RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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 Syllabus
Research Methodology

Syllabus Mapping
Unit - I:
1. Introduction to Practical Criticism Pages 1–17
2. Conceptualizing and Drafting of a Research Proposal Pages 18–22
Unit - II:
3. Style Manuals: Notes, References and Bibliography/Annotated Bibliography Pages 23–36
Unit - III:
(a) Workshop on Topic Development Pages 37–40
(b) Workshop on Research Proposal

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 Contents

Title Prepared by Pg. No.

Unit-I
1. Introduction to Practical Criticism P. K. Satapathy 1
2. Conceptualising and Drafting of a Research Nalini Prabhakar 18
Proposal
Unit-II Style Manuals: Notes, References and Bibliog- Nalini Prabhakar 23
raphy/Annotated Bibliography
Unit-III (a) Workshop on Topic Development Nalini Prabhakar 37
(b) Workshop on Research Proposal

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 U N I T

I(1)
Introduction to Practical Criticism

P.K. Satapathy

Structure

1. Learning Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgement
4. “Four Kinds of Meaning”
5. “Figurative Language”
6. To Conclude

1. Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
‹ Place Practical Criticism in the wider context of literary criticism
‹ Develop an understanding of the main ideas that underpin Practical Criticism

2. Introduction
Before we delve into the various nuances of practical criticism, it is important to have
some clarity about literary criticism and its functions in general. Reading literature,
as we know from experience, needs no specific skills except familiarity with the lan-
guage. It gives us pleasure and is, sometimes, instructive too. But when we are asked
to analyse a literary text, it becomes a challenge because we don’t have the necessary
tools to engage with it. Analysing literary texts needs some amount of competence, the
competence to analyse literary texts and comment on their merits and/or faults. This is
the kind of competence that students of literature are expected to acquire during their
studies. Though it sounds very simple to begin with, it gets a little complicated when we
examine the theoretical foundations of the assumptions that underpin literary criticism.
As a disciplinary practice, literary criticism that is based on some theoretical foundations,
as we know it now, is relatively new. Literary criticism, since Plato and Aristotle, was
primarily concerned with the nature of literary forms and the question of their social
value in a given society. The preferred literary form for them was the tragedy. Further,

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much of the speculation about the nature of literature, at a philosophical level, focused
on theories of beauty and aesthetic value. Perfection of form, proportion and balance
were the watch words. But literary criticism as it evolved as an explanatory practice in
the 19th century and early 20th century, was expected to explain the relationships between
the author, the literary text, and the contexts which contributed to its production. Critics
believed that literary criticism could aspire to the status of an academic discipline like
natural sciences by adopting methods that could establish a causal relationship between
the various factors affecting genesis of literary texts. What it did miss out on in the pro-
cess was the thing itself, the distinctive features of literary texts. As Jefferson and Robey
point out, that while “it took for granted that literary texts possessed a special value, in
practice it treated them as if they were indistinguishable from other sorts of historical
document.” (3)
It is clear from the above discussion that literary criticism often focused on the writ-
er’s psychology, the socio-historical context, and the writer’s intentions and ignored the
intrinsic value and unique features of the text itself. I A Richards found this shift towards
biography and psychology problematic because it moved literary criticism away from,
what he considered as the core function of criticism. For him, the main task of literary
criticism was to unravel the ways in which meaning is created and valued in literary
texts. Richards’s efforts in this direction gave rise to a school of criticism, later called
New Criticism, in early 20th century. In his book Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary
Judgement, he redirected attention to the text’s value, the ways meaning is created, and
the way literary judgements are made. The need for a kind of literary criticism that is
practical or reasonable, implies that literary criticism, as it was practiced then, was nei-
ther entirely practical nor reasonable. This study material will discuss some of the major
issues discussed in Richards’ book and their implications for the study of literary texts.

3. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgement1

Practical Criticism was first published in 1929, a few years after Richards wrote his Princi-
ples of Literary Criticism (1924). It is not difficult to see how these two books are closely
connected. In Principles of Literary Criticism, Richards was interested in developing a
systematic account of, or in other words a theory of criticism that could adequately explain
the distinctive features of literary texts in terms of the way readers make meaning and the
value attached to it. Our own experience of reading is proof enough that all readings are
not equally valuable. This begs the question why is one experience better than the other?
1 I.A. Richards. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgement. Routledge, 1929. All subsequent
references to the text are from this edition.

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 Introduction to Practical Criticism

Richards believed that it was possible to formulate a criterion by analysing the process
of reading itself. He believed that the emotive effect of reading literature and especially
poetry was different and more valuable than the experience of reading ordinary writing
and that is why literary writing was special. So, the reader’s role in production of mean-
ing is far more important than the author’s mental make-up or the social circumstances
that produced it. Since interpretation is at the core of valuation, we do need a theory
about how meaning is constructed in language to understand it. Richards, in Principles of
Literary Criticism, set out to create a theory of reading and a theory of valuation to go
with it. Having done that, it was imperative for Richards to test this theory in a practical
set up. Thus, Practical Criticism grew out of Richards’ Cambridge experiment where he
handed out poems to, mostly, his students and asked them to record their own responses
to the poems over several readings. The names of the poets, however, were withheld and
the students had no idea about the context or any other external information regarding the
poems. The objective was, according to Richards, threefold: 1) “…introduce a new kind
of documentation…”, 2) “…provide a new technique for those who wish to discover for
themselves what they think and feel about poetry (and cognate matters) and why they should
like or dislike it.”, and 3) “…to prepare the way for educational methods more efficient
than those we use now in developing discrimination and the power to understand what
we hear and read.” (3) In short, Richards was looking to develop a systematic method of
enquiry, a new technique to understand how we make meaning out of literary texts and
the way in which we judge them. Subsequently, it was expected that this method could be
used to prepare a pedagogy that could help improve the taste and power of discrimination
exercised by the reading public. At first glance, this seems to be an ambitious project that
sought to overhaul the existing systems of, what Richards calls, “the sphere of random
beliefs, of abstract opinion and disputation about matters of feeling.” (5) This is an area,
he believes, we ought to pay attention to in a scientific way. In the subsequent sections
we will discuss some of the key take aways from this experiment.

3.1 “Statement and Expression”

Richards begins by observing that almost all speech or utterances can be interpreted in two
ways: focusing on the literal meaning - the “statement" or considering the speaker’s mental
processes and motives - the “expression”. (8) Our default tendency is to interpret speech
literally, an ingrained habit from early language use. However, as Richards observes, when
dealing with known liars, we shift focus to their motives. Typically, we follow the logic
of a speaker’s words, not their mental state, unless there’s a compelling reason to do so.
Psychologists prioritize understanding mental processes, which can offer deeper insights
even in everyday discussions. However, the phrases they use lack easy comprehension

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and clarity. Language limitations hinder clear differentiation between “statement” and
“expression,” complicating efforts to separate these interpretations. Historically, criticism
has been dominated by argument rather than genuine inquiry, largely due to our tendency
to refute opposing ideas instead of understanding them. Richards advocates refining our
interpretive techniques, using terms like “statement” for literal meaning and “expression”
for underlying thought processes. By studying diverse opinions on poetry, this approach
seeks to train readers in a more analytical method of discussion, leveraging ambiguities
to clarify terms like “truth” and “sincerity” (9) and fostering a more effective way of
engaging in criticism and interpretation.

3.2 Importance of Studying Ambiguity

The fact that there are large number of divergent opinions on the same point is not a
disadvantage in developing our techniques of interpretation. Please bear in mind that
Richards is primarily concerned with poems here. Hence, the discussions that follow fo-
cus on ways of interpreting poems. The fact that several divergent opinions are possible
might bewilder us. But it helps us to appreciate the different ways of looking at poems
and study them through the various stages of their development. One of the things we
are likely to encounter is the way ambiguities play a major role in formation of divergent
opinions. Ambiguity, as you know, refers to the fact that things might have more than
one possible meaning where one meaning is as valid as the other. This creates confusion.
Richards considers ambiguity in language systemic with connected meanings that, though
less obvious than parts of a building, can be organized to resolve conflicting interpretations.
(10) He compares it to a ‘perspective’ that can be placed alongside other perspectives for
discussion to gain insights that could effectively explain how different perspectives arise.
One of the key ideas that underpin Richards’ work is that poetry is a form of com-
munication and that the question of value only arises when we are in possession of the
relevant experience that is sought to be communicated. Consequently, ambiguity assumes
a very important role in the trajectory of poetic communication. The relevant experience
in a poem becomes accessible only when we successfully solve the issues of ambiguity.
Such an important aspect surely deserves a lot of attention. But Richards believes that
enough attention has not been paid to researching ambiguity despite the fact that even
small advancements could revolutionize complex discussions. To understand ambiguity,
we need to have an appropriate tool, and, in this case, Richards is of the view that that
Psychology is the tool that we need. However, some psychologists might have an objec-
tion to the inadequacy of the protocols and evidence that practical criticism offers and
might call the investigation a superficial exercise because it will not be able to uncover
the motivations of the writer. This objection may be valid in cases where uncovering the

