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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

SHERRI L. JACKSON is Professor of Psychology at

Jacksonville University, where she has taught since
1988. At JU she has won the Excellence in Scholarship
(2003), University Service (2004), and Teaching
Awards (2009), the university-wide Professor of the
Year Award (2004), the Woman of the Year Award
(2005), and the Institutional Excellence Award (2007).
She received her M.S. and Ph.D. in cognitive/experimental
psychology from the University of Florida. Her re-
search interests include human reasoning and the teaching
of psychology. She has published numerous articles in both
areas. In 1997 she received a research grant from the Office
of Teaching Resources in Psychology (APA Division 2) to
develop A Compendium of Introductory Psychology
Textbooks 1997–2000. She is also the author of Research
Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach,
4th edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage, 2009),
Statistics Plain and Simple, 3rd edition (Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Cengage, 2014), and A Concise Guide to
Statistical Analyses Using Excel, SPSS, and the TI-84
Calculator (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage, 2013).

vi
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 BRIEF CONTENTS

P REF AC E xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Thinking Like a Scientist 1

Module 1 Science and Psychology 3

Module 2 An Introduction to Research Methods 19

CHAPTER 2 Getting Started 33

Module 3 Research Ideas 35

Module 4 Ethical Research 46

CHAPTER 3 Variables 69

Module 5 Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating Variables 71

Module 6 Reliability and Validity 82

vii
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 viii BRIEF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4 Descriptive Methods 95

Module 7 Observational and Qualitative Methods 97

Module 8 Survey Methods 111

CHAPTER 5 Predictive (Relational) Methods 129

Module 9 Conducting Correlational Research 132

Module 10 Quasi-Experimental Designs 146

Module 11 Conducting Single-Case Research 158

CHAPTER 6 Explanatory Methods 173

Module 12 Between-Subjects Experimental Designs 176

Module 13 Correlated-Groups and Developmental Designs 192

Module 14 Advanced Experimental Designs 201

CHAPTER 7 Understanding Results: Describing Data 221

Module 15 Data Organization, Central Tendency, and Variance 223

Module 16 Transformation Scores and Correlation Coefficients 241

CHAPTER 8 Understanding Results: Making Inferences I 267

Module 17 Hypothesis Testing 269

Module 18 The t Test for Independent Groups 278

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 BRIEF CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 9 Understanding Results: Making Inferences II 293

Module 19 t Test for Correlated Groups (Samples) 295

Module 20 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 304

CHAPTER 10 APA Communication Guidelines 327

Module 21 Communicating Research Findings 329

Module 22 APA Sample Manuscript 345

APPENDIX A Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 363

APPENDIX B Statistical Tables 379
APPENDIX C Excel, SPSS, and TI-84 Exercises 394
APPENDIX D Computational Formulas for One-Way Randomized ANOVA 434

REFERENCES 435
GLOSSARY 438
INDEX 445

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 CONTENTS

P REF ACE xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Thinking Like a Scientist 1

Module 1 Science and Psychology 3

Areas of Psychological Research 6
Psychobiology 6
Cognition 6
Human Development 6
Social Psychology 6
Psychotherapy 8
Sources of Knowledge 8
Superstition and Intuition 8
Authority 9
Tenacity 9
Rationalism 10
Empiricism 10
Science 11
The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology 12
Systematic Empiricism 12
Public Verification 13
Empirically Solvable Problems 13
Basic and Applied Research 15
Goals of Science 16
Description 16
Prediction 16
Explanation 16
Summary 17

x
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 CONTENTS xi

Review of Key Terms 17

Module Exercises 17
Critical Thinking Check Answers 18
Web Resources 18

Module 2 An Introduction to Research Methods 19

Descriptive Methods 20
Predictive (Relational) Methods 21
Explanatory Method 22
Doing Science 25
Proof and Disproof 26
The Research Process 27
Summary 27
Review of Key Terms 27
Module Exercises 28
Critical Thinking Check Answers 29
Web Resources 29
CHAPTER ONE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: THINKING LIKE
A SCIENTIST 30

CHAPTER 2 Getting Started 33

Module 3 Research Ideas 35

Reviewing the Literature 37
Library Research 37
Journals 37
Psychological Abstracts 38
PsycINFO 38
Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index 42
Other Resources 42
Reading a Journal Article: What to Expect 44
Abstract 44
Introduction 44
Method 44
Results 44
Discussion 44
Summary 45
Module Exercise 45
Web Resources 45

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xii CONTENTS

Module 4 Ethical Research 46

Ethical Standards in Research with Human Subjects 47
Institutional Review Boards 55
Informed Consent 55
Risk 56
Deception 58
Debriefing 58
Ethical Standards in Research with Children 58
Ethical Standards in Research with Animals 59
Summary 64
Review of Key Terms 64
Module Exercises 64
Critical Thinking Check Answers 64
Web Resources 65
CHAPTER TWO SUMMARY AND REVIEW: GETTING STARTED 66

