Introductions for pharmacy

Pharmacy : is the science that deals with studying of medical and pharmaceutical
substances and knowledge it's natural and chemical properties , depending on the correct
scientific ways and storage conditions.

Pharmacopeia (Pha. Co.) : is a legal book which include :

1- A list of pharmaceutical and medical substances.
2- It means of preparation.
3- Medical doses.
4- Identification of percent ratio or assay for drug purity.
5- Natural and chemical properties.

Types of doses :

Any drug when given in a large amount more than the maximum dose : it led to poisoning
But when given it's amount less than the minimum dose : can not be effective.

Examples :
1- No effect < 250 mg  Metronidazole  750 mg < poisoning.
2- A. S. A : high dose  stomach irritation.
3- strychnine  C.N.S stimulant.

Notes :

1- * Official drug : a drug which can be found on Pharmacopeia.

* Non-official drug : a drug which can not be found on Pharmacopeia.
* Any medical substance abolished from the Pharmacopeias is called poison.

2- Infant : a child who has less than 2 years old.

Pediatric : a child who has 2 to 12 years old.

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Weight and measures
The pharmaceutical measurement :

* There are two systems of these measurements :

1- France "Metric" system .
2- English "Imperial" system .

* weight : is the measure of quantity which detected by number of times that is

contains standard quantity taken as a unit.

1- France system :
Gram (gm) is the main unit of this system , it's a weighted of 1 cm3 of H2O at 4o C .

1 kg = 1000 gm
1 hg (hektogram) = 100 gm
1 dg (dekagram) = 10 gm
1 gm = 0.001 kg = 0.01 hg = 0.1 dg
1 pg (picogram) = 10-12 gm
1 ng (nanogram) = 10-9 gm
1 µg (micro gram) = 10-6 gm
1 mg (milligram) = 10-3 gm
1 cgm (centigram) = 10-2 gm
1 dc. (decigram) = 10-1 gm

The most common units :

1 mg = 1000 µg
1 gm = 100 mg
1 kg = 1000 gm

Ex1:
Talc powder : 0.25 gm
Sod. Bicarb. : 8 gm
The total is : ……. Mg
Answer : 0.25 + 8.00 = 8.25 , 8.25 x 1000 = 8250 mg
Ex2: convert or reduce : 4567 µg to mg ? Answer : 4567 / 1000 = 4.567 mg
1653256 ng to kg ? Answer : 1653256 X 10-12
= 0.001653256
* So , in this system we should write the unit in the right side of the number.

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2- English "Imperial" system :

This system used for measuring and weighting the medical substances in U.S.A and U.K .

* The most common units:

1- gr (grain)
2- ξ (ounce)
3- ζ (drachm) or (dram)
4- lb (pound)

Roman numerical :

Arabic numbers Roman numerals

1 I
2 II
3 III
4 IV
5 V
6 VI
7 VII
8 VIII
9 IX
10 X
50 L
100 C
500 D
1000 M

* Here , the unit is written in the left side of the number.

Ex : gr II (2 grains)

Note : This system consists of two types :

- Apothecaries system
- Avoirdupois system

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A - Apothecaries system : this system mostly used by the pharmacist to dispense the
drug for the patient.

Units of this system :

1- scruple (Э) = 20 gr (ex: Э II = 40 gr)

2- drachm or dram (ζ) = Э III = 60 gr
3- ounce (ξ) = 8 ζ = 24 Э = 480 gr
4- pound (lb) = 12 ξ = 5760 gr

A simple table for these units :

lb ξ ζ Э gr
1 12 96 288 5760
1 8 24 480
1 3 60
1 20

B - Avoirdupois system : used in providing the drug for the pharmacy.

Units of this system :

1- ounce (oz) = 437.5 gr
2- pound (lb) = 16 oz = 7000 gr

lb oz gr
1 16 7000
1 437.5

The relationships between France and English systems :

1 gm = 15.5 gr
and :
1 gr = 1/15.5 gm = 0.065 gm = 65 mg

* (lb) in Avoirdupois = 454 gm = 0.454 kg

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Ex : convert to gm :
1- ξ ¸¸ (1 ξ = 480 gr , 480 x 1/2 = 240 , 240 x 0.065 = 15.6 gm)
2- ζ II (60 x 2 = 120 gr , 120 x 0.065 = 7.8 gm)

Notes :

1- The grain is the same unit in both systems.

2- The other units have the same name , but different in values.
3- To convert from either system to another , first : reduce the given quantity to
grain in the one system , and then reduce the result to any desired denomination in
the other system.
4- Latin number usually put after the unit. (Ex : gr X = 10 gr).
5- ( ss ) means : half. (Ex : ζ ss = 1/2 x 60 gr = 30 gr).

Home work :
Q1 \ When patient take 150 µg of any drug , then take 250 mg of the same drug per day
:
1) How many numbers of (gm) taken during 1 month ?
2) How many numbers of (gr) taken during 2 weeks ?

Q2 \ a physician prescribe a liquid dosage form for pediatric person , each 5 ml contained
250 mg and the dose equal 10 ml every 8 hours , calculate number of µg given after 7
days ?

