FUNGI

General Characteristics of Fungi:

• Eukaryotic.
• Decomposers – the best recyclers around.
• No chlorophyll – non photosynthetic.
• Most multi-cellular (hyphae) – some unicellular (yeast)
• Non-motile.
• Cell walls made of chitin instead of cellulose like that of a plant.
• Are more related to animals than plant kingdom.
• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms means they have true nucleus which
are enclosed in membranes.
• Fungi have cell walls (plants also have cell walls, but animals
have no cell walls).
• There is no embryonic stage for fungi.
• They reproduce by means of spores. There are sexual and
asexual spores. Sexual spores are Oospores, Zygospores,
Ascospores, Basidiospores, etc. and Asexual spores are
Sporangiospores, Aplanospores, Zoospores, Conidia, etc.
• Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and
asexual spores may be produced.
• They are typically non-motile.
• They are non-vascular organisms. They do not have vascular
system. Xylem and Phloem are absent.
• Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation.
They have both haploid and diploid stage.
• Fungi are Achlorophyllous, which means they lack the
chlorophyll pigments present in the chloroplasts in plant
cells and which are necessary for photosynthesis.
• The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or
composed of microscopic threads called hyphae.
• Hyphae can grow and form a network called a mycelium.
• Yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not produce hyphae.
• The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but chemically
the fungi cell wall are composed of chitin (C8H13O5N)n.
• The cell membrane of a fungus has a unique sterol and
ergosterol.
• Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. They obtains its
food and energy from organic substances, plant and
animal matters.
• Fungi grow best in acidic environment (tolerate acidic
pH).
• Fungi digest the food first and then ingest the food, to
accomplish this the fungi produce exoenzymes like
Hydrolases, Lyases, Oxidoreductase, Transferase, etc.
• Fungi store their food as starch.
• Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
• Nutrition in fungi – they are saprophytes (gets energy
from dead and decaying matters), or parasites (lives in
a host, attack and kill) or symbionts (mutually
beneficial).
• Optimum temperature of growth for most saprophytic fungi is 20-30°C while (30-
37)°C for parasitic fungi.
• Growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.
• Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means.
• Sexual state is referred to as teleomorph (fruiting body), asexual state is referred to
as anamorph (mold like).
• Reproduction occurs by both asexual (Axamorph) and sexual (Teliomorph) mode:
• Asexual methods: fragmentation, fsomatic budding, fission, asexual spore
formation
Sexual methods: Gametic copulation, gamate-gametangium opulation,
gametangium copulation, somatic copulation and Spermatization.
• Pheromone is a chemical substance produced by fungi, which leads to the sexual
reproduction between male and female fungi cells.
• Some fungi are macroscopic and can be seen by naked eyes. Mold or mushrooms
are examples of macroscopic form of fungi.
• In 1991, a landmark paper estimated that there are 1.5 million fungi on the Earth.
• Only about 300 species of fungi are infectious to human.
• Examples: Candida albicans, Aspergillus, Blastomyces, Coccidioides, Cryptococcus
neoformans, Histoplasma, Pneumocystis jirovecii, etc.
 Endo-phytic relationship among
fungus and plant
• Due to increasingly limited water resources, diminishing farmland
acreage, and potentially negative effects of climate change, an
urgent need exists to improve agricultural productivity to feed the
ever-growing population. Plants interact with microorganisms at all
trophic levels, adapting growth, developmental, and defense
responses within a complicated network of community members.
Endophytic fungi have been widely reported for their ability to aid
in the defense of their host plants. Currently, many reports focus on
the application of endophytic fungi with the capability to produce
valuable bioactive molecules, while others focus on endophytic
fungi as biocontrol agents. Plant responses upon endophytic fungi
colonization are also good for the immune system of the plant. In
this paper, the possible mechanisms between endophytic fungi and
their hosts were reviewed. During long-term evolution, plants have
acquired numerous beneficial strategies in response to endophytic
fungi colonization
• The interaction of endophytic fungi with plants
modulates the relationship between plants and both
biotic and abiotic stresses. It has previously been
reported that this endophytic relationship confers
additional defensive mechanisms on the modulation of
the plant immune system, as the result of the
manipulation of direct antimicrobial metabolites such
as alkaloids to indirect phytohormones, jasmonic acid,
or salicylic acid. Furthermore, plants have evolved to
cope with combinations of stresses and experiments
are required to address specific questions related to
these multiple stresses. This review summarizes our
current understanding of the intrinsic mechanism to
better utilize these benefits for plant growth and
disease resistance. It contributes new ideas to increase
plant fitness and crop productivity.
 Systemic and non-systemic
• The first method divides endophytes into two categories:
• systemic (true) and nonsystemic (transient).
• These categories are based on the endophyte's genetics, biology
and mechanism of transmission from host to host. Systemic
endophytes are defined as organisms that live within plant tissues
for the entire of its life cycle and participate in a symbiotic
relationship without causing disease or harm to the plant at any
point. Additionally systemic endophytes concentrations and
diversity do not change in a host with changing environmental
conditions. Non-systemic or transient endophytes on the other
hand vary in number and diversity within their plant hosts under
changing environmental conditions. Non-systemic endophytes have
also been shown to become pathogenic to their host plants under
stressful or resource limited growing conditions.
 Mycorrhiza

• A mycorrhiza (from Greek μύκης mýkēs, "fungus", and ῥίζα rhiza,

"root"; pl. mycorrhizae, mycorrhiza or mycorrhizas is
a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant.The term
mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the
plant's rhizosphere, its root system. Mycorrhizae play important
roles in plant nutrition, soil biology and soil chemistry.
• In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plant's
root tissues, either intracellularly as in arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi (AMF or AM), or extracellularly as in ectomycorrhizal fungi.
The association is sometimes mutualistic. In particular species or in
particular circumstances mycorrhizae may have
a parasitic association with host plants.
• A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a green
plant and a fungus. The plant makes organic molecules
such as sugars by photosynthesis and supplies them to the
fungus, and the fungus supplies to the plant water and
mineral nutrients, such as phosphorus, taken from the soil.
Mycorrhizas are located in the roots of vascular plants, but
mycorrhiza-like associations also occur in bryophytes and
there is fossil evidence that early land plants that lacked
roots formed arbuscular mycorrhizal associations. Most
plant species form mycorrhizal associations, though some
families like Brassicaceae and Chenopodiaceae cannot.
Different forms for the association are detailed in the next
section. The most common is the arbuscular type that is
present in 70% of plant species, including many crop plants
such as wheat and rice.
 Ectomycorrhiza

• Ectomycorrhizas or ectomycorrhizae, is a form of symbiotic

relationship that occurs between a fungal symbiont, or
mycobiont, and the roots of various plant species. The
mycobiont is often from the phyla Basidiomycota and
Ascomycota, and more rarely from the Zygomycota.
• Ectotrophic mycorrhiza in which the fungal component forms
2 sheath layers around the roots of a plant, the inner layer
forming a sense mesh of hyphae, called the hartig net.
• Endomycorrhiza:
• Internally present/ penetrate inside the cell cytoplasm.
 Modification in Hyphae