CHAPTER 3 Variables 69

Module 5 Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating Variables 71

Defining Variables 72
Properties of Measurement 73
Scales (Levels) of Measurement 73
Nominal Scale 74
Ordinal Scale 74
Interval Scale 74
Ratio Scale 75
Discrete and Continuous Variables 76
Types of Measures 76
Self-Report Measures 76
Tests 77
Behavioral Measures 78
Physical Measures 79
Summary 80
Review of Key Terms 80
Module Exercises 80
Critical Thinking Check Answers 81
Web Resources 81

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 CONTENTS xiii

Module 6 Reliability and Validity 82

Reliability 83
Error in Measurement 83
How to Measure Reliability: Correlation Coefficients 84
Types of Reliability 85
Test/Retest Reliability 85
Alternate-Forms Reliability 85
Split-Half Reliability 86
Interrater Reliability 86
Validity 87
Content Validity 87
Criterion Validity 88
Construct Validity 88
The Relationship between Reliability and Validity 89
Summary 90
Review of Key Terms 90
Module Exercises 91
Critical Thinking Check Answers 91
Web Resources 91
CHAPTER THREE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: VARIABLES 92

CHAPTER 4 Descriptive Methods 95

Module 7 Observational and Qualitative Methods 97

Naturalistic Observation 98
Options When Using Observation 98
Laboratory Observation 100
Data Collection 101
Narrative Records 102
Checklists 102
Qualitative Methods 103
Case Study Method 104
Archival Method 105
Interviews and Focus Group Interviews 105
Field Studies 107
Action Research 108
Qualitative Data Analysis 108
Summary 109
Review of Key Terms 109

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xiv CONTENTS

Module Exercises 110

Critical Thinking Check Answers 110
Web Resources 110
Lab Resources 110

Module 8 Survey Methods 111

Survey Construction 112
Writing the Questions 112
Arranging the Questions 115
Administering the Survey 115
Mail Surveys 115
Telephone Surveys 117
Personal Interviews 118
Sampling Techniques 119
Probability Sampling 119
Nonprobability Sampling 121
Summary 123
Review of Key Terms 123
Module Exercises 123
Critical Thinking Check Answers 123
Web Resources 124
Lab Resources 124
CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY AND REVIEW: DESCRIPTIVE
METHODS 125

CHAPTER 5 Predictive (Relational) Methods 129

Module 9 Conducting Correlational Research 132

Magnitude, Scatterplots, and Types of Relationships 133
Magnitude 134
Scatterplots 134
Positive Relationships 135
Negative Relationships 136
No Relationship 136
Curvilinear Relationships 136
Misinterpreting Correlations 138
The Assumptions of Causality and Directionality 138
The Third-Variable Problem 140
Restrictive Range 141
Curvilinear Relationships 141
Prediction and Correlation 142

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 CONTENTS xv

Summary 143
Review of Key Terms 143
Module Exercises 144
Critical Thinking Check Answers 144
Web Resources 145
Lab Resources 145

Module 10 Quasi-Experimental Designs 146

Nonmanipulated Independent Variables 147
An Example: Snow and Cholera 148
Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs 150
Single-Group Posttest-Only Design 150
Single-Group Pretest/Posttest Design 151
Single-Group Time-Series Design 151
Nonequivalent Control Group Posttest-Only Design 153
Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest/Posttest Design 153
Multiple-Group Time-Series Design 154
Internal Validity and Confounds in Quasi-Experimental Designs 155
Summary 156
Review of Key Terms 156
Module Exercises 156
Critical Thinking Check Answers 157
Web Resources 157
Lab Resources 157

Module 11 Conducting Single-Case Research 158

An Example: Split-Brain Research 160
Types of Single-Case Designs 161
Reversal Designs 161
ABA Reversal Designs 162
ABAB Reversal Designs 162
Multiple-Baseline Designs 163
Multiple Baselines across Subjects 164
Multiple Baselines across Behaviors 165
Multiple Baselines across Situations 165
Summary 167
Review of Key Terms 167
Module Exercises 167
Critical Thinking Check Answers 167
Web Resources 168
Lab Resources 168

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 xvi CONTENTS

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: PREDICTIVE

(RELATIONAL) METHODS 169

CHAPTER 6 Explanatory Methods 173

Module 12 Between-Subjects Experimental Designs 176

Control and Confounds 181
Threats to Internal Validity 182
Nonequivalent Control Group 182
History 182
Maturation 183
Testing 183
Regression to the Mean 183
Instrumentation 183
Mortality or Attrition 184
Diffusion of Treatment 184
Experimenter and Subject (Participant) Effects 184
Floor and Ceiling Effects 187
Threats to External Validity 188
Generalization to Populations 188
Generalization from Laboratory Settings 189
Summary 190
Review of Key Terms 190
Module Exercises 190
Critical Thinking Check Answers 190
Web Resources 191
Lab Resources 191

Module 13 Correlated-Groups and Developmental Designs 192

Within-Subjects Experimental Designs 193
Matched-Subjects Experimental Designs 196
Developmental Designs 198
Cross-Sectional Designs 198
Longitudinal Designs 199
Sequential Designs 199
Summary 200
Review of Key Terms 200
Module Exercises 200