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Volume
Means "capacity" and it's defines as a space which occupied by given amount of
material.
So we have :
a- Conical graduated glass.
b- Cylindrical graduated glass.
For measuring liquid volumes , and 2 types of systems : metric and English.
1- Metric system :
the main unit is Liter (L) , which defines as :
A metric unit of volume that represent the volume of 1000 cm3.
1 L = 0.001 kl = 0.01 hl = 0.1 dl
2- English system :
1 Fluid radius "or Fluid drachm" (FЗ) = 60 minims (M) or drops.
1 Fluid ounce (Fξ) = 8 FЗ = 480 M
1 Pint (pt) or (O) = 16 Fξ
1 quart (qt) = 2 pt
1 Gallon (gl) or (G) = 4 qt
A simple table for these units :

G qt Pt Fξ FЗ M
1 4 8 128 1024 61440
1 2 32 256 15360
1 16 128 7680
1 8 480
1 60
1

* The relationships between metric and English systems :

1 M = 0.06 ml  1 ml = 16 M
1 FЗ = 4 ml
1 Fξ = 30 ml Ex : convert : (1) FЗ II to ml ?
1 pt = 473 ml Answer : 2 x 4 = 8 ml
1 qt = 946 ml (2) O II to ml ?
1 G = 3785 ml Answer : 473 x 2 = 946 ml
1 Fξ (H2O) = 455 gr

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Household measurements

Household system France system English system

1 stikan spoonful 2 ml FЗ ss
1 tsp. 4 ml ≈ 5 ml FЗ I
1 dessert spoon. 8 ml FЗ II
1 tbsp. 15 ml FЗ IV
1 finganful 30 ml Fξ I
1 wineglassful 60 ml Fξ II
1 teacupful 120 ml Fξ IV
1 tambblerful 240 ml Fξ VIII

Notes :
* (tsp.) : tea spoonful .
* (tbsp.) : table spoonful .

***********************
Calculate the dose (or doses) :
Dose : it is the amount of the drug given to the patient for intended medicine effect , it
may given once , twice or multiple doses , depending on the drug and disease.

Calculation :

Total amount (T) Total amount (T)

_____________________ <===> ___________________
No. of doses = Size of the dose =
Size of the dose (S) No. of doses

Total amount = Size of the dose X No. of doses

Ex : If the dose is 200 mg , how many doses are contained in 10 gm ?

Answer :
200 mg / 1000 = 0.2 gm
T
_____
No. of doses =
S = 10 gm / 0.2 gm = 50 doses

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Home work :
Q1: If 1 tbsp. is prescribed as a dose approximately , how many doses are contained in 1
pt ?
Q2: How many tsp. would be prescribed in each dose of Elixir if 180 ml contain 18 doses
?
Q3: How many ml's of liquid medicine would dispensed to patient with 2 tbsp. B.I.D
(twice daily) for 8 days ?

***********************

Calculate the quantity in each dose :

Quantity in total
Quantity in each dose = ________________________
No. of doses
when the number of doses is not given :
Total amount
_____________________ Q. in total
= _____________________ ……………
( X : quantity in each dose)
Size of the dose X

Total amount
_____________________ X
_____________________ ……………
Size of the dose = ( X : quantity in total)
Q. in each dose

Home work :

Q1: If 10 gm of drug presents in 1000 ml of any preparation , how many number of µg

are contained in 1 Fξ dose ?

Q2: If I.V fluid adjusted to deliver 15 mg per hour of medication to a patient, how many
gm's are deliver per day ?

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Calculation of children doses :
Age
1- Young's rule : Dose of child = __________________ X adult dose
Age + 12

1 + age (in years)

2- Cowling's rule : Dose of child = ___________________________
24 X adult dose

Weight in lb
3- Clark's rule : Dose of child = _____________________ X adult dose
150

2
4- B.S.A m X adult dose
Dose of child ≈ ________________
1.73 m2

Age in months
5- Fried's rule : Dose for infants = _______________________ X adult dose
150

2
B.S.A of adult m X usual adult dose
* Dose of adults = ______________________________
1.73 m2

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 Medical Abbreviations
C.V : Cardio vascular
D5W : 5% dextrose in water
D/C : Discontinue (ex : after 7 days D/C)
Disp. : Dispensed as (How the drug is supplied)
DM. : Diabetes mellitus
dppr. : Dropper
Dz : Disease
En : Entri coated
ELISA : Enzyme-linked immuno assay test
ER : Extended release
FSH : Folical stimulating hormone
Fxn : Function
IT : Intra thecal
LDL : Low density lipoprotein
MAO : Mono amine oxidase
AB : Antibiotic , Antibodies
ACE : Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor
ADH : Antidiuretic hormone
Amp : Ampule
APAP : Acetaminophen ( paracetamol)
B.M : Bone marrow
Ca : Calcium
CA : Cancer
CAP : Cancer of prostate
CBC : Complete blood count
CCB : Calcium channel blocker
Pt. CP : Chest pain
Contra : Contraindicated
D5LR % : Dextrose in lactated Ringer's
D5NS 5% : Dextrose in normal saline
G.I.T : Gastro-intestinal tract
EXP. : Expire date
M.F.G : Manufacturing date
O.R.S : Oral rehydration salts
U.T.I : Urinary tract infection
B.I.D : Two times daily
T.I.D : Three times daily
Q.I.D : Four times daily
I.V : Intra-venous
I.M : Intra-muscular

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Aromatic water
is a liquid pharmaceutical preparation containing volatile oil or volatile substances
mixed & saturated with purified or distilled water.
This preparation used as flavouring vehicle to mask the undesired taste or odour of
some water soluble drugs .

