THE MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION HUB

PROF. EVELINDA A. PATTON

DR. MAY Q. APAT
FOR CLASSROOM USE ONLY
 MESSAGE FROM THE PNU PRESIDENT

Warmest felicitations to everyone! I welcome you all to Academic Year 2020-2021!

The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted livelihoods all over the world. The education sector has been gravely
affected. Teachers and students both struggle to cope with one of the greatest disruptions to teaching and learning in recent
times. The era of the “new normal” has begun. To prevent the further spread of the disease, face-to-face (F2F) interactions
have been discouraged. To address this issue, the Department of Education (DepEd) and the Commission on Higher
Education proposed flexible and remote learning modalities for the delivery of instruction.

We at PNU have been particularly fortunate to be one step ahead. In order to address 21 st century skills, flexible
learning activities (FLAs) have been incorporated in the Outcomes-Based Teacher Education Curriculum (OBTEC) since
2014. The visionary teachers and education leaders of PNU have provided the platform where we can adapt to the new
normal in education much more easily. Now, we present you with Kaway-Aralan sa Bagong Kadawyan, PNU’s response
to the new normal in education. We have been preparing your modules since June 2020. Amidst all the challenges, we
worked together as one PNU System to ensure that the standard and quality of education will not be compromised. We
prepared remote, online (synchronous and asynchronous), and a mix of both modalities in order to address the needs of all
our students. Whenever you look at your toolkits and course packs, we hope that you will take intoconsideration the love
and care that our faculty members poured into them to ensure that your learning will not suffer any further disruption.

It would have been ideal to meet you all in the University and continue to hold classes the way they were, but
circumstances are very different compared to six (6) months ago. We do value your learning, but we value your safety and
wellness even more. You will be the first batch of PNU learners to experience flexible and remote learning modality. As
we all face the challenges of the new normal, we ask that you provide us with constructive feedback so that we willbe
able to address your concerns. Let this be an opportunity where we can both learn from one another.

The year 2020 will go down in history as one of the most unforgettable years in recent history. This will also be
remembered not so much because of the tragedies we have experienced but more so because of the triumph of the human
spirit in the midst of all disasters and difficulties. As we navigate the new normal, let us always remember that you are
not alone in this struggle. We work together as One PNU System to ensure that teaching and learning continue despite the
limitations. We are confident that the collective efforts of our faculty members, administrative staff, and students will yield
great results eventually. Always remember that our driving force behind everything that we did and everything we will
eventually do is to ultimately ensure that no PNU learner will be left behind: Walang PNUan angmaiiwan!

With this, I wish you the best in the coming days of your home schooling. Study well and rise above these
challenges.

Welcome once again to PNU, welcome to Inang Pamantasan! God bless

everyone and please continue to stay safe!

BERT JAZMIN TUGA, PhD

President
 INTRODUCTION

Teaching methods are an important aspect of teaching and learning. Every

teacher develops a particular way of going about the complex task of teaching.
For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has to be in
relation with the characteristic of the learner and the type of learning it is
supposed to bring about.

Different methods are appropriate for different contexts. Furthermore,

teaching methods are only ONE component of the many that interact and are
entangled in a teaching event. Among others are: the commitment of the
teacher; the physical and psychological conditions of the teaching space; the
commitment of the learners; support of caregivers and parents; the
relationship between the curriculum and the interests and needs of the
students.

This course pack is designed to develop students’ deep understanding

of the complexities of teaching and learning and develop their pedagogical
content knowledge, values and dispositions necessary to become effective
teachers, informed decision maker and reflective practitioners. Pre-service
teachers are expected to develop critical understanding of application of
theories and principles of teaching and learning. At the end, the students are
expected to apply appropriate and meaningful pedagogy in designing
instruction to facilitate learning and learning in a diverse classroom contexts.

There are seven modules that compose this course pack. Module 1:The
Elements of Teaching and Learning, Module 2: The Principles of Learning,
Module 3: Instructional Planning, Module 4:Appropriate Learning Activities,
Module 5: Selection & Use of Listrrictional Aids, Module 6: Assessment of
Learning and Module 7: Lesson Planning. Each lesson in the module follows
a distinct pattern in which the student would try to navigate from: Let’s Get
Started, Let’s Explore, Let’s Check Understanding, Let’s Reflect, and Let’s
Tame it to the Net. At the end, the strident is expected to comply all the tasks
given for each lesson in the module.

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 OBJECTIVES

Demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the nature of the

learner, its fundamental equipment and learning styles in
facilitating teaching and learning
Describe the professional teacher.
Manifest understanding of supportive learning environments
that nurture and inspire learner participation.
Acquire thorough understanding of the teaching-learning
process.
Describe the underlying principles of teaching and learning
Use current findings in learning research as basis for
examining pedagogical and andragogical practices.
Plan lessons based on theories and principles of effective
instruction.
Formulate SMART objectives
Design a lesson using teaching strategies that develop critical
and creative thinking, and/or other higher order thinking
skills.
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of differentiated
teaching to suit learners’ gender, needs, strengths, interests
and experiences.
Demonstrate an understanding of the role of assessment data
as feedback in teaching learning practices and programs.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. ...................................................... iii

OBJECTIVES .......................................................... iv

Module 1: The Elements of Teaching and Learning

A. The Learner.............................................1
B. The Teacher ............................................ 9
C. The Learning Environment ................... 14

Module 2: The Principles of Learning. ....................... 19

Module 3: Instructional Planning

A. Instructional Goals/Objectives .............. 25
B. Instructional Content.............................. 35
C. Selecting Teaching Strategies. .............. 44
D. Instructional Approaches & Strategies. . 51

Module 4: Appropriate Learning Activities ................. 67

A. Introductoiy ........................................... 68
B. Developmental ...................................... 69
C. Application ........................................... 71
D. Concluding ........................................... 72
Module 5: Selection and Use of Instructional Aids ..............76

Module 6: Assessment of Learning ........................................ 83

A. Guiding Principles in Assessment
B. Tools to Assess Learning

Module 7: Lesson Planning .............................................. 92

A. Importance of Lesson Planning
B. Types of Lesson Plan

BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................. 97

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 Module 1: The Elements of Teaching and
learning

LET’S GET STARTED

The three principal elements in the educative process are the teacher, learner and
conducive learning environment. Only when a positive relationship exists among them can teaching
and learning becomes possible and attainable.

The teacher serves as the prime mover of the educational wheel while the learner is the
key participant in the learning process. The favorable environment provides essential features and
ingredients that could make a headway in guiding the teaching and learning processes and
methodologies needed for a smooth linkage among the three.

What role does each play in the teaching-learning process? How does learning
environment contribute to learning?

LET’S EXPLORE

A . THE LEARNER

The learner is the core of the teaching-learning process. It is from him that revolves all
activities related to classroom activities. He is the person who receives instruction from theteacher. To
understand the learner, the teacher must be aware that every child is unique having traits peculiar to
himself and that he is distinct and apart from any other in terms of interests, traits, abilities,
characteristic, and maturity.

The learner is also an embodied spirit, He/she is a union of a sentient body and a
rational soul. His/her body experiences sensations and feels pleasure and pain. His/her soul is the
principle of spiritual acts, the source of intellectual abstraction, self-reflection, and free rational
volition. Body and soul exist in mutual dependence. (Kelly, 1965)

As teachers then, let us care for the embodied spirit-learner. Let us feed his/her body as well
as his spirit. Only when the learner is nourished materially and spiritually can he/she becomplete for
that is his/her very nature.
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 THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUIPMENT OF THE LEARNER

T The learner is equipped with both the cognitive as well as appetitive faculties. These faculties
will naturally help or guide the learner as he dealt with the learning process.

COGNITIVE

The cognitive faculties of the learners include his or her 1.) five senses, 2.) instincts, 3.)
imagination, 4.) memory and 5.)intellect. All of these faculties are related to the basic operation off
the human brain and are necessary for the learning process.

T Through the five senses, the learner is able to see, hear, taste and smell. He or she can grasp
different information from his or her environment using these natural senses.The learner is also
equipped with instincts. This means that the learner has a natural or inherent capacity or tendency
to respond to environmental stimuli such as danger signs for survival or self-preservation.
With the learner’s imagination, he or she can form pictorial representations of material
objects in his or her mind. This ability is an important factor in the learning process.

The learner’s memory is also one of the important factors in learning. With the use of the
memory, the learner can recall or retain post mental actions in his or her mind. The memory serves
as the storage of the prior knowledge of the learner.

The learner’s intellect is also an important factor in learning. With the use of the learner’s
intellect, he or she can form concepts or ideas as he or she thinks as well make judgment from given
information and reason out.

APPETITIVE

Feelings and emotions. Emotion is the on/off switch for learning. Positive feelings and
emotions make the teaching-learning process an exciting and a joyful, fruitful affair. Negative
feelings and emotions make the same process a burden. The lessons that we learn and remember
most are those that have struck us in one way or another.
Negative emotions adversely affect the cognitive processes of recalling, imagining, analyzing,
reasoning, judging, evaluating synthesizing. Faced with frustration, despair, worry, sadness, orr
shame, learners lose access to their own memory, reasoning, and the capacity to make connections.

Will. The learner’s will serve as guiding force and the main integrating force on his/her
character. By his/her will, the learner wills what his/her intellect presents as good and desirable.

It is this will that makes the learner free to choose or not to choose to do the good as
presented by his/her intellect. It is this free will that will not allow the learner to be totally
determined by his/her environment. This means that the degree to which the learner is influenced by
his/her environment depends ultimately the strength of his/her will. The learner whose will is weak
will easily succumbs to the bad influence of his/her peer group even if his/her intellect tells him/her
not. But the learner with a strong will shall resist the temptation to be influenced by bad peer group.
Therefore, the focus of values education should be the strengthening of the will.
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FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT LEARNER DIVERSITY

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are some ways
different from them. Recall how these differences were shown in your class includes - gender, cultural
background, language, abilities, aptitude, interest, attitudes and values. This diversity also comes from
other factors like the following.

1. Socioeconomic status - Students who came from different socioeconomic background

manifest a wide range of behavior due to differences in upbringing practices. Some
families allow their members to express their preferences regarding self-discipline
while others are left to passively follow home regulations. Their participation in
classroom activities are influenced by their home training and experiences either they
become attuned and confident in their ways or inactive and apathetic. Today we speak
of multicultural, diverse, pluralistic classrooms.
2. Thinking/Learning style - Individuals think and learn in distinct ways. In any group of
learners there will always be different learning characteristics, particularly in the
learners’ manner of processing information. Some learn better by seeing something;
others by just listening; and still others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities - One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity
in learning is the presence of exceptionalities. The term “exceptional learners includes
those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning,
physical and sensory impairment, emotional disturbances and giftedness. Most if
these learners require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education
and related services if they are to reach their full potential of development.

A teacher may be “challenged” to handle a class with students so diverse. There maybe students
having different cultural background, different language abilities, different attitudes and aptitudes and
behaviors. Some teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, they really a hassle! Yet a
more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to learn not just for students
, but for herself as well. A wise teacher may choose to respect and celebrate diversity. Here are some
benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to your classroom.
1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony.

GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in Frames
of Mind (1983). His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of intelligence.
These are the tails leading to children’s learning that teachers should address in their classrooms all
the time

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DUNN AND DUNN LEARNING STYLE MODEL
Another factor that makes your students differ from one another is learning style.
Learning style is the way a person processes, internalizes, and studies new and challenging material.
Below presents Dunn and Dunn’s different learning style developed by Dr. Rita Dunn and Dr.
Kenneth Dunn, (2000).

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A summary of these elements is provided below:

1. Environmental. The environmental strand refers to these elements: lighting, sound, temperature,
and seating arrangement. For example, some people need to study in a cool and quiet room, and
others cannot focus unless they have music playing and it is warm (sound temperature elements.)

2. Emotional. This strand includes the following elements: motivation, persistence, responsibility,
and structure. For example, some people must complete a project before they start a new one, and
others work best on multiple tasks at the same time (persistence element).