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 CONTENTS xvii

Critical Thinking Check Answers 200

Web Resources 200
Lab Resources 200

Module 14 Advanced Experimental Designs 201

Using Designs with More Than Two Levels of an Independent
Variable 202
Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study 202
Comparing Two or More Kinds of Treatment with the Control
Group (No Treatment) 203
Comparing a Placebo Group with the Control and Experimental
Groups 205
Using Designs with More Than One Independent Variable 206
Factorial Notation and Factorial Designs 206
Main Effects and Interaction Effects 207
Possible Outcomes of a 2  2 Factorial Design 210
Summary 213
Review of Key Terms 213
Module Exercises 214
Critical Thinking Check Answers 214
Web Resources 215
Lab Resources 215
CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY AND REVIEW: EXPLANATORY
METHODS 216

CHAPTER 7 Understanding Results: Describing Data 221

Module 15 Data Organization, Central Tendency, and Variance 223

Organizing Data 224
Frequency Distributions 224
Graphs 224
Bar Graphs and Histograms 225
Frequency Polygons 227
Descriptive Statistics 229
Measures of Central Tendency 229
Mean 229
Median 231
Mode 232
Measures of Variation 233
Range 234
Standard Deviation 234

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 xviii CONTENTS

Summary 238
Review of Key Terms 238
Module Exercises 238
Critical Thinking Check Answers 239
Web Resources 240
Statistical Software Resources 240

Module 16 Transformation Scores and Correlation Coefficients 241

Types of Distributions 242
Normal Distributions 242
Kurtosis 242
Positively Skewed Distributions 243
Negatively Skewed Distributions 244
z-Scores 244
z-Scores, the Standard Normal Distribution, Probability,
and Percentile Ranks 247
Correlation Coefficients 255
Advanced Correlational Techniques: Regression Analysis 258
Summary 259
Review of Key Terms 260
Module Exercises 260
Critical Thinking Check Answers 261
Web Resources 261
Statistical Software Resources 261
CHAPTER SEVEN SUMMARY AND REVIEW: UNDERSTANDING
RESULTS: DESCRIBING DATA 262

CHAPTER 8 Understanding Results: Making Inferences I 267

Module 17 Hypothesis Testing 269

Null and Alternative Hypotheses 270
One- and Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests 271
Type I and Type II Errors in Hypothesis Testing 272
Statistical Significance and Errors 273
Parametric Statistics for Two-Group Designs 275
Summary 276
Review of Key Terms 276
Module Exercises 276

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 CONTENTS xix

Critical Thinking Check Answers 277

Web Resources 277

Module 18 The t Test for Independent Groups 278

t Test for Independent Groups: What It Is and What It Does 279
Calculations for the Independent-Groups t Test 281
Interpreting the Independent-Groups t Test 282
Graphing the Means 284
Effect Size: Cohen’s d 284
Assumptions of the Independent-Groups t Test 285
Summary 286
Review of Key Terms 286
Module Exercises 286
Critical Thinking Check Answers 287
Web Resources 288
Statistical Software Resources 288
CHAPTER EIGHT SUMMARY AND REVIEW: UNDERSTANDING
RESULTS: MAKING INFERENCES I 289

CHAPTER 9 Understanding Results: Making Inferences II 293

Module 19 t Test for Correlated Groups (Samples) 295

t Test for Correlated Groups: What It Is and What It Does 296
Calculations for the Correlated-Groups t Test 298
Interpreting the Correlated-Groups t Test and Graphing the Means 299
Effect Size: Cohen’s d 300
Assumptions of the Correlated-Groups t Test 301
Summary 301
Review of Key Terms 302
Module Exercises 302
Critical Thinking Check Answers 303
Web Resources 303
Statistical Software Resources 303

Module 20 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 304

Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study 305
Analyzing the Multiple-Group Experiment 306
Between-Subjects Designs: One-Way Randomized ANOVA 306
One-Way Randomized ANOVA: What It Is and What It Does 307
Calculations for the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 310

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 xx CONTENTS

Interpreting the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 314

Graphing the Means and Effect Size 315
Assumptions of the One-Way Randomized ANOVA 316
Tukey’s Post Hoc Test 316
One-Way Repeated Measures and Two-Way ANOVAs 319
Summary 319
Review of Key Terms 319
Module Exercises 320
Critical Thinking Check Answers 321
Web Resources 322
Statistical Software Resources 322
CHAPTER NINE SUMMARY AND REVIEW: UNDERSTANDING
RESULTS: MAKING INFERENCES II 323

CHAPTER 10 APA Communication Guidelines 327

Module 21 Communicating Research Findings 329

Writing Clearly 330
Avoiding Grammatical Problems 330
Reporting Numbers 332
Citing and Referencing 333
Citation Style: One Author 334
Citation Style: Multiple Authors 334
Reference Style 334
Typing and Word Processing 336
Organizing the Paper 337
Title Page 337
Abstract 338
Introduction 338
Method 338
Results 339
Discussion 339
References 339
Tables and Figures 339
Appendices 340
The Use of Headings 340
APA-Formatting Checklist 341
Conference Presentations 341
Oral Presentations 341
Poster Presentations 343

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 CONTENTS xxi

Summary 343
Module Exercises 344
Critical Thinking Check Answers 344
Web Resources 344