• 1. Plectenchyma:-
• A false tissue formed by aggregation of hyphae is known as
Plectenchyma. All fungal tissues come under this general term
• Plectenchyma is of two types:-
• (a) Prosenchyma :-
• It is rather a loosely woven tissue of hyphae. The hyphae-
composing it do not lose their identity. They run more or less
parallel to one another and are composed of elongated cells.
• (b) Pseudoparenchyma :-
• In the fructifications of higher fungi, the hyphae become
woven and intertwined into a compact mass.
• 2. Rhizomorph:-
• A thick strand or root like aggregation of somatic hyphae is
called Rhizomorph. The hyphae loose their identity and
individuality and the whole mass behaves as an organised
unit. It is believed that rhizomorph has a higher infection
capacity than individual hyphae Examples of Rhizomorphs are
found in Armillariella mellea.
• 3. Sclerotium (pl. Sclerotia):
• A sclerotium is a compact globose or elongated structure
formed by the aggregation and adhesion of hyphae. It may
survive for long periods of time sometimes for several years
and thus represent the resting stage of the fungus. The
sclerotia usually germinate to form hyphae or may form
reproductive structures. Sclerotia are commonly formed in
Claviceps purpurea, Rhizoctonia solani.
• 4. Strom
• Any fungal tissue that forms reproductive
structures are called Stromata. These are
compact somatic structures like mattresses
having fruitification.
• 5. Pseudosclerotium (pi. pseudosclerotia):
• These sclerotia like bodies are formed at the base
of various fruit bodies of higher fungi. In
Polyporus basilapiloides, the pseudosclerotia
formed below the soil surface are composed of
sand particles surrounded by hyphal
aggregations.
• 6.Appressorium:-
• These are common in parasitic fungi mostly ectoparasites. An
appressorium is a terminal simple or lobed swollen structure
of germtubes or infection hyphae. It adheres to the surface of
the host and helps in the penetration of hyphae of the
pathogen. Appressoria are commonly formed by the parasitic
members of the order Erysiphales.
• 7. Haustorium:-
• These are mostly produced as intracellular absorbing
structures of obligate parasites. Haustoria are usually
produced in those fungi in which intercellular mycelium are
found. They vary in shape and may be knob shaped or
branched finger shaped.
 Difference between Holocarpic and
Eucarpic:
• 1. Holocarpic: denoting a fungus in which the
entire thallus is differentiated into a
reproductive sporangium when
mature.Eucarpic Denoting a fungus in which
the thallus is differentiated into vegetative
and reproductive regions.Holocarpic
(Holocarpism)Whole thallus of fungus
becomes converted into a reproductive
cell*Found among:
• 2. Eucarpic (Eucarpism):-
• Thallus- differentiates into distinct vegetative
and reproductive portions- found among all
divisionstrends to complexity (hyphal
construction)
• 1. Monocentric (monocentrism)
• Thallus consists of single reproductive cell
attached to substrate.
 Reproduction in fungi
vegetative reproduction
 Asexual reproduction:

• The asexual reproduction takes place by

means of spores. Each spore may develop into
a new individual. The spores may be produced
asexually or sexually and thus named
• (a) asexual spores
• (b) sexual spores.
• Under asexual reproduction, only asexual
spores will be considered.
• (a)Asexual spores:
• They are innumerable and produced on the diplont
mycelium in Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes. In Basidio-
mycetes they are produced on the diplont mycelium. The
spores are of diverse type and borne upon special
structures called the sporophores. These spores are
produced asexually and called the asexual spores. Usually
the spores are uninucleate and nonmotile but
multinucleate and motile spores are also found.
• Endogenous spores:
• The endogenous spores are produced within the special
spore producing cell the sporangium. The sporangia may be
terminal or intercalary in their position. The sporophores
which bear the sporangia on their apices are called the
sporangiophores. They may be branched or unbranched.
• The endogenously produced zoospores are uni or biflagellate.
Each spore is without any cell wall, uninucleate and vacuolate.
They can move with the help of their flagella. They are usually
kidney-shaped or reniform and the flagella are inserted
posteriorly or laterally on them. Such zoospores have been
recorded from Albugo , Pythium , Phytophthora and many
other lower fungi. The aplanospores are non-motile, without
flagella and formed inside the sporangia. They may be uni or
multinucleate (e. g., Mucor, Rhizopus). These spores lack
vacuoles and possess two layered cell walls. The outer thick
layer is epispore or exospore which may be ornamented in
many cases. The inner thin layer is endospores.
 Exogenous spores:
• The spores producing externally or exogenously are either called
the exogenous spores or conidia. They are produced externally on
the branched or unbranched conidiophores. The condiophores may
be septate or aseptate. The conidia borne upon the terminal apices
of the conidiophores or the ends of the branches of the
condiophores. The conidia may be produced singly on each
sterigma or in chains. The conidial chains may be basipetal to
acropetal in succession. The conidia are diverse in their shape and
size. They may be unicellular or multicellular, uninucleate or
multinucleate. Different genera may be recognized only by the
presence of various shaped and various coloured conidia. The
conidia of Fungi Imperfecti are multicellular and variously shaped,
whereas the conidia of Aspergillus and Penicillium are smoky green
coloured and the fungi are called ‘the blue-green molds’.
 Sexual reproduction:

• A large number of fungi reproduce sexually. However, the

members of Fungi Imperfecti, or ‘Deuteromycetes’ lack
sexual reproduction.
• Usually two phases are found in the life cycle of the plants.
These phases are called haploid and diploid phases
respectively. The haploid phase possesses the (n) number
of chromosomes in the nucleus, whereas this number
becomes (2n) in the diploid phase.
• The gametes are always haploid (n) and by a sexual fusion
they result in diploid (2n) sexual spores, such as zygospores,
oospores, etc. To bring haploid (n) phase once again in the
life cycle the reduction division (meiosis) takes place and
the number of chromosomes becomes half.
• The gametes taking part in sexual fusion may be
morphologically or physiologically different. Such two
gametes taking part in fusion are of opposite sexes or strains,
which may be called male and female sex organs or plus and
minus strains. When both the sex organs or strains occur on
the same mycelicum, the fungus is said to be monoecious or
homothallic, and when the male and female sex organs or
plus and minus strains occur separately on different mycelia
the fungus is said to be dioecious or heterothallic.
• The gametes taking part in fusion are usually formed in the
cells of sacs called gametangia (singular-gametangium). The
morphologically identical male and female gametes are called
the isogametes. The morphologically dissimilar male and
female gametes are called the heterogametes.
• In such cases the male gametes are called the antherozoids and the
female ones are the eggs. The fusion of the plasma of the gametes
is called the plasmogamy, which is usually followed by the nuclear
fusion, i.e., karyogamy. The whole process is called the fertilization.
• i. Planogametic copulation:
• This type of sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two naked
gametes one or both of them are motile. The motile gametes are
known as planogametes. The most primitive fungi produce
insogamous planogametes, e.g., Synchytrium, Plasmodiophorq etc.
The anisogamous planogametes are only found in the genus
Allomyces of order Blastocladiales. In Monoblepharis (order
Monoblepharidales) the unique condition is present here the
female gamete is non-motile whereas the male gamete is motile.
The male gamete enters the oogonium and fertilizes the egg.
• ii. Gametangial contact:
• This method of reproduction is found in many lower fungi
(class Phycomycetes). In this method two gametangia of
opposite sex (oogonium and antheridium) come in contact
and one or more gamete nuclei migrate from the male
gametangium (antheridium) to the female gametangium
(oogonium).
• In no case the gametangia actually fuse. The male nuclei in
some species enter the female gametangium through a pore
developed by the dissolution of the wall of contact (e.g., in
Aspergillus, Penicillium, etc.); in other species the male nuclei
migrate through a fertilization tube (e.g., Phythium, Albugo,
Peronospora, etc.). After the migration of the nuclei the
antheridium eventually disintegrates but the oogonium
continues its development in various ways.
• iii. Gametangial copulation:
• In this method of sexual reproduction the fusion of the entire
contents of two contacting compatible gametangia takes place (e.g.,
Mucor, Rhizopus, Entomophthora, etc.)
• iv. Spermatization:
• The sexual reproduction in Neurospora (Class- Ascomycetes) and
other fungi takes place by means of this method. The minute,
uninucleate, spore-like male structures are known as spermatia.
They are produced in several ways. The spermatia are carried by
outer agencies to the receptive hyphae (trichogynes) of female
gametangia, to which they become attached. A pore develops at
the wall of contact and the contents of spermatium pass into the
female gametangium through the receptive hypha.
• v. Somatogamy:
• The sex organs are not produced. The somatic cells take part in
sexual fusion, e.g., Morchella, many higher fungi.
Fungi is Divided into 2 sub-
Divisions
 1. Myxomycota
2. Eumycota
• Myxomycota is divided into 4 classes
• 1. Acrasiomycetes
• 2. Hydromyxomycetes
• 3. Myxomycetes
• 4. plasmodiophoromycetes
• Eumycota is divided into 5 subdivisions
• 1.Mastigomycotina
• 2. zygomycotina
• 3. Ascomycotina
• 4. Basidiomycotina
• 5. Fungi imperfecti/ Deuteromycotina
 Myxomycota
• Features of Myxomycota:
• The Myxomycota or slime molds, are fungus-like
organisms. They are characterised by the absence of
cell wall from their amoeboid,’ animal-like vegetative
or assimilatory phase.
• The amoeboid assimilatory phase may consist of a free-
living multinucleate mass of protoplasm called a
plasmodium or simple uninucleate amoeboid cells, the
myxamoebae (sing, myxamoeba) often aggregating
into a pseudoplasmodium (Fig. 4F) or amoeboid cells
interconnected by slime filaments.
• Class myxomycetes:-
• General characters of myxomycetes:
• 1.Presence of trophic phase which may be of plasmodium (a
free-living multinucleate mass of protoplasm).
• 2. The mode of nutrition is phagotrophic.
• 3. The vegetative part consists of protoplast covered by
plasma membrane and devoid of cell wall (cell wall is present
on the spore if produced by them).
• 4. They resemble the primitive fungi in their mode of
reproduction by producing spores within sporangia.
• 5. They are either holocarpic or eucarpic.
• 6. They exhibit variable colouration.
• Plasmodial slime molds:
• Are the true slime molds, pseudoplasmodial slime molds the
cellular slime molds . The true slime molds are mostly
saprophytic with a few parasitic ones. In the former the entire
plasmodium is consumed in the formation of fructifications.
Occurrence of Myxomycota:
• The Myxomycetes are common but inconspicuous inhabitants
of moist dead wood, rotting logs, damp soil, leaf mold, moist
sawdust, bark of trees, decaying fleshy fungi, or other organic
matter. They often spend most of their lives within the
substrate and emerge only when about to produce sporangia.
Following periods of rainy weather they may occur on leaves
of grasses or other plants on lawns.
Sexual Reproduction of Myxomycetes
• The myxamoebae or swarm cells as the case may be, behave
as gametes and as such take part in the sexual reproduction.
Fusion may take place between the two swarm cells or two
myxamoebae or between a swarm cell and a myxamoeba
resulting in the formation of a zygote, when plasmogamy is
followed by karyogamy.
 Life Cycle Pattern of Myxomycetes
• The general life cycle pattern of the Myxomycetes is more or
less clear. The spores on germination produce one to four
swarm cells or myxamoebae. The swarm cells or myxamoebae
behave as gametes. They fuse in pairs, plasmogamy is
followed by karyogamy. The zygote so formed grows
accompanied with repeated mitotic division of the diploid
zygotic nucleus resulting in the development of a
plasmodium.
Life Cycle Of Myxomycetes
 Economic Importance of
Myxomycetes:
• The Myxomycetes are of relatively little economic importance, but
they have been the subject of intensive laboratory studies. They
contribute to the carbon and nitrogen cycles by using various
organic matter including bacteria as food.
• They provide a large amount of protoplasm free from cell walls
which has been used as an ideal medium to solve variety of
fundamental problems of biochemists, biophysicists, mycologists
and even the geneticists.
• Some of the areas of studies are: the structure and chemical
composition of protoplasm, the velocity of the protoplasmic
movement, the chemical changes governing the production of
sporangia and spores, the behaviour of nuclei and chromosomal
changes during plasmodial growth, various aspects of plasmodial
compatibility, etc.
 Class: Acrasiomycetes
• Acrasiomycetes are commonly known as cellular or
amoeboid slime molds, and are found profusely in the
upper layer of humus in deciduous forests and also in
cultivated lands.
• The characteristic features are:
• 1. Somatic phase commonly consists of amoeboid cells or
myxamoebae.
• 2. Myxamoebae aggregate to form a pseudoplasmodium,
which develops fruit body.
• 3. Lack of flagellated cells.
• 4. Spore wall contains cellulose.
• 5. Fruit bodies may be sorocarps (in Dictyostelium) or
sporocarp (in Protostelium).
 Class: Plasmodiophoromycetes
• This group is commonly known as endo- parasitic
slime molds. They are obligate parasites, grow on
algae, aquatic fungi and higher plants (commonly
in the roots).
• The characteristic features are:
• 1. Members of this class are obligate (i.e.,
biotrophic) parasites of fresh water algae, aquatic
fungi and higher plants (commonly in the roots).
• 2.Somatic body consists of a naked holocarpic
plasmodium.
• 3. Plasmodia are of two types in their life cycle:
sporangiogenous plasmodium (form sporangia) and
cytogenous plasmodium (gives rise to cysts i.e., resting
spores).
• 4. Zoospores biflagellate, having flagella of unequal length
and of whiplash type and attached anteriorly.
• The class consists of a single order Plasmodiophorales with
a single family Plasmo- diophoraceae. The class consists of
16 genera and 45 species. Some like Plasmodiophora
brassicae causes club-root of crucifer; Spongospora
subterranea causes powdery scab of potato.
Life cycle of plasmodiophoromycetes
 Eumycota
• Is divided into 5 subdivisions:
• Mastigomycotina
• Zygomycotina
• Ascomycotina
• Basidiomycotina
• Deuteromycotina
 Eumycota
Mastigomycotina
• Mastigomycotina: the zoosporic classes Chytridiomycetes
(with posteriorly uni. Flagellate zoospores
whiplash), Hyphochytriomycetes (with anteriorly uniflagellate
zoospores tensil) and Oomycetes (reproduce by biflagellate
zoospores both primary and secondary)
• rhizomycelium General features of
chytridiomycetes:-
• They produce flagellated cells during their lifetime.
• May bear rhizoids.
• Mostly, filamentous and having
rhizomycellium coenocytic mycelium.
• Perfect state of spores is typically oospores.
• The organism in this order are water or soil inhabitants.
• Some are parasites of algae and some causes serious diseases in
many plants e.g. synchytrium endobioticum (holocarpic) causes
potato wart disease and olpidium brassicae causes infection in the
roots of crucifers.
• Most primitive chytridiales are endobiotic completely within the
host tissues and some are epibiotic present on host surface. No
true mycelium is present. Rhizomycellium is present.
• Primitive sps are holocarpic and advanced sps are provided with
rhizomycellium and eucarpic. Sps may be monocentric thallus
having a single reproductive body and polycentric i.e more than
one reproductive structures.
• Asexual reproduction by zoospores (uniflagellate). Whiplash type
and posteriorly attached.zoospores containing body is pear or
spherical shaped. Zoospores come out through discharge tube or
exit papillae. At the tip of discharge tube or exit papillae a lid is
present called operculum and fungi having operculum or lid are
called Operculate fungi e.g. chytridium and inoperculate don’t have
any lid or operculum e.g. olpidium.sexual rep. has not been
reported in majority of chytrids
Life Cycle of Chytridiomycetes
• Chytridiomycetes is having three orders
• Chytridiales
• Blastocladiales
• monoblepharidales
 General Characteristics of
blastocladiales
• Mostly saprophytic in soil and water except
ceolomomyces is an obligate parasite
• Thallus is eucarpic in most except in coelomomyces
• Cell wall is made up of chitin
• All produce zoospores in either thin walled
zoosporangium or thick walled resting sporandium.the
brown color of resting sporangium is due to y.carotene
or melanin.zoospores are posteriorly uniflagellate
whiplash.
• Sexual rep. is isogamous in some while anisogamous in
majoritys
Life Cycle Of Blastocladiales
 Oomycetes
• Oomycota, phylum of fungus like organisms. Oomycetes reproduced
asexually by biflagellate zoospores. Of two flagella the posterior one is
whiplash type and anterior one tinsel type. Oomycetes lack chitin in their
cell wall.sexuall reproduction is oogamous type.bcoz of aquatic nature of
most of oomycetes they are called watermolds. may occur
as saprotrophs (living on decayed matter) or as parasites living on
higher plants and can be aquatic, amphibious, or terrestrial .
The species Phytophthora infestans famously
destroyed Ireland’s potato crop with late blight of potato Other
economically destructive genera include the water
molds (notably Saprolegnia), Aphanomyces (the cause of root rot of
peas), Plasmopara (a cause of downy mildews), and Albugo (white rusts).
• There are more than 500 species in the Oomycota -- these include the so-
called water molds and downy mildews. They are
filamentous protists which must absorb their food from the surrounding
water or soil, or may invade the body of another organism to feed. As
such, oomycetes play an important role in the decomposition and
recycling of decaying matter. Other parasitic species have caused much
human suffering through destruction of crops and fish.
• As such, oomycetes play an important role in the
decomposition and recycling of decaying matter. Other
parasitic species have caused much human suffering through
destruction of crops and fish.
Many water molds live in fresh or wet soils. Most species
are saprotrophic (i.e., they live on dead or decaying organic
matter), although some cause diseases in
certain fishes, plants, algae, protozoans, and
marine invertebrates. Common genera
include Achlya, Leptolegnia, and Saprolegnia.
Order Saprolegniales
 Salient Features of Saprolegniales:

• 1. The majority of the species of Saprolegnia are aquatic saprobes.