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 Introduction to Practical Criticism

entire range of motives is the primary objective. But Richards’ primary motive is not to
dive into the ‘depths of these writers Un-conscious’ (10) because it is unproductive. His
focus is firmly fixed on analysing accessible aspects of communication, that could reveal
valuable insights without going deep into unconscious motives. Poetry, as a form of com-
munication lends itself to the practical exercise of analysing and navigating through the
poetic experience rather than argumentation. Criticism aims to refine that communication
by clarifying meaning and judging value. Such judgment relies on fully grasping a work’s
communicated experience; if clarity doesn’t lead to evaluation, critical principles offer
little help. But the effectiveness of these principles depends on the way they are applied.
Ambiguity in principles like Aristotle’s "Poetry is imitation" demonstrates how misapplication
can lead to confusion or harm. Wise critics use principles thoughtfully, but their misuse
often results in poor conclusions, highlighting the challenges of effective criticism. (12)

3.3 Ten Difficulties

Analysing and navigating through the poetic experience is easier said than done. Reading
poems without any reference to its author or the circumstance of its creation poses cer-
tain difficulties for the readers. Richards goes on to identify and list out ten difficulties
encountered by readers in reading a poem. The specific order in which the difficulties
are listed has an internal logic and follows, despite their complex interdependence and
obvious overlaps, one from the other. They are:
A. The first difficulty is “making out the plain sense of poetry.” (13) What is meant
by plain sense is the apparent and overt meaning. Most people, Richard believes,
fail to decipher the ordinary meaning as well as the feeling and tone of the poem.
B. Related to this is the second difficulty and that is of the difficulty of “sensuous
apprehension”. (14) Words in sequence have a rhythm and movement. Readers, often,
ignore this or simply fail to recognise it.
C. The third difficulty is making sense of the “imagery, principally visual imagery, in
poetic reading.” (14) Imagery becomes a tricky issue because of individual mental
makeup. Images in poetry that induce a particular kind of mental resonance in
one reader may not induce the same resonance in another. And both may have no
connection with the images that the poet might have had in his mind while composing
the poem.
D. Due to the influence of “mnemonic irrelevances” (15), readers may be distracted by
personal memories, associations, or emotional echoes triggered by a poem. This can
distort their interpretation. While some irrelevant associations are easy to identify,
others are subtler and harder to diagnose.

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E. “Stock responses” (15) occur when a reader reacts to a poem with pre-existing
emotions or beliefs rather than engaging with the poem itself. In such cases, the
reader’s reaction is driven more by their own mind than by the poet’s work, leading
to a flawed meaning.
F. “Sentimentality” (16) involves an exaggerated or misplaced emotional reaction to
certain themes or elements. Overly emotional or excessive responses to a poem,
referred to as sentimentality, can undermine a balanced interpretation.
G. In contrast, “inhibition” (16) refers to a suppressed or overly restrained emotional
response. Historically called “hardness of heart,” inhibition is less studied but equally
problematic.
H. “Doctrinal Adhesions” (16) - Poetry often seems to imply certain beliefs or views
about the world, such as in religious poetry, raising questions about how the truth
or falsehood of these implied beliefs affects the poem’s value. Readers personal
convictions may influence their judgment, leading to confusion or bias.
I. Additionally, readers may have fixed expectations about how poetry should be written
based on past experiences. These “technical presuppositions” (16) can lead to the
dismissal of innovative techniques or the unfair judgment of a poem by outdated
standards, often resulting in the error of valuing technique over the poem’s actual
meaning or impact.
J. “General critical preconceptions” (17), shaped by theories or past experiences, may
also block readers from fully appreciating a poem, much like a restrictive diet
preventing nourishment.
These challenges are not independent; they often overlap and influence one another. For
example, a failure to understand plain meaning can exacerbate issues with imagery or
stock responses.

3.4 Let’s Sum Up

Some of the things that we have learnt in this section are:
I. Practical Criticism grew out of Richard`s Cambridge experiment where he handed
out poems to, mostly, his students and asked them to record their own responses to
the poems over several readings. By analysing these responses, he hoped to work
out a systematic technique to understand how readers make meaning out of literary
texts and the way in which we judge them.

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II. There are two ways of interpreting all speech or utterances. We could focus on the
literal meaning (the “statement”) or focus on the speaker’s mental processes and
motives (the “expression”).
III. Ambiguities play a major role in formation of divergent opinions. It is important to
understand ambiguity because the poetic experience in a poem becomes accessible
only when we successfully solve the issues of ambiguity.
IV. Richards identifies and lists ten difficulties encountered by readers in reading a poem.
Most of these difficulties are interconnected and have significant influence on one
another.
Check Your Progress 1
‹ What is the difference between ‘Statement’ and ‘Expression’?
‹ Why is it important to study ambiguity?
‹ Discuss any three main difficulties encountered by readers while reading a poem.

4. “Four Kinds of Meaning”

After the documentation in Part II of the book, Richards moves on to the analysis of the
data in Part III of the book. Four Kinds of Meaning is the first chapter in Part III, and it
deals with the first difficulty listed out by Richards, and that is making “plain sense” of
what we read. The key to a successful reading of poetry is how well we find answers to
three distinct but interrelated questions. We begin with the question “what is a meaning?”
(180) followed by a question about the processes we adopt to find the meaning, and finally
a question about what is it that we are finding out. In other words, we not only look for
the meaning of a poem but also try to figure out how we arrive at the meaning that we
arrive at, and then put that which we have found out under the scanner as well. Richards
is of the view that the key to a systematic theory of poetry lies here.
The obvious starting point is then, “what is a meaning?” If we go by the dictionary
sense then it is something that one intends to convey through language, something meant or
intended. But now we are in some difficulty. Do we end up conveying what we intended to
convey? Perhaps not. Richards recognises the fact that there are “several kinds of meanings”
and that meaning is a by-product of several processes at work simultaneously or separately.
Language, as you would know, has a denotative as well as connotative aspects. While the
denotative aspect may have limited variations, the connotative aspect can produce a variety

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of meanings depending on the context of its use. And to profitably engage with poetic
language, which has several different functions, it is necessary to understand the different
functions. Richards decides to split up these into four different kinds of meanings. He calls
these four different aspects, “Sense, Feeling, Tone, and Intention.” (181) However, it is
important to keep in mind the fact that these functions hardly ever operate independently
of each other. All these functions are present in any given type of composition, but some
functions become predominant, and some are pushed to the background depending on the
nature of the composition. Let us now have a look at each of these functions.

4.1 Sense
Sense is, as Richards puts it, “We speak to say something, and when we listen, we ex-
pect something to be said.” (181) In other words, when we say something, we use words
to draw the attention of the listener to something that is either happening around us or
encourage them to think about something. This is primarily the denotative function of
language. Though there is hardly any language use that is completely unambiguous and
means only one thing, in certain kinds of writing we try to ensure that the plain sense
of what we want to say is made as obvious as possible. We try to ensure that the other
functions of language such as feeling, tone, and intention do not interfere in understanding
the plain sense.

4.2 Feelings
Richards includes the whole affective aspects of life in this group. Human beings have
emotions, pleasure, pain, desire, and these are expressed through language. We have feel-
ings towards things, happenings, ideas that move us or even a bias towards or against
something and we express them. The same would hold true when we listen as well. We
do discern feelings in what we listen irrespective of the fact that the speaker may be
or may not be conscious of the feelings himself. There may, however, be cases where
feelings have very little relevance and hence may be absent. Richard cites the case of a
mathematics to explain the point.

4.3 Tone
Tone, essentially, reveals the attitude of the speaker to his listener. Often, we adjust the
way we speak or the way we organise our subject based on our assumptions about his
relationship with the listener. For instance, a teacher teaching in a classroom adopts a tone
different from what he would adopt if he was speaking at a gathering of scholars. The
tone adopted reveals the speaker’s awareness of his own position vis-à-vis the listeners.

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The speaker changes the structure, choice of words or images with the change of audience.
But once again, Richard points out that there could be exceptions where the speaker ends
up revealing an attitude that he may not consciously wish to reveal.