* Volatile oil used in preparations should purified with good properties to get sterile
preparation without foreign additives .

Aromatic substances :
1- Solid , ex : Camphor .
2- Liquid , ex : Rose oil .
3- Gases , ex : laurel HCN gas .

Rx :
Aromatic oil ……………………….. 20 ml
Alcohol 90% ………………….…. 600 ml
Purified water add to ………….….1000 ml

* Oil is slightly dissolve in water , but easily dissolve in alcohol , so we have to dissolve
the Aromatic oil in alcohol then dilute with purified water .

Preparation of aromatic water :

1) Dilution method : this by take one part of concentrated Ar. Water and then add 39
parts of pur. Water , used as an aqueous vehicle for preparation of medical
prescriptions .
2) Simple dissolving method : Take 1 part of Ar. Oil then mix with 500 parts of pur.
Water with good mixing for 15 minutes , then set a side for 12 hours , then filtrate
to get rid of the excess oil materials .
3) Distillation method : non official method , it is by distil the water which contain the
natural aromatic leaves , then collect the resulted Aromatic oil.
* To increase solubility : we may add talc powder (50 gm/L) with filtration & agitation.

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Storage of aromatic water :
The Aromatic water Which prepared by distillation Method should not be stored for a
long time , and should prepared in small amounts ; because it may be deteriorated and
precipitate may be formed.
* Boiled pur. water. used must be also sterile , clean bottle , with good closing ; to avoid
the contamination by the M .O (bacteria , fungi) , then should kept in cold place , and
not add any antiseptic substances.

* If colour changed or the Ar. wat. being turbid , it must be discarded.

Examples for Aromatic water :

1- Ansi water
2- Cinnamon water
3- Dill water
4- Caraway water
5- Peppermint water

General formula :
Aromatic oil ………….. 2 ml
Purified water ……. 1000 ml

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Suspension
Suspension is a dispersion of finely divided insoluble solid particles (The disperse
phase) , in a fluid (dispersion medium) , most of pharmaceutical suspensions consist of
aqueous dispersion medium , although in some instances it may be an organic (oily
liquid).

* A disperse phase with a mean particle diameter of up to 1 µm is usually termed as a

colloidal suspension , and include : Magnesium hydroxide & Aluminum hydroxide
suspensions.
A solid in liquid suspension in which the particles are above the colloidal size is
termed as a coarse suspension.

Physical properties of a well formulated suspension :

1) The suspension must remain sufficiently homogenous for at least the period between
shaking the container and removing the required dose.
2) The sediments produced on storage must by easily resuspended by use of moderate
agitation.
3) The suspension may be required to be thickened in order to reduce the rate of sitting
of the particles. The viscosity must not be so high that removal of the product from the
container and transfer to site of application is being difficult.
4) The suspended particles should be small and uniformly sized ; in order to give a
smooth , elegant product , free from a gritty texture.

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Pharmaceutical applications of suspension :
 Many people have difficulty in swallowing solid dosage forms , and therefore require
the drug to be dispersed in liquid (if the drug is insoluble or poorly soluble in a suitable
solvent) , then formulation as suspension is usually required. Some eye drops too , not
ably (Hydrocortisone & Neomycin) are available as suspension ; because of their poor
solubility in a suitable solvent.
 The degradation of a drug in the presence of water may also preclude it's use as an
aqueous solution , in which case it maybe possible to synthesize insoluble derivative
which can then be formulated as a suspension . e.g. : oxy tetracycline hydrochloride (Hcl)
is used in solid dosage form , but in aqueous solution would hydrolyse rapidly , a stable
liquid dosage form can however be made by suspending the insoluble calcium salt in a
suitable aqueous vehicle.
 The prolonged contact between the solid drug particles & the dispersion medium can
be further reduced by preparation of the suspension immediately prior to issue to the
patient. e.g. : Ampicilin is provided by manufacture as either the base or the trihydrate
mixed with the other powdered or granulated ingredient. The pharmacist then makes the
product up to the volume with water immediately before issue to the patient.
Allocating a suitable shelf life which is usually 7 days at room temperature or 14 days if
kept refrigerated.
 A drug which degrades in the presence of water may alternatively be suspended in non-
aqueous vehicle. e.g. : phenoxy methyl penicillin is available for oral use as a suspension
in fractionated coconut oil.
 Some materials are required to be present in the G.I.T , in a finely divided form , and
their formulation as suspension will provide the desired high surface area. Solids as :
Kaolin , MgHCO3 and Mg tri silicate.
 The adsorptive properties of fine powders are also used in the formulation of some
inhalations. The volatile components of menthol and eucalyptus oil would be lost from
solution very rapidly during use , were as more prolonged release is obtained if the two
active agents are adsorbed on to light Mg carbonate prior to the preparation of
suspension.