Module 22 APA Sample Manuscript 345

CHAPTER TEN SUMMARY AND REVIEW: APA COMMUNICATION
GUIDELINES 362
APPENDIX A Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 363
APPENDIX B Statistical Tables 379
APPENDIX C Excel, SPSS, and TI-84 Exercises 394
APPENDIX D Computational Formulas for One-Way Randomized ANOVA 434

REFERENCES 435

GLOSSARY 438

INDEX 445

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Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
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 PREFACE

This text was written to provide students and instructors with a simple
approach to learning and teaching research methods. One of my writing goals
was to be concise yet comprehensive. The text is organized into 10 chapters,
each divided into modules. The modular format allows students to digest
smaller chunks and allows teachers to enjoy greater flexibility in reading as-
signments and class coverage. Most modules are brief: 7 to 15 pages in
length. However, even using a modular presentation, most of the text is com-
prehensive in its coverage of research methods and some statistics. Each mod-
ule is divided into subsections, which further serve to break the material
down into even smaller digestible chunks for ease of understanding and
assimilation.
In addition, I have made every attempt to use a straightforward, easy-to-
understand writing style, presenting information in a simple and direct fash-
ion. Because the research methods course is often one of the more difficult
ones for many students, I also try to write in an engaging, conversational
style, much as if the reader were a student seated in front of me in my class-
room. Through this writing style, I hope to help students better understand
some of the more troublesome concepts without losing their interest and
attention.

PEDAGOGICAL AIDS
The text utilizes several pedagogical aids at the chapter and modular levels.
Each chapter begins with a chapter outline. Within the modules are:
● A running glossary in the book margin
● Learning objectives at the beginning of each module

xxiii
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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
and by such treatment, at the end of a few hours, we have a mass
equally lifeless.

In their flower-vases, too, they show the most perfect knowledge of

contrasts. To any one of taste it is unnecessary to show how
inappropriate our gilt and often brilliantly colored; flower-vases are
for the objects they are to hold. By employing such receptacles, all
effects of color and pleasing contrasts are effectually ruined. The
Japanese flower-vase is often made of the roughest and coarsest
pottery, with rough patches of glaze and irregular contour; it is made
solid and heavy, with a good bottom, and is capable of holding a big
cherry branch without up-setting. Its very roughness shows off by
contrast the delicate flowers it holds. With just such rough material
as we use in the making of drain-tiles and molasses jugs, the
Japanese make the most fascinating and appropriate flower-vases;
but their potters are artists, and, alas! ours are not.

In this connection it is interesting to note that in our country, artists,

and others having artistic tastes, have always recognized the
importance of observing proper contrasts between flowers and their
holders, and until within a very few years have been forced, for want
of better receptacles, to arrange flowers in German pottery-mugs,
Chinese ginger-jars, and the like. Though these vessels were
certainly inappropriate enough, the flowers looked vastly prettier in
them than they ever could in the frightful wares designed expressly
to hold them, made by American and European manufacturers. What
a satire on our art industries,—a despairing resort to beer-mugs,
ginger-jars and blacking-pots, for suitable flower-vases! Who does
not recall, indeed cannot see to-day on the shelves of most
“crockery shops,” a hideous battalion of garish porcelain and
iniquitous parian vases, besides other multitudinous evidences of
utter [pg 305] ignorance as to what a flower-vase should be, in the
discordantly colored and decorated glass receptacles designed to
hold these daintiest bits of Nature's handiwork?
Besides the flower-vase made to stand on the floor, the Japanese
have others which are made to hang from a hook,—generally from
the post or partition that divides the tokonoma from its companion
recess, or sometimes from a corner-post. When a permanent
partition occurs in a room, it is quite proper to hang the vase from
the middle post. In all these cases it is hung midway between the
floor and the ceiling. These hanging flower-vases are infinite in form
and design, and are made of pottery, bronze, bamboo, or wood.
Those made of pottery and bronze may be in the form of simple
tubes; often, however, natural forms are represented,—such as
fishes, insects, sections of bamboo, and the like.

Fig. 294.—Hanging flower-holder of bamboo.

The Japanese are fond of ancient objects, and jars which have been
dug up are often mutilated, at least for the antiquarian, by having
rings inserted in their sides so that they may be hung up for flower-
holders.

A curious form of holder is made out of a rugged knot of wood. Any

quaint and abnormal growth of wood, in which an opening can be
made big enough to accommodate a section of bamboo to hold the
water, is used for a flower-vase. Such an object will be decorated
with tiny bronze ants, a silver spider's web with bronze spider, and
pearl wrought in the shape of a fungus. These and other singular
caprices are worked into and upon the wood as ornaments.

[pg 306]
A very favorite form of flower-holder is one made of bamboo. The
bamboo tube is worked in a variety of ways, by cutting out various
sections from the sides. Fig. 294 represents an odd, yet common
shape, arranged for cha-no-yu (tea-parties), and sketched at one of
these parties. The bamboo is an admirable receptacle for water, and
a section of it is used for this purpose in many forms of pottery and
bronze flower-holders.
 Fig. 295.—Hanging flower-holder of basket-work.