4.4 Intention
So, when a speaker has something to convey (sense) he might end up conveying his own
attitudes (feelings) towards the subject he is speaking on and reveal his consciousness of
his relationship with the listeners (tone). But along with this there is another aspect that is
extremely important and that is ‘intention’. People, generally, speak with a purpose. Here
the structure, tone, and composition are suitably arranged to suit the purpose (intention)
of his speech. To understand the purport of the speech the reader or listener must be able
to understand the intention which could be single or varied. Richards is of the view that
the success or failure of the author cannot be judged without a clear understanding of
the intention. He says, “the understanding of it (intention) is part of the whole business
of apprehending his meaning.” (182)

4.5 How is Meaning Constituted?

After identifying the four different functions, Richards moves on to discuss the consti-
tution of meaning in the next part of the essay. It is obvious that none of the functions
of language operate independently. Failure to find the balance between the four, often, is
at the root of human misunderstanding. In the studies that Richards conducted he found
that readers often missed one or the other correct function. But there were even instances
where the readers, “garbles the sense, distorts the feeling, mistakes the tone and disregards
the intention” (183) thereby leading to a complete collapse.
Language, as we know, has a connotative as well as denotative dimensions. And within
this system the functions operate in an interconnected way. In some kind of writing one
function may become more dominant than the other. The predominance of one function
changes the nature of the writing itself and must be read as such to make meaning out of
it. Hence the meaning of any writing depends to a large extent on the complex relationship
between the four elements present and the predominance of some functions over others.
Richards considering a variety of writings to illustrate his point.

4.5.1 Scientific Writing

He takes the example of scientific writing to show the predominance of the sense function.
The writer of scientific writing would be anxious to ensure that his arguments are accu-
rately understood and accepted. Hence, he will focus on the Sense (function 1) of what
he intends to convey. Any interference by his Feelings (function 2) that he might have

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towards the subject can lead to misunderstandings. He will then subordinate his feelings
to the sense of what he wants conveyed. Once that is established, the Tone (function 3)
will be decided by academic conventions which is one of respect for the readers. The
Intention (function 4) could be, most certainly, the clearest exposition of his thesis (Sense).
Clearly then, in a scientific document the Sense function predominates, and the rest of the
functions come together to help the Sense function come through as clearly as possible.

4.5.2 Popular Science

However, when a scientific idea, like the importance of regular exercise for a healthy
heart, is sought to be popularised the interplay of various functions change accordingly.
The Sense function, which was predominant in the scientific writing, must be compro-
mised in the interest of clarity and easy comprehension. The priority here is to ensure that
the reader can follow the ideas and hence some amount of simplification bordering on
distortions may be allowed. It may not be possible to popularise something if the writer
himself is not enthusiastic about it. Hence, the writer must display his Feelings towards
the subject to motivate the readers. Furthermore, the writer must establish a rapport with
the reader to keep him engaged. If the writer is unable to bring in a variety of Tone, then
the entire piece may sound monotonous, and the reader is likely to lose interest. Hence,
asides, jokes, digressions may be necessary because building a relationship between the
lay reader and an expert needs tactful handling. And all these functions will intervene
in varying degrees with the Sense function and the eventual accuracy of what is to be
conveyed. However, since the Intention is to gain popular acceptance, these interferences
are quite desirable.

4.5.3 Political Writing

Now, Richards moves on to consider political writings where “Function 4, the furtherance
of intentions (of all grades of worthiness) is unmistakably predominant.” A speech made
during an election rally, or a political pamphlet are, at their core, attempts to win over
people to a particular policy formulation, point of view, or causes, etc… However, the
writer/speaker can only achieve his intention by an appeal to the Feelings (Function 2)
of the people by using emotive language and by establishing an emotional connect with
the people with the use of an appropriate Tone (Function 3). It is obvious here that the
Sense (Function 1) of what is to be conveyed (facts) is pushed to the background.

4.5.4 Poetry
Richards is of the view that the shift in function is most clearly observed in conversations
where the normal function of one is taken over by another. For instance, in a statement like

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“pleased to meet you” Feeling and Tone is expressed through the Sense function. The fact
of meeting becomes a statement of friendly attitude and pleasant feelings. This is evident
in polite conversations. However, Richards believes that this happens on a regular basis in
poetry. In poetry, Feelings and Tone take precedence and operate through Sense. But there
is another way of looking at it and that is in poetry Sense often interfere and dominates
Feeling and Tone. The statements that are made in poetry are there not for the Sense but
for the effect they have on Feeling and Tone. Hence trying to understand a poem based
on the truth value of the statements is to misread their function. Richards says that “…
most of the statements in poetry are there as a means to the manipulation and expression
of feelings and attitudes…” (186) The problem is many people take the statements made
in poetry seriously and end up misreading the poem. Richards cites a couple of examples
to illustrate this point. For instance, a statement like “My soul is a ship in full sail” (187)
might look like a meaningless statement when we try to understand it in its literal sense.
However, if we try to look at it from the perspective of the feeling that it evokes and the
mood that it sets, we will have no difficulty in making sense of it. Richards adds that there
is also the temptation to read too much into the statement in the abstract. For instance, some
people consider a statement like, “Beauty is truth, truth beauty…” (187) as great ‘aesthetic
philosophy’ rather than an expression of certain kind of feeling. Both are equally erroneous.
He goes on to add that, “ A poet may distort his statements; he may make statements
which have logically nothing to do with the subject under treatment; he may, by metaphor
and otherwise, present objects for thought which are logically quite irrelevant; … all in
the interests of the other functions of his language - to express feeling or adjust tone or
further his other intentions. If his success in these other aims justify him, no reader…
can validly say anything against him.” (188-89) Richard ends the chapter with the remark
that much of what passes off as criticism should be taken as disguised form of expressing
feelings towards the author and the poetry rather than statements about the poem itself.

4.6 Let’s Sum Up

Some of the things that we have learnt in this section are:
I. Language has essentially two uses; a) referential or scientific use where distortion in
reference leads to failure, and b) affective or emotive use where excess attention to
truth values could lead to failure.
II. Poetic language, being affective in nature, presents a few challenges to readers.
III. To profitably engage with poetic language, we need to understand the different
functions of language. Richards identifies four different functions of language. They
are “Sense, Feeling, Tone, and Intention”.

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IV. The readers juggle between all these functions when they read a piece of writing. The
‘total meaning’ that is produced is the result of a blend of ‘contributory’ meanings
of these various functions.
V. Different writings contain different blends of these functions and the key to a successful
reading is to identify the dominant functions and read them as such.
VI. In scientific writing the “Sense” function (referential function) is dominant, and the
writer tries to subordinate all other functions for the sake of clarity. But when a
scientific writing is used to popularise some ideas then the mix of functions becomes
very different. “Feeling and Tone” are given greater importance and sometimes the
Sense function is compromised for easy comprehension of lay readers. Political
writing, on the other hand, depends a lot more on Intention and uses Feelings and
Tone to achieve it.
VII. The biggest challenge, however, is presented by poetry. In poetry, the Sense function is
often used to further Feelings and Tone. Hence the poet, often, distorts his statements,
puts forwards things which are illogical or even unrelated to the subject at hand.
But he does all that to further his intention to present feelings and attitudes. Hence
the poet is justified in using Sense in most unconventional ways.
VIII. And, finally, Richards has a word of caution for criticism. He says criticism has
become a disguised form of expressing the feelings and attitudes of the critic towards
the poem and the poet that he is discussing and that there is a need to focus on the
poem instead.
Check Your Progress 2
‹ What, according to Richards, are the four functions of language?
‹ What are the two uses of language?
‹ What is tone?
‹ What is special about poetic language and how is it different from scientific language?

5. “Figurative Language”
In this chapter Richards discusses figurative language and the challenges it presents to in-
terpretation. Figurative language, as you would know, refers to the use of language to evoke
images, associations, or feelings in the mind of the reader or listener which may not be
true in the literal sense. In other words, we can say that figurative language is not precise.
Hence dealing with figurative language is a challenge. In the previous chapter, Richards has

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already pointed out the four functions of language and that the language of poetry requires
special attention because it uses the sense function in most unusual ways. As a corollary,
Richards points out four different kinds of misunderstandings that often distract us away
from a true interpretation. These four different kinds of misunderstanding are:
1. Misunderstanding created due to sheer carelessness or lack of attention.
2. Misunderstanding due to too literal a reading.
3. Misunderstanding due to inappropriate mixing of metaphors.
4. Misunderstanding due to over-personification.