• 2. The mycelium is well developed, profusely branched, and
coenocytic. It is often seen as tiny tufts of cotton wool around some
bit of decaying plant or animal tissue in water particularly the dead
flies, a piece of meatetc.
• 3. The hyphae constituting the mycelium are of two kinds, rhizoidal
and external hyphae. The former penetrate and ramify within the
substratum. They serve to anchor the mycelium and absorb
nutrition. The external hyphae grow on the surface of the
substratum and project into the surrounding water. These are
concerned with reproduction.
• 4. The hyphal walls contain cellulose and glucans but no chitin.
• 5. The mycelium reproduces vegetatively by fragmentation and
formation of gemmae or chlamydospores.
• 6. Asexual reproduction takes place by means of zoospores which are of
two types, primary and secondary.
• 7. The primary zoospores are produced in elongated; cylindrical
zoosporangia formed singly at the tips of somatic hyphae. They are pear-
shaped, biflagellate, uninucleate structures. The flagella are inserted
apically. One of these is of whiplash type and the other tinsel. The
zoospores are set free in the surrounding water through an apical pore.
• 8. After some period of activity the primary zoospore comes to rest,
retracts its flagella and secretes a thin wall around it. Instead of the cyst
germinating by a germ tube i s contents develop into a single kidney-
shaped secondary zoospore with the two oppositely directed flagella
inserted laterally in the depression.
• 9. The liberated secondary zoospores embark upon a second
swarming period after which each encysts and germinates by a
germ tube to form a new mycelium. Saprolegnia is thus diplanetic.
• 10. Proliferation of zoosporangia is a characteristic feature of
Saprolegnia.
• 11. Sexual reproduction is oogamous. The antheridia and oogonia
are either formed on the neighbouring hyphae or on the same
hypha, the antheridium arising below the oogonium from its stalk.
The gametes are aplanogamic.
• 12. The mature oogonium is usually a rounded structure containing
several uninucleate oospheres.
• 13. The mature antheridium is a multinucleate elongated structure
much smaller than the oogonium. One or more antheridia become
attached to the oogonium by the curvature of its antheridiophore.
• 14. Fertilization takes place by means of the fertilisation tube.
Entering the oogonium it may branch sending one branch to each
oosphere or each oosphere receives a fertilisation tube from
another antheridium. Only one male nucleus is discharged into the
oosphere. No sperms are organised in the antheridium.
• 15. After fusion of the male and female nuclei each zygote secretes
a thick smooth wall around it to become an oospore.
• 16. After a prolonged period of rest each oospore germinates
by producing a germ tube which in some species directly
develops into a new mycelium and in others ends in a
terminal germ sporangium in which are produced the
biflagellate zoospores. Each liberated zoospore germinates in
the usual way by a germ tube to form a new mycelium.
• 17. Recent investigations have shown that meiosis in
Saprolegnia is gametangial. It occurs at the time of
differentiation of sexual nuclei or gametes.
• 18. The somatic phase in the life cycle is thus diploid.
• 19. The gamete nuclei are the only haploid structures. There is
no haploid phase or gametophyte generation in Saprolegnia.
• 20. Such a life cycle in which there is no alternation of
generation and meiosis is gametangial is called diploid or
diplohaplontic (haplobiontic-diploid).
 Vegetative reproduction
• (a) Fragmentation:
• Under favourable circumstances the hyphae break up
into pieces of variable lengths. Each such piece or
fragment by further elongation and nuclear division
develops into a mycelium.
• (b) Sporulation : by primary and secondary zoospores
and mostly diplenetic sps are present
• It takes place by means of pip or pear-shaped,
biflagellate zoospores which are produced in long,
cylindrical tapering zoosporangia. The zoosporangia are
formed at the tips of somatic hyphae which are not
differentiated into sporangiophores.
 Sexual Reproduction

• It is oogamous and by gametangial contact.

The sex organs are called antheridia and
oogonia. They are formed at the tips of
somatic hyphae (A) when conditions
favourable for sexual reproduction appear or
conditions unsuitable for somatic growth set
in. Many species are monecious or
homothallic. A few are dioecious or
heterothallic. Following is an account of sexual
reproduction in a homothallic species.
Sexual reproduction
Life cycle of Saprolegnia
• Monoclinous when the anthridium develops
at the same hyphae as the oogonium they are
called monoclinous. But if they grow on
different hyphal branches of the same thallus
they are called diclinous
• Hypertrophy abnormal enlargement of host
cells
• Hyperplasia abnormal division of host cells
Order Peronosporales
 Peronosporales
• The order is represented by 12 genera and about 325 species. In
habit they range from aquatic to the terrestrial ones through the
species with amphibious way of life. The mycelium is well
developed, branched and coenocytic. The septa normally remain
suppressed in the vigorously growing vegetative hyphae but appear
to wall off injured part of separate reproductive cells. The mycelium
shows no distinction into rhizoidal and aerial hyphae.
• General Characteristics of Peronosporales:
• 1.The Peronosporales show a wide range of habitate from aquatic,
through amphibious way of life to the land habitate whereas the
Saprolegniales are mostly aquatic. Some occur in damp places.
• 2. Many peronosporales are parasites and some are saprophytes. A
few parasitic species can live as saprobes after the death of the
host. The Saprolegniales are mostly saprophytes rarely parasites.
• 3. The sporangia in the Peronosporales usually get detached and
generally function as conidia. They are globose or oval in form
whereas in the Saprolegniales they are tubular or club-shaped in
form and do not get detached and never function as conidia.
• 4. The sporangia in many species are borne on special reproductive
hyphae called the sporangiophores whereas in the Saprolegniales
they are always borne on hyphae usually similar to the somatic
hypae which are hardly distinguishable from the sporangia.
• 5. The zoospores in the Peronosporales are typically reniform in
shape and biflagellate with the flagella arising from the concave
side. They are thus monoplanetic whereas in the Saprolegniales the
zoospores are generally diplanetic to polyplanetic. The primary
zoospores are pyriform with the two flagella inserted apically and
the secondary ones are reniform with the two flagella arising from
the concave side.
• 6. The oogonium in the Peronosporales contains a single egg which
is surrounded by periplasm whereas in the Saprolegniales the
oogonium lacks periplasm and contains more than one egg.
 Classification of Peronosporales:
• The order is generally divided into three families on the basis of
charactarastics of sporangiophore and sporangia. A summary of the
salient features and key to these families .
• Pythiaceae, Peronosporaceae and Albuginaceae are as follows:
• Pythiaceae:
• Sporangiophores undifferentiated from the mycelium, branched and
indeterminate in growth i.e. resuming growth after the production of
sporangium or conidium. haustoria absent or branched, facultative
parasites or saprophytes.
• Peronosporaceae:
• Sporangiophores easily distinguishable from the mycelium, branched
determinate in growth, sporangia singly or in clusters, borne at the
characteristically branched sporangiophores; haustoria varied or
branched; obligate parasites.
• Albuginaceae:
• Sporangiophores unbranched clavate, each producing a chain of conidia,
in basipetal succession; haustoria knob shaped; obligate parasites.
Peronosporales life cycle
 DIVISION
Zygomycota
 Zygomycotina
• Zygomycota are also pathogens for animals, amebas,
plants, and other fungi. They form symbiotic
relationships with plants. In addition, they form
commensalistic relationships with arthropods,
inhabiting the gut of the organism and feeding on
unused nutrients. However, Zygomycota can also be
found in aquatic ecosystems. While Zygomycota are
largely known to humans for the negative economic
impact they have on fruit, they also have some
practical use. For example, certain species are used in
Asian food fermentations. In addition, people have
used their pathogenic powers to control insect pests.
 Characteristics of zygomycotina
• 1-Zygomycota, like all true fungi, produce cell walls containing chitin
• 2- somatic phase as mycelia, hyphae which are generally coenocytic because they lack cross
walls or septa.. Unlike higher fungi comprising the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota which
produce regularly septate mycelia.
• 3- Gametangial Copulation is a type of sexual reproduction in zygomycota in general the
gametangia fuse with each other, lose their identity and develop into a zygospore
• 4-Most Zygomycota are thought to have a zygotic life cycle .Thus; the only diploid phase
takes place within the zygospore. Nuclei within the zygospore undergoes meiosis during
germination,
• 5- Asexual reproduction They are formed in specialized structures are called
Mitosporangia (sporangia) Mitosporangia that contain few to several thousand of
sporangiospores (spores) depending on the species. Mitosporangia are carried by
specialized hyphae is known (sporangiophores).
• 6- Chlamydospores are another type of asexual spores different from sporangiospores. It is
naked not produce inside fruiting body ( sporangium ) and forming by dividing of hyphae
into many parts by cross wall each part will surrounding by thick cell wall in order to resist
the severe environmental conditions . In zygomycetes the formation of chlamydospores is
usually intercalary. However, it may also be terminal. Each chlamydospore germinate to
form primary mycelium like the germination of spore .
Parts of somatic phase in zygomycota