3. Sociological. The sociological strand represents elements related to how individuals learn in
association with other people: (a) alone or with peers, (b) an authoritative adult or with a collegial
colleague, and (c) learning in a variety of ways or in routine patterns. For example, a number of
people need to work alone when tackling a new and difficult subject, while others learn best when
working with colleagues (learning alone or with peer’s element).

4. Physiological. The elements in this strand are perceptual (auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic),
time-of-day energy levels, intake (eating or not while studying) and mobility (sitting still or moving
around). for examples, many people refer to themselves as night owls or early birds because they
function best at night or in the morning (time-of-day element).

5. Psychological. The elements in this strand correspond to the following types of psychological
processing: hemispheric, impulsive or reflective, and global versus analytic. The hemispheric element
refers to left and right brain processing modes; the impulsive versus reflective style describes how
some people leap before thinking and others scrutinize the situation before moving an inch.

Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear, thought and tend to see the whole pattern
rather than particle elements. They are the forest “seers” who give attention only to the overall structure
and sometimes ignore details. This type of learners prefer to work in an environment with soft lightning
and informal setting. People with this processing style need breaks, snacking, mobility, and sound.
Analytic. Analytic thinkers lean towards the linear, step by step processes of learning. They
tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers”They are more
comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies. Furthermore this type of learners prefer to work in
an environment with bright light and formal seating. They work best with few or no interruptions, in
a quiet environment, and little or no snacking.

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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

Activity 1: Discuss.

1. What is the nature of the learner? What are the implications of these to the teaching
learning process?

2. How do learning styles of students affect teaching and learning?

Activity 2: Show the faculties or powers of the learner through a concept map.

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 LET’S REFLECT

1. Do you believe that every child is a potential genius?

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

1. Read a research or study related to any type of exceptionalities.

Supply the required information.

PROBLEM:

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY:

FINDINGS:

CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS:

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B. THE TEACHER

LET’S GET STARTED

Teaching ever since has been regarded as a noble profession. It is one which can be
rewarding and fulfilling no matter the odds, especially for people who regard it as a calling, more
than a commitment, The concept of teaching as an ideal profession has remained strong through the
years, but it has been accentuated by the need for meeting the challenges of the times which can be
addressed through quality teaching. Today there is a persistent demand for professional teachers who
will stick by the profession despite the constraints. However the prospects of better treatment for
teachers have long waned aggravated by practical problems of raising salaries,enjoying health
benefits, upgrading school facilities, and even in the matter of expanding opportunities for growth
for those who will choose to remain in the profession.
Fortunately, the love for teaching has served as a motivating factor to teachers who have not
left behind the much touted idealism. Despite the problems attributed to present day economic woes,
teaching has remained inspiring and fulfilling.

LET’S EXPLORE

The teacher plays a vital role in the lives of the students. He/She plays varied roles in the
classroom, he is the manager, counselor, motivator, leader, model public relations specialist, parent-
surrogate, facilitator and instructor. Educators and education specialists are one in concluding that
“good teachers are born. Stated in another way, the good ones are “born teachers”

There are two distinct characteristics of an effective and efficient teacher: Professional and
Personal Qualities.

Who is the professional teacher?

The professional teacher is the “licensed professional who possesses dignity and reputation
with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence. She/He adheres to observe,
and practice a set of ethical and moral principles, standards and values.” (Code of Ethics of
Professional Teachers, 1997). The professional teacher is one who went through four to five year
period of rigorous academic preparation in teaching and one who is given license to teach by the Board
or Professional Teachers of the Professional Regulation Commission after fulfilling requirements
prescribed by law such as passing the Board Licensure Examination for Professional Teachers
(BLEPT). She/he is registered in the roster of professional teachers at the Professional Regulation
Commission and undergoes continuing professional education.

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1. Professional Qualities
A professional teacher perceives himself/herself as someone who can effect change or learning,
(sense of efficacy) because s/he is an expert in what s/he teaches (subject matter knowledge), and in
how s/he teaches (pedagogical knowledge.)

A professional qualities include:

⚫ Control of the knowledge base of teaching and learning and use of this knowledge to guide
the science and art of his/her teaching practice.
⚫ Repertoire of best teaching practice and can use these to instruct children in classroom and to
work with adults in the school setting.
⚫ Dispositions and skills to approach all aspects of his/her work in a reflective, collegial, and
problem-solving manner.
⚫ View of learning to teach as a lifelong process and dispositions and skills for working
towards improving his/her own teaching as well as improving schools (Arends, 1994).

The last attribute cried by Arends highlights continuing professional development (cpd) or
continuing professional education (cpe). As the quotation goes, “once a teacher, forever a
student.”

2. Personal Qualities

Personality is the sum of one’s personal characteristics. It is one’s identity. Teachers, more
than any other professionals, are momentarily subjected to scrutiny to the minutest detail and
observation by those they associate with. Teachers are judged more strictly than other professionals.
The personality they project determines the impressions they make upon students and colleagues.
Their poise, bearing, manner of dressing and facial expression has an impact on their interaction
with students.
Personalities may be described as authoritarian, weak, dynamic, or “magnetic”. Teacher’s
personality must be natural and genuine, that is, devoid of pretenses and artificiality. They must be
consistent, true and authentic.

Some outstanding personal qualities that never fail to win their flock are worth mentioning.

(1) Passion, humor, patience, enthusiasm, good values & attitudes

(2) Presentable appearance, courtesy and a pleasant voice
(3) Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty and loyalty
(4) Flexibility, creativity and resourcefulness
(5) Sociability, friendliness and cooperativeness
(6) Commitment
Commitment is a “solemn promise” to perform the duties and responsibilities mandated
by the laws and code of ethics of the profession. It is an unwavering pledge to perform all teaching and
learning activities with consistency and selflessness to the best interest of the students under their care.
Committed teachers are caring and dedicated. They are ready to carry on no matter the price.
Dedication to the teaching job is the true essence of professionalism. Today we
lament over the fast disappearing breed of teachers with a missionary spirit.

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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

1. Describe a professional teacher.

2. Write an argumentation paper. Decide which is more important to be effective, personal or

professional attributes?

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 LET’S REFLECT

1. Reflect on the personal attributes of a professional teacher. Which of these do you

have? Don’t have? Any personal plan of action for your growth?

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

1. Surf at least 5 inspirational quotes for teachers. Pick one and give your insights.

2. Research findings on effective teachers compiled by Stronge (2012)

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C. THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

LET’S GET STARTED

In order to teach, you must be able to manage your students. No matter how much potential
you have as a teacher, if you are unable to control the students in your classroom, little learning will
take place. Classroom management is an integral part of teaching , and techniques of managing
students both can and must be acquired by the teacher.

A positive classroom environment helps improve attention, reduce anxiety, and supports
emotional and behavioral regulation of students. When educators foster apositive
learning culture; learners are more likely to acquire higher motivation that leads to wonderful learning
outcomes.

LET’S EXPLORE

The learning environment is a venue for social interaction that includes ways of doing things,
solving problems, and acquiring information. It provides an instructional process involving the teacher,
the learner and the subject matter. It is from this learning environment that learners engage themselves
in a set of common practice embodying certain beliefs, prejudices, traits and behavior to be acquired.

The learning environment consists of the physical environment as well as the psychologicall
atmosphere or the socio-emotional climate which is mainly a product of the interaction and relationship
between teacher and students and among the students.

Physical Environment. It is the totality of the outside elements or the physical make.up thatt
influences the learner. This includes the room, its size, location, ventilation, lightings, instructionall
materials, chair arrangement, room acoustics, and provisions for orderliness, cleanliness and
sanitation.

Psychological Climate. Let us not forget that equally important, if not more important, is the
psychological atmosphere or climate that reigns in the classroom. Researchers agree that in addition to
conductive physical environment, the favorable school climate includes:
1. Safety (e.g. rules and norms; physical safety; socio-emotional safety)
2. Relationships (e.g. respect for diversity; school connectedness/ engagement;
social support - adults; social support -students; leadership); and
3. Teaching and learning (e.g social, emotional, ethical and civic learning;
support for learning; professional relationships)

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 Pine and Horne (1990) described a facilitative learning environment for learning. It is one:

1. Which encourages people to be active.

2. Which promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of the personal meaning of idea.
3. Which emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of learning.
4. In which difference is good and desirable- There respect for diversity. To be different doesn’t me
an to be deficient.
5. Which consistently recognizes people’s right to make mistakes.
6. Which tolerate ambiguity.
7. In which evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self-evaluation
8. Which encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self- People feel at ease and so
aren’t afraid to be transparent.
9. In which people are encouraged to trust in themselves as well as in external sources.
10. In which people feel they are respected
11. In which people feel they are accepted- There is a sense of belongingness.
12. Which permits confrontation.
13. A conducive learning environment is necessary in the full development of the cognitive and
appetitive faculties of the learner- His senses, instincts, imagination, memory, feelings,
emotions and will.

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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

1. How do you describe a facilitative learning environment?

2. Say something about:

• Physical Environment -

• Psychological Environment

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 LET’S REFLECT

1. Acts of bullying in the classroom and their effects on teaching -learning.

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

1. Research on the characteristics of a child-friendly school. Write your findings here.

2. Having known such characteristics of a child friendly school and given that these
are implemented by the school, compose a song or poem that would relate the
outcomes of such characteristics.”

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 Module 2: Principles of Learning

LET’S GET STARTED

Learning is a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and
increases the potential for improved performance and future learning.(Ambrose et al. 2010 p3).
The change in the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude or behavior. As a result
of learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas and the world differently. Learning is not
something done to students, but rather something students themselves do. It is the direct result of
how students interpret and respond to their experiences. The learning of our student is our
foremost concern. How do we define learning? Learning is the acquisition of a knowledge- based
used with fluency to make sense of the world, solve problems and make decisions. Educational
researchers agree that learning is much deeper than memorization and information recall. Deep
and long-lasting learning involves understanding, relating ideas and making connections between
prior and new knowledge, independent and critical thinking and ability to transfer knowledge to
new and different contexts.

LET’S EXPLORE

Some of the most important principles of learning.

To teach effectively, the teacher must understand the basic principles of learning. Based on the
different concepts of the learning process and the laws that govern them, the following general
principles of learning are presented for guidance in teaching:

1. Learning is considered as the acquisition of knowledge, habits, skills, through the

interaction of the individual and total environment. Responses are considered an
integral part of the unified self in meeting life’s demands.

2. Learning is meaningful if it is organized in such a way as to emphasize and call for

understanding, insight, initiative, and cooperation. When the learner is capable of
gaining insight or understanding into the learning situation, then and only then will
learning take place.

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3. Learning is facilitated by motives or drives. Needs, interests, and goals are fundamental to
the learning process. If the individual has to learn, he must have some goal to be
accomplished. Learning is best when the learner knows and understands his motive in
learning.

4. Learning is facilitated by the law of readiness or mindset. Learning does not occur unless
the learner is ready to act or to learn. When a person is ready to learn, he learns more
effectively and with greater satisfaction than when unprepared. When a person feels
ready to act and is prevented from doing so, he feels annoyed. Mental set is
conductive to effective learning.

5. Learning is facilitated by the law of exercise. Practice and exercise are so common that
they are universally accepted as an active means of learning. Lack of practice or
exercise causes memory of learned materials weaken; and in general, the longer the
period of disuse, the greater the loss. We learn and retain by exercise and forget
through disuse.

6. Learning is facilitated by the law of effect. The law of effect pertains to the influence of
satisfying or unsatisfying feeling tones that accompany a response and either
strengthen or weaken that response. When the learner finds the correct answer to a
question, he feels pleased about his achievement and the connection is consequently
strengthened. A feeling of satisfaction fixes a response, whereas a feeling of
annoyance tends to destroy it.

7. Learning is facilitate by the law of belongingness. When the learner perceives the
relationship of facts presented, the speed of learning is greatly increased. In other that
learning, in the classroom will be more meaningful to the learner, it must be related in
some way to his previous knowledge. It must belong to the context of learning the
learner has already achieved.