5.1 “Carelessness”
The first source of misunderstanding is the most obvious one, carelessness. But sometimes
careless or intuitive reading is induced by the very formal features of poetry, meter, and
verse form. The primary failure here is the failure to distinguish between the use of words
in poetry and in prose. Meter and rhythm are important tools of poetry. Their effect depends
on stress, repetition, and a certain amount of expectation. When we read a piece of writing,
we hardly pay attention to the spelling of the words we read on the page. Often, we read
just a part and skim through the page expecting the spelling to be right. But if we are too
careless, then sometimes it leads to misreading especially when similar sounding words are
read one for the other. For instance, it is not uncommon to mistake lion for loin or adopt
for adept. Similarly, in poetry, syllables arranged in a particular sequence both as images and
just words, create an expectation of what is to come later. This is mostly an unconscious
or intuitive process that prepares the mind. Thus, the expectation created also closes our
minds to other possible sequences. The total effect then depends not just on what follows
but also on what we are intuitively prepared for. When the sequence ends in a way that
we were not prepared for the effect is one of surprise or even shock. In writings that are
scientific or writing that uses logical prose, the sensory effect of words has very little play
because the writer is careful about giving primacy to Sense function of language. But when
language is used for emotive purposes the sensory or formal aspects of the language comes
to the forefront. Richards, believes that there is a simple solution to this problem. To avoid
getting too distracted by the formal features at the expense of plain sense, the reader must
give it several readings. He says “…that most poetry needs several readings - in which its
varied factors may fit themselves together- before it can be grasped”. (190)

5.2 “Over-literal” Reading

Trying too hard to figure out the sense as opposed to too intuitive a reading creates even
bigger misunderstandings. From our earlier discussions we are aware that poets are quite

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likely to play around with the sense to explore feelings and attitudes. And this is a kind
of liberty that cannot be denied to poets. However, this should not, as it often does, lead
us to assume that sense and syntax are not important in poetry. For example, Richards
points out the difficulty of making sense of Poem V in his experiment. A part of the poem
is given below for your convenience.
What this of death, from you who never will die?
Think you the wrist that fashioned you in clay,
The thumb that set the hollow just that way,
……..
……..
……..
Your unimpeachable body, and so slay
The work he most had been remembered by? (62)
This poem, at first glance, invites the reader to intuitively construct its sense. In his
experiment, almost two thirds of the respondents misread the poem. Richards believes
that syntax is as important in poetry as in prose and much of the confusion regarding
this poem springs from the inability to read the plain sense. The plain sense is the poet’s
chief tool to control the feelings of the reader. Richards points out that the plain sense of
this poem is that human beings should not think about death because God has designed
human being in such a beautiful form that even if everything else may perish at one time
or the other, God will be remembered by his masterpiece, the human form. The difficulty
here arises not because the syntax is unclear. It is our inability to believe that this could
be the plain sense of something written with such flourish. At the same time, too literal
a reading robs the poem of its emotional effects. Hence it is important to understand the
difference between a poetic and a prosaic reading of poems. There are no simple remedies
for the inability two differentiate between the two.

5.3 Mixed Metaphors

Metaphor is a key poetic device. Without metaphors a poet would be handicapped in ex-
pressing abstract ideas. However, metaphors are slippery, by their very nature and demand
an intuitive apprehension about what they mean from the reader. Between the inclination
to seek precision in what metaphors do may and the inclination to let metaphor loose to
the point of incoherence lies a middle ground that we need to tread. Richards discusses
a few examples from poems that he used in his experiment to show that metaphors do
sometimes contribute in large measure to misunderstanding. He takes the example of Poem

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IX and discusses the example of the harp to explain the point. Two lines from the poem
are reproduced below for your convenience.
Unless the sea were harp, each mirthful string
Woven of the lightning of the nights spring (118)
Two things to notice straight away are the image of the sea as a harp and that the strings
are made up of lightning of spring nights. Richards points out that while the image of
the sea as a harp might be farfetched, one can allow the poet the liberty to use it if it
suits the emotion that he wants to evoke. The same holds true for the image of strings
made of lightning. But the question is what emotion the poet wants to evoke, and does
he succeed in his effort? Richards is of the view that the poet here, breaks all coherence
of the sense. He concludes that, “Mixtures in metaphors (and in other figures) may work
well enough when the ingredients that are mixed preserve their efficacy, but not when
such a fusion is invited that the several parts cancel each other out.” (196)

5.4 Personification
As a figure of speech, it simply means attributing some human characteristics to something
non-human. The difference of attribution could vary from a single attribute to a complete
attribution. We often use personification not to further the sense but to express feelings
and attitudes. It helps the poet to express complex feelings and experiences which are
otherwise difficult to express without the aid of visual/sensory imagery. Personification
works quite well when the proportion is right. But when the poet attributes an unusually
large number of attributes then it breaks down poetic sanction. Richards illustrates the
point by referring to poem X of his experiment. Richards has a word of caution though.
He says that determining what constitutes the right amount is tricky and that the use of
a certain kind of personification used by one poet can’t be the justification for using the
same by another poet in a different context. Hence, the reader should refrain from com-
parative criticism in this matter.
5.5 Let’s Sum Up
Some of the things that we have learnt in this section are:
I. Richards identifies four sources of misunderstanding in reading poetry. They are
a) carelessness, b) too literal reading, c) mixing metaphors, and d) inappropriate
personification.
II. Carelessness is easily overcome by giving the poem several readings.
III. Reading poetry requires paying attention to its literal sense. But we should remember
that the poet uses the sense only to further his interest in drawing our attention to

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 Research Methodology

feelings and attitudes about the subject that he is dealing with. Hence care must
be taken not to read too literal a meaning into the poem because it will end up
destroying the very fabric of the poem itself.
IV. Metaphors are the key tools that a poet uses to evoke feelings. However, if metaphors
break the coherence of sense, then they end up doing more harm than good. Hence,
while choosing metaphors a balance must be maintained between the evocative power
of the metaphor and its precision in its efficacy.
V. Personification, an important tool, must be used with care for it to be effective.
Determining what constitutes the right amount attributes is tricky. The sole guiding
principle for determining this is to align it firmly with the aim of the poem.
VI. Finally, readers shouldn’t forget that the aim of the poem is paramount. The poet is
allowed to play around with the sense, use nonsense, and distortions if the overall
aims of the poem are met. The sense of the poem is always subservient to the
emotive aspect of the poem.
Check Your Progress 3
‹ What, according to Richards, are the four sources of misunderstanding?
‹ Discuss the problems faced by the reader when faced with metaphors. What can
be done to avoid misunderstanding that spring from metaphors?
‹ What does Richards mean when he says that the readers should not indulge in
comparative criticism?

6. To Conclude
Practical Criticism is simply a method pioneered by I.A. Richards to study literary texts
without taking recourse to any information other than the words on the page. In other
words, it involves a close reading of the literary text to bring out the aesthetic qualities of
the work and decipher the way in which it communicates a poetic experience. In Practical
Criticism Richards examines readers responses to texts, exposing subjective biases and
promoting detachment from personal or cultural predispositions. The core aspects of his
method include understanding a text’s plain sense, appreciating its auditory and rhythmic
qualities, analysing imagery, and evaluating its emotional and intellectual impact. Practical
Criticism also highlights challenges such as stock responses, doctrinal adhesions, senti-
mentality, and technical presuppositions, which can distort interpretation. These ideas of
Richards were refined further by literary critics like William K Wimsatt, Cleanth Brooks,
and others into a systematic literary theory known as New Criticism. However, Richards’s

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methods have received its fair share of criticism for ignoring the historical and cultural
dimensions of literary texts that are crucial to our understanding of literary texts.

Works Cited:
Jefferson, Ann, and David Robey. Modern Literary Theory. Barnes and Noble,1982.
Richards, I.A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgement. Routledge, 1929.

Further Reading:
Brower, Reuben, Helen Vendler, and John Hollander, eds., I. A. Richards: Essays in His
Honour. Oxford University Press, 1973.
Russo, John Paul. I.A. Richards: His Life and Work. The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1989.

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 U N I T

I(2)
Conceptualising and Drafting
of a Research Proposal

Nalini Prabhakar

Structure
1. Introduction
2. Essential Components of a Research Proposal
3. Research Proposal Example

1. Introduction
A research proposal is a structured plan that outlines the scope, objectives, methodology,
and significance of a research paper. This is the first important step in articulating your
ideas on the topic on which you will be carrying out your research. The main objectives
of a research proposal are:
‹ To define a clear research topic.
‹ To demonstrate the significance of the research within the domain of literature.
‹ To outline the methodology for conducting the research.
‹ To provide a roadmap for the research process.

2. Essential Components of a Research Proposal

‹ Title
A concise and informative title that reflects the essence of the research.
Example: The Role of Postcolonial Theory in Reinterpreting Identity in Chinua Achebe’s
Things Fall Apart.
‹ Abstract
A brief summary of the proposal (150–300 words).
Covers the research topic, objectives, methodology, and significance.
‹ Introduction
Establish the context of your research.

