Chapter 3 (DATA COMMUNICATIONS)

Q.1: Define communication or Data Communication.

Ans: COMMUNICATION:
The word “communication” is derived form Latin word “communicare”, which means to share,
or to make common. The communicating or exchanging of information, ideas, facts, opinions,
thoughts and messages from one person to another by speaking, writing, or using some other
medium. Like phone, computer and television etc.
Data Communication: Data communication is the exchange of digital messages from one place
to other. It is the process of exchange data like sound, images, text, videos etc and information
between two parties such as human or electronic devices. It involves a sender and a receiver
which communicate via some form of transmission medium such as a cables, wifi etc. Example:
Electronic communications, like emails and instant messages and phone calls are examples of
data communications.
communication media:-

Q2. What is data and information?

Data: Collection of raw facts and figures is called data. The word data is derived from Latin
language and it is plural of Datum. The text, numbers, symbols, images, voice and video which
are processed by computers and digital devices are called data. Data can be considered as
unprocessed information.
Information:-Meaningful form of a data is called information. After processing the result on the
screen is called information.

Q3. What are the elements of Data Communication?

Ans. Elements of Data Communication:-there are three basic elements of any communication
system are:
(i) Message: It is the information or data to be communicated.
Example: Common forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio and video.
(ii) Sender: It is the device that generates and sends a message.
Example: It can be a computer, telephone handset, etc.
(iii) Receiver: Any particular digital electronic device which has capability to receive data in
form of message. The location of receiving computer is generally different from the sending
computer.
Example: Like sender, it can also be a computer, telephone handset, etc.
(iv) Medium: It is the channel or path through which the message is carried from sender to the
receiver.
Example: Some examples include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, radio waves, etc.
(v) Protocol: Protocols are the rules and procedures on which computers exchange data on
network.
Sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
In other words, a protocol is an agreement between two parties or venders, using communication
devices. Example: FTP, TCP/IP, HTTP etc.

