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 © xijian/Getty Images

Contents

8
Preface
About the Authors

Chapter 1 Strategy Development

and the Strategic
Mindset
What Is Strategy?
Development of the Strategic Mindset
Clear Vision, Focused Strategy, and
Understanding by the Leadership
Focus on the Customer
Change Is Relentless
Search for a Better Way
Decision-Making Role of the Marketplace
Need for a Champion
Trade-Offs in Courses of Action
Beware of Growing and Shrinking at the
Same Time—Market Share Is the Key
Force and Focus
Unique Selling Proposition
Creating Barriers for Competitors’ Entry
and Minimizing Barriers for Self Exit
Diversion and Dissuasion
Growth in the Present Market
Fall on Your Sword
Summary
Questions for Discussion
Notes

9
Chapter 2 Understanding the
Strategic, Business, and
Marketing Planning
Process
Resolving the Confusion: Relating the
Strategic Plan to the Business Plan and
to the Marketing Plan
Business Plan
Marketing Plan
The Process of Starting a New Venture—
What It Might Look Like
When the Customer’s View Is Different from
Your View
Overall Strategic and Marketing Model
Summary
Questions for Discussion
Notes

Chapter 3 The Challenge of a

Competitive Marketplace
The External Environment
Environmental Trends
The Growing Use of Technology
Increase in Competition
Shifts in the Corporate Market
Summary
Questions for Discussion
Notes

10
Chapter 4 Step 1: Conducting the
Internal/External
Assessment
The Assessment Process
Blue Ocean Strategy
The Environment
The Market and Its Needs
The Competition
Internal Capability
Marketing Activities
Market Research
Summary
Questions for Discussion
Notes

Chapter 5 Step 2: Creating the

Mission, Vision, and
Critical Success Factors
Establishing the Context
Constituent Participation
Understanding the Difference Between
Vision and Mission
Should We Create A Broad or Narrow
Strategy?
Stating the Mission
Defining the Vision
Tools to Work Through the Vision
Conversation

11
What Should a Good Vision Statement
Look Like?
Critical Success Factors
What Next? Who Does What?
Summary
General Strategic Planning Checklist
Questions for Discussion
Notes
Further Reading

Chapter 6 Step 3: The

Strategy/Action Match
Perspectives on Strategy
Alternative Models for Considering
Business Strategies
Ansoff Product-Market Growth Matrix
Developing the Strategy/Action Match
Strategy Options
Setting Marketing Objectives
Summary
Questions for Discussion
Notes

Chapter 7 Step 4: Determining

Marketing Actions
Devising Tactics
Product/Service
Distribution
Pricing

12
Promotion
The Integrated Marketing Communications
Integrating Paid, Owned, and Earned Media
Advertising
Sales
Summary
Questions for Discussion
Notes

Chapter 8 Step 5: Integration of the

Marketing Plan with the
Business Plan and the
Strategic Plan
The Necessity of Integration
Integration of Plans with Other
Management Functions
Integration Within the Organization’s
Portfolio
Summary
Questions for Discussion

Chapter 9 Step 6: The Approval and

Monitoring Process
An End and A Beginning
Approval Process: Establishing Guidelines
for Selecting Among Alternative Plans
Monitoring Systems
The Balanced Scorecard
The Need for Contingency Plans

13
Planning for Next Year
Summary
Questions for Discussion
Notes
Further Reading

Chapter 10 Conclusion
Strategy Versus Tactics
Planning Issues
The Future of Strategy and Marketing
Questions for Discussion
Notes

Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Index

14
 © xijian/Getty Images

Preface

15
T
hirty-five years ago, the first edition of this
book was published. Since that time, many
changes have occurred in the healthcare
environment. However, as we look back and re-
read our preface from that first edition, much of
what was written holds true today. As health care
continues to dramatically evolve, the need for
well-formulated approaches to market-based
planning as this text espouses and helps the
reader understand is ever more essential.

Thirty-five years ago, health care was

transforming, as we described, from a cottage
industry to a competitive market in which
organizations were restructuring to be more
organized entities to respond to a marketplace of
“buyers.” The provider systems now recognize
that it is important to understand the buyers’
needs and that identifying and deconstructing
competitive alternatives are key components in
effective market strategic planning.

In today’s healthcare environment, the forces of

change are rooted in technology, demography,
government policies, and structural shifts. All
these forces significantly impact the need for
healthcare organizations and the leaders of those
entities to be more sophisticated in planning their
marketing strategy and appropriate tactics
considering these forces. As we noted in the last
edition of this text, entrepreneurs recognized
health care as a place for considerable

16
opportunity. In this edition, many of these
entrepreneurial opportunities have resulted in
disruptive new services that influence the
strategies for others within the healthcare
provider ecosystem. Plans must be developed
considering the marketplace changes.
Demographics impact services in terms of
opportunities. Planning must reflect these realties
and shape marketing strategies. Over the course
of the previous four editions, government policies
have changed as health policy has changed.
While this book is not a discourse on
reimbursement rules and regulations, it is
important to link the environment to strategy and
to action and to understand the influence of these
forces. Finally, the structural shifts that have
occurred have been dramatic. As plans are
developed relative to the competition, new
entrants into the market, realignment with
mergers and acquisitions, and the impact of
global competitors all are ever more present
factors in the 35th year of this text’s edition.