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 Taste of most drugs are more noticeable if in solution than if in an insoluble form.
Paracetamol is available both in solution as a pediatric Paracetamol Elixir (B.P) , and also
as a suspension , the later formulation is more palatable and therefore particularly
suitable for children.
 Suspension of drugs can also be formulated for topical application , they can be fluid
preparation such as Calamine lotion (B.P).
 Some suspensions are of semi solid consistency. e.g. : pastes , which contain high
concentration of powders dispersed , usually in paraffin base.
 Suspension can also be formulated for parenteral administration ; in order to control
the rate of absorption of the drug. By varying the size of the dispersed particles of active
agent , the duration of activity can be controlled.

* If an aqueous vehicle is used , some diffusion of the product will occur along muscle
fibers after injection. In order to prolong activity even further : the drug may suspended
in fixed oil such as arachis oil or sesame oil.
 Vaccine for induction of immunity are often formulated as suspensions , they may
consist of dispersion of killed M .O , as in cholera vaccine.
 Some X-Ray contrast media are also formulated in this way. e.g. : Barium sulphate for
examination of elementary tract , is available as suspension for either oral or rectal
administration.

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Additives :
The use of wetting agents :
Some insoluble solids maybe easily wetted by water and will dispersed readily
throughout the aqueous phase with minimum agitation.
To ensure adequate wetting : the interfacial tension between the solid and the liquid
must be reduced so that the adsorbed air displaced from the solid surfaces by the liquid.
The particles will then disperse readily throughout the liquid.

1) Surface active agents : the hydrocarbon chains would be dispersed by the

hydrophobic particle surface , while the polar group would project into aqueous
medium , becoming hydrated. Thus wetting of the solid occur due to of the interfacial
tension between the solid & the liquid and the looser extent between the liquid & the
air.
Most surfactants are used as a concentration of up to about 0.1% as wetting agents ,
and include:
- For oral use : the poly sorbates (Tweens) , and sorbitan esters (Spans).
- For external use : sodium lauryl sulphate , sodium dioctyl sulpho succinate , and
quillaia extract can also be used.
The choice of surfactant for parenteral administration is obviously limited. The main
ones used being the poly sorbate , some of the poly oxy ethylene , poly oxy propylene
copolymers and lecithin.

2) Hydrophilic colloids : the materials include : acacia , bentonite , tragacanth ,

alginates and cellulose derivatives , they will behave as protective colloids by
coating the solid hydrophobic particles with a multi molecular particles (layers).
This will import a hydrophilic character to the solid , and this promote wetting.
These materials are also used as suspending agents , and may as surfactants
produce deflocculated system , particularly if used at low concentration.

3) Solvents : Materials such as alcohol , glycerol , and glycols , which are water
miscible will reduce the liquid / air interfacial tension.

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 The solvent will penetrate the loose agglomerates of powders , displacing the air from
the pores of the individual particles , thus enabling wetting to occur by the dispersion
medium.

Flocculating agents :

1- Electrolytes : the most widely used include : the sodium salts of acetates , phosphate ,
and citrates. The concentration of chosen will be that produce the desired degree of
flocculation or must be taken to add excessive electrolyte , or charge reversal may occur
on each particle , thus forming once again a deflocculated system.
2- Surfactants : either ionic surface active agents or non ionic surfactants , to cause
either flocculation or a loose flocculated structure.
3- Polymeric : flocculating agents ( starch , alginates , cellulose derivatives , tragacanth ,
carbomers , and silicates) , are examples of polymers which can be used to control the
degree of flocculation.

Suspending agents :
For modification of suspension's viscosity , examples :

1) Acacia gum.
2) Tragacanth.
3) Alginates.
4) Starch.
5) M.C (methyl cellulose).
6) H.M.C (hydroxyl methyl cellulose).
7) M.C.C (micro crystalline cellulose).

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Emulsion
Is a type of dispersed system in which one liquid is dispersed throughout another liquid
in the form of fine droplets. The two liquids are generally : Oil & Water , immiscible and
constitute a two phases that tend to separate into two layers , unless a third agent
(emulsifier or emulsifying agent "E.A") is added to facilitate the emulsification process
and to provide stability to the system.
So , in emulsion the dispersed phase is called (The internal phase) , and the dispersing
phase is called (the external phase) or (the continuous phase).
When the oil is the internal phase and the water is the external phase , then the
emulsion is oil in water type (o/w).
But , when the water is the internal phase and the oil is the external phase , then the
emulsion is water in oil type (w/o).

Types of emulsion :
1) Oil in water emulsion (o/w) : mostly used internally , for it we have different types
of (E.A) :
1- Gum acacia.
2- Methyl cellulose (M.C).
3- Saponins.
4- Soap of monovalent bases (Na+ , K+).

