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Prelims.qxd 12/19/09 4:25 PM Page v
Contents
Preface to the 7th edition and Acknowledgements vii
Preface to the 6th edition ix
Acronyms/terms used xi
Chapter 1 Food and its functions 1
Chapter 2 Enzymes and digestion 11
Chapter 3 Food, eating, health and disease 23
Chapter 4 Nutrient dietary requirements and reference values 34
Chapter 5 Obesity in the twenty-first century 39
Chapter 6 Fats, oils and lipids 45
Chapter 7 Milk and dairy products 76
Chapter 8 Carbohydrates 88
Chapter 9 Carbohydrate-rich foods 106
Chapter 10 Amino acids and proteins 132
Chapter 11 Protein-rich foods 152
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vi Contents
Chapter 12 Water and beverages 168
Chapter 13 Mineral elements 186
Chapter 14 Vitamins and other bioactive food constituents 198
Chapter 15 Fruits, nuts and vegetables 219
Chapter 16 Methods of cooking 235
Chapter 17 Diet and health 249
Chapter 18 Food spoilage and preservation 270
Chapter 19 Toxins, food-borne infections and food hygiene 286
Chapter 20 Food contaminants – adulterants and additives 297
Index 311
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Preface to the 7th edition
Fox and Cameron has rightly become the leading and new emphasis. Reflecting the change in editor-
textbook in the field of Food Sciences and Nutrition, ship and the changing demands of the food industry
for use both in colleges and in schools, as well as a ref- to meet the needs of consumers, this new edition
erence source for the food and catering companies. includes a great deal more on the impact of foods
The style created by Fox and Cameron was both on health – both through nutrition and through food-
accessible and authoritative, and not without humour borne infections. Referencing is much reduced in
in places. this 7th edition. Rather than referring back to older
For this revised 7th edition, a great debt is still publications, students and their teachers should be
owed to B. A. Fox and A. G. Cameron (Brian Fox accessing the latest scientific regulatory and policy
sadly died in 2002). I have tried to retain their documents on the internet. The impact on the food
human touch and the balance between presenting industry of new, consumer-centred agencies such as
up-to-date scientific issues in the context of foods the Food Standards Agency and the Joint Health
we all know and love (or loathe, in some cases). Claims Initiative, are felt throughout this new
I have been helped enormously by the hard work edition, and students will need to monitor their
of Dr Wendy Wrieden, Centre for Public Health websites for new information.
Nutrition Research, University of Dundee, UK, and The times are certainly changing for the food
we have both relied on help from our secretaries industry. With continued globalization, and 90 per
and academic colleagues in the process of revision. cent of all food regulations in UK now being derived
Some of the book is left unchanged from the lat- from Europe, students and workers in the food indus-
est editions. This is in part a testimony to the huge try need to keep on their toes. This book is designed
amount of material marshalled by Fox and Cameron. to help.
However, all the chapters have been brought up-to- Professor Mike E J Lean
date to incorporate new evidence, new technologies 2006
Acknowledgements
‘The Water Song’ appears on p. 168.
Words and Music by Robin Williamson
© 1968 (renewed) Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corporation
Administered by Warner/Chappell Music Ltd, London W6 8BS
Reproduced by permission
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Prelims.qxd 12/19/09 4:25 PM Page ix
Preface to the 6th edition
It is universally accepted that an adequate and well- retains the basic structure of previous editions. The
balanced diet is essential for the enjoyment of good first three chapters describe in outline the nature
health but the scientific principles on which this and functions of food, and the changes it undergoes
belief is based are by no means widely understood. in the body when it is eaten, together with a pre-
This book, which bridges the gap between science liminary exploration of the relationship between
and practice in nutrition, is an attempt to make dietary factors and good health. A new chapter fol-
good this deficiency. It is largely concerned with what lows in which the relatively new terms known as
food is, how much of it we should eat and what dietary reference values, which are used to express
happens to it – and to us – when we eat it. It pro- dietary requirements, are introduced. These have
vides a comprehensive and up-to-date survey of the taken the place of the terms used previously, such as
body of knowledge which has come to be known as recommended daily amount, and they are employed
food science, and examines the nutritional signifi- consistently throughout the remainder of the book.