These changes today make healthcare market

strategy ever more complex. Strategy under the
rules of cost-based reimbursement of some 40
years ago for those who may still remember and
long for them or those who study healthcare
reimbursement and wish they were the rules
today recognize the ease of management
strategy. Patients were admitted, care was

17
delivered for the necessary procedure, and the
costs were passed along to an insurer. Now,
there is value-based care, high deductible
healthcare plans, individuals who may still buy on
an exchange, “center of excellence” contracting,
reference pricing, as well as other variations that
may affect the price component of marketing as
well as overall marketing strategy.

In promotional planning, technology as well as

marketplace behavior has dramatically altered
over the decades. Social media strategies are a
major component of strategy and resultant tactics.
Competitors’ presence—along with third-party
sites for education as well as for evaluative
reference—is now utilized by consumers. Here
too, healthcare strategy must be linked to these
environmental shifts compared to the simpler
days of media that were dictated by broadcast
and print and message control and tactics under
the organization’s control.

Marketing strategy and planning today may be no

greater changed than in terms of distribution. New
technology and new competitors have entered
through Web-based alternatives. From a
competitive perspective, the organization and the
leadership must broaden their views with regard
to whom they consider within their competitive set
of players.

Finally, it is important to understand our goal in

this text. We have tried to further refine a market-

18
focused approach between strategy design and
tactical implementation. Reading an introductory
text in marketing or strategic management alone
does not equip one to take the next step in
planning a strategy with the tactics to move the
organization to act. In our foundation of creating a
strategy/action match based on when an
organization enters the market and the stage of
market development, a leader can consider the
alternative possibilities in terms of strategy and
the appropriate tactics to consider.

For those who have used the earlier editions of

this text or for our loyal readers of the past
edition, you will notice many updates and
additions in each of the chapters throughout this
text, some of which we want to highlight for you.

Chapter 1—The first chapter sets the stage for

the balance of the text. The chapter is a set of
basic observations and beliefs that that we have
found helpful when working with organizations as
they develop strategies and actions. Over the
years, we have observed—to the dismay of many
executives—that change is relentless and that
clear and dedicated focus is critical. We also
would suggest that before a senior management
team or board of directors or a group of
physicians begins the strategic process, it would
be wise for them to use Chapter 1 as a starting
point to gain a common understanding that we
call the strategic mindset.

19
Chapter 2—The process of creating an
integrated strategic and marketing plan begins
here. First, it is necessary to clarify the
connection between the strategic plan, the
business plan, and the marketing plan to avoid
confusion. Furthermore, for each of these
elements, we offer key observations to enable
executives to make better decisions. For
example, we note that in many strategic plans,
these plans are often too general to offer
guidance to managers or too far removed from
reality to be believable. In this chapter, we offer
ideas that are designed to help executives
establish clear strategies and integrate strategic,
business, and market plans.

Chapter 3—This chapter discusses the changes

in the competitive marketplace. As a result, you
will notice significant changes, updates, and
additions throughout your reading. As the U.S.
policy on immigration is changing, there is some
discussion regarding how the immigration
population affects population growth in the United
States. Additionally, there is an interesting
discussion of patient portal use across ethnicity.
Similarly, there is an expanded and significantly
revised discussion of aging in the United States.
In this chapter, we provide the concept of
domestic tourism as a new factor. The discussion
of transparency has been significantly revised

20
with greater depth of government transparency
sites, along with third-party sites, such as YELP.

Chapter 4—In this chapter discussing the

Internal/External Assessment, we have added a
new and important presentation on Scenario
planning as an input to internal assessment. More
so in this edition than in the previous, our review
of the SWOT and Five Forces model has
increased emphasis on healthcare examples for
students who might use this text as well as
greater applicability for practitioners. A significant
change is the addition of a third model or
framework “Blue Ocean Strategy” that has
recently received some recognition in the
management literature. It is helpful to consider
these three models (SWOT, Five Forces, and
Blue Ocean) in the context of the Strategy/Action
Match presented in our book. Finally, in the
section on market research data, we have added
a new discussion on sentiment (opinion) mining
that is now being utilized to analyze discussions
in social media sites.

Chapter 5—Ultimately, this book is about

achieving to actionable marketing strategies. In
order to get to that specific level, organizations
need to be clear about who they are (mission),
where they are going (vision), and what is critical
in terms of a successful vision (critical success
factors). Successful business organizations
typically know where they are headed, and they

21
begin to place resources to achieve that vision. In
health care, we tend to see less than accurate
mission statements, generalized vision direction,
and little attention or investment in critical
success factors. This chapter is designed to add
more rigor to the mission, vision, critical success
factor conversation, and decision-making.
Chapter 6—The healthcare environment is
constantly changing at the local, statewide, and
national policy levels. Some organizations are
growing, while others are not. Disruption is a
common term at the clinical, health system, and
payer levels. Growing organizations have
different tactical opportunities than organizations
that are in decline. The focus of this chapter is to
help organizations understand the kind of
marketing tactics they should use for each major
market condition. This model that we created is
called the “Strategy/Action Match.”

