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The Parkland School Shooter Culpability and FASD Full Text

This book examines the role of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) in the culpability of Nikolas Cruz, the Parkland school shooter, who killed 17 people in 2018. It highlights how Cruz's lifelong struggles with FASD were overlooked, contributing to the tragic events and the jury's decision to spare him from the death penalty. The authors argue for a deeper understanding of FASD in the legal system to prevent future tragedies and better assess culpability in similar cases.
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100% found this document useful (11 votes)
323 views15 pages

The Parkland School Shooter Culpability and FASD Full Text

This book examines the role of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) in the culpability of Nikolas Cruz, the Parkland school shooter, who killed 17 people in 2018. It highlights how Cruz's lifelong struggles with FASD were overlooked, contributing to the tragic events and the jury's decision to spare him from the death penalty. The authors argue for a deeper understanding of FASD in the legal system to prevent future tragedies and better assess culpability in similar cases.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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The Parkland School Shooter Culpability and FASD

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Natalie Novick Brown Stephen Greenspan
University of Washington University of Connecticut
Seattle, WA, USA Kensington, CA, USA

Karen Steele
Karen A. Steele, Attorney at Law
Salem, OR, USA

ISSN 2192-8533     ISSN 2192-8541 (electronic)


SpringerBriefs in Criminology
ISBN 978-3-031-74168-5    ISBN 978-3-031-74169-2 (eBook)
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This book is dedicated to the families of the
34 innocent victims who were killed or
injured by a school shooter in Parkland,
Florida, on February 14, 2018, and to the
three courageous jurors who were willing
to look beyond superficial labels and see the
underlying explanation for this senseless
tragedy.
Foreword

“Fetal alcohol syndrome” was not mentioned in a reported legal case until 1981 (In
re Price, a child neglect case), nor was it mentioned in the legal literature until two
years later (Weinberg, 1983). Typically, US courts “have been dismissive of claims
that (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder) needs to be taken seriously in the criminal law
process, whether on questions of capacity to stand trial, responsibility, or sentencing
punishment” (Perlin & Cucolo, 2023, p. 611, discussing inter alia, Floyd v. Filson,
2020). We know individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) are at
greater risk of ending up in the criminal courts system (Sessa et al 2022; Streissguth
et al., 1996), and there is no question individuals with FASD are a “potentially vul-
nerable group of offenders in the context of a criminal prosecution owing to sub-
stantial cognitive, behavioral, and social challenges commonly seen in those with
the diagnosis” (McLachlan et al, 2014, p. 15). There is strong support to suggest
persons with FASD may “be at increased risk for misunderstanding, misapprecia-
tion, and miscommunication across arrest and trial contexts” (McLachlan et al.,
2014, p. 20).
In this book, the authors shine a light on the significance of FASD in the context
of one of the most well-known of all school shooting cases, in which Nikolas Cruz
killed 17 people and injured 17 others in Parkland, Florida. The fact that the jury did
not sentence the defendant to death was front-page news around the world, and that
fact already has been the subject of multiple law review articles (see, e.g., Hunt,
2023; Toledo, 2020). Yet, until now there has not been a comprehensive work that
contextualizes the facts of the Cruz case with his specific condition in the larger
context of FASD and similar neurodevelopmental disorders. Until this book, there
has been no consideration of the meaning and significance of FASD similarly con-
textualized in a legal case (in this situation, a mind-numbing case). The authors here
do this brilliantly.
This book takes the reader from Cruz’s nearly unbelievable back story (there
may have been a case in the American system with more red flags than this, but
likely not) to what the authors accurately characterize as a “primer” on FASD, to a
discussion of why FASD is so often “hidden” to the outside world, to the potential
significance of an FASD diagnosis in a capital case, and to the trial itself (focusing