Q4. What is communication media? Discuss the various medias used in data
communication. OR
Define microwave, radio wave and infrared. How can they are useful in communication
system.
Communication Media:- Communication media is defined as means of delivering or receiving
a message, information, or data. The means through which the information is passed can be
guided media and unguided media.
GUIDED MEDIA:
In guided media signals are transmitted in a narrow pathway by using physical links. It is also
called Wired or Bounded transmission media. The physical links are the cables that are tangible
or have physical existence.
UNGUIDED MEDIA:
Unguided media is also termed as wireless or unbounded transmission media. It does not require
physical medium such as wire for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
TYPES OF GUIDED MEDIA:
There are three common types of guided media used for the networks. Each of them has its own
characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical appearance, cost, etc.
1.Twisted Pair Cable 2.Coaxial Cable 3. Fiber-Optic Cable
Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cable is used in LANs, for carrying data and information in
the form of electrical signals for short distance. A twisted pair cable is made up of insulated
copper wires with two separated wires twisted together. The insulation and twisting of wires
prevent external interference or reduce physical transmission issues. When an electric current
passes over a wire, it creates electromagnetic interference (EMI) that interferes with electrical
signals that is called crosstalk. Twisting the wire pairs reduces cross-talk. Twisted pairs cable
contains eight wires with unique color code in four pairs, two pairs are used to create electric
loops and remaining two pairs are used to reduce cross-talk and other interferences. Twisted
cables are categorized in Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a. Cat5e as per their performance.
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
(a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) (b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted Pair cable. UTP cable is
pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other insulation or shielding only
surrounded by an outer jacket, which is unprotected against electrical interference. The twist
helps to reduce electrical noise and EMI. UTP cables are less expensive, and suitable for shorter
distance up to 100 meters. RJ-45 connectors are used in Ethernet networks for transmitting data
signals. UTP is designed for indoor connection because external factors like weather, sound,
electromagnetic waves etc can affect the data transmission process.
Shielded Twisted Pair k(STP): STP stands for Shielded Twisted Pair cable. STP has the
individual pairs of wires wrapped in foil, which are then wrapped again for double protection
which is protected against electrical interference. The twist helps to reduce electrical noise and
EMI. This type of cable consists of a special coating to block external interference like weather,
sound, electromagnetic waves etc. STP cables are designed for outdoor. STP cables transmit data
over longer distances than UTP, at higher speeds for high-bandwidth applications than UTP
cables. RJ-45 connectors are used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and also in voice and data channels
of telephone lines. STP cable is expensive than UTP cable.
Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable is used by cable operators, telephone companies, and internet
providers and LAN to transmit data, video, and voice communications signal in electrical
form. In central the copper conductor is used for the transmission of data signals and the
insulator is used to provide plastic insulation around the copper conductor, and insulator is
surrounded by a metal conductor which helps to prevent the electromagnetic interference (EMI)
of electrical signals and cross talk. This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic
layer to provide extra safety to the cable. Coaxial cable is used for over long distances than
twisted-pair cable typically up to 1500 meters, BNC or TNC connectors are used.
Fiber-Optic Cable: In optical fiber or fiber-optic cable data is transferred in the form of light. A
fiber optic cable consists of one or more fibers of glass, each only slightly thicker than a
human hair. The center of each fiber is called the core, which provides the pathway for light to
travel. The core is surrounded by a layer of glass called cladding that reflects light inward to
avoid loss of signal and allow the light to pass through bends in the cable Use: It is used for
transmission of large volumes of data at very high speed. The maximum distance of any type of
fiber optic cable is around 62.14 miles (100 kilometers)
UNGUIDED MEDIA:
Radio Waves: The radio waves have frequency range from 3 KHz to 1 GHz. These waves are
easy to generate and these can travel along long distances. These waves are Omni directional in
nature which means that they can travel in all the directions. It means that sending and receiving
antennas do not need to be aligned. They are widely used for the communication between both
indoor and outdoor because they have the property that they can penetrate through the walls very
easily. These waves are usually used for AM and FM radio, television, cellular phones and
wireless LAN.
Benefits of Radio transmission:
1. This wave can penetrate and travel through building. Thus it is used for both indoor and
outdoor communication.
2. The transmitter and receiver do not need to be in the line of sight.
3. Radio waves are not absorbed by the atmosphere, so they are slightly affected by the
atmosphere
4. A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
Use: FM, AM radios, television and cordless phones use radio waves for transmission.
Microwaves: Microwave transmission is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and
receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with each other. Microwaves are electromagnetic
waves which have frequency range between 1 GHz to 300 GHz. These can travel along long
distances. These are unidirectional in nature which means that they can travel only in straight
line. At very high frequency that cannot penetrate into walls. These waves are usually used for
one to one communication between sender and receiver, cellular phones, satellite networks, and
wireless LAN. Use: These are mostly used for mobile phone communications tower and
television broadcast.
Types Of Microwaves:
There are two types of microwave transmissions:
(a) Terrestrial and
(b) Satellite
(a) Terrestrial: Terrestrial microwaves have both stations having antennas on earth.
(b) Satellite: In satellite system, some antenna are on satellite in orbit and others are on stations
on earth. They work at remote places.
Use: It can be used in mobile devices.
Benefits of Microwave:
1. Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
 2. It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
3. Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of
cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
4. Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission
Infrared: Infrared Waves are electromagnetic waves that have frequency range between 300
GHz to 400 GHz. These cannot travel along long distances. These waves are used for short range
communication and they also use line-of-sight of propagation. These waves cannot pass through
solid objects like walls etc. These also not penetrate through walls. The most common
application of the IR waves is remote controls that are used for TV, DVD players, and stereo
system
Use: Wireless infrared communications can be used to establish short range wireless links or
wireless Local Area Network.
Benefits of Infrared:
1. It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
2. Infrared wave can not penetrate through wall or hard object. Thus it is limited in indoor
use.
3. An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
4. Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.

Q5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of fiber optic cable.

Ans. The advantages of optical fiber include the following.
1. Bandwidth is above copper cables
2. Less power loss and allows data transmission for extended distances
3. Optical cable is resistance for electromagnetic interference
4. Fiber cable is sized as 4.5 times which is best than copper wires
5. As cable are lighter, thinner, in order that they use less area as compared to copper wires
6. Installation is extremely easy thanks to less weight.
7. Optical fiber cable is extremely hard to tap because they don’t produce electromagnetic
energy. These optical fiber cables are very secure for transmitting data.
8. This cable opposes most acidic elements that hit copper wired also are flexible in nature.
9. Optical fiber cable are often made cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire.
10. Light has fastest speed within universe, such a lot faster signals
11. Fiber optic cables allow much more cable than copper twisted pair cables.
12. Fiber optic cables have how more bandwidth than copper twisted pair cables.
The disadvantages of glass fiber include the subsequent :
1. These cable are very difficult to merge so there’ll be loss of beam within cable
2. Installation of those cables is cost-effective. they’re not as robust because wires. Special
equipment is typically required to optical fiber.
3. These cable are highly vulnerable while fitting
4. These cables are more delicate than copper wires.
5. Special devices are needed to ascertain transmission of fiber cable.
6. Fiber optic cable is dear to put in. It needs costly splicing machines and trained specialists
to place in fiber optic cables.
Q6. Difference b/w Radio Wave, Microwave and Infrared wave
No. Radio wave Microwave Infrared wave

These are
1 These are Omni-directional in These are unidirectional in
unidirectional in
. nature. nature.
nature.