2) Water in oil emulsion (w/o) : mostly used externally , also for it we have different
types of (E.A) :
1- wool fat.
2- Resins.
3- Bees wax.
4- Soap of divalent bases (Ca+2 , Mg+2 , Zn+2).
Notes :
1- Some times more than one (E.A) used in preparation of emulsion.
2- Emulsion maybe used internally (orally or parenterally) , and also externally (on the
skin or mucous membrane).

Types of emulsifying agent :

1) Naturally : Natural gums , natural waxes , starch , M.C , Saponins.
2) Synthetic : Synthetic gums , synthetic waxes , soaps.
3) Finely divided solid : Al , MgOH , Bentonite.

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 Preparation of emulsions :
There are two methods :
1- Manual method : in the laboratory by mortar.
2- Mechanical method : by the electrical machines.
Types of emulsion depending on the type of (E.A) :
1- Acacia emulsion.
2- Tragacanth emulsion.
3- Liquid paraffin emulsion.
4- Saponins emulsion.
5- Wool fat emulsion.
6- Synthetic wax emulsion.
7- Irish moss emulsion.
8- Cellulose emulsion.
9- Soap emulsion.
10- Starch emulsion.
11- Bees wax emulsion.
1) Acacia E. : acacia is found as a fine powder obtained from vegetable sources , mostly
used for the emulsions of different types of oils.

N Type of oil Amount of acacia Examples

1 Fixed oil ¼ amount of oil Olive , Castor , almond oils
2 Volatile oil ½ amount of oil Turpentine , peppermint oil
3 Oleoresins oil Equivalent amount of oil Peru-balsam

Classification of acacia emulsion :

1- Simple E. : contain one oil.
2- Compound E. : contain more than one oil.
* Simple E. prepared by either dry method or by the wet method.

Rx :
Olive oil ………..….. 20 ml
Aqueous water …… 100 ml

Then : 20/4 = 5 gm of acacia (o/w).

* Simple acacia emulsion contain one type of oil.

* The amount of vehicle used at 1st preparation of the primary E. is :
= 2 X amount of acacia {2 X 5 = 10 ml}

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Procedure :
1) put the weighted amount of acacia (5 gm) into mortar.
2) Measure (10 ml) of water into graduated glass & add it to the acacia with well mixing
until formation of homogenous mucilage "acacia mucilage".
3) Measure the oil (20 ml) and add it gradually to the mucilage with well mixing into
one direction until hearing of a special sound (a clicking sound) which refer to the
success of formation of the primary emulsion.
4) Dilute it with the vehicle with well mixing , then filtrate to get rid of the foreign
bodies.
5) Complete the volume to (100 ml).
6) Transfer the emulsion into a clean bottle & put the label & write the direction & term
"shake well before use".

Rx :
Turpentine oil …………… 10 ml
Water add to ……………. 30 ml

* volatile oil  1/2 X 10 = 5 gm of acacia

2 X 5 = 10 ml of water (as a vehicle at preparation of primary E.)

Rx :
Peru-balsam …………….. 10 ml
Water add to ……………. 30 ml

* oleoresin oil : acacia = 10 gm

Vehicle = 20 ml
Notes : we can classify the acacia emulsion depending on nature of it's substances :
1- emulsion containing rapidly soluble substance in water : This substances may be salts
, syrups , glycerins which solubilizes with the vehicle.
Ex : ferrous salts (miscible with water).
Sodium salicylate (ammonium citrate).
2- emulsion contain water-insoluble rapidly , soluble in oil substances.
Ex : menthol , thymol , salol.
* Here , the amount of acacia increase by 50% on the actual amount.
Ex : if the amount of the fixed oil = 20 ml
Amount of acacia = 5 + (50% X 5) = 7.5 gm

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Rx :
Castor oil ………………. 20 ml
Thymol …….…………… 5 ml
Water add to …………… 100 ml

3- Emulsion contain substances insoluble in oil nor in water.

Ex : Bismuth carbonate in castor oil nor in water.
Phenophthalene in liquid paraffin nor in water.

Rx :
Liquid paraffin …………... 6 ml
Phenophthalene ………….. 40 ml
Water add to …………….. 100 ml

2) Irish moss E. : used largely for preparation of fish oil emulsion , due to :
(1) cheap price.
(2) stable emulsion prepare for a long time without exposure for fermentation.

3) Tragacanth E. : Tragacanth powder alone don't considered as good E.A ; because it

forms coarse emulsion , so , it used together with acacia powder to increase the
emulsion's density & then increase it's stability.

4) Cellulose E. :
Ex : methyl cellulose (M.C) which easily soluble in cold water , but it is insoluble in hot
water.

5) Soap E. :
A) Soap emulsion prepared with soft soap.
* Here , the amount of soap (E.A) = 1/10 the amount of oil (fixed or volatile oil) , while in
emulsion containing fat , amount of soft soap = 1/3 X amount of fat.
Note : all fixed oils (F.O) containing different ratios of fatty acids (F.A) , which forms the
soap by it's reaction with alkaline substances.
F.A + NaOH ----------------> Soap
B) organic soap emulsion : which prepared by using the E.A.
(1) Tri ethanol amine stearate.
(2) Tri ethanol amine oleate.