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 Conceptualising and Drafting of a Research Proposal

Identify gaps in existing studies

State your research objectives clearly.
‹ Research Questions
Articulate the specific questions you aim to address.
Example:
How does Chinua Achebe portray the clash between traditional Igbo culture and
colonial influences in Things Fall Apart?
Can postcolonial theory offer new insights into the representation of identity in
Achebe’s novels?
‹ Literature Review
Summarize existing research related to your topic.
Identify gaps or limitations in these studies.
Example:
Highlight how previous analyses of Things Fall Apart have focused more on colonial
themes but less on the dynamics of individual identity.
‹ Research Methodology
Explain your approach to analysing the literary works.
Will you use close reading, comparative analysis, or theoretical frameworks?
Specify primary texts and secondary sources.
Example:
This study will use postcolonial theory, particularly Homi Bhabha’s concepts of
hybridity and mimicry, to analyse Things Fall Apart.
‹ Objectives and Significance
Clearly state the aims of your research and its relevance.
Example:
Objective: To explore how Achebe’s works reveal the psychological impacts of
colonialism on identity.
Significance: The study contributes to postcolonial studies by focusing on individual
identity rather than broad cultural conflicts.
Timeline
Break down the research process into stages with deadlines.

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 Research Methodology

Example:
Literature review: 2 months.
Close reading and analysis: 3 months.
Writing the draft: 4 months.

Expected Outcomes
Anticipate the results or conclusions of your research.
Example: The study is expected to reveal how Achebe uses characters to embody the
tension between cultural heritage and colonial influence.

Bibliography/References
List the primary and secondary sources you will use.

3. Research Proposal Example

Title: A Feast in the Sky: Reclaiming Stories and Decolonising Culture in Achebe’s
Things Fall Apart

Abstract
Culture is a key area of contestation in the process of decolonisation in post-colonial
societies. Colonial powers used cultural dominance as the preferred method of exercising
control over subject populations and legitimise their dominance. This cultural dominance
gets inscribed into the fabric of colonial societies by erasing the cultural pasts of the
colonial people. Consequently, reclaiming the cultural pasts becomes crucial to decoloni-
sation. Achebe’s Things Fall Apart attempts to do just that by reclaiming the Igbo stories
that not only give the Igbo people an identity but also provide the glue that holds the
society together. This study will examine one such story in Things Fall Apart and show
how Achebe uses storytelling to re-inscribe cultural identity in post-colonial Nigerian so-
ciety. This study will contribute to the growing field of postcolonial studies by examining
the role of stories and storytelling in the construction of a counter narrative to cultural
domination. The findings are expected to provide a deeper understanding of identity re-
construction in colonized societies.

Introduction
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, published in 1958, was a major contribution to
postcolonial literature from Africa. The novel received much critical acclaim and went on

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 Conceptualising and Drafting of a Research Proposal

to become a best seller. Achebe, in this novel, recounts the story of the life and times of
Okonkwo, an influential warrior leader of an Igbo clan located in the village of Umuofia.
He is a brave and hard-working man who rises against all odds to become a leader of the
clan at a time when colonialism and Christianity were making their way into the commu-
nity. He decides to stand up against these alien forces and continues to do so even though
he finds himself alone in this fight. Finally, unable to continue any further, he decides
to take his own life rather than submit to the authority of the colonial powers. Achebe’s
novel vividly portrays the disastrous effects of colonialism on traditional Igbo society and
the people. Much critical attention has been paid to how Achebe reconstructs an identity
and how it gets disrupted by colonial cultural hybridity. However, not much attention has
been paid to the role played by stories in reconstructing an Igbo identity. Achebe uses
stories not just as cultural artefacts to be preserved for their inherent values, but also uses
them as a key ingredient of a counter narrative. This research seeks to examine the ways
in which Achebe achieves this objective in Things Fall Apart.

Research Questions
1. What are the kinds of stories that Achebe uses in Things Fall Apart?
2. What is the specific nature of animal stories that Achebe recreates and is there some
connection with other similar stories in other post-colonial societies?
3. How does the Tortoise story reinforce an Igbo value system and how does it provide
a counterpoint to colonial hybridity?

Literature Review
Most of the earlier studies on Things Fall Apart have focused on Achebe’s critique of
colonialism (Ngugi wa Thiong’o), use of language and narrative style (Simon Gikandi),
gender, colonial resistance, tradition and modernity (Rose Ure Mezu, Eustace Palmer).
However, not much attention is paid to the psychological aspects of identity in the post-
colonial context expressed in the indigenous stories that are used in the novel. The present
study expects to explore those gaps.

Methodology
‹ Theoretical Framework: Postcolonial theory, with a focus on Bhabha’s The Location
of Culture.
‹ Textual Analysis: Close reading of the story about the feast in the sky from Things
Fall Apart.

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 Research Methodology

‹ Comparative Analysis: Compare the story with other such stories from other
cultures that reinforce the ideas of community and sharing as against the idea of
individualism and greed.

Objectives and Significance

‹ Objective: To understand how reclaiming cultural spaces resolves the ideological
contradictions and tensions of a hybrid colonial culture and helps in reclaiming an
identity within post-colonial societies.
‹ Significance: Contributes to discussions on the importance of reclaiming stories and
storytelling as a crucial component of decolonisation in postcolonial studies.

Timeline
1. Literature Review: January–March.
2. Textual Analysis: April–June.
3. Writing Draft: July–October.
4. Final Edits and Submission: November–December.

Expected Outcomes
‹ New insights into the psychological impact of stories and storytelling in reclaiming
identity in Achebe’s works.

Bibliography
‹ Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Heinemann, 1958.
‹ Achebe, Chinua. Arrow of God. Heinemann, 1964.
‹ Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
‹ Gikandi, Simon. Reading Chinua Achebe. Heinemann, 1991.
‹ Mezu, Rose Ure. Chinua Achebe: The Man and His Works. Black Academy Press,
2013.
‹ Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind. James Currey, 1986.
‹ Palmer, Eustace. An Introduction to the African Novel. Heinemann, 1972.

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 U N I T

II
Style Manuals: Notes, References
and Bibliography/Annotated Bibliography

Nalini Prabhakar

Structure
1. Learning Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Style Manual
4. Notes
5. References and Bibliography/Annotated Bibliography
6. Summing Up

1. Learning Objectives
In this unit you will learn about:
‹ Style Manuals: MLA, APA, and Chicago
‹ Footnotes, Endnotes and In-text citation
‹ Citing Resources in a Research Paper
‹ The Stylistic Details of Preparing List of References/Works Cited/Bibliography

2. Introduction
New ideas for research are often generated by critical reading of work by other scholars
in a particular area or on a particular subject. Whether we dispute or agree with the ideas
postulated, either way it can lead us into fresh insights, and new ways of interpreting
texts. A major aspect of academic writing is researching and incorporating the ideas, views,
and opinions of other scholars in your work. We do this in the form of direct quotes, or
indirectly by paraphrasing or summarising, passages or ideas from the work of others.
‹ Direct Quotes: Directly incorporating a small segment of text verbatim.
‹ Paraphrasing: Rewriting ideas from a source in your own words while maintaining
the original meaning.

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‹ Summarizing: Condensing the main ideas of a source into a summary form.

‹ Background Research: Using resources to understand a topic or gain foundational
knowledge.
All the sources used (books, journals, articles, websites, etc.) directly or indirectly, must
be properly acknowledged. In other words, when we use the ideas of others to write our
research paper, and do not acknowledge the source, we are violating their intellectual
property rights. This is called plagiarism, and in the academic world this is a serious
offense that can nullify your work and ruin your career. You should guard your work
against the following forms of plagiarism, and give credit to authors for their work with
proper citations:
‹ Direct Plagiarism: Copying text or content word-for-word from a source without
giving credit.
‹ Paraphrasing/Summarising Plagiarism: Rewriting someone else’s ideas in your
own words without proper citation.
‹ Self-Plagiarism: Reusing your own previous work (e.g., from a past assignment or
publication) without disclosing it or seeking approval.
‹ Patchwork Plagiarism: Piecing together phrases or ideas from multiple sources.

3. Style Manual
A style manual is a comprehensive guide that provides standardized rules for formatting,
and citing sources in academic writing. Style manuals like APA, Chicago, and MLA
provide standardized rules for formatting, citing sources, and organizing academic and
professional writing and each style has its own specific rules. They however, have the
following common components:
1. Citation Guidelines:
‹ Explains how to properly attribute ideas and content from other sources.
‹ Includes rules for in-text citations, footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies or
reference lists.
2. Formatting Standards:
‹ Provides specifications for margins, font size, line spacing, headings, and page
layout.
‹ Ensures documents adhere to a professional or academic standard.