vii
viii Foreword

on why three jurors in Cruz’s case rejected the death penalty). It shows how Cruz’s
condition should have been apparent to all “players” from his early childhood on,
how all the cues and clues (red flags) were ignored or minimized, how virtually
every decision that was made about his life was the wrong one, how—it seems
inevitable in retrospect—the tragic denouement played out, and how all of this was
placed before the jury (in spite of the best efforts of a hostile, later-censured judge
to favor the prosecution at every step of the proceedings), leading to the remarkable
outcome in the case. The authors underscore how multiple red flags were ignored,
regularly and invariably, despite many signs of profound disability throughout
Cruz’s life, which were noticeable to professionals as early as his toddler years, an
oversight the authors accurately refer to as “catastrophic.” The reader is left saying
to him/herself, “Why didn’t anyone do anything earlier?!?” It is great fortune Cruz
had such an extraordinary team of lawyers and expert witnesses working on his case.
The authors expertly lay all this out for the reader—professional and lay reader
alike—in ways that add to the frustration of what we know about how all of the
significant mileposts of Cruz’s life were mishandled, how treatment opportunities
were ignored, and how the, again, tragic conclusion was virtually inevitable. My
hope is that this book will be read by all relevant decision-makers so the chances of
this recurring will be significantly minimized.

Michael L. Perlin

References

Floyd v. Filson, 949 F.3d 1128 (9th Cir. 2020).


Hunt, A. (2023). Declining competency: Protecting defendants with worsening mental illness on
death row from the death penalty. Boston College Law Review, 64, 1723–1761.
McLachlan, K., Roesch R., Viljoen, J. L., & Douglas, K. S. (2014). Evaluating the psycholegal abili-
ties of young offenders with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Law and Human Behavior, 10-22.
Perlin, M. L. & Cucolo, H. E. (2023). “Take the motherless children off the street”: Fetal alcohol
syndrome and the criminal justice system. University of Miami Law Review, 77, 561–612.
In re Price, (1981) WL 4645, at *3 (Ohio Ct. App. Nov. 25, 1981).
Sessa, F., Salerno, M., Esposito, M., Di Nunno, N., Li Rosi, G., Roccuzzo, S., & Pomara,C. (2022).
Understanding the relationship between fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) and criminal
justice: A systematic review, Healthcare, 10, 84-98.
Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., Kogan, J., & Bookstein, F. L. (1996). Final report: Understanding
the occurrence of secondary disabilities in clients with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal
alcohol effects (FAE). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Publication Services.
Toledo, A. (2020). Shooting for change: Red flag laws. St. Thomas Journal of Complex Litigation,
7, 13–25.
Weinberg, S. R. (1983). A maternal duty to protect fetal health? Indiana Law Journal, 58, 531–546.
Blurbs

This highly recommended book is a well-researched and educational gem that thor-
oughly describes and analyzes the horrific consequences of ignoring or misunder-
standing FASD in the criminal context. It validated my reasoning as a juror and
should be required reading for all cases involving individuals with potential FASD
diagnoses.—Dr. Melody Vanoy (Nikolas Cruz Juror)
Nikolas Cruz is solely responsible for the atrocity he committed. However, as the
authors of this book point out, a contributing factor was that his lifelong bizarre and
troubling behavior (directly attributable to his undiagnosed FASD) was met by soci-
etal ridicule, rejection, exasperation, resignation, misunderstanding, misdiagnosis,
and apathy. To stem the violence that some people with FASD commit, we must
address this disorder with the strength of sensitivity and the power of empathy.—
Kate O’Shea (Mitigation Specialist on the Nikolas Cruz case)
One of the stated goals of this book is to help prevent future atrocities like
Parkland—something that will require a fundamental change in how we think about
FASD. For generations, we have been misled into believing alcohol is not that bad
for a growing fetus. With the publication of this book, our only excuse for ignoring
and not investigating prenatal alcohol exposure will be conscious denial.—Casey
Secor (Defense Counsel on the Nikolas Cruz case)
How could a Florida jury possibly have sentenced the Parkland shooter to life
instead of death? Here Novick Brown and her colleagues give a detailed perspective
on why the verdict not only occurred but why it was justified by the evidence.
Nikolas Cruz’s underlying neurodevelopmental disorders were profound but poorly
understood by the general public. Novick Brown et al. do an excellent job of teach-
ing about FASD and why it is so critical to understand in the forensic context.
Additionally, they propose reconceptualizing the way cognitive functions have tra-
ditionally been evaluated in DSM-related contexts to better capture what modern
cognitive neuroscience means when referring to cognitive and intellectual function-
ing. The curious layperson as well as the dedicated forensic practitioner will find
this work intriguing and useful in clarifying thought on how neurodevelopmental
disorders should be dealt with in the criminal justice system, especially in what is
the ultimate expression of the State’s authority, the right to take the life of its

ix
x Blurbs

citizens.—Cecil R. Reynolds, PhD (Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Pediatric