8. Learning is facilitated when the teacher provides the learner with the proper stimuli and
guides, and uses the principle of conditioning or associating those learning functions
that need to be made automatic for most effective learning. Automatic responses are
of prime importance in the formation of new habits or skills for they increase power
and lessen fatigue. They serve as time-and-energy-saving habits.

9. Learning “is conditioned by the attitude of the learner, the environmental conditions
conducive to learning, and the attitude and skill of the teacher in setting the stage for
learning, which includes teaching skill itself. Learning is most effective in an
atmosphere of security and belonging.

10. Learning difficulty is due to many factors within the learner himself. The most common
factors which affect the learning process are the intellectual, physical, emotional and
social factors. All of these factors may be found in the individual himself.

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 11. Learning is effective when more senses are utilized by the learner. The combination of
seeing and hearing with touch, taste, and smell will facilitate the learning and
understanding of the ‘learning situation. The use of different senses will also add
electiveness in causing learning to be meaningful and functional.

12. Learning is effective when it is made functional and aided by understanding derived from
experience. The experiences of the pupil when utilized by the teacher will add to the
understanding of the learning situation. Experiences and other material devices are
often used in teaching to give meaning and understanding to the learner. The maturity
and intelligence of the learner will determine the need for supplemental experience
and other instructional devices

Below are some principles of learning from Horne and Pine (1990).

1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the learner.
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas.
3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience.
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process. Cooperation fosters learning.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process.
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual.

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SL LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

Elaborate on the following principles:

a. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the
learner.

b. Learning is evolutionary process.

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 LET’S REFLECT

1. “The ability to learn is the most significant activity of man.”

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

1. There are other principles and laws of learning. Research at least three of them and
give example for each principle.

2. Have you observed that these principles that you searched are lived by your teachers
in elementary/junior/senior school/ or even in college? In what way? Support.

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 Module 3: Instructional Planning

LET’S GET STARTED

Learning is enhanced and made effective through proper selection of instructional approaches and
methods. Teacher selects the best approach which will work well for her and the students. He employs
a variety of approaches and finds out what best fits his personal style. Variety of approaches is
essential to successful teaching. Constant use of a particular approach becomes boring on the part of
students. Determining appropriate instructional approaches is anchored on how wellthe chosen
methods will meet instructional objectives. There is no best method, but what matters is the appropriate
method for a particular learning experience.

LET’S EXPLORE

A.Instructional Objectives
Learning objectives refer to the criteria that measure, select the materials, outline the content,
and choose the specific instructional procedures to apply. They provide the basis of the tests and
examinations to be prepared. Normally these objectives are stated in behavioral terms. A behavioral
objectives is the one that describes observable behavior of a student or a product of the observable
behavior. Here are some guiding principles in the formulation of your lesson objectives.

1. “Begin with the end in mind,” says Covey, the author of “Seven Habits of Effective People”. In
the context of teaching, this means that we must begin our lesson with a clearly define lesson
objectives. With a clear and specific lesson objective we will have a sense of direction. With a definite
lesson objective in mind, we do not lose sight of what we intend to teach.
2
2. Share lesson objective with students. Research shows that, all too often, pupils have a good
surface understanding of individual tasks but little sense of the purpose of the task and, ultimately,
what they are required to learn. Sharing learning objectives with pupils helps them recognize what they
are trying to learn and why. When our students set their own personal target, we are certain that they
will become more self-motivated.
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3. Lesson objectives must be in the two or three domains-knowledge (cognitive) skill,
(psychomotor) and values (affective). Our lesson maybe dominantly cognitive, psychomotor or
affective. Dominantly cognitive if it is meant primarily for knowledge acquisition and dominantly
psychomotor it is intended for the acquisition and honing of skills. Lesson objectives in the affective
domain are mainly focused on attitude and value formation. A cognitive or a skill lesson must
always include the affective dimension for holistic learning.

4. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives. With our lesson objective becoming our
student’s lesson objective, too, our students will be self-propelled as we teach. The level of their
self-motivation all the more increases when our lesson objective is relevant to their daily life, hence,
significant.

5. Lesson objective must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the Philippine
Constitution and other laws and on the vision-mission statements of the educational institution
of which you are a part. This means that the aims and goals of education as provided for in our laws
filter down to our lesson objectives. We have something to do with the attainment of our broad aims
of education. We can contribute very much to the realization of our school’s vision and mission
statements because our lesson objectives are based on our school’s vision and mission statements.
Imagine what happens when our lesson objectives are not in any way related to the goals of education
and to the vision-mission statements of the educational institutions where we work.

6. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking. Our teaching strategies and
techniques must be such that they serve as catalyst in the development of higher-order-thinking-
skills (HOTS) and creative thinking skills. For this reason, the whole brain must be used for
balanced learning not just the left for critical thinking but also the right for creative thinking.

7. For accountability of learning, lesson objectives mut be SMART, i.e., Specific Measurable,
Attainable, Result-oriented and Relevant, Time-bounded and Terminal.
When our lesson objective is SMART it is quite easy to find out at the end of our lesson if we attained
our objective or not. It will also be easier on our part to formulate a test that is valid to measure the
attainment of our lesson objective. Moreover, our lesson becomes more focused for we have a concrete
picture of the behavior that our students should be able to demonstrate if we realized our lesson
objective. In short, SMART objective increase our accountability for the learning of our students. With
SMART objectives, we depart from the unsound practice of teaching that is so spread out that in the
end we find ourselves unclear on what test we are going to give to assess learning.

Taxonomy of Objectives
Learning is seen through the concepts of three domains, the cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor.

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Old Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive domain. Benjamin Bloom (1956) led his group in coming
up with the list of instructional objectives in the cognitive domain. This taxonomycontains the levels
from knowledge to evaluation. The six level progress from simple to more complex levels of thinking,
the last three being referred to as “higher-order thinking skills” or HOTS!

To facilitate learning, we begin teaching with facts, stating memorized rules, principles or
definitions (knowledge), which must lead to understanding concepts, rules and principles
(comprehension). A proof of the comprehension of the concepts and principles is using them in real
life situation (application). For an in-depth understanding and mastery of these applied concepts, rules
and principles, these are broken down into parts (analysis). Students may compare, contrast, classify,
further investigate, etc. These actions now reflect the higher level of thinking.

A still higher level of thinking is when students put togethe elements of what has been learned
in a new way (synthesis). They come up with wholistic, complete, more integrated, or evena new
view or perspective of what was learned. With a full grasp of what was learned, the students can now
assess or judge, based on a set of standards, on what they have learned (evaluation).

27
 Revised Taxonomy
Anderson’s taxonomy of cognitive domain. After 45 years since the publication of Bloom’s
taxonomy, a group led by Lorin Anderson (Bloom’s former student) and David Krathwohl led a new
group of experts to work together. The result was what is now called the revised taxonomy which was
made in the light of the 21st century skills.

Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of affective domain. David Krathwohl’s affective learning is

demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness, interests, attention and values of
concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with others, and ability to
demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are appropriate to the test situation and
the field of study. The taxonomy of objectives is ordered according to the principle of internalization.
The levels of affective behavior are arranged according to the level of internalization. Internalization
of a value begins with awareness of the value. This value awareness leads to a point where the
value becomes internalized and it became part and parcel of a person’s character consequently
guiding or controlling his/her behavior.

F 28
 Anita Harlow’s Taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. It is organized according to the degree of
coordination including involuntary responses as well as learned capabilities. Simple reflexes
begin at the lowest level of the taxonomy, while complex neuromuscular coordination makes up the
highest levels. (Seels & Glasgow, 1990).

Anita Harlow (1972) did something parallel to what Bloom and Krathwohl did for learning objectives
in the psychomotor domain.

Moore (1998) also gave three levels of learning in the psychomotor domain. They
are as follows:

Precision

Manipulation

Imitation
How to Write Lesson Objectives

Formulating good lesson objectives is crucial to good teaching. Unfortunately, formulating

SMART lesson objectives is one common problem among beginning teachers. Let us learn how to do it
here. Just bear in mind that the objectives are outcomes rather than instructional process. Objectives are
measurable outcome statements. If an outcome statement isn’t precise enough to measure whether the
outcome has been achieved, it isn’t an objective. It is a goal.

29
Mager (1998) cites the following characteristics of objectives:

1. It describes student performance. It doesn’t say anything about what the instructor will do or try to
accomplish. It doesn’t describe course content or the textbook.
2. An objective is about ends rather than means. It describes a product of instruction rather than the
process of instruction. It describes what the students will be able to do when they are competent, rather
than describing how they will be made competent.
3. An objective describes the conditions under which the performance occurs on the job; i.e., the tools,
equipment, environment and circumstances that will influence the performance.
4. An objective describes the standard of acceptable performance; it tells how well someone must perform
before being considered competent on that objective.

In short, an objective will describe the a) what the student should be able to do (performance), b)
the conditions under which the doing will occur (condition), and c) the criteria by which the performance
will be judged (acceptable performance)

30
 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

1. Describe the teaching behavior of teacher without a specific lesson objective upon
entering the class.

2. Go back to the taxonomy of objectives. Formulate at least three good lesson objectives
each domain. So, you will have a total of 9 lesson objectives. Decide on your topic.
• Cognitive:

• Affective:

31
30
 • Psychomotor:

3. Elaborate on the guiding principles in determining and formulating learning objectives.

a. Begin with the end in mind.

b. Share lesson objectives with students.

32
31
 LET’S REFLECT

1. “Goals are our guiding star.”

33
 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

Research on criticism against SMART objectives. Reconcile these criticisms with the
benefits derived from writing SMART objectives.

34
 C. Instructional Content
LET’S GET STARTED

What knowledge is truly essential and enduring? What is worth teaching and learning? Our
leaders in the basic education level came up with the Philippine Elementary Learning Competencies
(PELCs) and Philippine Secondary Learning Competencies (PSLCs) in 2001. The “intended” content
of what we teach is laid down in such document. In the K to 12 Curriculum, standards and
competencies are also spelled out. This means that we are not entirely free in the selection of our
content. They are “given” but how they are organized and presented in the classroom, ultimately
depends on you. Below are some principles to guide you.

LET’S EXPLORE

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content

1. One guiding principle related to subject matter content is to observe the following qualities in
the selection and organization of content:
a.) Validity – this means teaching the content that we ought to teach according to national standards
explicit in the K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum; it also means teaching the content in order to
realize the goals and objectives of the course as laid down in the basic education curriculum.
b.) Significance – what we teach should respond to the needs and interest of the learners, hence
meaningful and significant.
c.) Balance – content includes not only facts but also concepts and values. The use of the three-level
approach ensures a balance of cognitive, psychomotor, and affective lesson content.
A balanced content is something that is not too easy to bore the above average student, neither
not too difficult to turn off the average. It is something that challenges the student. To observe the
principle of balance, no topic must be extensively discussed at the expense of other topics.
d.) Self-sufficiency – content fully covers the essentials. Learning content is not “mile-wide-and- inch-
deep”. The essentials are sufficiently covered and are treated in depth. This is a case of “less is
more”.
e.) Interest – teacher considers interest of the learners, their developmental stages and cultural and
ethnic background.
f.) Utility – will this content be use to the learners? It is not meant only to be memorized for test and
grade purposes. What is learned has a function even after examinations are over.
g.) Feasibility – the content is feasible on the sense that the essential content can be covered in the
amount of time available for instruction. A guaranteed and a viable

2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts. We can’t do away with
facts but be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an increasingly richer and more
sophisticated knowledge base and by working out a process of conceptual understanding.
Here are a few ways cited by cognitive psychologists (Ormrod, 2000) which you can help your
students:
35
 a.) Providing opportunities for experimentation
b.) Presenting the ideas of others
c.) Emphasizing conceptual understanding

3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill, and affective elements.