At low frequency, they can

At low frequency, they can
penetrate through solid They cannot penetrate
2 penetrate through solid objects
objects and walls. at high through any solid
. and walls but high frequency
frequency, they cannot object and walls.
they bounce off the obstacle.
penetrate.

3 Frequency range: 3 KHz to Frequency range: 1 GHz to Frequency range: 300

. 1GHz. 300 GHz. GHz to 400 GHz.

4 These offers medium These offers high

These offers poor security.
. security. security.

5
Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.
.

Some frequencies in the

Some frequencies in the radio- There is no need of
6 microwaves require
waves require government government license to
. government license to use
license to use these. use these waves.
these.

7 Setup and usage Cost is Usage Cost is very

Setup and usage Cost is high.
. moderate. less.

These are not used in

8 These are used in long These are used in long
long distance
. distance communication. distance communication.
communication.

Q7: Differentiate between:

1. Guided and unguided media 2. Radio wave, microwave and infrared wave
Ans. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUIDED AND UNGUIDED MEDIA:
S.NO. GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDD MEDIA
In guided media signals are transmitted in It does not require physical medium such as wire for
1.
a narrow pathway by using physical links. the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
 It is also called Wired or Bounded Unguided media is also termed as wireless or
2.
transmission media. unbounded transmission media.
3. Wired transmission Wireless transmission
It provides direction to signal for It does not provide any direction. Unguided media is
4.
travelling. generally suited for radio broadcasting in all directions.
5. Transmission speed is generally faster. Transmission speed is generally slow.
Types: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable
6. Types: Radio wave, microwave and infrared.
and fibre optic cable.

Q8. Define data transmission.

Ans. The data transmission means emission of data in any direction via wireless or wired
medium. Transmission may occur between source and destination. The process of data traveling
on medium like cable or wifi is called data transmission.

Q9. Define analogue and digital signals:

Analog Signals: Analog signals are a continuously varying signals or waves that change with
time period and used to represent data. An analog signal can be used to measure changes in some
physical quantities. The bandwidth of an analog signal is low.
Example: Such as light, sound, pressure or temperature.

1. Amplitude:-Amplitude is the height of a wave on one side of the equilibrium position.

Amplitude is actually the strength or volume the loudness of a signal. A soft voice has
low amplitude. The amplitude is measured in volts.
2. Frequency:-Frequency is the number of times a wave repeats in a second. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (c/s)
Digital Signals: A digital signal is an electrical signal that is converted into a pattern of bits to
represent a sequence of discrete values, at any given time. It can only be one of the finite
numbers represented as 0 or 1. The bandwidth of a digital signal is relatively high.

Q10. Differentiate between:

(a) analog and digital signals (b) Data rate or Bite rate and baud rate?
Ans. Difference Between Analog Signals and Digital signals
S.No. Analog Signals Digital signals
An analog signal is a continuous wave that A digital signal is a discrete wave that carries
1.
changes by time period. information in binary form.
2. Analog signal has no fixed range. Digital signal has a finite number i.e. 0 and 1.
 An analog signal can easily be disturbed by A digital signal is less prone to other signals
3.
other signals or waves. disturbance.
The human voice is example of an analog
4. Signals used by computer are the digital signal.
signal.
An analog signal is represented by a sine
5. A digital signal is represented by square waves.
wave.
Analog signals are long term waves need to Digital signals are short term signals remain within
6.
be boosting. digital devices / electronic.

Q11. Discuss various transmission modes used in data communication.