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3. Language Usage:
‹ Sets rules for grammar, punctuation, and style to maintain clarity and readability.
‹ Often includes guidance on tone, bias-free language.
4. Organization of Content:
‹ Outlines how to structure essays, reports, research papers, or theses.
‹ Provides templates for elements like title pages, abstracts, and tables of contents.
APA Style (American Psychological Association) is used primarily in the fields of social
sciences, education, and psychology.
Features:
‹ In-text citations follow the author-date format.
‹ Reference list entries include detailed publication information.
‹ Example:
In-text citation: (Smith, 2020)
Reference: Smith, J. (2020). Title of the book. Publisher.
Chicago Style (Chicago Manual of Style) is used mostly in history, literature, and the arts.
Features:
‹ Offers two citation systems:
‹ Notes and Bibliography: Uses footnotes or endnotes and a bibliography.
‹ Example:
Footnote/Endnote: 1. John Smith, Title of the Book (City: Publisher, 2020), 23.
Bibliography: Smith, John. Title of the Book. City: Publisher, 2020.
MLA Style (Modern Language Association) is popular in the humanities, especially lit-
erature, languages, and cultural studies.
Features:
‹ In-text citations use the author-page format.
‹ Works Cited page lists all references.
‹ Example:
In-text citation: (Smith 23)
Works Cited: Smith, John. Title of the Book. Publisher, 2020.

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4. Notes
There are three primary ways to cite references within a paper:
1. Footnotes: Include citations at the bottom of the same page where they appear in
the text. Number each reference, and provide the citation details in a corresponding
Footnotes section on that page.
2. Endnotes: Assign a number to each reference when citing it in the text. At the end of
the paper or book, create an Endnotes section (just before the Bibliography) where
each numbered entry matches its corresponding citation.
3. In-text Referencing: This widely used approach involves including citation details
directly within the text, enclosed in parentheses.

Footnotes:
1. Footnotes are references or additional information provided at the bottom of a page in
a document. They are used to reference the source for specific statements or ideas,
clarify content (explanatory), or provide supplementary details to direct readers to
related parts of the text or other works (cross references).
Each footnote is linked to a superscript number. Footnotes are numbered sequentially
throughout the document or page. They are placed at the bottom of the same page
where the reference number is placed. They are usually written in a smaller font
size than the main text.

Chicago Style
1. Citation Footnote:
‹ In the Text:
The industrial revolution significantly altered societal structures.1
2. Explanatory Footnote:
‹ In the Text:
Many scholars argue that this approach is controversial.2

1. John Smith, The Rise of Industry (New York: Academic Press, 2020), 45.
2. Some critics believe this method lacks empirical evidence and relies too heavily on theoretical
assumptions.

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3. Cross-Reference Footnote:
‹ In the Text:
For more on this topic, see Chapter 3.3 1

*Although the other two major style manuals (APA and MLA) use footnotes, it is not
their primary method for citations. APA and MLA use it sparingly for additional content,
explanations, but not for citations.
Example:
In-text: (Smith 23)4 2

Endnotes:
Endnotes are similar to footnotes but are placed at the end of a document or a specific
section instead of at the bottom of the page. They serve the same purpose as footnotes:
to provide citations, explanations, or additional information.
In Chicago style endnotes can replace footnotes and the format remains the same as in
footnotes.
As with footnotes, APA and MLA use it sparingly for additional content, explanations,
but not for citations. APA places it in a section titled “Notes” before the reference list.
MLA places it in a section titled “Notes” before the Works Cited page.
Both footnotes and endnotes help provide essential information, and the choice between
them depends on the style manual, document type, and author’s preference.

In-text References/Citations
Both APA and MLA manuals primarily use in-text method for citing resources, with a
reference list/ works cited list at the end.
APA - (Smith, 2020) (author-date format). For direct quotes use page number as well-
(Smith, 2020, p.18)
MLA - (Smith 23) (author-page format). For citations from two or more works by same
author, include shortened title of the work- (Wordsworth, Lyrical Ballads, 24). Alternately
if the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, you can simply use the shortened
version of the title and page number - (Lyrical Ballads 24).

3. Refer to Jane Doe, Economic Theories in Context (Chicago: Knowledge Press, 2018).
4. For further context on this argument, see Smith’s earlier work in Journal of Modern Studies.

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5. References and Bibliography/Annotated Bibliography

The terms bibliography, works cited, and reference list all refer to sections in a written
work where sources are documented. Its primary purpose is to credit sources and allow
readers to locate the referenced materials. However, they differ in purpose, scope, and usage
depending on the style guide and discipline. Use a bibliography for comprehensive lists,
a works cited page for MLA-style citations, and a reference list for APA-style citations.
Always follow the requirements of the specific style guide or discipline for consistency.
It typically includes basic information such as the author’s name, title of the work, pub-
lication date, and publisher.
1. Bibliography: Bibliography is a comprehensive list of all sources consulted during the
research and writing process, whether or not they were directly cited in the text. The
purpose is to provide a broader view of the resources used in the research of the topic/
subject. This is used in the Chicago Style Manual (Notes and Bibliography system).
2. Works Cited: Used in MLA Style, often in literature, arts, and humanities, this is
a list of only the sources that are directly cited in the text.
3. Reference List: Used in APA Style this is a list of all sources directly cited in the
text, similar to a Works Cited page, but formatted according to APA style.

Annotated Bibliography
An annotated bibliography includes the standard citation details (as in a bibliography) but
also provides a brief summary, evaluation, or reflection on each source. It serves to inform
readers not just of the sources used but also of their value and context in your research.
Format: Each annotation is written beneath the corresponding citation, usually in
paragraph form.

Example:
Smith, John. Understanding Climate Change. Oxford University Press, 2015.
This book provides a comprehensive overview of climate change science, focusing on its
global impact and mitigation strategies. The author, an expert in environmental studies,
offers well-researched and accessible insights. It is particularly useful for understanding
the historical progression of climate policies.

Points to Remember When Creating a Working Bibliography:

1. Begin with the author’s name, listing their surname first, followed by their first (and
any middle) name.

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2. For books, include the complete title in italics.

3. If citing a chapter from a book, list the chapter title first, followed by the book title
in italics, and provide the editor’s name for clarity.
4. For essays or articles from journals, place the article or essay title in quotation marks,
followed by the journal’s title (in italics), volume number, and issue number.
5. Articles sourced from newspapers or magazines should include the full article title,
followed by the newspaper or magazine name and publication date.
6. When citing multiple works by the same author, arrange the titles alphabetically.
7. Provide the publisher’s name, the city of publication, and the year for all books or
journals referenced.
8. For essays and articles, specify the page numbers where the content appears.
9. For online sources, include additional details:
‹ Complete URL (web address)

‹ Website name
‹ Editor’s name (if applicable)
‹ Last update date
‹ The date you accessed the material

5.1 MLA, Chicago and APA Style Guides

5.1.1 Modern Language Association (MLA) Guide to Style (9th ed.)
Basic Format:
� Use standard-sized paper, 8 1⁄2 × 11 inches.
� Use an easily readable font (e.g., Times New Roman, 12 pt.)
� All margins (top, bottom, and sides) should be one inch wide.
� Type the paper double-spaced.
� Do not justify the right margin.
� Indent the first line of each paragraph five spaces or 1/2”.
� There is no separate title page (unless your professor requires one). On the first page,
beginning in the upper left corner, at the margin and one inch from the top of the
page, type the following information double-spaced.
Your name
Your professor’s name
Course title and number

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Date
Centre the Title, use upper and lower case letters. Double space, then begin the text of
the paper.
� N umber each page in the upper right corner, 1⁄2 inch from the top of the page and
flush with the right margin. Include your last name before each page number.
Example: Smith 2
� Italicized Titles: Italicize titles of books, plays, websites, online databases, films,
magazines, journals, etc.
Example: Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet will be presented at the College Theater in
October.
� Titles in quotation marks: Use quotation marks for titles of works published within
a larger work: titles of essays, poems, an article in a journal, a short story in a col-
lection, a chapter in a book, a webpage on a larger website, etc.
In-Text Citations: Citing Another Person’s Ideas or Work:
� Paraphrasing: Give credit for ideas you have paraphrased by including the author’s
last name in the text and include the page number in parentheses.
Example: Bradford’s research indicates that the Elizabethan era was a fashion-con-
scious time and clothing indicative of one’s wealth (153).
� Q uoting: Place quotation marks around words and sentences quoted directly. Include
the author’s last name and page number in parentheses at the end of the quotation.
Example: One historian states that the “Elizabethan era was a highly fashion-con-
scious age, and clothing was a primary indicator of wealth” (Bradford 153).
� Website: For a website or webpage, use the full title of the site if it is short, oth-
erwise abbreviate it to two or three words. Place quotation marks around words and
sentences quoted directly. A page number is not necessary when citing a website.
Example: “The age of Shakespeare was considered a great time in English history”
(Elizabethan England).
Examples of Works Cited
In MLA style, the Works Cited list appears at the end of your paper, beginning with a
new page which is double- spaced. Center the title, Works Cited, one inch from the top
of the page. Citations are arranged alphabetically, by author, or by title if there is no
author. The first line of each citation begins at the left margin and all additional lines of
the citation are indented five spaces. Double space each entry and double space between
entries. (To save space, examples on the reverse side are not double-spaced. However,
your list should be double-spaced.)