cance of this knowledge. This is a more difficult task The main body of the text is given over to an account
than might at first be supposed because of the many of the nature of nutrients and the foods which con-
scientific disciplines involved, the complex nature tain them and to a description of what happens to
of many apparently simple foodstuffs and the intri- food when it is grown, stored, processed, preserved,
cate biochemical reactions that occur when food is cooked and eaten. A chapter dealing with the rela-
digested, absorbed and converted into the stuff of tionship between diet and health discusses the way
which we are made. in which dietary habits can be modified to promote
We have sought to make the book as self-contained good health and combat disease.
as possible but a study of food science and nutri- Subsequent chapters look at the related topics of
tion, even at the fairly elementary level at which food spoilage and preservation, food poisoning and
this book is pitched, is of necessity far-ranging and food hygiene. The final chapter, which is concerned
inevitably involves an assumption of some previous with the important topic of food contaminants and
knowledge of basic science. Nevertheless, we hope additives, seeks to present a balanced and compre-
that the text will be intelligible to all those who hensive account of what has become a controversial
might wish to read it, and with this in mind, we subject. Although there may be risks involved in
have kept the use of structural formulae to a mini- using some additives, considerable benefits may also
mum. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to be obtained and an attempt is made to balance
avoid using the combinations of initial letters which these two aspects of the use of additives in food.
serve as abbreviations for frequently used groups We have not attempted to provide references to the
of words with particular meanings; these have, in original sources of the information given in this book;
effect, become recognized as part of the specialized such references would have greatly increased the
vocabulary of food science. To assist the reader in length and cost of the book and would, perhaps, have
finding a way through this veritable thicket of alpha- been used by relatively few readers. A short reading
betic abbreviations a Glossary has been provided list is given at the end of many chapters which will
which we hope will prove helpful. assist readers requiring more detailed information.
We have been encouraged by the consistent popu- Details of a number of books on food science and
larity of the book over a long period to conclude nutrition which are of more general interest are given
that it is fulfilling a need and meeting the objectives in a General Reading List at the end of the book.
we set ourselves when it was first written. Conse- Great care has been taken to ensure that the infor-
quently, we have not thought it necessary to make mation contained in this book is as accurate and
radical changes in preparing this sixth edition and it up-to-date as possible but it is almost inevitable that
Prelims.qxd 12/19/09 4:25 PM Page x
x Preface to the 6th edition
errors and ambiguities will occur in a book which the general public who are concerned about the rela-
attempts to summarize a large and expanding field tionship between dietary habits and good health,
of knowledge. We should be grateful if any such and who wisely take an interest in ‘healthy eating’.
inaccuracies, for which we alone are responsible, We hope that all who read the book will enjoy
can be brought to our notice. doing so and that the information it contains will
We trust that the book will continue to be of inter- assist them in the pursuit of good health and the
est and value to all who are concerned with food avoidance of those life-threatening diseases which are
science and nutrition. It is principally intended for now known to have a nutritional component.