• Rhizoid
• Root-like structure , The benefit of rhizoids to confirm thallus on the surface of
feed and increase surface area for absorption of nutrients ) .found especially in the
somatic phase of chytridiomycota (chytrids ) and one of the parts of Zygomycota
• Sporangia
• A fruiting body (asexual unit ) having different shapes and sizes produce numerous
a sexual spores .
• Sporangiophore
• A specialized hyphal element that bears the sporangium
• Columella
• The swollen, dome-shaped tip of a sporangiophore that extends into the
sporangium under suitable temperature and humidity causing of rupture of
sporangium to release spores .
• Stolon
• Horizontal hyphae growing along the surface of growth medium.
 Rhizopus
• Systematic position:-
• Kingdom: Fungi
• Division: Mycota
• Sub-division: Eumycotina
• Class: Zygomycetes
• Order: Mucorales
• Family: Mucoraceae
• Genus: Rhizopus
 Rhizopus
• Rhizopus:-
• Although this genera can cause disease, they are also commonly
found as a contaminant.
• Colonies grow rapidly and resemble cotton candy. Colonies darken
with age, becoming gray or yellow-brown. The reverse is white.
• Mycelia are marked by numerous stolons connecting groups of long
sporangiophores.
• Sporangiophores are usually unbranched, long, and terminate in a
columella and a dark round sporangium containing oval colorless to
brown spores.
• Stolons bear large rhizoids which are found immediately adjacent to
the sporangiophore in the nodal position.
• Columella and sporangium collapse easily after discharging spores.
 Features of Rhizopus
• The mode of nutrition is saprobic and parasitic in Rhizopus where a
majority of them are saprophytic and few are parasitic viz. R.artocarp,
R.arrhizus etc.
• In Rhizopus, the mycelium is coenocytic, tubular, multinucleated,
vacuolated and consist of cytoplasmic materials like Golgi body,
mitochondria etc.
• The reserve food material is in the form of glycogen and oil droplets.
• A cell wall of the thallus is non-cellulose and made of chitin.
• The hyphae of Rhizopus differentiates into three distinctive parts
namely stolon (internodal region), rhizoids (nodal region)
and sporangiophores.
• For the growth of Rhizopus, the most important factor is moisture or
water availability.
• Its digestion is extracellular.
• These are the opportunistic fungi which can commonly cause
“Zygomycosis or Mucormycosis”.
• Rhizopus is a type of fungus which belongs to the
class Zygomycetes because of the fact that it produces
zygospore in its sexual reproductive phase. It also refers
to bread, black or pin mould. These can reproduce by
vegetative, asexual and sexual means followed by
fragmentation, sporangiospores and zygospores.
Rhizopus is cosmopolitan in distribution. It grows on a
variety of substrates like fruits, vegetables, bread, jellies
etc. There are around 8-10 known species of Rhizopus.
The name Rhizopus was first named by Ehrenb in 1820.
 Black bread mold (Rhizopus
stolonifer)
• Black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer):-
• Is a typical example of a zygomycete. It spreads over the surface of
bread and other food sources (often soft fruits, such as bananas
and grapes). It sends hyphae inside the food to absorb nutrients. In
its asexual phase, it develops bulbous black sporangia at the tips of
hyphae, each containing hundreds of haploid spores. As in most
zygomycetes, asexual reproduction is the most common form of
reproduction. Sexual reproduction in Rhizopus stolonifera, as in
other zygomycetes, occurs during adverse environmental
conditions, and when haploid hyphae of different mating types
come together. Plasmogamy occurs, followed by
karyogamy, producing a thick-walled, diploid zygosporangium that
is environmentally resistant and metabolically inert. When the
environment becomes favorable, the zygosporangia germinate,
undergo meiosis, and produce and release haploid spores.
 Structure of rhizopus
• Hyphae: Rhizopus consists of two kinds of hyphae
namely vegetative and reproductive hyphae. Vegetative hyphae
differentiate into two types namely Stolon and rhizoids
• Stolon: It is the intermodal region which also refers to Runner. A
stolon is the aerial hyphae which grow horizontally and is found
attached to the substratum. It is aseptate, branched and lacks cross
walls.
• Rhizoids: It is the nodal region which forms when the stolon
touches the surface of the substratum. Rhizoid is the much-
branched structure that forms under the substratum. Its main
function is to invade all the nutrients from the substratum.
• Reproductive hyphae consist of sporangiophores which grow
vertically from the stolon. Sporangiophores are unbranched,
elongated, columellate and give rise to the reproductive structures
refers to sporangiospores.
 Structure of rhizopus
• Cell- wall:
• The cell wall of hyphae is composed of chitin chitosan, lipids, proteins etc.
• The protoplasm:
• It consists of many nuclei, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and
other cytoplasmic inclusions like the ribosome, oil droplets, vacuoles etc.
• Columella:
• It arises from the sporangiophore which is generally dome or umbrella-
shaped. The surface of columella can be smooth or rough. The columella is
hygroscopic in nature which the main function is water absorption.
• Sporangium:
• It connects with the columella and a long sporangiophore. The shape of
the sporangium is spherical or globose in shape. It carries the reproductive
structures refers as sporangiospores. The size of the sporangium is 0.2mm.
• Sporangiospores:
• These are the asexual spores which are globose to ovoid and unicellular.
The colour of sporangiospores is hyaline to brown.
Structure of Rhizopus
 Reproduction
• Like all fungi, Basidiomycota can undergo both asexual
and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction in
Zygomycota is similar to that in other types of fungi,
while sexual reproduction bears some similarity to that
in Ascomycota.
• Asexual Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction in Zygomycota varies greatly
among orders and species. Spores may be formed by
the separation and thickening of hyphal cells. They may
also be produced in specialized organs, whose
structure is also widely varied.
 Vegetative reproduction of Rhizopus
• Sometimes the thallus of the Rhizopus breaks
accidentally or some other factors into few
fragments where each fragment give rise to a
new thallus on favourable conditions.
• Asexual reproduction of Rhizopus
• The asexual reproduction can take place through
both sporangiospores and chlamydospores.
• Sexual reproduction of Rhizopus
• In Rhizopus, the sexual reproduction occurs by
the method of “Gametangial conjugation”.
 Sexual Reproduction