While our subject matter content comes in three domains, these three domains should not be
treated as though there was a clear dividing line among them. When our point of emphasis is the
cognitive aspect, it does not mean that we exclude skills. In the first place, our teaching of facts,
concepts, principles, theories and laws necessitate the skills of seeing the relationships among these in
order to see meaning. Likewise, when our subject matter is focused on the thinking and manipulative
skills, our lesson content also has cognitive content. More so with the teaching of values, for values
have definitely a cognitive basis. If the values taught are imbibed by the students, these are expressed
in their daily behavior (skill). The cognitive lesson may be used as a vehicle in the teaching of skills
and values. In short, subject matter content is an integration of facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses,
theories, and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills, values and attitudes.

a.) The Structure of Subject Matter Content

Our subject matter content includes cognitive, skill and affective components. The cognitive component
is concerned with facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories, and laws. The skill component refers
to thinking skills as well as manipulative skills while the affective component is the realm of values and
attitudes.
(1) Cognitive (Ormrod, 2000)
(a) Fact is an idea or action that can be verified. Example – Names and dates of important activities,
population of the Philippines.
Facts are the basic unit of cognitive subject matter content. From facts, we go higher to concepts,
principles, hypotheses, theories, and laws. It is, therefore, necessary that the facts that we begin
with are updated and accurate.
(b) Concept is a categorization of events, places, people, ideas. Example – The concept furniture
includes objects as chairs, tables, beds, and desks. The concept swim encompasses different
actions like breast stroke, crawl, butterfly that involve propelling oneself through water.
(c) Principle is the relationship(s) between and among facts and concepts. These are arrived at when
similar research studies yield similar results time after time. Example – The number of children
in the family is related to the average scores on nationally standardized achievement tests for
those children.
(d) Hypotheses are educated guesses about relationships (principles). Example – For lower division
undergraduate students, study habits is a better predictor of success in a college course than is a
measure of intelligence or reading comprehension.
(e) Theories refer to a set of facts, concepts and principles that described possible underlying
unobservable mechanisms that regulate human learning, development, and behavior. They
explain why these principles are true. Examples – Piaget’s theory on cognitive development,
Kohlberg’s theory on moral development.

36
 (f) Laws are firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or theory. Examples – Thorndike’s
law of effect, law on the conservation of matter and energy, the law of supply and demand and
the law of gravity.
(2) Skills
Manipulative skills – there are courses that are dominantly skill-oriented like Computer,
Home Economics and Technology, Physical Education, Music and the like. In the biological
and physical sciences manipulative skills such as focusing the microscope, mounting
specimens on the slide, operating simple machines and other scientific gadgets, mixing
chemicals are also taught.
(a) Thinking skills – these refer to the skills beyond recall and comprehension. They are skill
concerned with the application of what was learned, (in problem-solving or in real life)
evaluation and critical and creative thinking and synthesis.
Divergent thinking. This includes fluent thinking, flexible thinking, original thinking
and elaborative thinking. Fluent thinking is characterized by the generation of lots of
ideas e.g., Pinoy Henyo in Eat Bulaga. Though flow is rapid. It is thinking of the most
possible ideas. Flexible thinking is characterized by a variety of thoughts in the kinds
of ideas generated. Different ideas from those usually presented flow from flexible
thinkers. Original thinking is thinking that differs from what’s gone before. Thought
production is away from the obvious and is different from the norm. Elaborative
thinking embellishes on previous ideas or plans. (Torres, 1994) It uses prior knowledge
to expand and add upon things and ideas.
Convergent thinking – it is narrowing down from many possible thoughts to end up
on a single best thought or an answer to a problem.
Problem solving – is made easier when the problem is well-defined. “The proper
definition of a problem is already half the solution.” It is doubly difficult when the
problem is ill-defined. When it is ill-defined, then the first thing to teach our students
is to better define the problem. Here are some techniques (Ormrod, 2000):
— Break large problems into well-defined ones
— Distinguish information needed
— Identify techniques to find needed information

Problems can be solved by using an algorithm or a heuristic strategy. Solving a problem by

the use of an algorithm means following specific, step-by-step instructions. An example is when you
assemble the dismantled parts of a new toy by following the “how to assemble” instructions.
Fortunately, or unfortunately, not all problems are solved by the use of algorithms. When there is no
algorithm for solving a problem, we use heuristics, general problem-solving strategy, for a solution.
These are informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that someone lead to an effective solution and
sometimes do not.

How can we help our students acquire effective problem-solving strategies? Ormrod (2000)
cites a number of situations in which they can be used.

36 37
 — Provide worked-out examples of algorithms being applied.
— Help students understand why particular algorithms are relevant and effective in certain
situations.
— When a student’s application of algorithm yields an incorrect answer, look closely at the
specific steps the student has taken until the trouble spot is located.

For teaching heuristics:

— Give students practice in defining ill-defined problems.

— Teach heuristics that students can use where no algorithms apply.

For teaching both algorithm and heuristics – teach problem-solving strategies within the context
of specific subject areas (not as a topic separate from academic content) – Provide scaffolding for
difficult problems – for example by breaking them into smaller and simpler problems, giving hints
about possible strategies, providing partial solutions.

Have students solve problems in small groups, sharing ideas about problem-solving strategies,
modeling various approaches for one another, and discussing the merits of each approach. Problem
solving involves both divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking enables you to generate
a diverse assortment of possible solutions to a problem. From the diverse possible solutions, you arrive
at the best possible answer.

Metaphoric thinking – this type of thinking uses analogic thinking, a figure of speech where a word
is used in a manner different from its ordinary designation to suggest or imply a parallelism or
similarity. Example – Teaching is lighting a candle. The learner’s mind is a “blank slate”. This may be
called analogic thinking.

Critical thinking – it involves evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth.
(Beyer, 1985) It takes a variety of forms – verbal reasoning, argument analysis, hypothesis testing and
decision making.

• Verbal reasoning – An example is evaluating the persuasive techniques in oral or written language.
You employ this when you evaluate the reliability and the truth of advertisements that bombard you
every day.
• Argument analysis – You are engaged in this critical thinking process when you discriminate
between reasons that do and do not support a particular conclusion. Example: The ground is wet
so it must have rained last night. When you analyze the given argument and determine whether or
not the reason, “it must have rained last night” logically support or does not logically support the
argument.
• Hypothesis testing – It is evaluating the value of data and research results in terms of the
methods used to obtain them and their potential relevance to particular conclusions. A question you
will ask when you are engaged in critical thinking as you are engaged in hypothesis testing is: Did I
make use of an appropriate method to measure a particular outcome?

38
• Decision making – We are engaged in critical thinking when we weigh the pros and cons of each
proposed alternative approach.

Creative thinking – this type of thinking involves “producing something that is both original and
worthwhile. (Sternberg, 2003) It is original thinking, one type of divergent thinking. It is the process
of bringing something new into birth. It is seeing new relationships and the use of imagination and
inventiveness.

What creative thinking behaviors should be developed?

Awareness – The ability to notice the attributes of things in the environment so as to build a knowledge
base that is the beginning of all other forms of creative thinking.

Curiosity – The ability and inclination to wonder about things and mentally explore the new, novel,
unique ideas.

Imagination – The ability to speculate about things that are not necessarily based on reality.

Fluency – The ability to produce a large quantity of ideas.

Originality – The ability to produce new, novel, unique ideas

Elaboration – The ability to add on to an idea; to give details; build groups of related ideas or expand
on ideas.

Perseverance – The ability to keep trying to find an answer; to see a task through completion.

(3) Attitudes and Values

In the three-level approach to teaching, values are at the apex of the triangle. It is because it
is in the teaching of values that the teaching of facts, skills and concepts become connected to the
life of the students, thus acquiring meaning. Without the value-level of teaching, we contribute to the
development of persons who have big heads but tiny hearts. We contribute to the formation of
“intellectual giants” but emotional dwarfs.

39
 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

I. I. Match Column A and Column B

a. Validity a. content fully covers the essentials
b. Significance b. “mile-wide and inch-deep”
c. Balance c. national standards
d. Self-sufficiency d. needs and interests
e. Interest e. time allotment
f. Utility f. developmental stages, cultural and ethnic background
g. Feasibility g. has a function even after schooling

II. II. Differentiate:

1. Algorithm vs. Heuristics in Solving Problems

2. Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking

40
 III. Define the following in 2 or 3 sentences.
i.
ii. Metaphoric Thinking

iii.
iv. Critical Thinking

v.
vi. Creative Thinking

IV. Complete the statement

Let us teach the content that …..

41
 LET’S REFLECT

1. “There are dull teachers, dull textbooks, dull films, but no dull subjects.”

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

Surf the internet for activities that can develop creative thinking behaviors (5
only) then create your own activities - specifically design for teaching your
specialization. (3 only)

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D. Selecting Teaching Strategies

LET’S GET STARTED

Methods and teaching are inseparable. All classroom activities that are undertaken without
conscious plan that should be followed in pursuing a learning objective cannot be considered actual
teaching.They maybe classified as acts aimed at “informing” with no specific direction to take. In
order to be considered teaching, as to its nature and purpose, the learning activities are planned and
organized following a step by step procedure and,most important, directed towards the pursuance of
a desired learning goal.
Method then is an integral part of teaching. It essentially influences a teacher’s entire
performance in a given learning situation. Therefore, they must be knowledgeable and proficient in
employing a wide variety of teaching methodologies. In order to fully grasp the importance of
methods in teaching, here are some guiding principles a teacher may follow in the selection of the
strategies to use.

LET’S EXPLORE

The choice of a particular method or strategy to use rests upon the crucial decision a teacher
arrives at. A number of factors must be considered such as the following:

1. Objectives to be pursued - Learning objectives are classified into a) knowledge, facts or

information to be learned, b) skills or proficiency in employing scientific processes and
procedures, and c) values and attitudes to be developed. The teacher should know what
which of the three or a combination of two or all of the three he is aiming at.Then, provide
the students opportunities to attain them.

2. Subject to be taught - The nature and scope of the subject matter dictates the method to
be employed. One which is appropriate in reviewing printed materials or publications will be
different from one which will find out the effect of a variable on the growth of plants. Some
topics are better taught through focused discussions, others through controlled
experimentations or through out-of-the classroom explorations.

3. Instructional materials, tools and equipment - Laboratory setting would require a

method different from one which will need computerization and information-search through
electronic gadgets. The availability of such learning resources must be considered in
deciding which method is implementable.

4. The students’ abilities - Manual skills will be required in manipulating laboratory

equipment, handling simple tools and preparing needed materials. The teacher should

44
 carefully consider whether students are equipped with dexterity before deciding to employ a
procedure with such demands. Verbal and writing abilities must likewise be assessed.

5. The students’ interests - A methodology that caters to students interests will ensure a
smooth flow of all the tasks to be done. Self motivation can likewise be of great help.

6. Previous learning experience - A background knowledge is needed to connect the

present learning tasks to be done.

7. Knowledge and ability of the teacher - The teacher must be knowledgeable about a
wide variety of teaching methodologies and be skilled in employing each of them or else the
choice would end up with overused classroom routine teaching. A creative teacher is capable
of trying new ways o teaching, thus adding to his repertoire of teaching methodologies.

8. The kind of participation expected. Learning from a method that would need a whole
class participation would certainly be different from one which would require an active
involvement of each one. The experience that could be gained from individual-oriented
procedures will differ considerably. This is a factor that should mot be overlooked in
selecting a teaching technique.

Principles in the Selection and Use of Teaching Strategies

1. Learning is an active process. This means that we have to actively engage the learners in
learning activities if we want them to learn what we intend to teach. We have to give our students
opportunities to participate in classroom activities. We have to give varied activities to our students
for “hands-on-mind-on” learning. Researchers found out that the most effective approaches – resulting
in 75 percent and 90 percent rates, respectively – are learning by doing (such as through the inquiry
method) and learning by teaching others. (Danielson, 2002).

2. The more senses that are involve in learning, the more and better the learning. What
is seen and heard are learned more than what are just seen or just heard. The graph below shows the
contribution of the five senses to learning. Based on the graph, we can say that we learn more with
what we see than what we simply hear. One research finding confirms this: “Humans are intensely
visual animals. The eyes contain nearly 70 percent of the body’s receptors and send millions of
signals along the optic nerves to the visual processing centers of the brain… We take in more
information visually than through any of the other senses.” (Wolfe, 2001)

This implies the use of a teaching methodology that makes use of more visual aids than mere
audio aids. A combination of audio and visual aids (thus the term A-V aid which means audio-visual),
however, is far more effective. Most effective, of course, is the use of a combination of three or more
senses thus the term “multi-sensory aids.”