Chapter 7—This chapter focuses on the

determination of marketing actions. Within the
Product/Service section, a central component is
the evaluation of core quality. As a result, we
have expanded our presentation of the federal
government’s expansion of their comparison
websites for quality and its impact on
reimbursement. In response to greater structural
changes in the healthcare industry with mergers
and acquisitions, there has been more focus on
branding. Strategy and the resultant tactics have

22
been at the forefront of marketing concerns. This
edition has an expanded and revised discussion
on choosing a brand strategy. Similarly, as the
changes in distribution strategy and tactics have
been so significant since our last edition, we have
revised and enhanced our approach in this
chapter; readers of prior editions will note the
impact of technology discussion in terms of the
distribution and channel and the discussion on
the changing nature of channels. In terms of
marketing actions, pricing has undergone
significant enhancement as the tactics in this
component of marketing have seen renewed
emphasis within health care since our last edition.
Discounting, contracting variations, center of
excellence contracting, price bundling are but a
few of the tactics to consider within the marketing
planning approach. “Integrated Marketing
Communications” is a new section in this chapter
within the overall discussion of strategy in
promotional planning. This edition also has
included the costing discussion regarding how to
do so for digital media alternatives.

Chapter 8—Coordination is the focus of this

chapter. Understanding how one clinical product
line, such as the cardiology marketing plan, fits as
a part of the overall business plan is key. Creating
a system where multiple hospitals in a system
work in concert is the focus of this chapter. This
concept can be difficult because while hospitals

23
might be in the same system, individual hospitals
may still compete even though they are part of
the same organization. Great strategies on paper
often become difficult to execute when it comes to
coordination across health system or clinical
lines.

Chapter 9—Creating strategy and implementing

it can be energizing. Monitoring strategy can often
be less satisfying. But it is necessary. All
organizations monitor results monthly with
financial statements. This chapter assumes that
financial statements are in place. Therefore, the
goal of Chapter 9 is to provide ideas on how to
monitor results that go beyond the traditional
financial statements, and we provide ideas on
how to evaluate marketing tactics, including
salespersons and advertising results.
Chapter 10—In our last chapter, we have added
a brief new discussion on “expecting the
unexpected” and the steps by which this must be
factored into the planning process. Additionally, to
enforce reexamination of assumptions,
organizations intent on developing a plan with a
team must consider “the inclusion of programmed
conflict.” We have observed that many
organizations often say, “The marketing dollars
were poorly spent.” While in many instances that
statement might have some merit, we have added
a new discussion of the sequence of values
process and promotional expenditures as it

24
pertains to the marketing message. The role of
the Chief Marketing Officer is changing, and we
have provided in this edition three trends that are
making this role more important to consider.
Hopefully, with some guidance in implementing
strategy and tactics in this book, we have helped
in some small way.

25
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
area of 6 feet in the centre seemed, so far as I examined, to have
been laid with large stones, and intersected with small trees and
stakes. Beyond this space I observed no stones, only the mud of the
lake, and a few bits of small trees. Three stones in the centre
seemed marked by fire; and below those I turned over, and under
water, there was a good deal of charcoal mixed with small bits of
bone.
"In the neighbouring 'Loch of Flemington,' and covered with several
feet of water, are to be seen, when the water is frozen over, similar
remains of piles.
"In the east end of the small pond called 'Loch in Dunty,' about two
miles in a westerly direction from that of Flemington, are to be
observed three vestiges of piles about a foot above water; these,
notwithstanding the evidence of a Highlander living close by, 'that
the piles had been put into the loch in auld time, for the purpose of
steeping the lint,' are, in my opinion, of the same description, day
and generation, as those I have attempted to describe in the Loch of
the Clans."—(Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. vol. v. pp. 116, 332.)

Loch of Sanquhar, Dumfries-shire.

In June 1863, Dr. Grierson of Thornhill announced, at a meeting of
the Dumfries-shire and Galloway Natural History Society, that an
ancient stockade had been found in a small loch near Sanquhar. He
observed, "that about five weeks ago, a man drowned himself in a
tarn about two miles north of Sanquhar. In order to recover the
body, the water was drained off, when it was found that a small
island in the middle of the loch or tarn was artificial, and had been
constructed of stakes with stones between, and had been
approached by a zigzag line of stepping-stones. It was thought that
the loch might be altogether artificial, forming, as it were, a moat or
fosse to the little fort."—(Proceedings, Session 1863-4, p. 12.)
During the summer of 1865, the members of the Society made an
excursion to this loch for the purpose of examining the crannog, the
result of which is described by the President (the late Sir W. Jardine,
Bart.) in his annual address, and from which the following extracts
are taken:[17]—