students of Food Science and Technology, Catering
and Nutrition and for A-level and BTEC students Brian A Fox
in schools and colleges. We know that it has also Allan G Cameron
been found to be of interest by many members of 1994
Prelims.qxd 12/19/09 4:25 PM Page xi
Acronyms/terms used
AFD accelerated freeze-drying MRL maximum residue level
ADI acceptable daily intake MAP modified-atmosphere packaging
ACP acid calcium phosphate MAS modified-atmosphere storage
ASP acid sodium pyrophosphate MSG monosodium glutamate
ADP adenosine diphosphate MUFA monounsaturated fatty acid
AMP adenosine monophosphate NHDC neohesperidine dihydrochalcone
ATP adenosine triphosphate NPU net protein utilization
ADH antidiuretic hormone PSD Pesticides Safety Directorate
BV biological value PKU phenylketonuria
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acid
COMA Committee on Medical Aspects of POMC pro-opio-melanocortin
Food Policy PEM protein-energy malnutrition
CAS controlled-atmosphere storage PLP pyridoxal-5-phosphate
CHD coronary heart disease RDA recommended daily amount
DEFRA Department for Environment, Food RDI recommended daily intakes
and Rural Affairs RNI reference nutrient intake
DRV dietary reference value SI safe intake
DHA docosahexanoic acid SRSV small round structured virus
ECG electrocardiogram SIADH syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic
EFAs essential fatty acids hormone
EAR estimated average requirement TVP textured vegetable protein
GMOs genetically modified organisms TDT thermal death time
GDL Glucono-delta-lactone TDF total dietary fiber
HDL high-density lipoprotein UHT ultra-high temperature
HTST high-temperature short-time VLCDs very low calorie diets
JHCI Joint Health Claims Initiative VLDL very low density lipoproteins
LDL low-density lipoprotein cholesterol WHO World Health Organization
LRNI lower reference nutrient intake
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Chap-01.qxd 13-02-2006 12:55 Page 1
1
Food and its functions
Food and foods 1 The use of energy by the body 7
Types of nutrient 3 Energy requirements 8
Food as a source of energy 3 Further reading 10
The basic function of food is to keep us alive and Determining the dietary needs of individuals, or
healthy, to grow and to reproduce. In this book we of populations is the realm of nutritional science.
shall consider how food does this, although we shall The problems involved in determining what foods
also need to think about many other related mat- in what combinations best meet the dietary needs
ters. Indeed, we cannot answer such a fundamental of different countries, or individuals, of the compos-
‘How’ question without first finding out the answer itional merits of various new foods, of how to store
to some simpler ‘What’ questions, such as what is and preserve food with minimum nutritional loss are
food, what happens to it when it is stored, processed, the provinces of food science. However, in order to
preserved, cooked, eaten and digested. The answers use this information it must be applied – food must be
to such questions can only be found out by experi- grown, stored, processed, preserved and transported
ment, and many different sciences play a part in on a large scale – and this is the province of agricul-
helping to provide the answers. In recent years the ture and food technology.
study of food has been accepted as a distinct disci- It becomes clear that promoting health through
pline of its own and given the name food science. diet requires input from human nutritional science,
Food science exists partly to pursue academic food science and food technology.
knowledge (the insatiable curiosity of mankind finds In the following pages we shall study the relation
in food a universal theme of shared interest). As between food science, nutrition and health, but first
Samuel Johnson phrased it, ‘I look upon it that it is important to understand just what we mean by
he who does not mind his belly will hardly mind the term food.
anything else’ (Boswell, The Life of Samuel Johnson,
Vol. 3, Ch. 9). Its interest lies also in the fact that
our knowledge of the subject is growing, leading to FOOD AND FOODS
an unfolding of new perspectives about what is sig-
nificant, while new techniques are being developed The definition of what is, and what is not, a food is
leading to new methods in food processing and of surprisingly taxing, not least because of the need to
analysing nutrients, additives and possible contam- provide control and regulation over the things, which,
inants in food. Food science also promotes the ful- for different purposes, people swallow.
filment of a basic human need for a diet that will Not everything people eat is food. Children, preg-
sustain life and health. To be effective, food science nant women and sometimes others sometimes eat
must be applied, in the manufacture and preparation non-food materials such as coal. This behaviour is
of food and this is the province of food technology. known as ‘pica’. Few people would class coal as food,
Chap-01.qxd 13-02-2006 12:55 Page 2
2 Food and its functions
on the grounds that it is not absorbed and does not from industrial pollution. Heavy metals, radioactive
contribute in any way to biochemical or physio- isotopes, and microbial contamination all have
logical function in the body. But where does that potential negative health effects.
leave chewing gum? Chewing gum is produced by A final and even more tricky consideration is that
‘food companies’ with the intention that it should be foods contain a variety of compounds which can be
taken by mouth, recognizing that it will occasionally absorbed and which have important biological effects.