44 45
 3. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning. We tend to remember and
learn more those that strike our hearts! In fact, the more emotionally involved our students become
in our lesson the greater the impact. The more intense the arousal, the stronger the imprint. Then let us
not feel afraid to bring in emotion into our class. Let us add an emotional touch to learning. Without
the emotional dimension, our subject matter will remain cold and lifeless. Wolfe states that “our own
experience validates that we remember for a longer time events that elicit emotion in us.” (Wolfe,
2001) His pedagogical advice is for us, to recognize the power of emotion to increase retention and
plan instruction accordingly.
4. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday life. Abstract concepts
are made understandable when we give sufficient examples relating to the student’s experiences. The
meaningfulness and relevance of what we teach is considerably reduced by our practice of teaching
simply for testing. We teach today, ask them to copy and memorize what we taught them. The
following day we test them on how much they have retained from what we taught yesterday, period!
We repeat the process day in and day out deposit information into their heads which are likened to
empty receptacles then withdraw the same in a test. At the end of the term we withdraw everything in
the final examinations and so when students go back for the next term their minds are empty again.
This is called banking system of education.
5. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information. Good thinking concerns itself with
higher-order-thinking-skills to develop creative and critical thinking. Most teaching are confined to
recall of information and comprehension. Ideally, our teaching should reach the levels of application,
analysis, evaluation and synthesis to hone our students’ thinking skills.
6. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of
information. Corpuz and Salandanan (2003) claim that an instructional approach is integrated when
it considers the multiple intelligences (MI) and varied learning styles (LS) of students.

46
 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

Activity 1: State in your own words your understanding of the guiding principles in the
selection and use of teaching strategies.

47
Activity 2: Discuss

1. How do you decide on which method to use? Why is it important to choose the best
method in teaching the content?

2. What practice(s) should we avoid to make teaching-learning more meaningful?

48
 LET’S REFLECT

When do you consider yourself “actually teaching” the days lesson?

49
 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

1. What are brain-based strategies? Research on them and then give your thoughts as to how
these strategies can boost learning.

50
E. Instructional Strategies and Methodologies

LET’S GET STARTED

Teaching as an educational endeavor, refers to the vital role of teachers in engaging students in
activities that will enable them to acquire knowledge and skills, at the same time developworthwhile
values and attitudes. In order to achieve this, a teacher must possess the ability to plan and organize all
the needed tasks to be performed using an appropriate teaching strategies.

LET’S EXPLORE

Approach, Method, Strategy, & Technique

Approach - A set of principles, assumptions, beliefs, principles, or idea about the nature off
learning which is translated to classroom. It is prescriptive in nature.
Method - a systematic plan to achieve a learning objective. It is a procedure that must followed
“strictly” to attain a goal. It refers to a series of related and progressive acts performed by the
teacher and students to achieve the objectives of a lesson. It is a well-planned procedure that
guides the direction in undertaking a learning activities. It is procedural in nature.
Strategy - a term that originated from the military, stands for a carefully devised plan of action
to achieve an objective in the battlefield. It denotes a clever and cunning design to achieve an end. It’s
the teacher’s unique way in presenting the lesson using a specific procedure. It is synonymous
with method.
Techniques - are consistent with a given approach, strategy and method. It refers to the art style,
manner of teacher’s performance in following a procedure. It is personalistic in nature.
Many times, however, many interchange strategy and method. In the teacher-centered
approach, the teacher is perceived to be the only reliable source of information in contrast to the
learner-centered approach which is premised on the belief that the learner is also an important resource
because he/she too knows something and is therefore capable of sharing something. Teaching consists
in teacher telling and prescribing what learners should do. The learner is passive recipient of
instruction. The teacher-centered approach is also teacher-dominated.
In the subject matter-centered approach, subject-matter gains primacy over that of the
learner. By all means teacher finishes teaching subject matter as scheduled even if learners have not
learned it. sticking to course syllabus or lesson plan is priority of subject matter-centered teachers.
The subject matter-centered approach is also teacher-dominated. The teacher does what he/she
planned without necessarily considering learner’s interests, concerns and situation. In contrast, in the
learner-centered classroom the teacher makes adjustments in his/her lesson plans to accommodate
learner’s interests and concerns,

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 An interactive classroom will have more student talk and less teacher talk. Students are given
the opportunity to interact with teachers and with other students. In a teacher-dominated classroom,
only the teacher’s voice is heard. He/she is the sole dispenser of information.
In the constructivist approach, students are expected to construct knowledge and meaning
out of what they are taught by connecting them to prior experience. In the “banking” approach, teacher
deposits knowledge into the “empty” minds of students for students to commit tomemory. The students
are perceived to be “empty receptacles” waiting to be filled. These facts that are deposited are
withdrawn gradually every time quizzes/tests are given until at the end of the term everything is
withdrawn in the final examinations thus students’ minds are once emptier readyto be filled in the
next school year.
The use of an integrated teaching approach makes the teacher connects what he/she
teaches to the other lessons of the same subject (intradisciplinary) or connects his/her lessons
with other subjects thus making his/her approach interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary. The use
of the disciplinal approach limits the teacher to discussing his/her lessons within the boundary of
his/her subject.
A collaborative approach will welcome group work, team work, partnerships, group
discussions while an individualistic approach will want individual students working by themselves.
In a direct teaching approach, teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates what is to be
taught while in the guided approach, teacher guides the learner to discover things for himself/herself.
In the guided approach, the teacher facilitates the learning process by allowing the learner to be
engaged in the learning process with his/her guidance.

Teacher-centered Learner-centered
Subject matter-centered Learner-centered
Teacher-dominated Interactive
“Banking” approach Constructivist
Disciplinal Integrated
Individualistic Collaborative
Indirect, guided Direct

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Common Approaches and Methodologies in Teaching:

 1. Direct/Expository Approach - is applied a great deal in the lower grades although it is also used
in the secondary and tertiary levels. In this kind of approach, the teacher explains lessons seem
difficult. The following are methods under this approach.
a. Lecture Method - aimed at helping students acquire procedural knowledge which is
knowledge exercised in the performance of some task. Procedural knowledge refers to skills needed
in the performance of a task. Examples are focusing the microscope, doing PowerPoint presentation,
playing basketball, sewing a pair of pajamas.
Direct instruction is also used for lessons that are factual and non-controversial. In the College of Law,
for example, professors use direct instruction or the lecture method. They are there to help the students
understand and master the laws of the land.
Steps:
a) provide the rationale
b) demonstrate the skill
c) provide guided practice until master
d) check for understanding and provide feedback
e) provide extended practice and transfer, and
f) assess learning at the end.
b. Deductive Method - This method makes use of a generalization to begin with, followed
by specific examples and situations to support the general statement. From the generalization, a
conclusion is arrived at. A specific statement will not however apply to a definite set or class of objects
or situations.
Steps:
a.) Introduction
b.) Statement of a general idea
c.) Explanations of the general idea
d.) Illustration
e.) Evaluation
c. Demonstration Method -As the name implies, in the demonstration method the teacher or
an assigned student or group shows how a process is done while the students become observers.
This approach is employed in presenting lessons that use sophisticated equipment and technical know-
how. Materials that are not easily available or expensive are used sparingly in a demonstration. The
demonstrator is knowledgeable in preparing the apparatus needed according to the steps to be
followed. The rest of the class becomes focused on the activity and concentration on the subject is
assured.
Steps:
a.) Purposing
b.) Planning
c.) Demonstration proper
d.) Executing
e.) Evaluating

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2. Indirect/Enabling/Guided Exploratory Approach - Indirect instruction method is best used
when the learning process is inquiry-based, the result is discovery and the learning context is a
problem. Here are some examples of methods under this approach.
a.) Process-oriented method. This is a step by step acquisition of knowledge and skills.
Students are actively engaged in the activity designed to develop specific learning competencies. It
was used before for science instruction only but today even skilled-oriented subjects make use of
this approach.
⚫ Inductive - A method which starts from the specific before arriving at a
generalization. It is usually known to unknown, concrete to abstract, simple to
complex mode of delivery of instruction. It is commonly known as example to rule
method.
Steps:
1. ) Preparation
2. ) Presentation
3. ) Comparison and Abstraction
4. ) Generalization
5. ) Application
⚫ Inquiry Method - This is commonly used in higher level thinking. Unlike other
approaches that emphasized presentation of ideas or demonstration of concepts,
teacher in the inquiry approach poses a problem, asks questions and facilitates
dialogues. For this reason the inquiry approach relies heavily on the ability of both
teachers and students to discuss. This therefore calls for skills in the use of
discussion techniques and open and clear exchange of ideas. The core or inquiry
is a spontaneous and a self-directed exploration. Textbook-dictated procedures do
not allow an active probe into the unknown. Curiosity, special interests and instant
queries among the young demand immediate answers. Only instant and direct
search for evidence would suffice even momentarily, otherwise frustrations and
passivity come in. The inquiry approach, sometimes termed “discovery”,
“heuristic” and “problem solving” is defined simply as a teaching method which
is “modeled after the investigative processes of scientist.”
Steps:
1.) Define the topic or introduce the question.
2.) Guide students plan where and how to gather data, information. They may
search on the topic/questions by viewing, constructing, reading,
designing an experiment, recording observations and interviewing
experts.
3. ) Students present findings through graph, charts, PowerPoint presentations,
models, and writing.
⚫ Problem Solving Method - Problem solving is a teaching strategy that employs
the scientific method in searching for information and for improving the reasoning
process. Problem solving is also referred as reflective thinking considered to be a
model as early as the 1900s up to the 50s. This method has been found effective
in skills development where science processes are employed..

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 Steps:
1. ) Sensing and defining the problem
2. ) Formulating Hypothesis
3. ) Testing for Hypothesis
4. ) Analysis, interpretation of evaluation of findings
5. ) Formulating Conclusions
⚫ Project Method - This is a method that requires students to construct projects as
a result of the study/research done. Like other methods, this involves gathering and
organizing data to be presented in concepts acquired. Usually this is presented to the
students as an output for a particular area of study. In the project method learners
solve a practical problem over a period of several days or weeks. It may involve
organizing a fund-raising campaign for the flood victims, doing an advocacy for
breastfeeding or publishing a class newspaper. The projects may be suggested by
the teacher, but they are planned and executed as far as possible by the students
themselves, individually or in groups Project work focuses on applying, not
imparting, specific knowledge or skills, and on improving student involvement and
social responsibility.
Steps:
1. ) Purposing
2. ) Planning
3. ) Executing
4. ) Evaluating
⚫ Laboratory Method - A kind of teaching procedure that deals with investigation
and experimentation and which normally involves firsthand experiences concerning
materials and facts obtained.
Steps:
1.) Orientation and motivation
2.) Work period
3.) Culminating activities

b.) Cognitive-Oriented Approach - An approach that emphasizes the development of

thinking skills, also referred to as “thinking operations”. The thinking skills that should be taught
directly are: Interpreting, comparing, criticizing, classifying, analyzing, summarizing, and creating. By
giving by giving higher order questions, students are made to think, analyze, and evaluate. When
students are trained to think they are able to develop a framework for acquiring information and passing
on this information,

⚫ Metacognitive – The teaching process brings the learner to the process of thinking
about thinking. The learner reflects on what he learned and on his/her ways of
learning. He reflects on why he/she succeeded one time but failed the other time.
This method requires students not only to acquire thinking skills but monitor,
control their commitment and attitude during the learning process. It offers
opportunity for creative thinking, whereby students are able to harness potentials at
their best, push their own limits, adapt new situations as they focus on the task
intensely. Such method provides a good training for independent study
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 An example is making our students conscious of their thought processes while
they are thinking. It is allowing our students to think aloud. Linda Darling –
Hammond and colleagues (2008) emphasized this principle of learning that should
guide teaching in the 21st century- “students learn more effectively when they
learn and know how to monitor and reflect.” To promote learning, teachers should
do metacognitive and reflective teaching.
Research indicates that “effective problem-solvers subvocalize; that they talk to
themselves frequently.” (Orlich, 1994) Subvocalizing includes constantly re-
stating the situation, rechecking progress, and evaluating whether one’s thinking
is moving in an appropriate discussion.
Another example is to have our students describe what is going on in their
minds. Orlich, et al suggest “dividing the class into pairs for five to eight minutes
several times to practice to overcome awkwardness with the method.” (1994)
Still another approach is to have our students identify what is known in situation
or problem. From this, they can suggest what needs to be known and finally what
steps are required to obtain the information.
.
⚫ Constructivism - This method regards the learner as the core of the learning
process. He is the center of the educational stage. Exponents of constructivism
aver that knowledge cannot be passed on from one person to another, like teacher
to learner. It is constructed by the learner himself through his interpretation of a
particular information like giving meaning to an add noise in solemn ceremony.
In constructivism, teacher builds knowledge, taking into consideration what priorr
knowledge the student has acquired. Slowly, he gives cues, penetrating questions,
and then sets activities where student insights can be challenged.
This method also calls for a restructuring of concepts of revision of
Past learnings as they interact with environment. It is anchored on the assumption thatt
“th “the absorption or assimilation of knowledge is somewhat personal and therefore
no no two learners can build up the same meaning out of one situation.” Knowledge
therefore is the result of the learners own construction of reality. It
involves “a continuous creation of rules to explain an observation, and in the
process, checks new information against prior knowledge to come up with new
understanding.