"This loch is of considerable depth, and now covers about 2

acres. At the north end of this there is a small island covered
with a rank vegetation of grasses, carices, etc., mixed with a
few plants of Epilobium angustifolium, and there are also a few
stunted trees of Scotch fir and birch. At the north or north-east
end there is a natural outlet from the loch through the moss,
which could be easily deepened." ... (This outlet was deepened
previous to their visit, and the water drained off so as to
facilitate the examination of the island.)
"When first seen, after the bottom was laid dry, a few upright
piles were observed, and the curving narrow passage from the
mainland appeared somewhat raised, and was hard below the
immediate mud deposit, as if a sort of rough causeway had
been formed; and when the water was at its height, or nearly
level with the surface of the island, persons acquainted with the
turn or winding of the passage could wade to it. The base of the
slope of the island was laid or strengthened with stones, some
of considerable size, so placed as to protect the wooden
structure. Round the island could be seen driven piles, to which
were attached strong transverse beams, and upon making a cut
6 or 7 feet wide into the side of the island to ascertain its
structure, we found a platform of about 4 feet in depth raised
by transverse beams placed alternately across each other, and
kept in position by driven piles. These last were generally self
oak trees, but dressed and sharpened by a metal tool, some of
them mortised at the heads where a transverse rail or beam
could be fixed. The transverse beams, of various sizes, were
chiefly of birch wood.... On the surface of the island there were
some indications of buildings, but on examination these were
found to be only the erection of curlers for fire, or the protection
of their channel-stones when not in use. No remains of any kind
 were found on the island nor around it, but, except on the
passage from the mainland, the mud was so deep and soft as to
prevent effectual search. Neither have we any record of any
other remains being found in or near the loch except the canoe
already alluded to. It is formed out of a single oak tree, 16 feet
in length by 3 feet broad at the widest part, at the prow only 1
foot 10 inches."

Loch Barean, Kirkcudbrightshire.

The following facts were communicated to the author by John J.
Reid, Esq., F.S.A. Scot., Edinburgh:—
Loch Barean, situated in a mountainous patch in the parish of
Colvend, is about five miles from Dalbeattie, and not far from the
main road leading from this town to Colvend Manse. It is a deep
peaty sort of a loch, very irregularly shaped, measuring about 1950
feet in length, with a breadth varying from 600 to 1150 feet, and is
bounded on the east by a barren ridge of rock which runs along its
margin. In 1865 the level of this loch was lowered by drainage,
when a few stones, which used to become visible in dry summers,
turned out to be an artificial island constructed of wooden beams.
Shortly after exposure, it was visited by the late Sir W. Jardine, Dr.
Stuart, Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, and others, and
found to be surrounded by a circle of oak piles enclosing a wooden
flooring. "None of these piles were visible above the water. On this
oak piling beams had been laid horizontally, some oak and some of
fir still retaining the bark. The space within this piling was nearly
circular in shape, and measured about 24 feet in diameter; but,
outside the piling, and between it and the loch, there was an area,
from 5 to 8 feet wide, filled with angular granite blocks to assist in
protecting the wooden flooring."
Two metal "pots" were found on the island, of which only one now
remains. It is of thin beaten bronze, flat-bottomed, with bulging
sides and everted lip. Its dimensions are: height 5 inches, diameter
of mouth 43⁄4 inches, do. of bottom 33⁄4 inches, and do. in middle
53⁄4 inches.[18]

Crannogs in Loch Dowalton.