• Like Ascomycota, some Zygomycota have two mating types,

though individual species may only have one mating type.
When hyphae from opposite mating types meet, they
produce structures called progametangia that are dense
and multinucleate. Cell walls form to separate the tips of
the progametangia into gametangia, which continue to be
attached to the mating hyphae by the remaining
suspensors. Plasmogamy then occurs between the two
gametangia to form a zygote. Next, karyogamy takes place
within the zygote. The cell walls of the zygote are thin at
first, but later thicken into a zygospore. Germination begins
when the diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis and a
sporangium develops at the end of a germ tube. Spores are
produced within the sporangium.
Sexual reproduction
 Mucor
• Mucor is a mould which is a type of fungi, that is found everywhere.
There are many species of Mucor ( around 50), that are distributed
worldwide. It can cause diseases particularly refers to
“Mucormycosis” that cause many infections in mucous membrane,
lung, eye, skin etc.
• Systematic position:
• Kingdom: Mycota
• Division: Zygomycota
• Sub-division: Zygomycotina
• Class: Zygomycetes
• Order: Mucorales
• Family: Mucoraceae
• Genus: Mucor
 Characteristics of Mucor
• Some common characteristics of Mucor include:
• Mucor also refers to “Black or Bread mould”.
• It belongs to the class of Zygomycetes.
• For most of the Mucor, the mode of nutrition is “Saprophytic” (grows in
the dead decaying matter) and for others, it is “Coprophilous” (grows in
cow dung or the dung of other herbivorous animals).
• Mucor grows on a variety of substrates like bread, jam, jellies, vegetables
etc. The absorption of nutrition is through the mycelial surface or hyphae.
• The vegetative body of Mucor is “Eucarpic” because in this the only thallus
differentiates into the reproductive structure.
• The major reserve food material is in the form of glycogen and oil
droplets.
• The cell of Mucor composed of mainly cellulose and chitin.
 Morphological Features

• Mycelium
The mycelium of Mucor is highly branched forms a fine network of
hyphae. A mycelium is simply a cluster of hyphae.
• Hyphae
These are the thread-like and very fine structures that form a “Mycelial
network”. Hyphae of Mucor is filamentous, aseptate or coenocytic. In
Mucor, the hyphae categorize into three types:
• Sub-terranean hyphae
• Prostrate hyphae
• Aerial hyphae
• sub-terranean hyphae are the type which is highly branched, more
penetrating and is present horizontally to the substratum.
Prostrate hyphae are the type which is also present horizontally
between or under the substratum. These two hyphae i.e. sub-terranean
and prostrate hyphae help in absorption of water and nutrition.
• Aerial hyphae
are the type, which originates vertically out from the
prostrate hyphae.
• Sporangiophore
It is elongated, slightly narrow in shape.
• Columella
Sporangiophore swells up to form a dome-like structure called
“Columella” which can vary in both shape and size.
• Sporangium
It is the round and thick outer covering which carries numerous
spores inside it. It can be globose to spherical.
• Spores
These are the reproductive structures forms within the sporangium
which are simple, flattened and variable in shape and size.
• Nucleus
Multinucleate nuclei present in Mucor.
Structure of Mucor
 Life cycle of Mucor
• There are three types of reproduction methods in its
lifecycle:
• Vegetative reproduction
• Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction
• Vegetative Reproduction
• It occurs by the fragmentation method, where a
vegetative cell breaks into several fragments during
some unfavourable conditions. After which, each
fragment then develops into a new vegetative body.
vegetative reproduction
Fragmentation
 Asexual Reproduction
• It occurs through the asexual and non-motile
spores like:
• Sporangiospores
• chlamydospores
• Oidiospores
• Sexual Reproduction
• In Mucor, the sexual reproduction occurs by the
method refer to “Gametangial conjugation”
Sexual reproduction
 Pilobolus
• Pilobolus, also called hat-thrower fungus,
a cosmopolitan genus of at least five species of fungi in the
family Pilobolaceae (order Mucorales) that are known for
their explosive spore dispersal. Pilobolus species feed
saprobically on the feces of grazing animals. These fungi are
minute, usually less than 10 mm (0.4 inch) in height, and
are characterized by a sparse mycelium (fungal body) that
produces unbranched sporangiophores (fruiting bodies)
capped with black sporangia (spore clusters).
• Pilobolus is a genus of fungi which live on the dung of
herbivores. These fungi shoot their spores out at great
speed to reproduce. The spores travel faster than a fighter
jet.
• Pilobolus must pass through the digestive tracts of grazing
animals as part of their life cycle. Because the animals avoid
foraging near their excrement, the fungi use a phototropic
(light-following) squirt-gun mechanism to disperse their
sporangia up to 3 metres (10 feet) away from the parent
fungus and onto uncontaminated vegetation.
The ballistic discharge, thought to reach speeds of up to 90
km (56 miles) per hour, is accomplished by the release of
highly pressurized fluids from the sporangiophore stalk
following the rupture of the conspicuous subsporangial
vesicle. The sporangia are equipped with a sticky
mucilaginous ring that adheres to vegetation when wetted by
the propelling fluids. Once eaten, the spores pass through
the digestive tract unharmed and are deposited into a fresh
substrate of dung, thus perpetuating the asexual life cycle.
• Pilobolus mostly grow on animal dung.
Caprogen is an organic iron derivative present
mostly in animal dung.
• Sporangiophore is divided into 4 parts.
• Basal swollen trophocyst
• Sporangiophore proper
• Sub sporangial vesicle
• Dark coloured thick sporangium.
 Grows on dung

