivered without errors.
-It uses error detection techniques (like CRC) and error correction methods (like
ARQ).

3. Flow Control
-Flow control manages the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver to
prevent buffer overflow at the receiver.
-Techniques like Stop-and-Wait and Sliding Window Protocol are used.

4. Access Control (MAC)

-When multiple devices share the same communication channel, access control
decides which device gets to use the channel.
-Used in LANs through MAC protocols like CSMA/CD and Token Passing.

5. Physical Addressing
The Data Link Layer adds the physical (MAC) address of the sender and receiver to
the frame to ensure proper delivery over the local network.

6. Frame Synchronization
Ensures the receiver can identify the start and end of each frame, usually by using
special bit patterns or flags.

●​ Explain the different services offered by the network layer

Services Offered by the Network Layer
1. Packet Routing and Forwarding
-Determines the best path for data packets to travel from source to destination.
-Uses routing algorithms to forward packets across different networks.

2. Logical Addressing (IP Addressing)

-Assigns unique IP addresses to devices on the network.
-Helps identify each device across different networks.

3. Internetworking
-Enables communication between heterogeneous networks, connecting LANs, WANs,
etc., using routers.
-Provides a unified addressing and routing system.

4. Fragmentation and Reassembly

-Splits large packets into smaller fragments to match the size supported by the
underlying network.
-Reassembles them at the destination.

●​ What is taxonomy for Media access protocol?

Taxonomy for Media Access Protocols

Media Access Control (MAC) protocols are responsible for regulating access to a
shared communication channel in a network. The taxonomy (classification) of MAC
protocols can be divided into the following main categories:

1. Contention-Based Protocols (Random Access)

These protocols allow devices to transmit at any time, but collisions may occur.

Examples:
1.ALOHA (Pure ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA)
2.CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
-CSMA/CD (with Collision Detection) – used in Ethernet
-CSMA/CA (with Collision Avoidance) – used in Wi-Fi

2. Controlled Access Protocols (Scheduled Access)

These protocols control access to the medium so that collisions are avoided.

Examples:
-Polling – A master device polls the others for permission to transmit.
-Token Passing – A token is passed around the network; only the device with the
token can transmit.
-Reservation – Devices reserve time slots before transmission.

3. Channelization Protocols
These protocols divide the available bandwidth into separate channels and assign
them to different users.

Examples:
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)