A more important discovery, made about the same time, was a
group of artificial islands in Lake Dowalton, Wigtownshire, which
were first described by Lord Lovaine, in a paper read to the British
Association in 1863. Mr. John Stuart, Secretary to the Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland, then took up the subject, and, owing to a
greater drainage of the loch having been made in the interval, was
enabled to re-examine the Dowalton islands under more favourable
circumstances. The result of his labours was an elaborate paper to
the Society, in which he gave a detailed account of the structure and
relics of these crannogs, and also took the opportunity of
incorporating into his article all the facts he could glean, so as to
afford a basis for comparing the Scottish examples with those in
other countries. I have taken advantage of some of the contents of
this paper on a previous occasion when discussing Mr. Robertson's
investigations of Scottish crannogs. The following is the substance of
Dr. Stuart's examination and report of the Dowalton group:[19]—
The late Loch of Dowalton was of an irregular form, about 1 1⁄2 mile
long, and about 3⁄4ths of a mile in greatest breadth, and without
any marked outfall for drainage. Sir William Maxwell effected this by
making a cut, 25 feet deep, through the wall of whinstone and slate
which closed it in at its south-eastern extremity. Dr. Stuart, who
availed himself of Lord Lovaine's previous description of the island
abodes that became visible on the drainage of the loch, describes
them in order of succession, beginning at the west end:—
"The first is called Miller's Cairn, from its having been a mark of the
levels, when the loch was drained by cuts for feeding neighbouring
mills. One of these cuts is known to have been made at a remote
period. It was still surrounded by water when the place was visited
by Lord Percy in 1863. On approaching the cairn, the numerous rows
of piles which surrounded it first attracted notice. These piles were
formed of young oak-trees. Lying on the north-east side were
mortised frames of beams of oak, like hurdles, and, below these,
round trees laid horizontally. In some cases the vertical piles were
mortised into horizontal bars. Below them were layers of hazel and
birch branches, and under these were masses of fern, the whole
mixed with large boulders, and penetrated by piles. Above all was a
surface of stones and soil, which was several feet under water till
the recent drainage took place. The hurdle frames were neatly
mortised together, and were secured by pegs in the mortise holes.
"On one side of the island a round space of a few feet in size
appeared, on which was a layer of white clay, browned and calcined
as from the action of fire, and around it were bones of animals and
ashes of wood. Below this was a layer of fern and another surface of
clay, calcined as in the upper case. A small piece of bronze was
found between the two layers. On the top another layer of fern was
found, but the clay, and the slab which probably rested upon it, had
been removed. There can be no doubt that this had been used as a
hearth. Near this cairn a bronze pan was found.... Lines of piles,
apparently to support a causeway, led from it to the shore.
"The next in order is the largest island. Lord Percy succeeded in
reaching it in a boat in 1863. It appeared to him to be 3 feet below
the level of the other islands, and, from several depressions on its
surface, to have sunk. The progress of excavation was, however,
soon checked by the oozing in of the water. On the south side of the
island great pains had been taken to secure the structure; heavy
slabs of oak, 5 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 2 inches thick, were laid
one upon another in a sloping direction, bolted together by stakes
inserted in mortises of 8 inches by 10 inches in size, and connected
by square pieces of timber 3 feet 8 inches in length. The surface of
the island was of stones, resting on a mass of compressed
brushwood, below which were branches and stems of small trees,
mostly hazel and birch, mingled with stones, apparently for
compressing the moss. Below this were layers of brushwood, fern,
and heather, intermingled with stones and soil, the whole resting on
a bed of fern 3 or 4 feet in thickness. The mass was pinned together
by piles driven into the bottom of the loch, some of which went
through holes in the horizontal logs. I noticed some of these flat
beams of great size and length (one of them 12 feet long), with
three mortise holes in the length, 7 inches square. A thick plank of
oak of about 6 feet in length had grooves on its two edges, as if for
something to slide in. This island measured 23 yards across, and was
surrounded by many rows of piles, some of which had the ends cut
square over, as if by several strokes of a small hatchet. Vestiges of
branches were observed interlaced in the beams of the hurdles. On
the north-east side, and under the superstructure of the island
(hurdles and planks), a canoe was found, made of a single tree of
oak. It was 21 feet in length, 3 feet 10 inches across over all near
the stern, which was square. Its depth at the stern was 17 inches,
or, including the back-board which closed the stern, 20 inches. The
stern was formed by a plank inserted in a groove on each side, with
a back-board pegged on above it. The part containing the grooves
was left very thick. There were two thole-pins on each side, inserted
in squared holes in the solid, which was left to receive them, and
wedged in with small bits of wood. One thwart of fir or willow
remained. A plank or wash-board projecting a few inches over the
edge, ran round the canoe. It rested on the top, and was fastened
with pegs into the solid....
"On one spot a few flat stones were placed as if for a hearth. The
best saucepan was found between this island and the shore. A small
circular brooch of bronze, four whetstones, two iron hammers, and
some lumps of iron slag, were found on the island. A third iron
hammer was found near it.
"The original depth from the surface of the island to the bottom was
probably from 6 to 7 feet; but the structure was much dilapidated
before I saw it.
"Proceeding southward, we come to the island first examined by
Lord Percy. It proved to be nearly circular, and to be about 13 yards
in diameter. Its surface was raised about 51⁄2 feet above the mud,
and on each side of it were two patches of stone nearly touching it.
On the north side lay a canoe of oak, between the two patches, and
surrounded by piles, the heads just appearing above the surface of
the mud. It was 24 feet long, 4 feet 2 inches broad in the middle,
and 7 inches deep, the thickness of the bottom being 2 inches.
Under the stones which covered the surface, teeth of swine and
oxen were found. A trench was cut round the islet, and at the south
end a small quantity of ashes was turned up, in which were teeth
and burned bones, part of an armlet of glass covered with a yellow
enamel, and a large broken bead of glass, together with a small
metal ornament; two other pieces of a glass armlet, one striped blue
and white, were also found on the surface. These objects were
found on the outside of the islet, about 2 feet from the surface. On
cutting into the islet itself, it proved to be wholly artificial, resting on
the soft bottom of the loch, and in its composition exactly the same
as the large island already described. The whole mass was pinned
together by piles of oak and willow, some of them driven 21⁄2 feet
into the bottom of the loch. The islet was surrounded by an
immense number of piles, extending to a distance of 20 yards
around it; and masses of stone, which apparently were meant to act
as breakwaters, were laid amongst them. On the sinking of the mud,
a canoe was found between the islet and the northern shore. It was
181⁄2 feet long, and 2 feet 7 inches wide. A block of wood cut to fill
a hole, left probably by a rotten branch, was inserted in the side, 2
feet long, 7 inches wide, and 51⁄2 inches thick, and was secured by
pegs driven through the side; across the stern was cut a deep
groove to admit a back-board; in both canoes a hole 2 inches in
diameter was bored in the bottom.
"The next islet is about 60 yards from the last, and nearer to a rocky
projection, on the south margin of the loch. It was examined by Lord
Percy and was found to be smaller; the layers were not so distinctly
marked, and some of the timbers inserted under the upper layer of
brushwood were larger, and either split or cut to a face. A stake with
two holes bored in it about the size of a finger, a thin piece of wood
in which mortises had been cut, and a box, the interior of which was
about 6 inches cube, with a ledge to receive the cover, very rudely
cut out of a block of wood, were found.
"On the south-east side of the loch, near one of the little
promontories, were several cairns surrounded by piles, of which the
outline had mostly disappeared at the time of my visit. When they
were first seen by Lord Percy, there were six structures of the same
character as those already described, arranged in a semicircle. They
were, however, much smaller than the others, and appeared to have
been single dwellings. Though upon some of them charred wood
was found, nothing else was discovered except a mortised piece of
timber, which might have been drifted there; and in one, inserted
under the upper layer of brushwood, a large oak beam, measuring 8
feet long by 3 in circumference.
"This group of small islets was close to the shore. They had,
however, been surrounded by water at the time the level of the loch
reached the highest beach-mark. I could not discover any causeway
or piled connection with the shore.
"Near the north margin of the loch, a canoe was found in the mud.
It measured 25 feet in length, and was strengthened by a projecting
cross band towards the centre, left in the solid in hollowing out the
inside."