be swallowed. Although inert, and non-absorbable, A good example is caffeine. It is present in several
chewing gum deserves (and receives) the same regu- common foods (tea, coffee, chocolate). It is also sold,
lation as other less ambiguous foods. and prescribed, as a drug. In doses similar to the
According to the Food and Agriculture Organiza- amount in a cup of coffee it stimulates brain, heart
tion, ‘Food means any substance, whether processed, and lung function, with several beneficial (and some
semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human potentially harmful) consequences. So, it is perfectly
consumption, and includes drink, chewing gum possible for foods to have potent ‘pharmacological’
and any substance which has been used in the actions. Caffeine, depending on how it is packaged,
manufacture, preparation or treatment of ‘food’ but may be subject to either food law or drug law. Fish
does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances oils are also currently marketed as drugs while obvi-
used only as drugs’ (ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/manual/ ously being available as part of fish. The distinction
Manual12ce.pdf, p. 41). between a ‘food product’ and a ‘drug/medicinal prod-
It is important to recognize that a food is almost uct’ is a fine one with scope for interpretation. The
always a complex substance, rather than a pure com- European Union (EU) has proposed a definition for
pound of single, uniform composition. Food is char- a medicinal product as ‘Any substance or combin-
acterized by more than just its chemical composition. ation of substances presented for treating or pre-
There are exceptions of course. Table sugar is indis- venting disease in human beings. Any substance or
putably ‘a food’, although it is a pure industrial prep- combination of substances which may be adminis-
aration of (CH2O)6. However, for most foods there tered to human beings with a view to making a
is a characteristic physical form, containing a variety medical diagnosis or to restoring, correcting or modi-
of nutrients with a range of properties. Some grow fying physiological functions in human beings is
that way, others are created by food technology and likewise considered a medicinal product’ (European
manufacturers. Some are consumed as grown or pro- Parliament, 2001).
duced, others form ingredients of still more com- For some new products, it can be a close decision
plex foods, dishes or meals. In the twenty-first whether to market it through food outlets as a ‘food
century, we probably have to extend our concept of product’ with permitted health claims to be made, or
what constitutes a food, at least as perceived by whether to have it registered and sold on prescrip-
consumers, to include its packaging and the imagery tion or over the counter in pharmacies as a drug,
and descriptive or promotional text included, just as which permits medical claims. The technology
we would include the skin of a banana, or the outer required is identical, although greater controls over
leaves of an onion, as part of ‘the food’. We make content variability may be required for a drug. The
judgements about food quality from all these compon- main difference lies in the differences between what
ents, and packaging, natural or man-made, can influ- constitutes a medical claim (drug) and a health
ence food composition even if it is not consumed. claim (food product). Again, there is a grey area for
Foods contain nutrients – components that con- interpretation, and the ultimate practical distinc-
tribute to, and in some cases uniquely provide for, tion between a food or a drug lies in the enormous
biochemical and physiological functions in the amount of highly expensive research required by
body. Foods may also include non-absorbed compon- drug licensing authorities. For a drug, advertising is
ents which may influence bowel health and func- restricted, and the market much more limited, but
tion. Some phenolic compounds, such as tannins vastly greater prices can be charged and drug
and classes of non-starch polysaccharides (e.g. cellu- patents ensure no direct competition for several
lose) probably fall into this category. Food may also years. There is currently great interest in protecting
include contaminants from unusual soil types, or consumers against food companies which make
Chap-01.qxd 13-02-2006 12:55 Page 3
Food as a source of energy 3
health claims, or even medical claims for their prod- Mineral
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Water Vitamins
ucts, often based on no direct evidence at all. The elements
Bread Butter Meat Vegetables Drinking Fruit
counterargument runs that since antiquity certain Potatoes Margarine Fish Fruit water Vegetables
foods have been attributed with magical qualities Sugar Cheese Cheese Beverages
Biscuits Olive oil Eggs Fruit
in folklore, and to strip these beliefs from food Jam Lard Milk Vegetables
marketing is to deny a rich and evolving food cul-
ture. The leading agency in the UK and Europe is
the Joint Health Claims Initiative, a partnership Energy Growth Control of body
and repair processes
between the food industry, consumer organization
and enforcement authorities, which was established Figure 1.1 The nutrients: diagram showing their
to develop a Code of Practice for health claims on functions and representative foods in which they
are found
foods. The legal and regulatory issues on foods are
too complex to be addressed in detail in this book,
but a clear and helpful introduction can be found functions in the body and important foods that
at http://www.jhci.co.uk. supply them is shown in Fig. 1.1.