Ans. Transmission Mode:-
Transmission mode is also known as a communication mode, is the transfer of data between
two devices via a communication channel that includes an optical fiber, wireless
channels, copper wires, and other storage media . Data is transmitted between two devices in the
form of electromagnetic waves. There are numerous data transmission methods in which the
message is delivered in the form of a sequence of pulses utilizing digital modulation.
Synchronous:-The Synchronous transmission mode is a mode of communication in which the
bits are sent one after another without any start/stop bits or gaps between them . Actually, both
the sender and receiver are paced by the same system clock. In this way, synchronization is
achieved.
In a Synchronous mode of data transmission, bytes are transmitted as blocks in a continuous
stream of bits. Since there is no start and stop bits in the message block. It is the responsibility
of the receiver to group the bits correctly. The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups
them in eight bits unit. The receiver continuously receives the information at the same rate that
the transmitter has sent it. It also listens to the messages even if no bits are transmitted.
For Example, if there are two bytes of data, say(10001101, 11001011) then it will be
transmitted in the synchronous mode
Example:
Chat Rooms
Telephonic Conversations
Video Conferencing

Asynchronous:-The Asynchronous transmission mode is a mode of communication in which a

start and the stop bit is introduced in the message during transmission. The start and stop bits
ensure that the data is transmitted correctly from the sender to the receiver.
Generally, the start bit is '0' and the end bit is '1'. This type of transmission mode is best suited
for short-distance data transfer.
For Example, if there are two bytes of data, say(10001101, 11001011) then it will be
transmitted in the asynchronous mode
Example:
Email
Forums
Letters

Q12. Define simplex, half duplex and full duplex modes of data communication.
Ans. Simplex:-Simplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow only in one
direction, i.e., the communication is unidirectional. In this mode, a sender can only send data
but can not receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but can not send it.
For Example, Radio and TV transmission
Half-Duplex:-Half-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow in both
directions but in one direction at a time. It is also referred to as Semi-Duplex. In other words,
each station can both transmit and receive the data but not at the same time. When one device
is sending the other can only receive and vice-versa
For Example, Walkie-Talkie, wireless
Full-Duplex:-Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow in both
directions at the same time. It is bi-directional in nature. It is two-way communication in which
both the stations can transmit and receive the data simultaneously.
For Example, a Telephone

Q13. Define bandwidth.

Narrowband:- These media communicate data with relatively slow speed examples are
telegraph lines.
Voice band:- These media are faster than narrowband. Most telephone lines which are used to
carry microcomputer transmission are voice band.
Broadband (also called wideband);- these media transmit large volumes of data at high speed
via microwave , satellite, coaxial cable and fiber optic cable

Q14. What is modem or function of modem? Why is it necessary for internet? And types of
modem
Modem: Modem is short for Modulator and Demodulator. Modulation is the process of
converting digital signals into analog signals. Demodulation is quite opposite it converts analog
signals into digital signals. It is important to remember that telephone lines transmit data on
analog signals but the computer transmits data in digital form, the modem is used to send or
receive data over telephone lines and allows a computer to connect to the internet using a
standard telephone line.
Necessary for Internet:-When landline phones were the primary tool to communicate over long
distances, modems were used to gain internet over telephone lines. In fact, without modems, it
would have been impossible for most users to connect to the Internet. Because computer
technology is purely digital relies on numbers to transmit and receive information, telephone
technology, is analog, it uses continuously varying electrical signals to transmit information. So
that using modem, the modem convert analog to digital and digital to analog signal to
communicate or share information between users.
Types Of Modem:
Dial-up Modem: Dial-up is a technology used to connect internet using standard telephone line.
It works by dialing a specific phone number provided by an internet service provider (ISP) and
establishing a connection through a modem. Dial-up connection is not suitable for streaming
videos or downloading large files and poor call quality due to slow speed or bandwidth.
DSL Modem: DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line uses telephone lines to transfer digital
signals.DSL modem has a built-in network switch to use twisted pair cable to deliver data and
voice at high speed as compare to dial-up modem. Some DSL modems also have wireless
communication functionality.
ISDN Modem: Integrated Services Digital Network is a digital phone connection. It is faster and
expensive technology. It can transmit data, voice and video over a normal telephone line at the
same time which was not done before. Since ISDN work on digital transmission it converts
analog voice to digital signals before transmission.

Q15. Define network protocol. Define any three network protocol.