Relics found at Dowalton.

The relics found in the course of these investigations at Dowalton
Loch were presented to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland by Sir
William Maxwell of Monreith in 1865, and they are now deposited in
the National Museum, Edinburgh. The following description of them
is taken from the Proceedings of the Society, vol. vi. p. 109:—
Square-shaped stone, 5 inches in length, 1 inch in breadth, and 5⁄8
inch in thickness, and tapering to a point 5⁄8 inch square; probably a
whetstone.
Three bronze basins: one measures 10 inches in diameter, and 4
inches in depth. It is formed of sheet metal, fastened by rivets, with
portions of an iron handle. This pot or basin shows several patches
or mendings (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11.—Bronze Basin (height 4 inches).

Another vessel of bronze measures 12 inches in diameter, and 4

inches in depth. It appears to have been made by hammering it into
shape out of one piece of metal.
The third vessel measures 12 inches in diameter, and 3 inches in
depth, and is also formed out of one piece of metal.

Fig. 12.—Bronze Basin (height 3 inches).

On its upper edge is a turned-over or projecting rim, 1 inch in

breadth (Fig. 12).
Pot or patella of yellowish-coloured bronze, with a handle springing
from the upper edge, 7 inches in length, on which is stamped the
letters Cipipoliei. At the further extremity is a circular opening. The
bottom is ornamented by five projecting rings, and measures in
diameter 6 inches; it is 8 inches in diameter across the mouth; the
inside appears to be coated with tin, and has a series of incised lines
at various distances. The vessel is ornamented on the outside
opposite to the handle by a human face in relief, surrounded by a
moveable ring, which could be used in lifting the pot (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13.—Bronze Pot (height 51⁄2 inches).

Bronze ring, measuring 31⁄2 inches in diameter, which passes

through a loop fastened to a portion of broken bronze, apparently
part of the upper edge of a large bronze vessel, the ring having
formed one of the handles (Fig. 14).
Small very rude clay cup or crucible, 2 inches in height (Fig. 15).
Bronze implement, being a short tube 1 inch in length, with a
projecting rim at one extremity, which is 2 inches in diameter. It is
not unlike in shape to the socket portion of a modern candlestick.
Bronze penannular ring or brooch, 13⁄4 inch in diameter, with
bulbous extremities (Fig. 16).
 Fig. 14.—Bronze Ring (1⁄2).

Small plain bronze ring, 1 inch in diameter.

Small portion of bronze, probably portion of a vessel.

Fig. 15.—Crucible (1⁄2).

 Fig. 16.—Bronze Penannular Brooch (1⁄1).

Small bronze plate or ornament, 1 inch in length, having a projecting

tongue at three of its corners, each projecting portion being pierced
with a hole through in its centre.
Two iron axe-heads: one with a square-shaped head, which tapers
to a sharp cutting face, and measures 61⁄2 inches long; it has a large
perforation close to the square head for receiving the handle (Fig.
17). The other measures 6 inches in length. The perforation for the
handle is near the centre; and one end has a sharp cutting face, the
other a blunt rounded extremity, or head (Fig. 18).
 Fig. 17.—Iron Axe (1⁄2). Fig. 18.—Iron Axe (1⁄2). Fig. 19.—Iron Hammer (1⁄2).

Iron hammer-head, 81⁄2 inches in length, with hole in the centre for
handle; the head is square, and tapers slightly to a blunt face (Fig.
19).
Several masses of iron slag.
Wooden boat paddle, the blade measures 2 feet 4 inches in length,
by 10 inches in breadth, and 1 inch in thickness. It has a short
rounded handle, measuring 7 inches in length.
Half of a ring, 3 inches in diameter, formed of white glass or vitreous
paste, and streaked with blue (Fig. 20).
Half of a similar ring, formed of yellow-coloured glass or vitreous
paste.
Large bead, measuring 11⁄2 inch in diameter. The centre portion is
formed of blue glass, of a ribbed pattern. The central perforation or
opening is formed of a tube of bronze, and the edge of both sides of
the perforation is ornamented by three minute bands of twisted
yellow glass (Fig. 21).