Neuropsychology, Emeritus Professor of Educational Psychology, Professor of
Neuroscience, Texas A&M University)
As the authorities of record on FASD and the law, Novick Brown, Greenspan,
and Steele show how failure to understand and treat FASD can allow prenatal
alcohol-­induced developmental disabilities to progress into debilitating mental
impairments and—in the Nikolas Cruz case—behavioral disorders with tragic con-
sequences. It is past time for our society to properly recognize and address this
devastating condition, and this case-study companion to Novick Brown’s book,
Evaluating Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders in the Forensic Context, provides the
road map for child welfare, justice, mental health, and education policies to meet
that obligation.—Tom Donaldson (President/CEO of FASD United)
Unfortunately, the trail of inappropriate advice, mistaken diagnoses, ineffective
interventions, missed opportunities, and compounded trauma in the Cruz case are
all too familiar in my advocacy work for individuals with FASD and their caregiv-
ers. This was a situation where all systems involved with Cruz and his birth and
adoptive families—from mental health, medical, child welfare, and school profes-
sionals to those in the local and federal justice systems—failed completely due to
lack of knowledge about FASD. The authors brilliantly lay out the case that this was
a tragedy that could have been prevented, illuminating the idea that the level of
culpability in FASD is similar to that in Intellectual Disability. This book is a must-­
read for all involved in the mental health and justice systems as well as for people
interested in human rights.—Annette Kunzman (Founder and President of FASD
Network of Southern California)
Preface

Few criminal cases in recent US history have attracted as much attention as the
February 2018 mass shooting that occurred at Marjorie Stoneman Douglas High
School in Parkland, Florida. There was no disputing that Nikolas Cruz—a 19-year-­
old former student—shot 34 people (some multiple times) with premeditated intent,
killing 14 students and 3 staff. The state sought the death penalty, even after Cruz
pled guilty. Given the plea, there was no guilt trial, but there was a penalty trial that
lasted three months (preceded by three months of jury selection), which incorpo-
rated all guilt trial evidence and exculpatory evidence pertaining to Cruz.
Generally, a jury’s primary task in the penalty phase of a capital murder case is
to weigh aggravators against mitigators. Juries are told to balance mitigators raised
by the defense against aggravators raised and proven beyond a reasonable doubt by
the prosecution. In such a zero sum (one winner) game, Nikolas Cruz would have
been condemned to death, as no mitigator ever could be expected to match the
extreme facts of shooting 34 people, killing 17 of them. In US jurisprudence, there
are only three classes of defendants whose lives would be spared automatically
regardless of aggravators: (a) those who are found not guilty by reason of insanity;
(b) adults who are intellectually disabled (formerly, mentally retarded); and (c)
youths under age 18. However, two of these three categories often involve disputed
diagnoses that frequently turn trials into warring groups of experts. In addition, the
latter category now is being leveraged to seek an exemption of 18-, 19-, and 20-year-
olds on the basis that the brains of late adolescents are materially indistinguishable
from those under age 18. In the case of Nikolas Cruz, mitigators revolved around his
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) and lifelong history of severe emotional
disturbance and associated developmental handicaps, which primarily were attrib-
utable to his biological mother consuming massive amounts of alcohol and cocaine
during pregnancy before giving him up for adoption. The trial concluded with 3 of
the 12 jurors voting for life in prison without the possibility of parole, which pre-
cluded the death penalty as unanimity for a death sentence was required in Florida
at the time.