6) Saponins E. : Here , the E.A mostly liquid extract.

7) Starch E. : Here , the E.A is starch mucilage especially used as enema.

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* Test for identification of the emulsion's type :
1- Miscibility test : occur by the dilution by water or oil :
A) o/w E. : Remain stable upon unlimited dilution with water , but not with oil.
B) w/o E. : Remain stable upon unlimited dilution with oil , but not with water.
Ex : as in acacia E. with fixed oil.

2- Staining test : by scarlet red stain (dye) , the amount of stain is 0.05 gm.
Scarlet soluble in oil but insoluble in water. So we used castor oil (10 ml) for dissolving the
stain.
 o/w E. : the dispersed globules appears red , and the ground appears colorless , this
means the oil is the dispersed phase , while the water is the continuous phase.

3- Electrical conductivity test : o/w E. conduct electricity ; because the water is the
continuous phase , and unlike the w/o E.

* The use of preservatives in emulsions :

to increase the stability of emulsions against the bacterial or fungal growth.

* Properties of preservatives :-
1) Must be homogenous & compatible with emulsion.
2) not toxic.
3) Tasteless , colorless , odorless.
4) with wide anti-bacterial activity.

Ex:
1- Organic acid : Benzoic acid , with good anti-fungal & anti-bacterial preservative. Conc.
= 0.1 % w/v . Used together with chloroform to preserve liquid paraffin emulsion.
Sodium benzoate is more stable , conc. = 0.5 % , 0.25 %).
2- Chloroform : conc. = 0.25 % (w/v).
3- Chlorocresol : is a powerful anti-bacterial of low toxicity. Conc. = 0.1 % (for the
aqueous creams & other external preparations).
4- Phenoxy ethanol.
5- Quaternary ammonium compounds. Ex: Cetramide.

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Emulsifying agent :
* Selection of emulsifying agent :
1) E.A must be compatible with the other formulative ingredients.
2) Must not interfere with the stability of the therapeutic agent.
3) It should be stable & not deteriorate in the preparation.
4) Should be non toxic , with respect to it's intended use and the amount to be consumed
by the patient.
5) It should posses little odor , taste & color.

The H.L.B system :

Means ( hydrophilic – lipophilic balance) , By this method , each agent is assigned an H.L.B
system value or number indicating the substance's polarity. The usual range is between (
1 – 20 ).
Materials that are highly polar and less hydrophilic have been assigned higher number
than materials that are less polar & more lipophilic.
Generally , surface active agent (S.A.A) having an H.L.B value of ( 3 – 6 ) are greatly
lipophilic & produce w/o emulsion , and agent with H.L.B value of about ( 8 – 18 ) produce
o/w .
On selects of E.A having the same or nearly the same H.L.B values as the oleogenous
phase of the intended emulsion.
To prepare a stable emulsion : the E.A should have an H.L.B value similar to the one for
oil , depending on the type of emulsion desired , When needed two or more E.A may be
combined to achieve the proper H.L.B value.

Activity H.L.B value

Anti-foaming 1-3
E.A w/o 3-6
Wetting agent 7-9
E.A o/w 8 - 18
Solubilizers 15 - 20
Detergents 13 - 16

Ex : If 20 ml of an H.L.B = 9 is required. Two S.A.A with H.L.B values of ( 8 - 12 ) can be

blended in 3 : 1 ratio. The following quantities of each will be required.
0.75 X 8 = 6
0.25 X 12 = 3
Total H.L.B = 9

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Mixtures
Are a liquid pharmaceutical preparations used internally as doses taken either directly
or diluted with a little amount of water.
 Drought : is a medical liquid used internally , taken in single doses.
Ex : Anti-helminthic drugs.
 Drops : It is expression used in some mixtures which it's medical dose is very small
and given in a form of drops which begins from (1 – 15) drops or more , and
measured by a special dropper.
Ex : Depakine.
* vehicle : is a liquid used in mixture preparation for simplify the taking of the solid
substance , and it's diluted to be taken by the patient easily.

Q :- Why we use the mixtures largely ?

1) Nature of some medical substances.
2) It's rapid effect.
3) Give therapeutic benefit for some drugs , like bismuth salt.
4) Decrease the painful effect of some drugs on the stomach.
5) Psychologic factor.

Medical substances

Liquid Solid Gas

Immiscible p.p.t forming Slightly miscible Miscible Soluble Insoluble

Diffusible

Indiffusible

Classification of mixtures :
1- Simple Mixture.
2- Mixture containing diffusible substances.
3- Mixture containing Indiffusible substances.
4- Mixture containing p.p.t forming liquids.
5- Mixture containing slightly miscible liquids.
6- Miscellaneous mixture.

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 1) Simple mixture : are mixtures containing easily soluble substances in the vehicle , in
addition to medical liquids easily miscible with vehicle (mixtures contents).