[pg 307]
Rich brown-colored baskets are also favorite receptacles for flowers,
a segment of bamboo being used to hold the water. The
accompanying figure (fig. 295) is a sketch of a hanging basket, the
flowers having been arranged by a lover of the tea-ceremonies and
old pottery. Many of these baskets are quite old, and are highly
prized by the Japanese. At the street flower-fairs cheap and curious
devices are often seen for holding flower-pots. The annexed figure
(fig. 296) illustrates a form of bracket in which a thin irregular-
shaped slab of wood has attached to it a crooked branch of a tree,
upon the free ends of which wooden blocks are secured as shelves
upon which the flower-pots are to rest. A hole is made at the top so
that it may be hung against the wall, and little cleats are fastened
crosswise to hold long strips of stiff paper, upon which it is
customary to write stanzas of poetry. These objects are of the
cheapest description, can be got for a few pennies, and are bought
by the poorest classes.

Fig. 296.—Cheap bracket for flower-pots.

For flower-holders suspended from above, a common form is a

square wooden bucket, or one made out of pottery or bronze in
imitation of this form. Bamboo cut in horizontal forms is also used
for suspended flower-holders. Indeed, there seems to be no end of
curious objects used for this purpose,—a gourd, the semi-cylindrical
tile, sea-shells, as with us, and forms made in pottery or bronze in
imitation of these objects.
Quaint and odd-shaped flower-stands are made in the form of
buckets. The following figure (fig. 297) represents one [pg 308]
sketched at the National Exposition at Tokio in 1877. Its construction
was very ingenious; three staves of the low bucket were continued
upward to form portions of three small buckets above, and each of
these, in turn, contributed a stave to the single bucket that crowned
the whole. Another form, made by the same contributor thought not
so symmetrical, was quite as odd.

Fig. 297.—Curious combination of buckets for flowers.

Curious little braided-straw affairs are made to hold flowers, or

rather the bamboo segments in which the flowers are kept. These
are made in the form of insects, fishes, mushrooms, and other
natural objects. These are mentioned, not that they have a special
merit, but to illustrate the devices used| by the common people in
decorating their homes. Racks of wood richly lacquered are also
used, from which hanging flower-holders are suspended. These
objects are rarely seen now, and I have never chanced to see one in
use.

In the chapter on Interiors various forms of vases are shown in the

tokonoma.

My interest in Japanese homes was first aroused by wishing to know

precisely what use the Japanese made of a class of objects with
which I had been familiar in the Art Museums and private collections
at home; furthermore, a study of their houses led me to search for
those evidences of household decoration which might possibly
parallel the hanging baskets, corner [pg 309] brackets, and
especially ornaments made of birch bark, fungi, moss, shell-work,
and the like, with which our humbler homes are often garnished. It
was delightful to find that the Japanese were susceptible to the
charms embodied in these bits of Nature, and that they too used
them in similar decorative ways. At the outset, search for an object
aside from the bare rooms seemed fruitless enough. At first sight
these rooms appeared absolutely barren; in passing from one room
to another one got the idea that the house was to be let. Picture to
yourself a room with no fire-place and accompanying mantel,—that
shelf of shelves for the support of pretty objects; no windows with
their convenient interspaces for the suspension of pictures or
brackets; no table, rarely even cabinets, to hold bright-colored
bindings and curious bric-a-brac; no side-boards upon which to array
the rich pottery or glistening porcelain; no chairs, desks, or
bedsteads, and consequently no opportunity for the display of
elaborate carvings or rich cloth coverings. Indeed, one might well
wonder in what way this people displayed their pretty objects for
household decorations.

After studying the Japanese home for a while, however, one comes
to realize that display as such is out of the question with them, and
to recognize that a severe Quaker-like simplicity is really one of the
great charms of a Japanese room. Absolute cleanliness and
refinement, with very few objects in sight upon which the eye may
rest contentedly, are the main features in household adornment
which the Japanese strive after, and which they attain with a
simplicity and effectiveness that we can never hope to reach. Our
rooms seem to them like a curiosity shop, and “stuffy” to the last
degree. Such a maze of vases, pictures, plaques, bronzes, with
shelves, brackets, cabinets, and tables loaded down with bric-a-brac,
is quite enough to drive a Japanese frantic. We parade in the most
unreasoning manner every object of this nature in our possession;
and with the [pg 310] periodical recurrence of birthday and
Christmas holidays, and the consequent influx of new things, the
less pretty ones already on parade are banished to the chambers
above to make room for the new ones; and as these in turn get
crowded out they rise to the garret, there to be providentially broken
up by the children, or to be preserved for future antiquarians to
contemplate, and to ponder over the condition of art in this age. Our
walls are hung with large fish-plates which were intended to hold
food; heavy bronzes, which in a Japanese room are made to rest
solidly on the floor, and to hold great woody branches of the plum or
cherry with their wealth of blossoms, are with us often placed on
high shelves or perched in some perilous position over the door. The
ignorant display is more rarely seen of thrusting a piece of statuary
into the window, so that the neighbor across the way may see it;
when a silhouette, cut out of stiff pasteboard, would in this position
answer all the purposes so far as the inmates are concerned. How
often we destroy an artist's best efforts by exposing his picture
against some glaring fresco or distracting wall-paper! And still not
content with the accumulated misery of such a room, we allow the
upholsterer and furnisher to provide us with a gorgeously framed
mirror, from which we may have flashed back at us the contents of
the room reversed, or, more dreadful still, a reverberation of these
horrors through opposite reflecting surfaces,—a futile effort of
Nature to sicken us of the whole thing by endless repetition.24