xi
xii Preface

Some of the public controversy regarding the Cruz outcome focused on a central
question: if a death sentence is not imposed for such heinous actions, then when is
it ever justified? We submit that no matter how heinous an individual’s actions might
be, the answer is never when impairments are so great as to impact the person’s
capacity to make rational judgments and when culpability is less than the extreme
culpability necessary to justify a sentence of death. In this book, we address this
central question in five chapters that analyze the actions and impairments of Nikolas
Cruz in the context of his FASD. First, we provide a summary of the case, followed
by a review of the FASD construct and how it manifested and was measured in
terms of Cruz’s cognitive and “adaptive” (behavioral) functioning. Next, we focus
on factors that often contribute to the failure of forensic evaluators to recognize or
give sufficient weight to FASD, mistakes in Cruz that predated and postdated the
shooting, over and over again. Because we consider the failure to recognize and
diagnose FASD to be symptomatic of a broader tendency to miss brain organicity
when viewing cognitive, adaptive, and self-regulation deficiencies, we note FASD’s
important similarities to Intellectual Disability (ID), which is part of the reason we
believe FASD merits consideration in the legal system with respect to culpability.
In the final chapter, we turn to the forensic implications of FASD in general and
the Cruz trial in particular. We suggest that this case may provide an impetus for
broader acceptance of the idea that severe brain damage and its developmentally
associated deficits, independent of diagnostic category, do not merit the most
extreme culpability designation (i.e., the “worst of the worst”) and therefore do not
justify a sentence of death but rather warrant compassion in sentencing. Perhaps
more importantly, we raise the possibility that long before the mass shooting in
Parkland, many “red flags” pointing to Cruz’s FASD should have led to accurate
diagnosis and appropriate treatment, which suggests this catastrophe could have
been averted.
Our overriding goal with this book is that by helping mental health and legal
professionals better understand FASD and recognize its functional red flags, future
tragedies can be avoided. The first step in such detection requires a fundamental
change in perspective. That is, rather than assuming disordered behavior in youthful
offenders stems from a bad environment or bad character, the possibility of brain
damage should be assessed. This step is particularly important in the legal context
where the odds of encountering a defendant with FASD are high. When organicity
exists, especially when it results from prenatal exposure to alcohol, such insight can
have a transformative effect on how behavior is viewed.
The transformative effect of FASD knowledge is well illustrated by the experi-
ence of Carl Bell, M. D. Bell, who died at age 68 in 2019, was a prominent African-­
American professor of psychiatry and public health at the University of Illinois in
Chicago. Director of the Institute for Juvenile Research (birthplace of child psychia-
try in the United States), Bell published over 575 scholarly works on violence,
homicide, and child trauma while heading the largest community mental health
center in the country. Because involvement with the criminal justice system was
very common among the inner-city youth whom Bell treated, he testified in many
criminal trials. In 2012, he encountered a young woman whose three children had
Preface xiii

been removed from her custody due to her short fuse, slow processing, poor judg-
ment, lack of parenting skills, and inability to learn from experience. Puzzled by her
behaviors, as he had been by similar profiles in many other patients, Bell suddenly
recognized physical signs of prenatal alcohol exposure in the woman. When it
dawned on him her problems likely were a sign of brain damage rather than psycho-
pathology, he began studying 611 of his mostly poor patients on Chicago’s South
Side where, according to him, there was a liquor store on every other block. Bell
eventually discovered nearly 40% of his patients had FASD. Later, a study using
more sophisticated diagnostic methods found a rate of 30%. Bell said he had never
been so stunned in his life to discover the high incidence of FASD in the population
he had treated for years. In several subsequent papers, he expressed regret over hav-
ing testified in trials about what he characterized as “character” disorders but now
realized were in most cases the result of unrecognized prenatal brain damage.
The sense of mission Bell found after discovering the unrecognized biological
problem in his practice, something each of us also has experienced in our respective
professional careers, is a transformative experience we wish to convey through the
life history we describe of school shooter Nikolas Cruz’s unrecognized FASD. By
using the Parkland tragedy as context, we endeavor to broaden awareness of FASD
and other forms of brain organicity to assist mental health professionals in better
understanding and diagnosing young people with brain-based disorders. Ultimately,
we hope that equipped with the information in the chapters that follow, profession-
als who encounter youths with organicity will notice the red flags for what they
signal so as to prevent another Parkland incident.

Seattle, WA, USA Natalie Novick Brown


Kensington, CA, USA Stephen Greenspan
Salem, OR, USA Karen Steele
Acknowledgments

We are grateful for the privilege of having worked on the Nikolas Cruz case with an
extraordinary legal team, headed by Lead Attorney Melisa McNeill of the Broward
Public Defender’s Office, Co-counsel Casey Secor, and Mitigation Specialist Kate
O’Shea. Instead of being overwhelmed by the challenge of needing to become pro-
ficient in FASD, these legal professionals plunged right into the science without a
moment’s hesitation, ultimately giving us many months to become experts on
Nikolas Cruz while they simultaneously became experts on his disorder. Following
trial, their subsequent dedication to teaching other professionals about FASD in
legal conferences was part of the inspiration for this book. Defense team, we thank
you for including us in your journey.
We also are grateful to our colleagues Drs. Kenneth Lyons Jones and Paul
Connor, who did the heavy lifting for all of us experts in the Parkland case with their
compelling testimony.
Finally, we are grateful to our colleague Dr. Richard Adler and his outstanding
team for orchestrating and analyzing the neuroimaging tests that were conducted on
Nikolas Cruz, all of which solidly supported the FASD diagnoses.