Rx :
Ammonium chloride .......... 10 mg
Magnesium sulphate .......... 5 mg
Aleum ............................... 2 mg
} Solids

Spirit of ether .................... 2 ml

Chloroform mixture ........... 8 ml } Liquids
Purified water add to .......... 30 ml

2 ml + 8 ml = 10 ml (of liquids in Rx)

30 – 10 = 20 X 3/4 = 15 ml (the vehicle)

Procedure :
1) Measure 3/4 the vehicle (after obstructing the liquid volume if found) by clean
graduated glass , then dissolve the weighted solid substances which are rapidly
soluble with stirring.
Note : If the solid substances are crystalline , it must be crushed well by the mortar to
be easily dissolve and add a little amount of vehicle to the mortar content and
mix it well , then transfer the content to the graduated glass.
2) Check the graduated content by the light to get rid of the foreign bodies if found by
filtration.
3) Add the other liquids by measuring each one by appropriate graduated glass.

Note : if the liquid is of volatile nature , and vehicle is hot : the vehicle must be cooled at
first , then add the volatile liquid.
4) Add the vehicle up to the desired volume.
5) Transfer the content of graduated glass to appropriate bottle , close it well.
6) Put a label (white unit) , which refer to internal use of mixture.

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 Note : we right on the label some of constructions :
1- The pharmacy name.
2- The patient's name.
3- Physician's name.
4- Direction for use.
5- Date & number of prescription.
6- In the right side , we write the term "internal use" , and "shake well before use".

2) Mixture containing p.p.t forming liquid :

* Tragacanth powder : 10 gr/ Fξ
* Mucilage of tragacanth : 1/4 final volume
} Suspending agent in mixture
These mixtures containing resinous liquids or dyes which precipitate and attached with
water , and this p.p.t attach to the bottle sides , or become in a form of insoluble mass
(which don't diffuse). So , we use suspending agent to solve this problem.

Procedure (general method) :

 By using compound of tragacanth powder :
used in mixture containing indiffusible solids or rapidly diffusible solids , and if the
vehicle is aromatic water.
Procedure :
1) Crushing of all solids (including the compound of tragacanth powder).
2) Measure 3/4 of vehicle and add a little of it to the mortar's content with well
mixing until get a fine slurry , and then add the remaining of the vehicle.
3) Add the p.p.t forming liquid gradually with mixing.
4) Complete as in simple mixture's procedure.

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  By using the mucilage :
used into preparation of mixture containing rapidly diffusible solids or the vehicle is
tap water or distilled water or chloroform water.
Procedure :
1) Measure the mucilage with equivalent amount of the vehicle and put the resultant
into a clean mortar , then measure p.p.t forming liquid , then add it gradually to the
mortar's content with well mixing.
2) Dissolve the solid (easily soluble in water) into 1/2 the vehicle remaining. Filter if
needed , then add this liquid to the mixture where the volume become 3/4 of the
final volume.

3) Mixture containing slightly miscible liquid :

also needed suspending agent ; because of presence of slightly miscible liquid which
can be disperse and not diffuse.

 By use a mucilage :
when the vehicle is tap water or distilled water , and when a mixture without insoluble
substance procedure.

Procedure :
1) Measure the liquid and put it into a clean bottle , and add to it the mucilage with
well mixing.
2) Dissolve the solid substance into 1/2 of the vehicle. Filter if needed , then the
filtrate added to the bottle's content gradually with well mixing , then transfer the
bottle's content into graduated container
3) complete the other steps.

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  By using the powder : When there is insoluble substances, or When the vehicle is
aromatic water.

Procedure :
1) Crush the solid with the tragacanth powder until get a homogeneous mixture.
2) Measure 3/4 the vehicle and add it to the mortar's content (gradually with well
mixing) until get a fine slurry.
3) Add the slightly miscible liquid with well mixing , then add the remaining of the
vehicle.
4) Complete as Before.

4) Mixture containing small doses of potent medicaments :

Most of potent medicaments prescribed in very small doses which can’t be weighted by
the ordinary balance.

Rx :
Hyoscine butyl bromide ………… 1/150 gr
Chloroform water add to ……….. FЗ II

Ft. : mix
Sig. : T.I.D
Mett. : Fξ III

Calculation :
3 X 8 = 24 FЗ

}
1 gr 25 ml
___________ __________
24 FЗ / 2 FЗ = 12 =
1/150 X 12 =2/25 gr 2/25 gr X
= 2 ml
Total = Fξ III

* So , to get 2/25 gr : we need to take 2 ml from this solution.

Procedure :
1) Dissolve the smallest amount which can be measured “ which is 1 gr” into certain
amount of chloroform water , then add up to 25 ml to get 1 gr / 25 ml ratio.
2) Take the 2 ml and add another amount of chloroform water up to the desired vol.

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 -9-
Syrups
Are concentrated aqueous solutions of sugar or sugar substitute , as example :
sucrose in water. Especially useful as diluting agent for water-soluble drugs , to act as
solvent and flavouring agent.