Fig. 20.—Portion of Ring of Glass (1⁄2).

Fig. 21.—Bead
(length 1 inch, height 11⁄4 inch).

Bead of earthenware, 3⁄4 inch in diameter, of a ribbed pattern, and

showing traces of green glaze (Fig. 22).
Small bead of vitreous paste, of a white colour with red spots, and
measuring 1⁄2 inch in diameter (Fig. 23).
 Fig. 23.—Bead. Fig. 22.—Bead. Fig. 24.—Bead.
(All actual size.)

Amber bead, 3⁄4 inch in diameter.

Half of a small bead, measuring 3⁄4 of an inch in diameter, of white
glass streaked with blue (Fig. 24).
Small portion of blue glass.
Portion of a leather shoe, measuring 7 inches in length, and 31⁄2
inches in its greatest breadth, nearly covered with ornamental
stamped patterns (Fig. 25).

Fig. 25.—Portion of Shoe (length 7 inches).

Besides the above list there were found five canoes, five quern-
stones, and several whetstones.
On the 14th of March 1881, R. Vans Agnew, Esq. of Barnbarroch,
presented to the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, a
brooch or ornamental mounting of bronze, found in Dowalton Loch,
Wigtownshire, of which
Fig. 26 is a
representation. It is
ornamented with
trumpet-shaped spaces,
probably filled with
enamel, and measures
2 inches in diameter.
Mr. Vans Agnew gives
the following account of
the circumstances in
which it was
Fig. 26.—Bronze Ornament (2 inches in diameter).
discovered:—"The
bronze ornament or
brooch was found last summer in the bed of the Loch of Dowalton
by Master Alexander Gibson, grandson of Mr. Alexander Cumming,
the venerable tenant of the farm of Stonehouse, on the shore of the
lake. It was then seventeen years since the lake was drained. I have
not been able to ascertain the exact spot where it was found, but it
was not far from the site of some of the crannogs."[20]

Report on Osseous Remains.

The following is Professor Owen's report of the bones which were
submitted to him for examination:—
"The bones and teeth from the lake-dwellings, submitted to my
examination by Lord Lovaine, included parts of the ox, hog, and
goat. The ox was of the size of the Bos longifrons, or Highland kyloe,
and was represented by teeth, portions of the lower jaw, and some
bones of the limbs and trunk. The remains of the sus were a lower
jaw of a sow, of the size of the wild boar, and detached teeth. With
the remains of the small ruminant, of the size of the sheep, was a
portion of a cranium with the base of a horn core, more resembling
in shape that of the he-goat. Not any of these remains had lost their
animal matter.—R. O."

Loch Kielziebar, Argyllshire.

In December 1867 a paper, by the Rev. R. J. Mapleton, Corr. Mem. S.
Ant. Scot., Kilmartin, was read at the meeting of the S. A. Scot.,
describing an artificial island in Loch Kielziebar, near the Crinan
Canal. The author thus sums up his observations:—"Altogether, I
think that it is evident that the crannog was entirely composed of
rock and walling, with the middle part filled up with smaller stones:
that there existed considerable works of wood on the east, south,
and west sides, at least, but whether a rampart outside, or a
building on the structure itself, is not quite clear; that there was a
partial causeway, now under water, and the interval either filled in
with brushwood, or passed over in a canoe."—(Proc. Soc. Antiq.
Scot. vol. vii. p. 322.)
In June of the following year Mr. Mapleton gives a description of
stockaded remains discovered twelve years previously upon the
partial drainage of a fresh-water loch at Arisaig, in the parish of
Ardnamurchan, Inverness-shire. This loch was of an irregular oval
form, and lay in a comparatively level tract of land, with very low
braes at a short distance from its shores. It communicated with the
sea by a small burn. The crannog was of a rectangular shape (43 by
41 feet), but owing to the surrounding mud it was impossible to
ascertain how the foundation of the crannog had been formed.
"Outside of the building is a range of sharpened posts, fixed in the
bottom of the loch, and inclining inwards towards the crannog,
leaving a space of about 3 feet of water between them and the
building. These posts are beautifully pointed, being quite round
towards the ends, as though made by small sharp instruments. We
counted eight still standing on one side. The crannog appears to
have been formed altogether of very large round logs, or rather of
trees with the bark left on, and the side branches neatly cut off.
They are of various lengths: one that we were able to measure
being 29 feet long, and 5 feet in circumference, at about 2 feet
above the base. Another log was closely fitted to this, so as to
extend through the whole breadth of the building. The ends did not
overlap, but had been neatly cut or worn off, so as to be placed
quite close to each other.
"We tried to dig down into the structure, and found at least four
layers of these large trunks placed very regularly across each other.
We could not dig deeper, as the water began to ooze in; but by
using a probe, we felt timbers at a depth of 8 feet below our
digging. The wood is chiefly oak, but there are some logs of birch....
On the surface were several large flagstones, especially in three
spots. These bore strong marks of fire, and the logs on which they
rested were much charred. Beneath and around them we found
charcoal, several small pieces of calcined bone, shells of hazel-nuts,
and one very small chip of flint, together with several rough angular
pieces of white quartz. At each of the four corners of the structure
there were two sharpened stakes inclining towards each other and
the building, leaving a small space between them; and at one end
(viz. the south-east) there was one large log of oak 39 feet long, and
5 feet 6 inches in circumference at the base. Two great logs were
nicely rounded off at the end, and a hollow was scooped out in the
wood, about 2 or 3 inches deep, and 4 inches broad.
"Upon rowing up to the structure, when it first appeared above the
surface of the falling water, the men first came to a kind of rampart,
that ran on all the four sides, about 3 feet distant from the structure,
and about 18 inches higher than the apparent level of the floor of
the crannog. This was formed by large trees that were kept in their
place by the upright sharpened posts, whose sharp points projected
about 1 foot above the trees. The ends of these trees were scooped
out in the same manner as the two that still remain; and they were
firmly fixed in their places between the two sharpened posts at each
corner, which fitted into the hollow made by the scooping. No signs
of a causeway were observed, neither could we detect any symptom
of one, though we carefully probed the mud all round. 'Lord Abinger
informed me that when a loch on his property, Torlundie, Fort-
William, was drained, there was a kind of structure with timbers in it,
which were unfortunately scattered and destroyed, as Mr. Stuart had
not then made known the existence of crannogs in Scotland, and
drawn attention to them.'"—(Proceedings, vol. vii. p. 516.)