xv
Contents

1 The Forensic Case��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1


1.1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1
1.2 Antecedents: Systemic Failure to Detect and Follow Up ������������������   3
1.3 The Crime: Failure to Intervene����������������������������������������������������������   7
1.4 Pretrial Proceedings����������������������������������������������������������������������������   8
1.5 Penalty Phase Trial������������������������������������������������������������������������������   9
1.6 Prosecutors’ Case for Death����������������������������������������������������������������   9
1.7 Defense Case for Life ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 10
1.8 Closing Arguments������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 14
1.9 Sentencing������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 15
1.10 Synopsis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
2  Childhood Marked by Red Flags����������������������������������������������������������
A 19
2.1 Prenatal Exposure to Alcohol (PAE)�������������������������������������������������� 19
2.2 Adoption �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
2.3 Early Childhood: Pervasive Developmental Delay���������������������������� 21
2.4 Adolescence: Increasing Adaptive Dysfunction �������������������������������� 24
2.5 Late Teens: Coping Collapse�������������������������������������������������������������� 26
2.6 Troubled School History�������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
2.7 Academic and Mental Health Evaluations������������������������������������������ 29
2.8 Synopsis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
3  Primer on FASD ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
A 33
3.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33
3.2 Historical Overview���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 34
3.3 FASD’s Diagnostic History���������������������������������������������������������������� 37
3.4 Trouble with the Law�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
3.5 FASD in the Forensic Context������������������������������������������������������������ 41
3.6 Synopsis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44

xvii
xviii Contents

4 A “Hidden” Disability������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49


4.1 Factors That Contribute to FASD’s Invisibility���������������������������������� 49
4.1.1 Overshadowing ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
4.1.2 Lack of Prototypical Neurocognitive
or Behavioral Profile �������������������������������������������������������������� 51
4.1.3 No Effective Early Screening or Biomarkers�������������������������� 54
4.1.4 Misconstruing FASD as a Mild Disorder�������������������������������� 55
4.1.5 Factors Suppressing PAE�������������������������������������������������������� 56
4.1.6 Traumatic Postnatal Experiences�������������������������������������������� 57
4.1.7 Misunderstanding Adverse Developmental Outcomes ���������� 57
4.1.8 Ignoring Organicity���������������������������������������������������������������� 57
4.1.9 Co-occurring Mental Health Disorders���������������������������������� 58
4.1.10 Inadequate FASD Awareness�������������������������������������������������� 59
4.1.11 Insufficient Knowledge of Similarity Between FASD
and ID������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60
4.2 FASD/ID Functional Congruence������������������������������������������������������ 61
4.2.1 Assessing Adaptive Behavior�������������������������������������������������� 62
4.2.2 Validating Adaptive Assessment �������������������������������������������� 64
4.2.3 Understanding Inter-test/Intra-test Variability������������������������ 65
4.3 Suggested Innovations in Assessment or Classification �������������������� 65
4.3.1 Eliminate IQ Cutoff Scores���������������������������������������������������� 66
4.3.2 Adopt an Alternative to IQ������������������������������������������������������ 66
4.3.3 Develop a Universal Index of Disability Severity������������������ 68
4.4 Synopsis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69
5 
The Legal Landscape of FASD ���������������������������������������������������������������� 73
5.1 Legal Context: Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������� 73
5.2 Diminished Culpability in Capital Cases�������������������������������������������� 74
5.3 Diminished Culpability of FASD Offenders�������������������������������������� 76
5.4 Centrality of Executive Functioning in Culpability
Determinations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 77
5.5 Misunderstood Issues and Common Arguments
to Dispute Brain-Based Conditions���������������������������������������������������� 78
5.6 The Likely Reason Why Three Cruz Jurors Voted for Life���������������� 81
5.7 How the Statutory Requirement of Unanimity
and “Morgan Method” Contributed to the Outcome�������������������������� 82
5.8 Congruence Between ID and FASD in Demonstrating Lesser
Culpability������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 84
5.9 Toward Potential Exemption of Those with FASD
from the Death Penalty ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 85
5.10 Synopsis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87

Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91
About the Authors

Natalie Novick Brown a clinical and forensic psychologist and courtesy faculty
member in the School of Medicine at the University of Washington in Seattle, has
specialized in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) throughout her psychology
career. She co-founded “FASD Experts,” a multidisciplinary group that from 2007
through 2019 conducted approximately 200 FASD evaluations of defendants in
capital and other high-stakes cases around the United States. The capital cases
included the Parkland shooter Nikolas Cruz, for whose legal team she compiled his
comprehensive developmental history. Overall, Natalie has evaluated several hun-
dred adolescents and adults with FASD, counseled numerous children and adoles-
cents with FASD and their families, trained psychiatric fellows and psychologists
and mentored new and seasoned psychologists on FASD, and authored over 40
peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters about FASD. In 2012, she helped
develop the American Bar Association’s resolution on FASD, and in 2021, her
edited book, Evaluating Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders in the Forensic Context:
A Manual for Mental Health Practice, the only authoritative textbook on the sub-
ject, was published by Springer. Retained as a defense expert in the Parkland case,
she evaluated Nikolas Cruz and consulted at length with the defense team and other
defense experts but did not testify.

Stephen Greenspan a developmental psychologist and Emeritus Professor of


Educational Psychology at the University of Connecticut, is widely known for his
preeminent work on intellectual disability (ID) and social competence, especially
gullibility and foolish (risk-unaware) behavior. His work on FASD is an extension
of his widely cited work in ID. In a seminal paper, Steve, Natalie Novick Brown,
and Attorney William Edwards conceptualized FASD as a form of “functional ID
Equivalence.” Steve authors a monthly blog on current issues in psychology for the
widely read publication Psychology Today, which occasionally has included his
insights on FASD. In addition to the current book, Steve has authored four previous
books: Annals of Gullibility: Why We Get Duped and How to Avoid It, Anatomy of
Foolishness: The Overlooked Problem of Risk-Unawareness, Elements of Discipline:
Nine Principles for Teachers and Parents, and What Is Mental Retardation? A

xix
xx About the Authors

current resident of Northern California, Steve often testifies across the United States
as an expert witness in criminal cases where ID/FASD is a potential mitigating fac-
tor. Retained as a defense expert in the Parkland case, Steve evaluated Nikolas Cruz
and consulted with the defense team on the functional aspects of Cruz’s behavior
that except for IQ qualified him for an ID diagnosis.

Karen Steele is an attorney based in Salem, Oregon, whose practice involves


complex/capital cases with an emphasis on neurodevelopmental issues (e.g., FASD)
and late adolescent brain development. Specifically, she identifies the consequent
behavioral attributes, needs, and vulnerabilities stemming from those conditions as
well as their forensic implications, using that information to deepen the court’s
understanding of her clients’ disabilities. A sole practitioner, Karen’s practice inter-
ests flow from the 1987 capital prosecution of a youth who was 30 days past his 18th
birthday and now is in his mid-50s. Outside of individual case contexts, Karen con-
sults, presents, and writes on the relevance and treatment of neurodevelopmental
conditions in court and correctional settings and on ethical and practice standards in
investigating, integrating, and presenting neuroscientific information, which
includes Forward-Thinking Mitigation and excuses for not presenting information,
such as “Double-Edged” evidence.

Michael L. Perlin is a Professor of Law Emeritus at New York Law School


(NYLS) and co-­founder of Mental Disability Law and Policy Associates. He was
Director of the NYLS Online Mental Disability Law Program and Director of the
International Mental Disability Law Reform Project in its Justice Action Center. He
has written 35 books and well over 300 articles on all aspects of mental disability
law (including two law review articles on FASD), focusing primarily on issues
related to criminal law and procedure, therapeutic jurisprudence, and international
human rights. Michael has litigated at every court level, from police court to the US
Supreme Court, and has done advocacy work on behalf of persons with mental and
intellectual disabilities on every continent except Antarctica. He is the honorary life
president of the International Society for Therapeutic Jurisprudence and a member
of that society’s current Board of Trustees. He also is a member of the Lawrence
Township (NJ) Community Concert Band, the Mercer County Symphonic Concert
Band, and the board of directors of the Washington Crossing (NJ) Audubon Society.

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