Types of syrups : there are three types :-

1- Simple syrup : is a syrup containing sugar or sugar substitute dissolved in water in
official amount , mostly (65 %) or more.
2- Medicated syrup : is a syrup containing sugar dissolved in D.W or purified water in
addition to medication substances. Ex : syrups of codeine.
3- Flavouring syrup : is a syrup containing flavouring agent or aromatic substances in
addition to presence of sugar. So , it has an acceptable odour and taste.
Q : why we use the syrup largely in pharmacy ?
1) Easily taken by the patient.
2) It has good taste due to sugar’s presence.
3) More stable ; because there is no oxidation occurs , due to the reducing properties
of sugar components (fructose & dextrose) , both of them are reduction factor.

* Sugar when dissolve it partially analyses to fructose and dextrose. In addition there is
no bacterial growth or other microorganisms (yeast or fungi) ; because of the high
osmotic pressure that produced by the concentrated solution of sugar ; to prevent
fermentation by bacteria and parasites. Also this is the important reason for analysis of
solution and deterioration.

4) To prevent the bad taste and disliked odour.

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Preparation of syrups :

1- Cold method : dissolve the sugar in D.W or purified Water by mixing.

2- Hot method : by using heat if there is no volatile substances or quick evaporate

liquid. In syrups , must be shaking the container from time to time ; to prevent
fermentation and producing alcohol & CO2 gas in the upper part of the syrup.

3- Mixing method : ex: syrup of orange , syrup of chloral hydrate.

4- By chemical reaction : preparation of syrups through the chemical reaction

between its’ components during its’ preparation , as in :
A- Compound syrup of ferrous phosphate.
B- Syrup of ferrous phosphate with quinine and strychnine.
C- Syrup of ferrous iodide.
D- Syrup of calcilacto phosphate.

5- By extraction method , as in :
A- Syrup of lemon.
B- Syrup of wild cherry.
C- Syrup of tolu balsam.

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Elixirs
Are clear sweetened hydro alcoholic solutions intended for oral use and it is usefully
flavoured to enhance their palatability.
* Types of elixirs :
1. Non medicated elixirs : are employed as vehicle.
2. Medicated elixirs : are used for the therapeutic effect of the medicinal substances
they contain.
* Comparison with syrups :-
1) Elixirs are usually less sweet and less viscous ; because they contain a lower
proportion of sugar.
2) Elixirs are less effective than syrups in masking the taste of medicinal substances.
3) Elixirs are better able than aqueous syrups to maintain both water soluble & alcohol
soluble components in solutions ; because of their hydro alcoholic character.
4) Elixirs are preferred to syrups from manufacturing stand point ; because they are
prepared by simple solutions.
* Contents :
(1) Alcohol , water , glycerine , propylene glycol : All these are frequently employed in
elixirs as adjunctive solvents.
(2) Although , many elixirs are sweetened with sucrose or sucrose syrup. Some use
sorbitol glycerine and/or artificial sweeteners.
Note : Elixirs having a high alcoholic content , usually use an artificial sweetener , such
as saccharine , which is required only in a small amount rather than sucrose
which is only slightly soluble in alcohol , and requires great quantities for
equivalent sweetness.
(3) All elixirs contain flavouring agent to increase their palatability.
(4) Most elixirs have colouring agent to enhance their appearance.

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* Properties of alcohol in elixirs :
Since the individual components of elixir have different water & alcohol solubility
characters , each elixir requires a specific blend of alcohol & water to maintain all of the
components in solutions , naturally for elixir content with poor water solubility. The
proportion of alcohol required is greater than for elixir prepared from components
having a good water solubility.

Dose : the usual adult dose of the drug in a convenient measure of elixir for most elixirs
is one or two teaspoonfuls ( 5 ml or 10 ml ) provides the usual adult dose of the
drug.
 Advantage :-
Flexibility and ease of dosage administration to patient who have a difficulty in
swallowing solid dosage forms.
 Disadvantage :-
For children and for adults who choose to avoid alcohol is their alcoholic content for
food-drug administration (FDA) recommended limits on alcohol content for (OTC) "over
the counter" oral products.
 Storage :-
Elixirs should be stored in tight , light resistance container and protected from excessive
heat ; because of their usual content of volatile oils and alcohol.

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 -11-
Gargles
Are aqueous solutions used for treatment of pharynx and naso-pharynx inflammation
by forcing the air from the lungs through the gargle which is held in the throat.
Note : The gargle containing a stringent substance must be diluted with water prior to
use , and must be kept in a special bottle on which red label is putted.
Examples :
1- Gargles of phenol.
2- Gargles of potassium chlorate & phenol.
3- Gargles of potassium permanganate (0.025 %).
4- Gargles of sodium bicarbonate.

 Gargles of phenol :
Phenol Glycerin …………….. 50 ml
Amaranth dye ………………. 10 ml
D.W Q.S to ………….…… 1000 ml

 The phenol glycerin is mixed with a part of D.W , and then add the dye. After that add
the remaining of D.W to get the desired preparation.

*************************

Lotions
Are liquid preparations intended for external application to the skin , they are usually
suspension , emulsion of dispersed solids , or liquid materials in aqueous vehicle. They
are intended to soften the skin and leave a thin coat of their components on the skin
surface as they dry.

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