Ans. Network Protocol:-In networking, a protocol is a set of rules for formatting and processing
data. Network protocols are like a common language for computers. The computers within a
network may use vastly different software and hardware; however, the use of protocols enables
them to communicate with each other regardless. If one computer uses the Internet Protocol
(IP) and a second computer does as well, they will be able to communicate , but if one computer
uses IP and the other does not know this protocol, they will be unable to communicate.
Network Protocols:
1.Network Communication Protocols: These protocols determine the rules and formats to
transfer data across networks. Communication protocols govern various aspects of analog and
digital communications, such as syntax, authentication, semantics, and error detection, among
others. Some key network communication protocols include TCP, UDP, IP, HTTP, IRC, BGP and
ARP.
Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Commonly referred to as the protocol of the internet
that allows communication between a server and browser.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):TCP is a transport layer Transmission control protocol is
used for communication over a network. In TCP data is broken down into small packets and then
sent to the destination. However, IP is making sure packets are transmitted to the right address.
Internet Protocol (IP): Facilitates routing the data packets across networks. IP contains
addressing and control information to deliver packets across a network. It works along with TCP.
While it ensures delivering the packets to the right address, TCP aligns them in the right order.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP):UDP: The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a faster but less
reliable alternative to TCP at the transport layer. It is often used in services like video
streaming and gaming, where fast data delivery is paramount.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP):File transfer protocol is basically used for transferring files to
different networks. There may be a mass of files such as text files, multimedia files, etc. This
way of file transfer is quicker than other methods.
SMTP :-Simple mail transfer protocol manages the transmission and outgoing mail over the
internet
HTTP :-HTTP is based on client and server model.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL): Primarily helps secure internet connections and safeguard sensitive
data using encryption. SSL protocol enables both server-client communication and server-server
communication.
2. Network Security Protocols: These protocols ensure safe data transmission over the network
connections. Network security protocols define the procedures to secure data from any
unauthorized access. These protocols leverage encryption and cryptography to safeguard. Here
are the most widely used network security protocols: Examples include SFTP, SSL and HTTPS.
Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) : Helps securely transfer files across a network by using
public-key encryption and authenticating the client and server.
Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) :-HTTP: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) is the foundation of the World Wide Web, the Internet that most users interact with. It is
used for transferring data between devices. HTTP belongs to the application layer (layer 7),
because it puts data into a format that applications (e.g. a browser) can use directly, without
further interpretation. The lower layers of the OSI model are handled by a computer's operating
system, not applications. HTTP is used for making a connection between the web client and web
server. HTTP shows information in web pages
HTTPS: The problem with HTTP is that it is not encrypted — any attacker who intercepts an
HTTP message can read it. HTTPS (HTTP Secure) corrects this by encrypting HTTP messages
3. Network Management Protocols: Network managers require standard policies and
procedures to manage and monitor the network for maintaining smooth communication. Network
management protocols ensure quick troubleshooting and optimal performance across the
network. The following are essential network protocols management: Examples include SNMP,
FTP, POP3 and Telnet.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Helps administrators manage network
devices by monitoring endpoint information to proactively track network performance and
pinpoint network glitches for quick troubleshooting.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Helps diagnose network connectivity issues.
Network devices employ ICMP for sending error messages, highlighting congestion and
timeouts, and transmitting other operational information to assist in network troubleshooting.
Telnet:-Telnet is an established with some rules which are used to connect to another computer.
Telnet is mainly used for the remote login process. The computer which is requesting for a
connection that is a local computer and which is accepting the connection that is a remote
computer. If you give a command in a local computer that command is executed in the remote
computer. Telnet is also based on client and server model.
Gopher:-Gopher is an application layer protocol, which is used for searching and retrieving
documents from remote sites. This is possible to start an online connection with other computers
through gopher.

Q16. Define standards and network standards. Explain the purpose of standard
organization?
Ans. STANDARDS: Standards are rules that define the appearance, functionality, or protocols of
some equipment.
NETWORK STANDARD: Network standards define rules of communications among
computing devices. This ensures that companies (i.e. Cisco and IBM) that manufacture
computing and networking products follow these uniform standards. By following standards, all
hardware become compatible in the network, allowing efficient networking to take place. They
are essential for network communication.
STANDARD ORGANIZATIONS (PURPOSE):Standard Organization develops, coordinates,
revises, amends and reissues technical standards. These standards are intended to address the
requirements of a group of concerned devices. There are several organizations working on
standardization of computing equipment to enable the interoperability among different devices
manufactured by different companies in different regions. Example: ISO, IEEE, IETF, ITU and
ANSI are the examples of standard organizations.

Q17. Write few lines about different standard organizations?