That we in America are not exceptional in these matters of

questionable furnishing, one may learn by listening to an English
authority on this subject,—one who has done more than any other
writer in calling attention not only to violations of true taste in
household adornment, but who points out in a most rational way the
correct paths to follow, not only to avoid that [pg 311] which is
offensive and pretentious, but to arrive at better methods and truer
principles in matters of taste. We refer to Charles L. Eastlake and his
timely work entitled “Hints on Household Taste.” In his
animadversions on the commonplace taste shown in the furnishing
of English houses, he says “it pervades and vitiates the judgment by
which we are accustomed to select and approve the objects of
every-day use which we see around us. It crosses our path in the
Brussels carpet of our drawing-room; it is about our bed in the
shape of gaudy chintz; it compels us to rest on chairs, and to sit at
tables which are designed in accordance with the worst principles of
construction, and invested with shapes confessedly unpicturesque. It
sends us metal-work from Birmingham, which is as vulgar in form as
it is flimsy in execution. It decorates the finest modern porcelain
with the most objectionable character of ornament. It lines our walls
with silly representations of vegetable life, or with a mass of
uninteresting diaper. It bids us, in short, furnish our houses after the
same fashion as we dress ourselves,—and that is with no more
sense of real beauty than if art were a dead letter.” Let us contrast
our tastes in these matters with those of the Japanese, and perhaps
profit by the lesson.

In the previous chapters sufficient details have been given for one to
grasp the structural features of a Japanese room. Let us now
observe that the general tone and color of a Japanese apartment are
subdued. Its atmosphere is restful; and only after one has sat on the
mats for some time do the unostentatious fittings of the apartment
attract one's notice. The papers of the fusuma of neutral tints; the
plastered surfaces, when they occur equally tinted in similar tones,
warm browns and stone-colors predominating; the cedar-board
ceiling, with the rich color of that wood; the wood-work everywhere
modestly conspicuous, and always presenting the natural colors [pg
312] undefiled by the painter's miseries,—these all combine to
render the room quiet and refined to the last degree. The floor in
bright contrast is covered with its cool straw matting,—a uniform
bright surface set off by the rectangular black borders of the mats. It
is such an infinite comfort to find throughout the length and breadth
of that Empire the floors covered with the unobtrusive straw
matting. Monotonous some would think: yes, it has the monotony of
fresh air and of pure water. Such a room requires but little
adornment in the shape of extraneous objects; indeed, there are but
few places where such objects can be placed. But observe, that
while in our rooms one is at liberty to cover his wall with pictures
without the slightest regard to light or effect, the Japanese room has
a recess clean and free from the floor to the hooded partition that
spans it above, and this recess is placed at right angles to the source
of light; furthermor it is exalted as the place of highest honor in the
room—and here, and here alone, hangs the picture. Not a varnished
affair, to see which one has to perambulate the apartment with head
awry to get a vantage point of vision, but a picture which may be
seen in its proper light from any point of the room. In the tokonoma
there is usually but one picture exposed,—though, as we have seen,
this recess may be wide enough to accommodate a set of two or
three.

Fig. 298.—Framed picture, with supports.

Between the kamoi, or lintel, and the ceiling is a space say of

eighteen inches or more, according to the height of the room; and
here may sometimes be seen a long narrow [pg 313] picture,
framed in a narrow wood-border, or secured to a flat frame, which is
concealed by the paper or brocade that borders the picture. This
picture tips forward at a considerable angle, and is supported on two
iron hooks. In order that the edge of the frame may not be scarred
by the iron, it is customary to interpose triangular red-crape
cushions. A bamboo support is often substituted for the iron hooks,
as shown in the sketch (fig. 298). The picture may be a landscape,
or a spray of flowers; but more often it consists of a few Chinese
characters embodying some bit of poetry, moral precept, or
sentiment,—and usually the characters have been written by some
poet, scholar, or other distinguished man. The square wooden post
which comes in the middle of a partition between two corners of the
room may be adorned by a long, narrow, and thin strip of cedar the
width of the post, upon which is painted a picture of some kind. This
strip, instead of being of wood, may be of silk and brocade, like a
kake-mono, having only one kaze-obi hanging in the middle from
above. Cheap ones may be of straw, rush, or thin strips of bamboo.
This object, of whatever material, is called hashira kakushi,—literally
meaning “post-hide.” If of wood, both sides are decorated; so that
after one side has done duty for awhile the other side is exposed.
The wood is usually of dark cedar evenly grained, and the sketch is
painted directly on the wood. Fig. 299 shows both sides of one of
these strips.
 Fig. 299.—Hashira kakushi.