⚫ Reflective Teaching - This method affords the student to reflect on their own
experiences to give new meaning to them. The teacher’s role is to guide a student
to go about analyzing learning experiences that will lead to new learning and new
concepts that can apply to new learning situations. Experience is a good teacher but
it is the analysis and evaluation of the experience that add to an existing knowledge
and make it more meaningful.

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 Guidelines for the Effective Use of Reflective Teaching/Learning
1. Allocate sufficient time for reflection. Time must be considered in planning
the learning activity.
2. Schedule a short briefing activity so as to recapture the experience and think
about it.
3. The teacher serves as the facilitator and guide in developing the skill in
analyzing a past learning experience.
4. Encourage the students to recount the experience to others, thereby
strengthening the insights gained.
5. Attend to feelings especially the positive and pleasant ones.
6. Evaluate the experience in the light of the learner’s intent.
Strategies for reflective teaching and learning:
1. Self-analysis
A reflective student/teacher is able to keep a record of his/her success or
failure in employing a strategy, problems and issues confronted, and
significance of learning events that occurred. Writing them can help in
analyzing and clarifying important aspects that are contributory to future
decisions towards effective learning.
A student/teacher engages himself/herself in self-analysis when s/he
reflects on why s/he succeeded or failed at some task.

2. Writing journals
A journal entry includes: a) a description of the teaching/learning
event, b) outcomes of the event, c) value or worthiness of the outcomes, and d)
causes of successor failures. A journal reveals feelings about the day’s
activities including what we could have enhanced or inhibited their learning.
For a student, s/he is asked to enter into his/her daily journal/diary his own
self-analysis.
3. Keeping a portfolio
A portfolio is a very personal document which includes frank, honest
and on-the-spot account of experiences. It includes a student’s first hand
observations and personal knowledge that will be needed in analyzing
changes in values being developed. Instant thoughts and reactions can be
recorded in a log book for future recall and study.

Make sure each group understands the goals, procedures, tasks and
methods of evaluation. The experimental learning process of reflection –
looking back at what you have learned, gaining useful insight from the
analysis, and applying this new knowledge to daily work – helps students to
understand the meaning and effect of their contributions (van Linden &
Fertman, 1998). By including reflection time on meeting agenda, for
instance, students learn that reflecting on their own actions is a way to

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 regularly think about leading and learning. Schools are increasingly using
reflection tools for learning and assessment, whether in the form of portfolios,
journals, dialogue, or products and performances resulting from problem-
based learning. Rather than discussing only data relating to test scores, as is
the norm these days, we need also to discuss data that emerges from reflection
as legitimate measures of success and to include students in any dialogue.
(Lambert, 2003).
Summing up, learning that results from reflective teaching is best
described as one borne of experiences that have been deeply thought of,
analyzed and evaluated. Reflection is inseparable from experience. Experience
is not yet best learning, reflection is.

⚫ Research-based approach – As the name implies teaching and learning are

anchored on research findings.

⚫ Problem- based approach – As the name implies, the teaching-learning process

is focused on problems. Time is spent on analyzing and solving problems. When I
was enrolled in the Graduate School, the descriptive titles of my subject begun with
“Problems in” whether my subject was Curriculum Development, Higher
Education, School Management, etc.

⚫ Whole child approach – The learning process itself takes into account not only the
academic needs of the learners, but also their emotional, creative, psychological,
spiritual and development needs. A highly cerebral approach is far from wholistic,
neither that approach which emphasizes only the physicall development of the
child.

In c. Structured-Oriented Methodologies - There is a need to provide productive learning

environments and which involves motivating learners to participate in and persist with
academic tasks. For that matter, teachers set conditions for allocating time, managing
classroom groups, applying varied teaching strategies like cooperative learning, peer group,
partner learning, and inductive learning. Such learning strategies will influence plans and
resource allocation decisions.
⚫ Cooperative Learning - Grouping students to work together instead of competing
is becoming a more and more accepted practice by teachers. In the traditional
classroom structure students compete for teacher recognition and grades. The same
students tend to be “winners” and “losers” over the years. High achieving students
continually receive rewards and are motivated to learn, and low-achieving students
continually experience failure (or near-failure) and frustration. Reducing
competition and increasing cooperation among students may diminish hostility,
prejudice, and patterns of failure among many students. In cooperative learning,
students divide the work among themselves, help one another (especially the slow
members), praise and criticize one another’s efforts and contributions.

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 Furthermore, cooperative learning makes use of a classroom
organization where students work in groups or teams to help each other learn.
Concepts from small group theory and groups dynamics serve as the basis upon
which skills, democratic procedures and collaborations are developed. This
approach evolved strategies and procedures that can help small groups solve
their own problems and acquire information through collective effort. The
learning environment is characterized by strong motivation and smooth
interpersonal interactions.
Structures of Cooperative Learning:

1. A cooperative incentive structure – one where two or more individuals are

interdependent for a reward. They will share if they are successful as a group
and;
2. A cooperative task structure – a situation in which two or more individuals
are allowed, encouraged or required to work together on some tasks,
coordinating their efforts to complete the task.
a. Students work in teams to tackle academic tasks.
b. Reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually-oriented.
c. The interactions within the group is controlled by the members themselves.
d. Teams are made up of mixed abilities – high, average and low achievers.
e. Each individual learner is accountable for his/her learning.
f. The group reflects on and evaluates the group process they underwent.

APPROACHES USED:
1. Peer tutoring / Peer teaching
It is said that “the best way to learn something is to teach it.” make students teach each other
in a “Think, Pair, Share!” manner. After we have taught. We ask each student to get a partner. One
student will be A and other B. A share what she learned with B. and B, in turn, will share what she
learned with A. teacher listens for formative assessment of learning.
Peer tutoring is commonly employed when the teacher requests the older, brighter and more
cooperative member of the class to tutor (coach, teach, instruct) other classmates. This is based onthe
rationale that the former is better equipped than the others. This is due to their closeness in age, skills,
study habits and even learning styles. Tutoring arrangement may be in any of the following:
a. Instructional tutoring. Older students help younger ones on a one-to-one or one-to-a
group basis. They choose the way the lessons are presented. This is practiced when there
is a big difference between tutor and tutee.
b. Same age tutoring. This arrangement works well with children who can act as interactive
pairs, i.e., more able ones to assists the less able. They can read to each otherand discuss.

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 c. Monitorial tutoring. The class may be divided into groups and monitors are assigned to
lead each group. This frees the teacher from whole class monitoring to attend to others
while the assigned tutor monitors and supervises the rest.
d. structural tutoring. Here a definite procedure is followed. Highly structured tutoring is
administered by trained tutors.
e. Semi-structured tutoring. This is a combination of unstructured and structured where the
tutor guides his/her tutee through a carefully-planned learning guide but is free to modify
it according to the tutee’s own interests and skills.
2. Partner learning
As the name of this method implies, this is learning with a partner. A student chooses
partner from among his/her classmates. It can be employed when you get your students rehearse
what they have learned and explore their understanding of content with a partner.
This may also mean assigning “study buddy”. (The teacher who is after the learning of every
student may assign the “study buddy”). Study buddies become responsible for each others learning..
However, each student is held accountable for his/her own learning.
3. Student-Team Achievement Division (STAD)
The teacher gives information to students for a week. The class is dividen into four or five-
member teams. Each member try to learn the materials and then help each other master the materials
and then help each other the materials through tutoring, testing one another or carrying on group
discussions. Individually, students take weekly quizzes on t he academic materials. The team withthe
highest scores and the member with the high improvement scores are recognized.
Team-Game-Tournament (TGT) is the same as STAD, instead games ae used.

Em 4. Think-Pair-Share
Thinking phase.
The teacher poses a question about the lesson. Students spend time thinking of the answer
alone.
Pairing phase.
Each student pairs with another and discusses the answer together. This interaction leads to
sharing of ideas.
Sharing phase.
The teacher asks the pair to share their answers with the whole class.
4. Buzz session
Groups of 3 to 6 discuss all their ideas about a topic. Then a recorder summarizes the ideas-
arrived at to the class.

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5. Jigsaw
 The students are assigned to 5 or 6 member study teams. Then a topic is presented to them and
each is responsible for a portion. Members from different teams with the same topic meet together to
study and help each other learn their own topic. Then each returns to their home team and discusses
with the members what they have
learned. After discussions each member takes a quiz. Team scores are obtained and the high scoring
team and each member are recognized.
6. Group investigations
Groups of 5 or 6 members are formed. They are involved in planning the topics they like to
investigate together with the procedure they have to follow. They pursue in-depth study of sub- topics
and conduct an analysis of the information obtained. Then the conclusion is reported to the class.
7. Roundtable
Each student in turn writes one answer as a paper and a pencil are passed around the group.
Withe simultaneous roundtable more than one pencil and paper are used as one.
8. Inside-Outside Circle
Students stand in pairs in two concentric circles. The inside circle faces out; the outside circle
faces in. Students use flashcards or respond to teacher questions as they rotate to each new partner.
9. Co-op-Co-op
Students work in groups to produce a particular group product to share with the whole class;
each student makes a particular contribution to the group.
10. Corners
Each student moves to a corner of the room representing a teacher-determined alternative.
Students discuss within corners, them listen to and paraphrase ideas from other corners.
11. Number Heads Together
The teacher asks a question, students consult to make sure everyone knows the answer, then
one student is called upon to answer.
OTHER APPROACHES:

1. Blended Learning
Blended learning is learning that is facilitated by the effective combination of different modes
of delivery, models of teaching and styles of learning, and is based on transparent communication
among all parties involved with a course. Heinze, A.; C. Procter (2004).
This is also described as “integrative learning”, “hybrid learning”, “multi-method learning” “It
combines classroom learning, mobile learning, and on-line learning.”
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 2. Integrated Approach
The integrated approach is intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary. In an
integrated approach, there are no walls that clearly separate one subject from the rest.
An intradisciplinary approach is observed when teachers integrate the subdisciplines within a
subject area. Integrating listening, reading, writing, speaking and viewing in language arts is a common
example. Math teaching integrates number and number sense, patterns and algebra, geometry and
probability in the same way that Araling Panlipunan teachers integrate history, geography, sociology,
ecomics, and government. Science in the K to 12 curriculum integrates biolgy, chemistry, physics, and
earth science

Research skills
Araling Critical thinking
Panlipunan Scientific Science
processes

This is what we call content-based instruction (CBI). Interdisciplinary teaching takes place
when in Araling Panlipunan you can also teach research skills, critical thinking skills and all other
scientific skills such as hypothesizing, data-gathering, data-analysis and interpretation, drawing
conclusions.
In the transdisciplinary approach to integration, teachers organize curriculum around student’s’
questions and concerns. Students develop life skills as they apply interdisciplinary and disciplinary
skills in a real-life context as shown below.
3. Problem-based Learning (PBL) – This is a concrete example of transdisciplinary teaching. It
is the learning that results from the process of working toward the understanding of the resolution
of a problem. This is also known as project-based learning or place-based learning. According to
Chard (1998), planning project-based curriculum involves three steps:
⚫ Teachers and students select a topic of study based on student interests, curriculum standards,
and local resources.
⚫ The teacher finds out what the students already know and helps them generate questions to
explore. The teacher also provides resources for students and opportunities to work in the
field.
⚫ Students share their work with others in a culminating activity. Students display the results of
their exploration and review and evaluate the project.