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The Works Cited list includes only those works you have actually cited in the text of
your paper. If you read additional sources when conducting your research but do not
make reference to them in the text of your paper, do not include them.
Books, Chapters in Edited Books, Entry in an Encyclopedia, Ebooks
One Author
Furstenau, Marc. The Film Theory Reader: Debates and Arguments. Routledge, 2010.
Two Authors: List all names in full. Only the first author’s name is listed with the
last name first.
Curtis, Joan C., and Barbara Giamanco. The New Handshake: Sales Meets Social Media.
Praeger, 2010.
More than Two Authors: List the first author than use et al.
Mead, Sophia, et al. Classics of the Silver Screen. Columbia UP, 1990. Editor
Frantz, Sarah S., editor. New Approaches to Popular Romance Fiction. McFarland, 2012.
Unknown author - begin with title
Encyclopedia of Renaissance Manners. Scribners, 2010.
Work in an anthology or collection - begin with the author of the chapter
Fiander, David J. “Social Media for Academic Libraries.” Social Media for Academics,
edited by Diane Rasmussen Neal, Elsevier Science & Technology, 2012, pp. 193-210.
Entry in an encyclopedia or dictionary - begin with title of the entry in quotations marks
“Ethnomusicology.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd ed., Mac-
millan, 2001.
Ebooks follow the same format as print books, but include identification as such.
Gikandi, Simon. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Cambridge UP, 2000. ACLS Humanities E-Book,
hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.07588.
Miller, Daniel, et al. How the World Changed Social Media. UCL Press, 2016, https://
doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1g69z35.
Articles (follow the same author format as books.)
Scholarly Journal Examples (Print, Library Database with DOI/Permalink, Online)
Boggs, Colleen Glenney. “Public Reading and the Civil War Draft Lottery.” American
Periodicals, vol. 26, no.2, 2016, pp. 149- 66.
Doherty, Jane, and James Giordano. “What We May Learn - and Need - from Pandem-
ic Fiction.” Philosophy, Ethics & Humanities in Medicine, vol. 15, no. 1, July 2020,
pp. 1–3. EBSCOhost, https://doi:10.1186/s13010-020-00089-0.

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Goldman, Anne. “Questions of Transport: Reading Primo Levi Reading Dante.” The Geor-
gia Review, vol. 64, no.1, spring 2010, pp.69-88. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41403188.
DeArmas, Frederick A. “To See What Men Cannot: Teichoskopia in Don Quijote.”
Cervantes, vol. 28, no.1, 2008, pp. 83- 102, www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/to-see-what-
men-cannot-teichoskopia.
Websites or Webpages (follow the same author format as books.)
Include the author, title of the work (in quotation marks or italicized depending on if
it is an independent work or part of a larger website), title of overall website italicized
(if not included as the title). If the website has no author, begin with the title of the
website in quotation marks and the title of the website in italics. If page numbers are
not available, omit them. Include the URL for the website but omit http:// or https://.
Include the date of access if there is no date.
Webpage with no author, begin with the title of the page or website.
“Elizabethan England.” Shakespeare Resource Center, 2016, www.bardweb.net/england.
html.
“Maya Angelou.” Remember Them: Champions for Humanity, 2013, www.remember-them.
org/angelou.htm.
Webpage with author on a larger website.
Coates, Ta-Nehisi. “The Case for Reparations.” The Atlantic, June 2014, www.theatlantic.
com/magazine/archive/2014/06/ the-case-for-reparations/361631/.
Santayana, George. “Walt Whitman: A Dialogue.” The Walt Whitman Archive, 1890,
whitmanarchive.org/criticism/ current/anc.00253.html. Accessed 30 June 2016.
United States Census Bureau. “Population Estimates, July 1, 2019 (V2019) Passaic
County, New Jersey.” Quick Facts, www.census.gov/quickfacts/passaiccountynewjersey.

Source: https://www.wpunj.edu/library/pdf/citationguides/mla_9th_2021.pdf

5.1.2 Chicago Style Bibliography Examples

Bibliography Page
In Chicago style papers, your last section will be “Bibliography.” This page a list of all the
sources you chose to use in your paper. Your sources will be listed alphabetically with a
“hanging indent,” an indentation style that is the exact opposite of “First line” indentation.
Depending on the source, the citation format will slightly change. This will be very similar
to the Notes page, but unlike the notes page, you don’t need to list the same source multiple
times, even if you use different pages or sections; you will only note the main sources as a
whole. Below is a series of examples showing the most common types of sources:

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Publication with a Single Author

Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Book Title. City of Publication: Publisher,
Publishing Year.
Alexievich, Svetlana. Voices from Chernobyl. London: Dalkey Archive Press, 2005
Publication with Two or Three Authors
First Author’s Last Name, First Author’s First Name and Second Author’s First Name
and Last Name. Book Title. City of Publication: Publisher, Publishing Year.
Heizer, Jay H., Chuck Munson, and Barry Render. Principles of Operations Manage-
ment: Sustainability and Supply Chain Management. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2017.
Note 1: In any publication with more than one author, after the listing the first author,
the author name order will switch to a First Name-Last Name format.
Note 2: In any publication with more than one author, you will write out the term “and”
before the last author. Ampersands (&) are not used in Chicago style citations.
Publication with Four or More Authors
First Author’s Last Name, First Author’s First Name. Second Author’s First and Last
Name, Third Author’s First and Last Name, Fourth Author’s First and Last Names. Book
Title. City of Publication: Publisher, Publishing Year.
Haviland, William A., Harald E.L. Prins, Dana Walrath, Bunny McBride. Anthropology:
The Human Challenge. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2004.
Note 1: If you cite a resource that has four or more authors in your Notes, you will
only list the first author’s first and last name. After, you will use the Latin term “et al.”
for the subsequent authors. For example:
1. First Author’s First and Last Name et al., Book Title, (City of Publication: Publisher,
Publishing Year), Page Number.
Note 2: When you cite a resource in your bibliography that has more than three authors,
you will name every author.
Chapter in an Edited Book
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Chapter Title. In Book Title, edited by Editor’s
First and Last Name, Full Chapter Page Numbers, City of Publication: Publisher, Date.
Swentzell, Porter. “Irrigating Astrofalfa.” In Sushi in Cortez: Interdisciplinary Essays on
Mesa Verde, edited by David Taylor and Steve Wolverton, 73-90. Salt Lake City: The
University of Utah Press, 2015.
Book Edition Other than First Edition
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Book Title. Number of Edition. City of Pub-
lication: Publisher, Publishing Year.

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Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. 4th ed. San Francisco:
Aunt Lute Books, 2012.
E-Book
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Book Title. City of Publication: Publisher,
Year of Publication. E-Book Brand.
Morrison, Toni. The Origin of Others. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2017. Kobo.
Online Library Book
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Book Title. Year of Publication. Library
Name. URL.
Simpson, Leanne Betasamosake. As We Have Always Done: Indigenous Freedom Through
Radical Resistance. 2017. ProQuest Ebook Central. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/
unt/detail.action?docID=5047206.
Article in a Journal (Web)
Author Last Name, Author First Name. “Article Title,” Journal Title Volume, Issue
Number (Publishing Year): Full Article Page Numbers. DOI.
Mika, Jason Paul, et al. “Indigenous Environmental Defenders in Aotearoa New Zealand:
Ihumātao and Ōroua River,” AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples
18, no. 2 (2022): 277-289. https://doi.org/10.1177/11771801221083164.
Note: Some articles will not have a DOI. If that is the case, provide the article’s URL.
Organization or Company as an Author
Organization/Company. Publication Title. City of Publication: Publisher, Publishing Year.
Texas State Historical Association. Texas Almanac 2022-2023. Austin: Texas State His-
torical Association, 2022.
Article from a Reference Site (Wikipedia, Encyclopedia, etc.)
Reference Work, s.v. “Word Used to Search the Reference Work,” last modified Month
Day, Year, URL.
Wikipedia, s.v. “Buffy Sainte-Marie,” last modified June 2, 2022, https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Buffy_Sainte-Marie.
Note: Notice the term “s.v.” in the example above. That term means “sub verbo,” which
refers to the word you typed into the reference search bar to find your information
(Hacker and Sommers, 2021).
Web Source—Entire Website
Website Page Title. Website Organization/Company. Last Modified Date in Month Day,
Year Format. Website URL.