[pg 314]
The decoration for these objects is very skilfully treated by the artist;
and while it might bother our artists to know what subject to select
for a picture on so awkward and limited surface, it offers no trouble
to the Japanese decorator. He simply takes a vertical slice out of
some good subject, as one might get a glimpse of Nature through a
slightly open door,—and imagination is left to supply the rest. These
objects find their way to our markets, but the bright color used in
their decoration show that they have been painted for the masses in
this country. The post upon which this kind of picture is hung, as
well as the toko-bashira, may also adorned with a hanging flower-
holder such as has already been described.
A Japanese may have a famous collection of pictures, yet these are
stowed away in his kura, with the exception of the one exposed in
the tokonoma. If he is a man of taste, he changes the picture from
time to time according to the season, the character of his guests, or
for special occasions. In one house where I was a guest for a few
days the picture was changed every day. A picture may do duty for a
few weeks or months, when it is carefully rolled up, stowed away in
its silk covering and box, and another one is unrolled. In this way a
picture never becomes monotonous. The listless and indifferent way
in which an American will often regard his own pictures when
showing them to a friend, indicates that his pictures have been so
long on his walls that they no longer arouse any attention or delight.
It is true, one never wearies in contemplating the work of the great
masters; but one should remember that all pictures are not
masterpieces, and that by constant exposure the effect of a picture
becomes seriously impaired. The way in which pictures with us are
crowded on the walls,—many of them of necessity in the worst
possible light, or no light at all when the windows are muffled with
heavy [pg 315] curtains,—shows that the main interest centres in
their embossed gilt frames, which are conspicuous in all lights. The
principle of constant exposure is certainly wrong; a good picture is
all the more enjoyable if it is not forever staring one in the face.
Who wants to contemplate a burning tropical sunset on a full
stomach, or a drizzling northern mist on an empty one? And yet
these are the experiences which we are often compelled to endure.
Why not modify our rooms, and have a bay or recess,—an alcove in
the best possible light,—in which one or two good pictures may be
properly hung, with fitting accompaniments in the way of a few
flowers, or a bit of pottery or bronze? We have never modified the
interior arrangement of our house in the slightest degree from the
time when it was shaped in the most economical way as a shelter in
which to eat, sleep, and die,—a rectangular kennel, with necessary
holes for light, and necessary holes to get in and out by. At the same
time, its inmates were saturated with a religion so austere and
sombre that the possession of a picture was for a long time looked
upon as savoring of worldliness and vanity, unless, indeed, the
subject suggested the other world by a vision of hexapodous angels,
or of the transient resting-place to that world in the guise of a
tombstone and willows, or an immediate departure thereto in the
shape of a death-bed scene.

Among the Japanese all collections of pottery and other bric-a-brac

are, in the same way as the pictures, carefully enclosed in brocade
bags and boxes, and stowed away to be unpacked only when
appreciative friends come to the house; and then the host enjoys
them with equal delight. Aside from the heightened enjoyment sure
to be evoked by the Japanese method, one is spared an infinite
amount of chagrin and misery in having an unsophisticated friend
become enthusiastic over the wrong thing, or mistake a rare etching
of Dante for a North American savage, or manifest a thrill of delight
[pg 316] over an object because he learns incidentally that its value
corresponds with his yearly grocery bill.

Nothing is more striking in a Japanese room than the harmonies and

contrasts between the colors of the various objects and the room
itself. Between the picture and the brocades with which it is
mounted, and the quiet and subdued color of the tokonoma in which
it is hung, there is always the most refined harmony, and such a
background for the delicious and healthy contrasts of color when a
spray of bright cherry blossoms enlivens the quiet tones of this
honored place! The general tone of the room sets off to perfection
the simplest spray of flowers, a quiet picture, a rough bit of pottery
or an old bronze; and at the same time a costly and magnificent
piece of gold lacquer blazes out like a gem from these simple
surroundings,—and yet the harmony is not disturbed.

It is an interesting fact that the efforts at harmonious and decorative

effects which have been made by famous artists and decorators in
this country and in England have been strongly imbued by the
Japanese spirit, and every success attained is a confirmation of the
correctness of Japanese taste. Wall-papers are now more quiet and
unobtrusive; the merit of simplicity and reserve where it belongs,
and a fitness everywhere, are becoming more widely recognized.

It is rare to see cabinets or conveniences for the display of bric-a-

brac in a Japanese house, though sometimes a lacquer-stand with a
few shelves may be seen,—and on this may be displayed a number
of objects consisting of ancient pottery, some stone implements, a
fossil, old coins, or a few water-worn fragments of rock brought from
China, and mounted on dark wood stands. The Japanese are great
collectors of autographs, coins, brocades, metal-work, and many
other groups of objects; but these are rarely exposed. In regard to
objects in the tokonoma, I have seen in different tokonoma,
variously displayed, [pg 317] natural fragments of quartz, crystal
spheres, curious water-worn stones, coral, old bronze, as well as the
customary vase for flowers or the incense-burner. These various
objects are usually, but not always, supported on a lacquer-stand. In
the chigai-dana I have also noticed the sword-rack, lacquer writing-
box, maki-mono, and books; and when I was guilty of the
impertinence of peeking into the cupboards, I have seen there a few
boxes containing pottery, pictures, and the like,—though, as before
remarked, such things are usually kept in the kura.