Artificial Islands in Mull.

In June 1870, the following note by Farquhard Campbell, Esq. of
Aros, Mull, was read at the meeting of the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland.—(Proceedings, vol. viii. p. 465.)
"The loch called Na Mial, in English Of Deer, is about a mile south of
Tobermory, and about 150 feet above the level of the sea, and 50
acres in extent. There was in the loch one of the artificial islands
which are found in almost all the lochs of Mull. I drained the loch,
which was only about 6 feet deep of water, blasting a passage
through whinstone rock 20 feet deep. The mud under the water is of
great depth. Of course, we had to make deep drains round the loch
to catch the water. On coming with the drain to the edge of the loch,
opposite this island, a large canoe was found 4 feet under the
surface of the mud. The canoe was of black oak, 17 feet in length
and 31⁄2 feet beam, quite fresh and sound. Several canoes of a
smaller size were also found, but near the surface of the mud, and
in a half-decayed state. Three boats of modern clinker-built
construction, of whose history none of the natives had any
knowledge, were also found. I had the large canoe dug out of the
mud and put into the sea, in order that, being saturated with salt
water, it might be preserved from cracking. There is another loch on
my property which has two of these artificial islands. The loch is
large—about 1500 acres. I may also mention that, close to the site
of the large canoe, I found a stone causeway laid upon oak-trees.
This was at the same depth under the surface of the mud (viz.,
about 4 feet). This causeway led direct to the artificial island, which
was formed of a quantity of loose stones, on the only rock near the
surface of the water in the whole loch."
Lake-Dwellings of Ledaig and Lochnell, Argyllshire.
Dr. Angus Smith, F.R.S., in a communication to the Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland in 1871, describes, among other antiquities
near Loch Etive, lake-dwellings at Ledaig and Lochnell, the former of
which, notwithstanding the limited and inadequate inspection it has
undergone, presents some features of interest, which the reader will
find in the following extracts from Dr. Smith's report.—(Proc. Soc.
Antiq. Scot. vol. ix. pp. 93 and 105.)
"About one hundred and twenty years ago a company from England,
engaged in working iron, had diverted a stream from this to the
east, and made dry ground where was a lake.
"The space that called forth interest was scarcely distinguishable
from the rest of the moss. A little attention, however, showed a
depression. The whole was of a brownish-green colour, but in the
middle of the depression, where had been the old lake, there was a
part greener than the rest. It was of an oval form, about 50 feet
long, and 28 feet broad. The outer part had a double row of tufts, as
if two walls had existed. I expected piles at these places, but the
whole was soft and consisted of turf only. On digging down, about
31⁄2 feet, we came to wood, consisting of young trees from 6 to 8
inches in diameter, lying packed closely together. Under these there
was another larger layer crossing, and under these again more.
There seemed four all along the building. This was opened in three
parts, and the same layers of wood were seen....
"At the east end of the oval was an elongation not surrounded by
the turf mound. I believe the foundation extends along it. I suppose
this to have been a platform before the door, a place for the
inhabitants to sun themselves, and a landing and disembarking spot.
(This platform was afterwards found to extend all round.)
"In the middle nearly, but a little to the westerly end, of the oval
house was the fireplace. It is higher than the rest of the space. It
was here that the bones were found, with shells and nuts. Under a
few inches of a white powder is the hearth. It consists of four flattish
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