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Park Rules. Texas Parks and Wildlife. n.d. https://tpwd.texas.gov/state- parks/parks/

park-rules/.
Note: Notice the term “n.d.” in the example above. This abbreviation means “no date.”
You can use this abbreviation when dates are missing.
Web Source with an Author
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. “Web Source Title.” Web Source Organization/
Company. Last Modified Date in Month Day, Year Format. Webs Source URL.
Wilonsky, Robert. “A new book takes a loving look at long-ago Dallas.” The Dallas
Morning News. July 3, 2019. https://www.dallasnews.com/news/newsletters/2019/07/03/
new-book-takes- loving-look-long-ago-dallas.
Note: For web sources without an author, you will cite the source with the website or
organization/company as the author.

Source: WritingCenter.unt.edu | [email protected] | 940.565.2563 | Sage Hall 150

5.1.3 APA Style Common Reference Examples Guide

Journal Article
Edwards, A. A., Steacy, L. M., Siegelman, N., Rigobon, V. M., Kearns, D. M., Rueckl,
J. G., & Compton, D. L. (2022). Unpacking the unique relationship between set for
variability and word reading development: Examining word- and child-level predictors
of performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(6), 1242–1256. https://doi.
org/10.1037/edu0000696
Online Magazine Article (Section 10.1)
Thomson, J. (2022, September 8). Massive, strange white structures appear on Utah’s
Great Salt Lake. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/mysterious-mounds-great-salt-
lake-utah-explained- mirabilite-1741151
Print Magazine Article (Section 10.1)
Nicholl, K. (2020, May). A royal spark. Vanity Fair, 62(5), 56–65, 100.
Online Newspaper Article (Section 10.1)
Bernstein, J. (2024, June 3). The man who couldn’t stop going to college. The New
York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/03/magazine/benjamin-bolger-college-har-
vard-yale.html
Print Newspaper Article (Section 10.1)
Reynolds, G. (2019, April 9). Different strokes for athletic hearts. The New York Times,
D4.

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Authored Book (Section 10.2)

Kaufman, K. A., Glass, C. R., & Pineau, T. R. (2018). Mindful sport performance en-
hancement: Mental training for athletes and coaches. American Psychological Associa-
tion. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000048-000
Edited Book Chapter (Section 10.3)
Zeleke, W. A., Hughes, T. L., & Drozda, N. (2020). Home–school collaboration to
promote mind– body health. In C. Maykel & M. A. Bray (Eds.), Promoting mind–body
health in schools: Interventions for mental health professionals (pp. 11–26). American
Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000157-002
Online Dictionary Entry (Section 10.3)
American Psychological Association. (2018). Internet addiction. In APA dictionary of
psychology. https:// dictionary.apa.org/internet-addiction
Report by a Group Author (Section 10.4)
World Health Organization. (2014). Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal,
infant and young child nutrition. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/113048/
WHO_NMH_NHD_14.1_ eng.pdf?ua=1
Report by Individual Authors (Section 10.4)
Winthrop, R., Ziegler, L., Handa, R., & Fakoya, F. (2019). How playful learning can
help leapfrog progress in education. Center for Universal Education at Brookings. https://
www.brookings.edu/wp-content/ uploads/2019/04/how_playful_learning_can_help_leap-
frog_progress_in_education.pdf

Source: https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition

6. Summing Up
In this unit we have familiarised ourselves with the technical aspects of academic writing.
We have dealt with three style manuals in detail, with emphasis on Notes, References and
Bibliography. In your writing, however, you are expected to use one style format, and be
consistent in using stylistic aspects of the chosen style manual throughout the paper. For
students of literature, the much preferred manual is the MLA style sheet.
Works Cited
https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition
https://www.wpunj.edu/library/pdf/citationguides/mla_9th_2021.pdf
WritingCenter.unt.edu | [email protected] | 940.565.2563 | Sage Hall 150

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 U N I T

III
(a) Workshop on Topic Development
(b) Workshop on Research Proposal

Nalini Prabhakar

Structure
1. Learning Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Workshop on Topic Development
4. Workshop on Research Proposal

1. Learning Objectives
‹ To provide practical strategies for identifying, refining, and expanding topics for
research.
‹ To equip students with the skills to plan, structure, and present effective research
proposals.

2. Introduction
In this unit, as per your course requirement, workshops on Topic Development and Re-
search Proposal will be conducted to provide you with essential skills to generate, refine,
and articulate research ideas. In these two workshops you will learn how to move from
broad areas of interest to topics that are clear, and focused. Once you decide on a topic,
the workshop will guide you in developing a structured research proposal. You have al-
ready learnt about the key components of a research proposal as also the stylistic details
of formatting and referencing in the previous two units of this SLM, which you will now
use in writing your research proposal. The workshops will provide practical guidance in
organizing ideas, and ensuring methodological rigor.

2.1 Pre-Workshop Preparation

You are expected to come prepared with the following for Topic Development and Re-
search Proposal Workshops:

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‹ Identify a specific domain within English literature. Your area of research can focus
either on a genre, literary period, specific themes across texts, or on specific authors
and their works.
Genres: Poetry, drama, prose, fiction, non-fiction.
Periods: Renaissance, Romantic, Victorian, Modern, Postmodern.
Themes: Identity, gender, class, race, colonialism, existentialism etc.
Authors: In-depth studies on specific authors or comparative studies.
‹ A topic in the area chosen by you.
‹ A survey of existing scholarship related to the research topic. This will enable you
to identify gaps in existing research and point you towards areas which need further
exploration. You can use databases like JSTOR, Project MUSE, and Google Scholar
for sources.
‹ A general idea about the literary theory or critical approach you intend to use as a
theoretical framework for your research.
Formalism/Structuralism: Focus on structure, language, and form.
Marxism: Analyse class and socio-economic factors.
Postcolonialism: Examine colonial influences and identities.
Feminism: Address gender roles, patriarchy, and representation.

3. Workshop on Topic Development

1. Introduction: What is a topic in literature?
The difference between broad topics and thesis statement.
Activity: Brief discussion about what students find challenging in choosing or
narrowing down topics.
2. Generating Ideas: Close Reading: How to identify significant passages, themes, or
symbols in a text.
Introduce questions like:
Which themes stand out?
How do characters’ actions reflect larger societal issue
How is the setting important to the story’s meaning?
Using historical, social, or authorial context to spark ideas.

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 (a) Workshop on Topic Development (b) Workshop on Research Proposal

Activity: Provide a short list of texts the students have engaged with in their course
work and ask them to jot down themes or ideas.
3. Narrowing the Focus: Help students refine broad topics into specific, manageable
ones.
Turning a general theme into a focused inquiry (e.g., "Love in Romeo and Juliet"
→ "How does impulsive love in Romeo and Juliet lead to tragedy?").
Using "Why," "How," and "What" questions to deepen topics.
Identifying relationships between literary elements (e.g., character, setting, tone,
symbolism).
Activity: Provide a broad topic (e.g., "identity in literature") and guide students to
refine it step-by-step into a specific thesis statement.
4. Structuring Arguments: Explain how a thesis statement expresses a claim or argument
about the topic.
Relating the thesis to the main elements of analysis (e.g., textual evidence, literary
devices, social and historical context).
Activity: Rough draft of the main arguments with reference to the text/s.

4. Workshop on Research Proposal

1. Introduction
Explain the purpose and importance of a research proposal.
Definition of a research proposal: A document that outlines a proposed research project,
its objectives, methodology, and significance. (Refer to Unit-1b)
2. Understanding the Components
Structure of a research proposal:
1. Title: Concise, descriptive, and engaging.
2. Abstract: A summary of the research problem, objectives, and significance.
3. Introduction:
Background/context of the research.
Research problem or question.
Objectives and significance.

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4. Literature Review: Highlight gaps in existing research and position your study.
5. Research Methodology:
Design, methods, and tools.
6. Expected Outcomes/Significance
7. Timeline
8. References: Properly formatted citations.
3. Writing the Proposal: Guide participants in drafting key sections of their research
proposal.
Emphasis on clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness.
Highlight common mistakes: vague objectives, unsupported claims, poor structure.
NOTE: The template provided for the workshops is not prescriptive and is only meant
to highlight the areas which need to be covered in the workshop.

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