Nutrients are often grouped according to their
chemical composition. For example, although differ-
TYPES OF NUTRIENT ent oils and fats, such as olive oil and palm oil, do not
have identical compositions, they are chemically simi-
The two basic functions of nutrients are to provide lar and mostly use the same biochemical pathways
materials for growth and repair of tissues – that is, for digestion, absorption, transport and metabolism.
to provide and maintain the basic structure of our In the same way, different proteins (and carbohy-
bodies – and to supply the body with the energy drates) are constructed and metabolized according
required to perform external activities as well as to the same general chemical patterns. The three
carrying on its own internal activities. The fact that ‘macronutrients’ (fat, carbohydrate and protein) are
the body is able to sustain life is dependent upon its therefore conveniently grouped together. Vitamins
ability to maintain its own internal processes. This are not classified according to chemical type; at the
means that although we may eat all sorts of differ- time of their discovery in food their chemical nature,
ent foods and our bodies may engage in all sorts of which in most cases is complex, was unknown. They
external activities, and even suffer injury or illness, were grouped together because it was known that
the internal processes of the body should absorb small quantities of them were essential to health
and neutralize the effects of these events and carry and they do not fall into the macronutrient classes.
on with a constant rhythm. This is only possible At first they were identified in terms of their effect
because the components of our bodies are engaged on growth and health and distinguished by letters as
in a ceaseless process of breakdown and renewal vitamins A, B, C and so on. Their chemical compos-
(a theme to which we will return). ition is now known, and it has become apparent that
If the body’s internal processes are to be main- they are not chemically related to each other. They
tained constant despite its ceaseless and varying activ- all have different functions but it is still convenient
ity, and in the face of external pressures, there needs to consider them together.
to be systems in place to regulate very precisely all
the processes needed for life. Thus, nutrients have
a third function, namely that of controlling body FOOD AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
processes, a function that will be considered in the
next chapter. Energy is required for sustaining all forms of life
Although habits and patterns of eating may vary on Earth. The prime source of the earth’s energy is
from person to person, and diets may be selected the sun, without which there could be no life on
from hundreds of different foods, everyone needs this planet. The sun continually radiates energy, a
the same types of nutrients and in roughly the same tiny fraction of which is intercepted by the Earth
proportions. The relation between nutrients, their and stored in various ways; plants and coal, for
Chap-01.qxd 13-02-2006 12:55 Page 4
4 Food and its functions
example, act as energy storehouses. Living plants into short-term storage as ATP, a high-energy phos-
convert the sun’s energy into chemical energy and phate compound, which can release this energy for
some plants of past ages have been converted, over individual steps in biochemical metabolism. Sucrose
many millions of years, into coal. may be converted into carbon dioxide and water by
Plants, by the process of photosynthesis, convert burning it in air. The chemical reaction is the same
carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrate. Photo- as that represented by the equation above, with
synthesis, which is discussed in detail in Chapter 8 exactly the same quantity of heat being liberated as
(p. 88), can only take place in daylight because solar when the oxidation occurs in the body. The differ-
energy is needed for the process. A complex series of ence in the two reactions concerns the speed at which
chemical changes occurs which can be represented they occur and their efficiency. Oxidation in the body
by the following equation: takes place much more slowly than combustion in
air as it takes place in a series of steps, thus ensuring
daylight a slow, controlled and gradual release of energy to
xCO2 yH2O
→ C12 (H2O)y xO2
body tissues. The efficiency of combustion within
Carbohydrate
the body is less than that in air because only about
two-thirds of the energy of the sucrose becomes avail-
The formation of carbohydrate is, therefore, the
able as biological energy, with one-third being ‘lost’ as
method used by plants to trap and store a part of
heat which helps to maintain body temperature.