Ans. (i) International Organization for Standardization (ISO):It covers a wide range of
fields.
The ISO has members from the standards committees of various governments across the world.
It is even responsible for developing models which provides high level of system compatibility,
quality enhancement, improved productivity and reduction in costs. The ISO is also responsible
for endorsing and coordinating the functions of the other standards organizations.
(ii) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE):It is an international
professional non-profit organization. Electronics, computer and communication engineers,
researchers, scientists and students are the members of IEEE. This organization develops
communication and information processing standards for all fields related to electrical and
computer engineering.
(iii) International Engineering Task Force (IETF):It is a large international community of
network designers, operators, vendors and researchers concerned with the development of
internet architecture and smooth operation of the internet.
(iv) International Telecommunication Union (ITU):This organization is a specialized agency
that is responsible for resolving the issues that concern with information and communication
technologies.
(v) American National Standards Institute (ANSI):It is the official standards agency for the
United States. ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised of equipment
manufacturers and users of data processing equipment and services. It supervises standards for
products, services, processes, systems and personnel in the United States. ANSI membership is
comprised of people from professional societies, industry associations, governmental and
regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.

Q18. What is an OSI model? Write the functions of each layer of OSI model with diagram.
Ans. OSI Model:
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual model developed by ISO. It
characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication and
computing network. Purpose: Its goal is the interoperability of different communication systems
with standard communication protocols.
LAYERS OF ISO's OSI MODEL WITH THEIR FUNCTIONS:
This model divides a communication system into seven abstraction layers.
S.NO. Layers Functions
 This layer enables users to access the network with applications such as email,
1. Application file transfer, etc.
These applications produce the data, which is transferred over the network.
It receives information from the application layer and converts it to uniform
network format (ASCII or Unicode) which is acceptable by rest of OSI model
2. Presentation and destination.
Encryption and decryption are also the responsibility of this layer.
This layer also reduces number of transfer bits by compression.
This layer establishes, maintains and ends a session or logical connection
between applications on two computers.
3. Session It manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long.
This layer adds checkpoints.
If session fails only data after the most recent checkpoint need to be transmitted.
It ensures the reliable transmission of data.
4. Transport Transport layer manages error control, flow control and quality of the service.
If the data is not properly transmitted it requests to resend.
The function of this layer is the selection of the shortest and suitable path from
source to destination, from the number of routes available.
5. Network
It is also responsible to convert logical address (IP address) to physical address
(MAC address).
This layer is responsible to transmit data using physical addresses.
6. Data link Data Link Layer ensures error free transmission of packets.
Packet in this layer is referred as Frame.
It is responsible for converting electrical signals into bits.
7. Physical It also defines the cable types to be used as transmission media, cards, topology
and other physical aspects.

Q19. Describe the communication device and their functions?

COMMUNICATION DEVICES: A communication device is any type of hardware capable of
transmitting and receiving data, instructions and information.
(i) AMPLIFIER: -An amplifier is a device used for the amplification of the signals, it improves
the strength of the signal without altering the shape of the signal. Amplifiers are basically used in
wireless communication systems that include an analogue signal. An amplifier is a part of the
circuit that increases the input signal strength.
(ii)HUB: -In a star topology, all the computers are connected to a central device called hub or
switch, to communicate with any computer, the sender must send information to the hub and hub
is not intelligent, it broadcasts the data to all computer because it has no routing tables.
(iii) Switch: A switch or network switch is a networking device. It connects computers and other
devices like printers, scanners and cameras on a local area network. Data cables from all
computers and other devices of network are plugged into the switch to enable communication
between them. It does not require any configuration. A Switch is used to transfer the data only to
the device that has been addressed. It is intelligent and does not broadcast the message as it
works with limited bandwidth
(iv) Router: Routers are a combination of hardware and software. A Router is a device that
connects two or more networks. The main function of a router is to determine the optimal data
path and transfer the information through that path also known as network traffic controller using
routing table. A routing table lists all networks for which routes are known. Each router’s routing
table is unique and stored in the RAM of the device. A router can be used both in LANs (Local
Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area Networks). Routers use the Internet Protocol (IP) to send
IP packets containing data and IP addresses of sending and destination devices located on
separate local area networks.
(vi) Network Interface Card (NIC):Network cards also known as Network Interface Cards
(NICs) are hardware devices. They are installed on the mother board. Modern motherboards have
built-in NICs.
It connect a computer with the network. They are responsible for establishing a physical
connection between the network and the computer. Computer data is translated into electrical
signals and sent to the network via Network Interface Cards.