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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

I. Activity 1:
1. Using a graphic organizer, show the relationships between teaching approach, method
and techniques.

2. What pedagogical advantage do the exploratory approaches/methodologies have over those of

the direct approaches?

Activity 2: Differentiate:
a. Indirect / Exploratory vs. Direct / Expository

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 b. Deductive Method vs. Inductive Method

II. Among these methods / approaches discussed, which teaching methods / approaches
you think will develop higher order thinking skills or HOTS?

Method/Approach Features/How?
1
2
3
4
5

III. Which behaviors are contrary to the principles of constructivism? Encircle your
answer.
c. Refuse to accept students’ point of view.
d. Recognize that teachers not students must attach meaning to the curriculum.
e. Structure lessons around big ideas.
f. Content of lessons is on small and isolated bits of information
g. Assess students’ learning in the context of daily classroom investigations.

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 LET’S REFLECT

1. “A thousand teachers, a thousand methods.”

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

1. Research at least 5 different online teaching modalities for the new normal then point
out one that is most applicable to our own setting. Support your answer.

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 Module 4: Appropriate Learning
Activities

LET’S GET STARTED

How does one determine the appropriate learning activities?

The learning activity should serve the purpose for which it is done. The activity
must meet the objectives set for a particular lesson. The teacher therefore chooses the
activity that will be most adapted to age, skills, interests as well as attitudes of the
learners if the activities were to be met. Further, the learning materials should be
prepared and must be appropriate for the activity.
The opening activities are supposed to serve as starters, as unfreezing activities
to make the students feel at ease, to motivate the students to participate and to set the
tone for the day. They are likened to “preparing the ground” before sowing or planting.
Opening activities serve as launching pad for the day’s lesson. Therefore, they should
be linked or related to the day’s lesson. They are not just activities for students’
enjoyment or activities for the sake of enjoyment. They are preparatory to the real
thing. They also have a motivational function.
In the first few minutes of your lesson “sell” your lesson. What will help your
students “buy it”? Capture their attention, connect their prior knowledge with new
information that you will present, show the relevance of your lesson to their lives and
experiences.

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 LET’S EXPLORE

1. Introductory Activities - This is usually dome at the start of the school year or the
start of every new lesson. Activities can come in the form of games, action songs,
energizers, anecdote, or story telling or posing a question to the learners.
Below are some effective opening activities:
• KWL (Know, Want to Know, Learned) – What do your students Know about
the lesson? What do they Want to know?
• Video clip from a news story that relates to content
• Editorial from a current newspaper related to a lesson
• Posing a scientific problem and require students to formulate a hypothesis or
predict what’s going to happen next
• Cartoon or comic strip related to the topic
• Game
• Simulation
• Puzzle, brain teaser
• Mysterious scenario – launch a lesson using a puzzling scenario to pull students
into the content and nudge them into higher levels of thinking.
• Song followed by its analysis
• Picture without a caption – after teacher states the objectives of the day’s lesson,
s/he asks students to put a caption to the picture and later to explain the whyand
the meaning of their caption.
• Quotable quote
• Anecdote
• Compelling stories from history, literature related to course content
• Current events to introduce curricular topic
• Diagnostic test
• Skit, role playing
• Voting – ask students to vote on an issue by raising hands, then asking them to
explain their stand

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 • Rank ordering – students are asked to rank objects, qualities, etc. according to
importance
• Values continuum – students are asked to find their location in a Likert scale of
values. Rate yourself along the following traits:
Low High
Honesty 1 2 3 4 5
• Devil’s advocate – teacher acts “contravida” in order to make students think. An
example is when a Values Education teacher appears to favor abortion n order to
generate reactions from the class. Teacher, however, makes clear his/her stand
in abortion before the class discussion ends.
• Conflict story – teacher presents a conflict situation the asks the students for the
right thing to do. Example: the establishment of a plastic factory in your
community means employment of people from the community but it also means
pollution of your air and river and contamination of water supply. What is the
right thing to do?
• Brainstorming
• Buzz session
• Interactive computer games
• Question and answer
• Anticipation guide – this will give you insights into how students think and feel
about a topic related to your curriculum. Your students will immediately be
engaged in the content and curious about what will come next in your lesson. You
may invite students to compare their responses with a learning partner and then
discuss the statements as a class.

2. Developmental Activities - If you wish to reduce, if not wipe out, clock-watchers in

your classroom, then don’t do the same things every day. Definitely, you want engaged
learners who are eager to participate in your lesson. Then observe variety in your
activities. Here are some activities in the development of a lesson:

A. For Data-gathering - At present , teachers can now use a great number of

tools for learning and which students can engaged in. In the hand-on approach
to learning, students are given a free hand in the selection of tools for data
gathering. The tools are what they usually make use of in actual life situations
and can be made readily available for gathering information such as computers,
telephone, internet, video cameras and others. Here are some effective strategies
for data gathering.

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 • Interview
• Library research
• Internet research
• Reading
• Lecture - but don’t abuse it!
• Inviting resource speakers
• Field trip
• Experiment
• Panel discussion
• Hands-on learning
• Case study
B. For Organizing and summarizing - Teacher draws plan or structures the
lesson plan by assigning impromptu activities. This can be done by vocabulary
works or drawing an object or animal related to the lesson proper. Here are
some effective strategies for organizing and summarizing:
• Using graphic organizers
• Jingles, rap, song
• Verses
• Acrostics
• Power point presentation
3. Application Activities - Activities that are done during the application of the concepts.
The intention here is to enable the students to master and improve their performance and
identify the content areas that have to be improved.

• Solving real-word problems (using skills and information related to

curriculum)
• Performances and demonstrations of skill mastery
• Authentic projects (created for a real purpose-such as a model of a
student store to be housed in the cafeteria and run by student council)
• Portfolios of students’ best work and work in progress
• Letters to the editor (school newspaper or local newspaper)
• Power point presentations
• Brochures
• Writing and performing a song, rap, or musical
• News report for a local news program

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 • Television talk shows
• Mock debates and mock trials
• Mock job interviews
• Personal narratives
• Cartoons, comic strips
• Organizing a symposium

4. Concluding Activities - The concluding part of the lesson is as important as the opening
and the central parts. In fact, the last things that are said and done are usually what are
etched in the minds and hearts of our students. We can’t, therefore, afford to take it for
granted. We have to tie loose ends before we end our lesson. Here are some activities that
can help us end significantly:

• finish and review the KWL Chart (L, means I Learned. – Make students
complete: I learned .
• “passport to leave” – each student writes down one thing s/he has learned and
shares it with class before leaving.
• Journal writing at the end of the period – some prompts to use for a closing
journal:
— Explain to another student, who may have been absent today, what you
learned about .
— What are some real-world examples that reflect the same concept that
we studied today?
• Preview coming attractions: Introduce a portion of the next day’s lesson in the
form of a preview or teaser.
• 3/2/1 Countdown: Students finish these statements:
-3 facts I learned today …
-2 ways I will use the information/skills I learned today …
-1 question I have
• Using analogies
• Completing unfinished sentences- From this lesson, I learned that .
• Synthesize or summarize the lesson.

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 After studying approaches and methods, let’s put together the characteristics of
teaching methods that have been proven to be effective. They are given below:
1. Interactive – you make learners interact with you (their teacher), with their
classmates and with learning material.
2. Innovative – your teaching is fresh because you do introduce new teaching
method/s. you don’t overuse one teaching method.
3. Integrative – you connect your lesson to one another, to other disciplines
and to life.
4. Inquiry-based – you ask questions and the learners look for answers.
5. Collaborative – you make learners work together.
6. Constructivist – you make learners construct knowledge and meaning by
connecting lesson with their past experiences.
7. Varied – you don’t stick to just one teaching method. You have a ready
repertoire of teaching methods from which to draw any time.
8. Experiential (Hands-on, minds-on, hearts-on) – you engage learners in
varied activities.
9. Metacognitive – you make learners think about their cognitive and thought
processes.
10. Reflective – you make your students reflect on what they have learned and
how they have learned.

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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

1. Can an activity used at the beginning of a lesson be also used for the ending not
necessarily for the same lesson? Explain your answer.

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 LET’S REFLECT

1. Introductory/ opening/ initiatory activities liken to “preparing the ground” before

sowing or planting.

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

1. Research on more activities that can be used in the different phases of the lesson.
(Three each.)

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 Module 5: Selection and Use of
Instructional Aids

LET’S GET STARTED

Real-life experiences provide the most direct type of learning but they are
difficult to supply in the traditional classroom. Most experiences in the classroom occur
through verbal symbolism - written and spoken words. These classroom experiences
may be easier for teachers to supply, but they may be more difficult for many students
to understand. Verbal symbolism depends on the ability to conceptualize and thin in the
abstract, while the impact of first hand experience is immediate ad concrete. Various
multi-sensory instructional aids -texts, pictures, games, simulations - can substitute for
first hand experiences and enhance understanding, so they are integral part of the
learning activities.

LET’S EXPLORE

Regardless of the type of instructional aid to be used, a teacher must consider

it in light of the purpose of the learning activity. The instructional aid mustbe suited
to the objectives - whether it be subject mastery, skills improvement, or valuing.
Although materials and media can stimulate and maintain student interest, they are not
mean merely to entertain the students, students need to understand this fact. Unless
students are properly guided, they become distracted by the attention getting aspects of
the instructional aids and lose sight of their educational significance.
High-achieving students especially in the higher levels, are able to cope with large
doses of verbal symbolism. It is with slow learners and younger students that the
advantages of audio-visual and tactile experiences become apparent. The more senses
that are involved in the learning process, the easier it is for the student to learn.
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The old saying “One picture worth a thousand words” remains true today, but now the
one picture can be a photograph, film slide, motion picture, television program or
videotape.
Instructional aids can affect students in many ways, by:

1. Motivating students. For example, model cars, trucks, trains, boats and airplanes
can be used to introduce a unit on transportation.
2. Contributing to understanding. For example, graphs can be used to clarify
fluctuations of the stock market.
3. Providing varied learning experiences. For example, a workbook or paperbacknovel
can supplement the assigned textbook.
4. Reinforcing learning. For example, when a student hear the music of a composer,
they can better understand a discussion of his or her style.
5. Allowing for different interests. For example, various sections of a newspaper can
be assigned, depending on the type of lesson or the learner.
6. Encouraging participation. For example, role playing increases individual
involvement.
7. Changing attitudes and feelings. For example, a photograph can be used to illustrate
and increase the emotional impact of abstract concepts such as pollution, war and
poverty.

The experienced teacher will be able to use a variety of materials in a

multimedia approach in any subject to vary the learning experiences. All students
have different interests and abilities that determine what they attend to and learn. But
what they learn also depends on the ability of the teacher to capture their attention and
spark their interest through the use of appropriate instructional materials and media.
The needs of each learning situation determine the materials and media the
teacher use. These are some general considerations, however, that can help in
estimating their value and appropriateness.

1. Interest - is the extent to which the learner’s curiosity is aroused and sustained by
the use of instructional aids.
2. Relevance - is the degree to which the experience provided by the aids is realted to
the learner’s personal needs or goals.
3. Expectancy - is the degree to which the learner expects to succeed at learning and
sees success as being under his or her control when using the aids.