the sun’s energy. Sugar-beet, which synthesizes carbo-
Both fat and proteins also contribute in similar
hydrate in the form of the sugar sucrose, may be
oxidations (see Chapter 8).
taken as an example:
(ˆCH2ˆ)2n (O2)3n → 3nCO2 nH2O
daylight
12CO2 11H2O
→ C12 (H2O)11 12O2 Fat
Sucrose The oxidation of proteins depends on which
amino acids are included. The nitrogen is removed
When sucrose is formed from carbon dioxide and and thus most are oxidized like carbohydrate while
water, energy is absorbed and stored as chemical some are oxidized like fat.
bonds within the sucrose molecule. It can be stored The body is sometimes likened to a slow-
indefinitely in this form. combustion stove and macronutrients are described
Animals, unlike plants, cannot store the sun’s as fuel. It is clear that oxidation in the body is a most
energy directly and so must gain it second-hand by important process for it enables the energy stored in
using plants as food. Carnivorous animals and man carbohydrates, fats and proteins to be liberated and
take this process a stage further and also use other ani- made available for use by the body in a closely
mals as food. In this way, chemical compounds which regulated way.
have been photosynthesized and stored in plants are
eaten by man and animals and the stored energy made
The energy value of food
available. For example, the energy that is stored within
the sucrose molecule when it is synthesized by sugar- Energy is usually measured in units called calories. A
beet is liberated when sucrose reverts to carbon diox- calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
ide and water. This breakdown of sucrose into simpler temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C. As this is rather
units is brought about in the body by digestion and a small unit, energy derived from food may be
oxidation, but the overall reaction is simply the expressed in units which are 1000-times larger and
reverse of that represented above, namely: known as kilocalories (kcal). A kilocalorie is the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
C12(H2O)11 12O2 → 12CO2 11H2O
1 kg of water by 1°C. The common abbreviations for
Sucrose
kilocalorie is kcal but Calorie, or Cal (with a capital
When sucrose is converted into carbon dioxide and C) is also used to indicate kilocalories in foods.
water in this way, the energy stored during synthesis Another internationally recognized unit of
is made available for use by the body, by converting it energy is the joule (J), but like the calorie this is an
Chap-01.qxd 13-02-2006 12:55 Page 5
Food as a source of energy 5
inconveniently small unit with which to express the incompletely oxidized in the body. In addition a cor-
energy value of food so that the kilojoule (kJ), which rection may need to be made for non-starch polysac-
is 1000-times larger than the joule, is usually used. charides (NSP, see p. 96), previously called dietary
Sometimes an even larger unit, the megajoule (MJ), fibre. The magnitude of these energy losses may be
is used. A megajoule is 1000-times larger than a appreciated from Table 1.1. There is some variation
kilojoule. and uncertainty about nutrient availability; the ones
The relationship between these units may be quoted may be taken as being sufficiently reliable for
expressed as follows: most purposes, but in special conditions these may be
different. With malabsorptive diarrhoea availability is
1 kcal 4.19 103 J 4.19 kJ 4.19 103 MJ
obviously low, and varies between nutrients. There
An average adult usually needs about 1800– may, for example, be selective fat malabsorption
2500 kcal/day, which is about 8–10 MJ/day. (steatorrhoea) with liver or pancreatic disease. Mild
In the remainder of this chapter both types of unit malabsorption may cause no symptoms.