• A pouch filled with water is located under the

black spore in the fungus. When the pressure
becomes too great, the pouch bursts and
shoots the spore into the air. The spores can
land on grass where they can be eaten by cattle
and other herbivores to be subsequently
excreted. The spores then grow into
new Pilobolus fungi in the animal’s dung.
Life cycle of pilobolus
 DIVISION
Ascomycota
 Characteristics of Ascomycetes
• Ascomycota are morphologically diverse. The group includes organisms
from unicellular yeasts to complex cup fungi.
• There are 2000 identified genera and 30,000 species of Ascomycota.
• The unifying characteristic among these diverse groups is the presence of
a reproductive structure known as the ascus, though in some cases it has a
reduced role in the life cycle.
• Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Some play a beneficial
role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation,
plus truffles and morels, which are held as gourmet delicacies.
• Many of them cause tree diseases, such as Dutch elm disease and apple
blights.
• Some of the plant pathogenic ascomycetes are apple scab, rice blast, the
ergot fungi, black knot, and the powdery mildews.
• The yeasts are used to produce alcoholic beverages and breads. The
mold Penicillium is used to produce the antibiotic penicillin.
• Almost half of all members of the phylum Ascomycota
form symbiotic associations with algae to form lichens.
• Others, such as morels (a highly prized edible fungi), form
important mycorrhizal relationships with plants, thereby providing
enhanced water and nutrient uptake and, in some cases, protection from
insects.
• Almost all ascomycetes are terrestrial or parasitic. However, a few have
adapted to marine or freshwater environments.
• The cell walls of the hyphae are variably composed of chitin and β-
glucans, just as in Basidiomycota. However, these fibers are set in a matrix
of glycoprotein containing the sugars galactose and mannose.
• The mycelium of ascomycetes is usually made up of septate
hyphae. However, there is not necessarily any fixed number of
nuclei in each of the divisions.
• The septal walls have septal pores which provide cytoplasmic
continuity throughout the individual hyphae. Under
appropriate conditions, nuclei may also migrate between
septal compartments through the septal pores.
• A unique character of the Ascomycota (but not present in all
ascomycetes) is the presence of Woronin bodies on each side
of the septa separating the hyphal segments which control
the septal pores. If an adjoining hypha is ruptured, the
Woronin bodies block the pores to prevent loss of cytoplasm
into the ruptured compartment. The Woronin bodies are
spherical, hexagonal, or rectangular membrane bound
structures with a crystalline protein matrix.
 CLASSES OF ASCOMYCOTA
• 1. Hemiascomycetes-no ascocarp; asci come from diploid cells
• 2. Plectomycetes-ascocarp is a cleistothecium which does not have
an opening through which ascospores escape; these ascomycetes
rely on physical disruption of the ascocarp.
• 3. Pyrenomycetes-ascocarp is a perithecium which have an opening
called an ostiole.
• 4. Discomycetes-ascocarp is an apothecium on which asci are
exposed upon maturity; the apothecium is an open or cup-like
structure upon which asci are formed.
• 5. Loculoascomycetes-ascocarp a pseudothecium which is similar
to a perithecium; bitunicate asci.
• 6. Laboulbeniomycetes-ascocarp a perithecium, lack true
mycelium, obligate parasites of insects.
 Ascomycota Fruiting Body
• Fruiting bodies are common among the mycelial ascomycetes.
• Also referred to as ascomata or ascocarps, they are complex structures that are
made up of different types of cells. The asci, which the nucleus develops is found
within this complex structure.
• There are four types of fruiting bodies that include:
• Cleitothecia
• Perithecia
• Apothecia
• Pseudothecia
• While fruiting bodies are largely produced by mycelial ascomycetes, this has been
shown to depend on a number of external factors including:
• Nutrient availability
• Temperature
• pH
• Aeration
• Light
 Fruiting body
• An ascocarp is the fruiting body of the sexual phase in Ascomycota.
There are five morphologically different types of ascocarp, namely:
• Naked asci: these occur in simple ascomycetes; asci are produced
on the organism's surface.
• Perithecia: Asci are in flask-shaped ascoma (perithecium) with a
pore (ostiole) at the top.
• Cleistothecia: The ascocarp (a cleistothecium) is spherical and
closed.
• Apothecia: The asci are in a bowl shaped ascoma (apothecium).
These are sometimes called the "cup fungi".
• Pseudothecia: Asci with two layers, produced in pseudothecia that
look like perithecia. The ascospores are arranged irregularly.[18]
 Asexual reproduction
• Conidia formation:
• Asexual reproduction may occur through vegetative reproductive spores,
the conidia. The asexual, non-motile haploid spores of a fungus, which are
named after the Greek word for dust (conia), are hence also known as
conidiospores and mitospores. The conidiospores commonly contain one
nucleus and are products of mitotic cell divisions and thus are sometimes
call mitospores, which are genetically identical to the mycelium from
which they originate. They are typically formed at the ends of specialized
hyphae, the conidiophores. Depending on the species they may be
dispersed by wind or water, or by animals. Conidiophores may simply
branch off from the mycelia or they may be formed in fruiting bodies.
• Budding:
• Asexual reproduction process in ascomycetes also involves the budding
which we clearly observe in yeast. This is termed a "blastic process". It
involves the blowing out or blebbing of the hyphal tip wall. The blastic
process can involve all wall layers, or there can be a new cell wall
synthesized which is extruded from within the old wall.
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
 Economic importance
• Benefits:
• Some species such as Penicilium chrysogenum are used
to produce antibiotic.
• Some species like Tolypocladium release substances that
act as immunosuppressors. As such, it is used to help
patients with poor immunity.
• Yeast is used in the baking industry
• Production of insulin and other
• Some are used in food preparation
 Class: Hemiascomycetes
• The term "Hemiascomycetes" is a very old-fashion one used to designate
certain groups of Ascomycota having asci that are not organized into any
kind of fruiting body. Included in this group are yeasts, extremely simple
single-celled fungi that convert their one and only cell into an ascus. The
definition can the be extended to include the partially hyphal Endomyces
decipiens, a species that grows on the lamellae (gills)
of Armillaria mushroms.
• More recent work in mycology has shown that simplicity of structure is
not always a good indicator of relationships and that the old
Hemiascomycetes would have to share their position with some more
complex species. Because of this it is no longer possible to define these
groups very precisely based only on their appearance. Instead we have
several classes of fungi, the Taphrinomycetes, the Neolectomycetes, the
Pneumocystidiomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes and the
Saccharomycetes that lie outside the major subphyla. These classes are
not necessarily closely related to one another but it is convenient to
regard them here in one place.
• a subclass of Ascomycetes comprising simple ascomycetous
fungi that lack an ascocarp and have asci arising directly from
the fertile ascogonium and each containing an indefinite
number of spores.
• General characters of Hemiscomycetes:
• Morphologically simple
• May be parasitic or saprophytic
• Mycellium is poorly develop
• Asci are not developed
• Ascocarps are absent
• No paraphysis are present
• Orders :
• Endomycetales , Taphrinales
 Order: Taphrinales
• The order Taphrinales contains the single genus Taphrina with
approximately 100 species. They are dimorphic fungi with the
mycelial phase parasitic on ferns and dicotyledons, and the yeast
phase saprophytic. The mycelial phase is dikaryotic; the yeast phase
is haploid and uninucleate.
• The order Taphrinales contains the single genus Taphrina with
approximately 100 species. They are dimorphic fungi with the
mycelial phase parasitic on ferns and dicotyledons, and the yeast
phase saprophytic. The mycelial phase is dikaryotic; the yeast phase
is haploid and uninucleate. Asci are formed directly from the
mycelium without the formation of ascocarps. Eight ascospores are
formed in most species; however, in some species many ascospores
are formed in single asci. Ascospores often bud while still within the
ascus. The ascus tip ruptures, discharging the entire contents of the
ascus at once.
• The saprophytic yeast phase arises from budding of the ascospores.
Mycelium is not formed in culture. In older cultures, thick-walled
cells are formed. It is speculated that in nature, these cells may
function in the survival of the organism from season to season. The
dikaryophase may arise from division of the single nucleus of the
infecting yeast cell or through conjugation of two yeast cells.
Cultures of the yeast phase of most species are pinkish in colour
and superficially resemble cultures of several other genera of
yeasts, especially Rhodotorula, Cryptococcus,
Phaffia and Sporobolomyces. Although data are as yet incomplete,
it may become possible to distinguish isolates of Taphrina from
similar yeasts and to distinguish between species of the genus on
the basis of physiological characters.
 Asexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction takes place by uninucleate, thin-walled
spores which are referred to as conidia. The conidia are
developed from the ascospores. The ascospores produce
conidia by budding. The conidia themselves bud indefinitely
producing secondary, tertiary, etc., conidia. They germinate by
germ tubes which penetrate through cuticle of young leaf and
cause infection in the host tissue.
 Sexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is accomplished by the
development of palisade-like layer of rectangular
asci which are produced from the dikaryotic cells