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 Guidelines for Using Instructional Aids (Ornstein, 1992)
1. Purpose. Ask yourself what you are trying to accomplish and why this instructional
ai d is important.
2. Define objectives. Clearly defined objectives are essential for planning the lesson
an and selecting and using instructional aid.
3. Flexibility. The same instructional aid can satisfy many different purposes.
4. Diversity. Use a variety of materials, media, and resources to develop and maintain
st student interest.
5. Development. Instructional aids must be related to the age, maturity, ability, and
interest of students.
6. Content. You must know the content of the instructional aids to determine how to
use them and how to make the best use of them.
7. Guide Learners. Focus students attention on specific things to attend while
viewing listening, or reading the materials.
8. Evaluate results. Check students’ reactions and consider your own reactions to the
instructional aids.
For optimum learning, let us observe the following general principles in the use
of instructional materials (IMs).
1. All instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not replace the teacher.
2. Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional activities.
Decide what you want to accomplish and then employ the tools that are most likely to
achieve results. Do not let the media that is available to you determine how or what you
will teach.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools. Using videos, computers, overheads and the
chalkboard not only keeps student’s interest but also responds to the needs of those who
receive information in different ways.
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working
properly. Nothing is more frustrating to you or to the students in the process of
instruction than to find that the overhead projector or LCD, for instance, does not
work in the process of instruction.

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5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use of media given below:
• Learn how to use the instructional material. Before using it, make sure you
know how to manipulate it to obtain the desired product. Listen to the record or
view the film ahead. Check the correct side and complete parts of real objects,
photographs or models to be presented.
• Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may need.
• Provide a conducive environment. Arrange the chairs, tables and the equipment
and materials. Provide sufficient lightning and ventilation.
• Explain the objectives of the lesson.
• Stress what is to be watched or listened to carefully.
• State what they will be expected to do with the information they will learn.
Discussion or a test may follow.
• There is a need to summarize or review the experience. Prepare measures that
can assess their gains based on the objectives

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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

Discuss:
1. Instructional materials enhance the effectiveness of teaching strategy.

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 LET’S REFLECT

1. Instructional material no matter how good cannot replace the good teacher.

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

A. Research on various media to use in teaching. Categorize them as projected or non-

projected then think of how you will use them in the delivery of a specific subject
matter content. Write your answers in a table form.
Projected Subject Matter Content Process Used

Non-Projected

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 Module 6: Assessment of Learning

LET’S GET STARTED

The teaching cycle is not complete without the assessment of learning. As they
say, assessment is an integral part of teaching.The teacher assess learning to gather
relevant information about student performance or progress, or to determine student
interests to make judgments about their learning process. In this module, we will be
able to sought answers to the following questions:
1. Why should students be assessed?
2. What are the guiding principles in assessment?
3. What tools are available in assessing learning?

LET’S EXPLORE

Assessment of learning refers to strategies designed to confirm what students

know, demonstrate whether or not they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of
their individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and make decisions about
students’ future programs or placements. It is designed to provide evidence of
achievement to parents, other educators, the students themselves, and sometimes to
outside groups (e.g., employers, other educational institutions). Assessment of learning
is the assessment that becomes public and results in statements or symbols about how
well students are learning. It often contributes to pivotal decisions that will affect
students’ futures. It is important, then, that the underlying logic and measurement of
assessment of learning be credible and defensible.

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B. A. Guiding Principles in the Assessment of Learning
Here are some guiding principles in the assessment of learning.
1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of the teaching – learning process.
2. Assessment tool should match with performance objective.
3. The results of assessment must be fed back to the learners.
4. In assessing learning, teachers must consider learners’, learning styles and multiple
intelligences and so must come up with a variety of ways of assessing learning.
5. To contribute to the building of the culture of success in the school, it is pedagogically
sound that in our assessment techniques we give some positive feedback along with
not so good ones.
6. Emphasize on self-assessment.
7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all pupils/students, and that it is possible
that all students, even those from limited backgrounds, will have access to opportunities
and therefore can achieve, then the bell curve mentality must be abandoned.
8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishments or as a disciplinary
measure.
9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and clearly to parents.
10.Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic performances over out-of-
context drill items.
11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment.
12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make use of multiple sources.

C.
B.Tools to Assess Curriculum
Finding out what students know and can do requires multiple sources of
information and differing types of assessment tool. The selection of of a strategy is
determined both by what is to be assessed and the reasons or purposes for the
assessment. The phase of the learning process at which the teacher and the students
are working affects the selection of the assessment strategy and the tools used as one
tool maybe unsuitable for different purposes.
What assessment tools will be most appropriate? That depends on the lesson
objectives the attainment of which is what you are assessing.

8 84
 The teacher-made test or the paper-and-pencil test in many forms is the most
common tool used to assess learning. However, it has been abused and misused. Man
a time the paper-and-pencil test is not appropriate as an evaluation tool and yet
because it is the tool with which we are most familiar, it is used. It is worthy to note,
however, that more and more teachers are beginning to use more authentic tools of
assessment. Performance tests are said to be more authentic than mere paper-and-
pencil tests. The so-called practical tests in skill subjects like Physical Education,
laboratory tests. Computer and the like are examples of performance tests. If indeed
“the roof of the pudding is in the eating”, the most reliable way to test if our student
learned the skills, we intended to teach is by way of hands-on exercise, by way of
actual performance. In no way will a paper-and-pencil test be able to authentically test
skill in dancing, plying, focusing the microscope, using computer program. Another
example of an authentic evaluation tool is the portfolio assessment. What is a better
way of showing the development in the child’s writing skill if not through a display of
a collection of the child’s written work for the past three months or four? If
performance test is for the assessment of skills learned, what about the assessment of
values learned? For the assessment of learning in the effective domain, teacher’s
observation of the student’s behavior, interviews with the students, reading of journal
entries or students’ personal narratives, rating scale are most appropriate. With
Gardner’s multiple intelligences (MI) theory are creative assessment techniques.
Below are some assessment tools/strategies that we can use to measure learning:
1. Pencil-paper strategy -
A. Essay - assess the students ability to communicate ideas in writing and
measure understanding and mastery of complex information.
B. Quiz/test/exam
C. Select response - test students learning of subject/content knowledge (facts,
concepts, principles or generalizations, procedures; assess prerequisite
knowledge (e,g. when communicating in a second language, students can
be assessed on vocabulary prior to a conversation in that language.
2. Performance-based strategy -
A. Performance task - used to provide an efficient means of assessment where the
skill cannot be demonstrated with a pencil-and-paper; enable learners to
demonstrate abilities, skills, attitudes and behaviors;

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 provide information about a learner’s ability to organize, draw on prior
knowledge and experience, improvise, choose from a range of strategies,
represent learning, and make decisions to complete task and test skills in
the affective, cognition, psychomotor and perceptual domains.
B. Exhibition & demonstration - used to allow students to show achievement of
a skill or knowledge by requiring the student to demonstrate that skill or
knowledge in use.
3. Observational - observations provides systematic, ongoing information about
students in relation to areas of strengths and weaknesses, preferred learning
styles, unique interests, learning needs, skills, attitudes, behavior and
performance related expectations
4. Personal communication -
A. Conference - is used to exchange information or share ideas between and
among the individuals at the conference; explore the students thinking
and to suggest next steps; assess the students level of understanding of a
particular concept or procedure; enable a student to move ahead more
successfully on a particular piece of work; review, clarify, and extend
what the student had already completed; help students internalize criteria
for good work.
B. Interview - is used to focus on inquiry where the purpose of the meeting is
based on investigation; explore the students thinking; assess the students
level of understanding of a particular concept or procedure; gather
information, obtain clarification, determine positions and probe for
motivations; help determine students’ understanding of qualities of good
work.
5. Oral - question and answers, classroom presentation
6. Reflective -
A. Self-Assessment - promotes the development of metacognitive ability (the
ability to reflect critically on one’s own reasoning; may involve an
introspective observation, a product assessment or a test; may include
attitude surveys, interest inventories, and personal journals; involves
questions such as “How do I learn best?’, What are my areas for
growth?”, Where do I need to improve?”

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 B. Response journal- allows time for students to formulate well-considered
responses; includes both factual information and the students’ personal
reflections; is provided within a climate which is non-threatening and
open, and which encourages risk taking;
7. Combination of strategies -
A. Portfolio- used to document typical student work and progress; provide a
comprehensive view of the student’s progress, efforts and achievements;
reflect growth and progress but may serve different purposes during the
year; provide a focus for student reflection on their own learning; build a
student’s sense of responsibility for his/her own learning.

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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

A. Answer as required. Review your readings.

1. Discuss the importance of assessment in teaching and learning.Why the need to
vary our way of assessing learning?

2. What is meant by performance assessment? Give examples.

88
 3. Cite one strength of portfolio assessment.

4. What is the best way to evaluate progress in developing values and attitudes?

89

8
 LET’S REFLECT

1. Emphasize on self-assessment.

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 LET’S TAKE IT TO THE NET

Research more about tools to assess teaching and learning. At least five (5) then fill
the table below with the required information.

Assessment Tool Definition Purpose Teacher’s Role

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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 Module 7: Lesson Planning

LET’S GET STARTED

A lesson plan is a teacher’s daily guide for what students need to learn, how
it will be taught, and how learning will be measured. Lesson plans help teachers be more
effective in the classroom by providing a detailed outline to follow each class period.
This ensures every bit of class time is spent teaching new concepts and having
meaningful discussions — not figuring it out on the fly. It is a detailed step-by-step
guide that outlines the teacher's objectives for what the students will accomplishduring
the course of the lesson and how they will learn it. Creating a lesson plan involves setting
goals, developing activities, and determining the materials that you will use.

LET’S EXPLORE

What is Lesson Planning?

Lesson planning is a significant element of teaching-learning system. A lesson plan is
a step-by-step guide that provides a structure for an essential learning. Before planning a
lesson, it is essential to classify the learning outcomes for the class. It is important because
it helps the teacher in maintaining a standard teaching pattern and does not letthe class
deviate from the topic. Pre-planning helps the teacher to be better equipped in answering
questions asked by the students during the lecture. An effective lesson plan has three basic
components; aims and objectives of the course, teaching and learning activities and,
assessments to check student understanding of the topic.

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 A lesson plan does not necessarily have to be a detailed script that contains the plan of
every interaction with students in the classroom. It should preferably have the general
overview of the aims and objectives of the course, the plan of teaching and learning
activities of the course and the activities planned to check the students’ understanding. The
driving force behind lesson planning is the motivation for the teacher and hunger to learn
more by students is what keeps a teacher going.
Types of Lesson
1. Detailed Lesson Plan – it provides mastery of what to teach and gives the teacher the
confidence when teaching. In this plan, both teacher’s and students’ activities are
presented.
2. Semi- Detailed Lesson Plan – it is less intricate than the detailed lesson plan. It is
having the general game plan of what you wanted to cover for that subject on that
particular day.
• Objectives
• Subject matter
• Procedure
• Evaluation
• Assignment
3. Understanding by Design – framework for improving student achievement through
standards-driven curriculum development, instructional design, assessment and
professional development.
Parts of a Lesson Plan
1. Lesson Objectives - Lesson objectives list what students will be able to do after
completing the lesson.
2. Related Requirements - Related requirements are national, state, or school standards
that dictate what you need to teach in a class.
3. Lesson Materials - The third section on your lesson plan is the list of materials that you
need to teach the lesson and measure student outcomes. This section prepares you to
deliver your lessons every day.
4. Lesson Procedure - Your lesson procedure is an in-depth explanation of how the
lesson will progress in the classroom.
5. Assessment Method- The assessment method measures whether your students
learned a lesson’s information and met your lesson objectives.
6. Lesson Reflection - The lesson reflection portion of a lesson plan encourages teachers
7. to take notes on how to improve a lesson after it has been completed.
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 LET’S CHECK UNDERSTANDING

A. Write a brief lesson plan of any topic of your choice. Follow the steps below.

I. Objectives:
II. Subject Matter:
III. Procedure
A. Initiatory Activities
1. Drill
2. Review
3. Motivation
B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation
a. Setting of Standards
2. Discussion
3. Generalization
4. Valuing
5. Application
C. Culminating Activity
1. Evaluation
2. Assignment

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