are given to illustrate their relation to each other. Although the available energy values given in
Elsewhere, however, kilojoules (and megajoules) Table 1.1 are approximate values which can be used
are used. to calculate the energy value of any given diet, the
In order to compare the energy of different foods it available energy value of any food can be found
is simplest to determine the amount of energy pro- using the average figures, provided that its composi-
duced, calculated as heat, when 1 g of the substance tion in terms of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is
is completely oxidized by igniting it in a small cham- known. The energy value of summer milk, for
ber filled with oxygen under pressure. The result example, can be calculated from its analysis, as
obtained represents the heat of combustion of food shown in Table 1.2. By similar calculations the avail-
which is usually expressed as kcal or kJ/g. If the able energy value of other foods may be estimated;
calorie value of sucrose is expressed in this way, it some average values are given in Table 1.3. This
is found to be 3.95 kcal/g. This means that when 1 g table shows that foods, such as butter and mar-
sucrose is completely oxidized the heat produced garine, which contain a high proportion of fat have
is sufficient to raise the temperature of 1000 g of the highest energy values. Foods rich in carbohydrates,
water by 3.95°C. The average values of the heats of containing a high proportion of sugar (jam) or
combustion of the energy-providing nutrients are starch (bread and potatoes), are less concentrated
shown in Table 1.1. sources of energy. Despite this, such foods supply a
In order to express the energy value of nutrients considerable proportion of the energy in an average
in terms of the energy actually made available to the British diet. Indeed, cereal foods contribute no less
body it is necessary to calculate the available energy than one-third of our total energy intake, which is a
values. Such values are always lower than heats of greater proportion than that supplied by any other
combustion because of losses within the body. A class of foodstuff. In many other countries, starchy
small loss results from incomplete absorption from foods, often in the form of rice, supply an even greater
the intestine; such loss is suffered by carbohydrate, fat proportion of the total energy content of the diet.
and protein, and with protein there is an additional As a general rule, the proportion of fat has increased
loss because protein, unlike carbohydrate and fat, is in ‘advanced’ Western market economies.
Table 1.1 Average energy value of nutrients (per gram)
Heat of combustion Available energy value
Nutrient (kcal) (kJ) (kcal) (kJ)
Carbohydrate 4.1 17 3.75 16
Fat 9.4 39 9.00 37
Protein 5.7 24 4.00 17
Chap-01.qxd 13-02-2006 12:55 Page 6
6 Food and its functions
Table 1.2 The energy value of summer milk
Amount in 100 g milk Energy/100 g milk
Nutrient (g) (kcal/g) (kJ/g) (kcal) (kJ)
Carbohydrate 4.1 3.75 16 15.4 65.6
Fat 4.0 9.00 37 36.0 148.0
Protein 3.4 4.00 17 13.6 57.8
Total energy provided 65.0 271.4
by 100 g of summer milk
Reference: Food Standards Agency (2002). McCance and Widdowson’s The Composition
of Foods, 6th summary edition. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and
the Queen’s Printer for Scotland.
Table 1.3 Typical energy values of some foods with nutrients as percentage of energy
Per 100 g As percentage of energy
Food (kcal) (kJ) Fat Carbohydrate Protein
Apples 47 199 2.0 94.0 3.5
Tomatoes 17 73 16.0 68.0 16.5
Lettuce 14 59 32.0 45.0 23.0
Cabbage (boiled) 16 67 22.5 51.5 25.0
Dates 270 1151 0.7 94.5 4.8
Bread (white) 219 931 6.5 79.0 14.5
Potatoes (old) 74 306 1.3 88.5 10.0
Pasta (boiled) 159 677 8.5 75.0 16.5
Rice (white) 138 587 8.5 84.0 7.5
Beef (stewing) 203 852 42.5 0 57.5
Haddock (steamed) 89 378 6.0 0 94.0
Chicken (roasted) 177 742 38.0 0 62.0
Eggs (boiled) 147 612 66.0 Tr 34.0
Milk (summer) 65 270 55.4 23.6 21.0
Cheese (cheddar) 416 1725 75.5 0.1 24.4
Yogurt (plain) 79 333 34.2 37.0 28.8
Jam (fruit) 261 1114 0 99.1 0.9
Sugar 394 1680 0 99.9 Tr
Chocolate 520 2177 53.1 41.0 5.9
Butter 744 3059 99.4 0.3 0.3
Margarine 746 3067 99.9 0.1 Tr
(polyunsaturated)
Fat spread (60%) 553 2274 99.0 0.9 0.1
(polyunsaturated)
Sunflower oil 899 3696 100.0 0.0 Tr
Tr, trace.
Reference: Food Standards Agency (2002). McCance and Widdowson’s The Composition of Foods,
6th summary edition. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the
Queen’s Printer for Scotland.