of a compact mycelial layer. These cells are the
ascogenous cells. The mycelial layer is one cell
thick and is formed subcuticularly.
• The ascogenous cells are ovoid, pyriform, or
dome-shaped. During the development of an
ascus the ascogenous cell elongates
perpendicularly to the host surface. Its nuclei
fuse forming a diploid nucleus.
Life cycle of Taphrinales
 Order: Endomycetales
• General characteristics:-
• It is mostly saprophytic and parasitic
• Fungal body is unicellular
• Budding result in psedomycellium
• Asexual reproduction:
• By budding, fission, arthrospores formation.
• Sexual reproduction:
• Fusion of somatic cells
• Gametangial contact
• Dikaryotic phase is absent
Life cycle
Plectomycetes
Aspergillus
 Aspergillus
• Kingdom: Fungi
• Division: Ascomycota
• Class: Eurotiomycetes
• Order: Eurotiales
• Family: Trichocomaceae
• Genus: Aspergillus
 Aspergillus
• Features
• Aspergillus also refers to black or green mould because the majority of them form
black and green spores that grow on the substratum gives a mouldy appearance.
• It also refers as sac fungi because of the fact that the sexual spores produce within
the sacs (Asci) known as ascospores.
• The mode of nutrition is “Heterotrophic“, which depend upon others for the food
and nutrition.
• Aspergillus are common mould which is widespread and ubiquitous in nature.
• It is able to tolerate extreme environmental conditions like high temperature.
• Most of the Aspergillus species reproduce asexually by the means
of conidiospores and few grow sexually by the means of ascospores.
• Aspergillus species are Terricolous i.e. most of the species grows on the ground or
soil.
• The spores of Aspergillus are abundant in nature and can
be saprophytic and parasitic.
• Chlorophyll is absent in this i.e. these can not prepare their own food.
• Aspergillus obtains nutrition from the environment by the means of vegetative
hyphae, which then grows to produce reproductive structure i.e. spores.
• It is commonly found in soil, with a saprophytic mode of nutrition,
obtaining its nutrients from dead and decaying matter.
• The saprophytic nature of Aspergillus spp means they fully depend
on environmental materials, which allows them to produce
enzymes such as amylase that breaks down compounds into simple
products that can be absorbed by the vegetative hyphae.
• High production of the amylase enzymes enables the consistent
decaying of all organic materials within their subsequent
environment and availability of more food materials for utilization
during reproduction and growth.
• It is a spore-forming mold fungus reproduces asexually by
producing spores in the form of conidia (conidium: singular).
• The conidia are densely found in the air.
• In the availability of moisture, warmth, and nutrients, the conidia
can germinate forming hyphae that later develop the fungal
mycelium.
• The hyphal filament allows the fungus to grown and
reproduce.
• The conidial spores are densely produced into the air
during sporulation and are consistently inhaled by humans
and animals in hundreds per day.
• It can be pathogenic in humans causing severe allergic
reactions and respiratory opportunistic fungal infection
known as Aspergillosis, especially in immune-compromised
individuals.
• Some of the common Aspergillus spp include:
– Aspergillus fumigatus
– Aspergillus niger
– Aspergillus flavus
– Aspergillus nidulans
– Aspergillus clavans
 Habitat
• Aspergillus fumigatus is a fungus belonging to
the Aspergillus group of fungi,
• Their ecological niche is in soil, surviving and
growing on organic debris.
• It is one of the most common ubiquitous
airborne saprophytic fungi
• It is predominantly found in the air hence it is
constantly inhaled in the form of conidia by
humans and animals.
 Morphology
• The morphology of Aspergillus fumigatus is defined by the hyphal
conidia and conidiophores.
• They have a green spiked conidia i.e the surface has small spikes
covering its surface.
• The conidia are 2.5-3um in diameter.
• The conidia have a smooth surface or spiked (spinose).
• Conidia are produced in column chains that are basipetal (facing
downwards) from green phialides of 6-8 by 2-3um in size.
• Some A. fumigatus strains produce white conidia because they lack
pigment.
• Conidia chains are produced directly on broadly clavate vesicles (20-
30um in diameter) in the absence of metulae (one of the outermost
branches of a conidiophore from which flask-shaped phialides
radiate).
Cultural Characteristics of Aspergillus
 Reproduction
• Vegetative reproduction
• Vegetative reproduction occurs by the fragmentation
method, in which a vegetative hypha breaks into few
fragments which then develops into a new vegetative body.
• They have Asexual sporulation type of reproduction.
• When the released spores, called conidia, land on a surface
with suitable growth and nutrition factors, the conidia
germinate to form hyphae.
• The hyphae grow and produce aerial hyphae and
subsurface hyphae.
• These aerial hyphae grow the conidiophore, which
produces the phialides.
• Column phialides produce spores in the form of conidia, in
chains.
Asexual Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction
• The sexual reproduction occurs rarely only in
the heterothallic species which contains both male
and female hyphae. A.heterothallic is an example of
the species that undergo sexual reproduction.
• The heterothallic hyphae consist of female hyphae that
refer to Ascogonium and the male hyphae which refer
to Anthredium.
• Ascogonium divides into three parts (Basal, middle and
apical), which are multinucleate, septate and loosely
coiled. Anthredium divides into two parts (Upper and
lower) which are unicellular, multinucleate and
septate.
Sexual reproduction of aspergillus
 Economic Importance
• A.nidulans is extensively used as model organisms for the study of the
parasexual cycle, regulation of metabolic pathway, cell cycle, hyphal
polarity etc. in the filamentous fungi.
• Uses in the bioassay of soil for tracing out of the elements like copper and
arsenic by A.niger and A.virens respectively.
• Aspergillus species are capable of low-rank coal solubilization.
• Uses in the production of organic acid like gluconic acid, citric acid etc. by
A.niger, A.fumaricvus respectively.
• It releases enzymes which play an important role in the decomposition of
organic matter.
• Uses in the production of antibiotics like Proliferin, Fumigalin, Aspergillin
etc by A.proliferans, A. fumigatus and A.niger respectively.
• Aspergillus helps in nutrient recycling, where they breakdown the
complex polymeric compounds into simpler ones by secreting some
enzymes and metabolites which further absorbs by the hyphae.
• A.oryzae uses in the production of sake wine by fermenting rice.
• Uses in the production of amylase by A.niger and A.oryzae.
Penicillium
 Penicellium
• Penicillium chrysogenum is also known as Penicillium notatum, the
first Penicillium fungi used for the isolation of penicillin antibiotics,
which is used for the treatment of Gram-positive bacteria.
• General characters:
• It is also used in the production of other β-lactam antibiotics.
• It is an allergen and has pathogenic activity however it is
uncommon in causing disease in humans.
• Incidences of opportunistic infections by P.chrysogenum have
however been reported, causing infections in immune-
compromised persons with underlying conditions.
• The name penicillium originates from Latin to mean painters brush
because of the structure of the conidial spores which are fluffy in
appearance.
 Habitat of Penicillium chrysogenum
• It is found indoors, in areas that are humid, dump, or
having dumped water.
• It is also very common in temperate and subtropical areas.
• It is found in moist soil and degraded forest vegetation.
• It is saprophytic hence it can also grow in the dead decayed
matter.
• It also grows in stored food and damp building material,
hence it is commonly an indoor fungus.
• It can also be found on alfalfa leafcutter bees and subglacial
ice feeding on sediment-rich basal ice shelves.
• It can also be found on fruit causing decay.
 Morphology of Penicillium
chrysogenum
• Penicillium chrysogenum reproduces by forming dry chains of
spores known as conidia, from a thread-like, brush shaped structure
known as conidiophore.
• Microscopically, P. chrysogenum shows typical filamentous hyphae
with conidia, which are the asexual spores of the fungi.
• The hyphae are colorless, slender, tubular, branched, and septate
hyphae.
• The hyphae are formed from several threads of mycelium which can
get intertwined into a hyphal network.
• Fron the hyphal network, the conidiophores originate as long thick
tubes with a swelling at the top, known as vesicles.
• The vesicles produce the primary sterigmata from where the
secondary sterigmata originate.
• The secondary sterigmata form the conidial spores.
• The conidia are long, cottony, or fluffy in texture.
Life Cycle of Penicillium chrysogenum
• Penicillium chrysogenum reproduces asexually by
producing asexual spores known as conidia.
• The conidial spores are released by wind or water or
animals.
• They then land on a platform with the right growth and
nutrient conditions, they start to germinate.
• During germination, they form mycelial threads known as
hyphae.
• From the hyphae, conidiophore tubes are formed with a
bulged vesicle at the top end.
• From the vesicles, primary sterigmata originate also known
as phialides.
• The phialides form the conidial spores.
Life cycle
 Industrial Applications of Penicillium
chrysogenum
• Scientists have exploited the competence of Penicillium
chrysogenum in antibiotic production. The fungus produces
a hydrophobic β-lactam compound known as penicillin.
• Penicillin, an antibiotic has been used in the treatment of
gram-positive bacterial infections such as pneumonia,
gonorrhea, wounds, staphylococcal infections, bacterial
fevers.
• Penicillin structural variations classify it into two types,
Penicillin G and penicillin V.
• Penicillin has also been used in the treatment of crop
diseases in apples, trees, grapes, and tomatoes, inducing
protective mechanism against infections