Fig. 300.—Writing-desk.

Besides the lacquer cabinets, there may be seen in the houses of the
higher class an article of furniture consisting of a few deep shelves,
with portions of the shelves closed, forming little cupboards. Such a
cabinet is used to hold writing-paper, toilet articles, trays for flowers,
and miscellaneous objects for use and ornament. These cases are
often beautifully lacquered.

The usual form of writing-desk consists of a low stool not over a foot
in height, with plain side-pieces or legs for support, sometimes
having shallow drawers; and this is about the only piece of furniture
that would parallel our table. The illustration (fig. 300) shows one of
these tables, upon which may be seen the paper, ink-stone, brush,
and brush-rest.

In the cities and large villages the people stand in constant fear of
conflagrations. Almost every month they are reminded of the
instability of the ground they rest upon by tremors and slight shocks,
which may be the precursors of destructive earthquakes, usually
accompanied by conflagrations [pg 318] infinitely more disastrous.
Allusion has been made to the little portable engines with which
houses are furnished. In the city house one may notice a little
platform or staging with hand-rail erected on the ridge of the roof
(fig. 301); a ladder or flight of steps leads to this staging, and on
alarms of fire anxious faces may be seen peering from these
lookouts in the direction of the burning buildings. It is usual to have
resting on the platform a huge bucket or half barrel filled with water,
and near by a long-handled brush; and this is used to sprinkle water
on places threatened by the sparks and fire-brands, which often fill
the air in times of great conflagrations.
 Fig. 301.—Staging on house-roof, with bucket and brush.

During the prevalence of a high wind it is a common sight to see the

small dealers packing their goods in large baskets and square cloths
to tie up ready to transport in case of fire. At such times the
windows and doors of the kura are closed and the chinks plastered
with mud, which is always at hand either under a platform near the
door or in a large earthen jar near the openings. In private
dwellings, too, at times of possible danger, the more precious
objects are packed up in a [pg 319] square basket-like box, having
straps attached to it, so that it can easily be transported on one's
shoulders (fig. 302).

Fig. 302.—Box for transporting articles.

In drawing to a close this description of Japanese homes and their

surroundings, I have to regret that neither time, strength, nor
opportunity enabled me to make it more complete by a description,
accompanied by sketches, of the residences of the highest classes in
Japan. Indeed, it is a question whether any of the old residences of
the Daimios remain in the condition in which they were twenty years
ago, or before the Revolution. Even where the buildings remain, as
in the castles of Nagoya and Kumamoto, busy clerks and secretaries
are seen sitting in chairs and writing at tables in foreign style; and
though in some cases the beautifully decorated fusuma, with the
elaborately carved ramma and rich wood-ceiling are still preserved,—
as in the castle of Nagoya, as well as in many others doubtless,—the
introduction of varnished furniture and gaudy-colored foreign carpets
in some of the apartments has brought sad discord into the former
harmonies of the place.

In Tokio a number of former Daimios have built houses in foreign

style, though these somehow or other usually lack the peculiar
comforts of our homes. Why a Japanese should build a house in
foreign style was somewhat of a puzzle to me, until I saw the
character of their homes and the manner in which a foreigner in
some cases was likely to behave on entering a Japanese house. If he
did not walk into it with his boots on, he was sure to be seen
stalking about in his stockinged [pg 320] feet, bumping his head at
intervals against the kamoi, or burning holes in the mats in his
clumsy attempts to pick up coals from the hibachi, with which to
light his cigar. Not being able to sit on the mats properly, he sprawls
about in attitudes confessedly as rude as if a Japanese in our
apartments were to perch his legs on the table. If he will not take off
his boots, he possibly finds his way to the garden, where he wanders
about, indenting the paths with his boot-heels or leaving scars on
the verandah, possibly washing his hands in the chōdzu-bachi, and
generally making himself the cause of much discomfort to the
inmates.

It was a happy idea when those Japanese who from their

prominence in the affairs of the country were compelled to entertain
the “foreign barbarian” conceived the idea of erecting a cage in
foreign fashion to hold temporarily the menageries which they were
often compelled to receive. Seriously, however, the inelastic
character of most foreigners, and their inability to adapt themselves
to their surroundings have rendered the erection of buildings in
foreign style for their entertainment not only a convenience but an
absolute necessity. It must be admitted that for the activities of
business especially, the foreign style of office and shop is not only
more convenient but unquestionably superior.
The former Daimio of Chikuzen was one of the first, I believe, to
build a house in foreign style in Tokio, and this building is a good
typical example of an American two-story house. Attached, however,
to this house is a wing containing a number of rooms in native style.
Fig. 123 (page 142) shows one of these rooms. The former Daimio
of Hizen also lives in a foreign house, and there are many houses in
Tokio built by Japanese after foreign plans.

In an earlier portion of this work an allusion was made to the

absence of those architectural monuments which are so [pg 321]
characteristic of European countries. The castles of the Daimios,
which are lofty and imposing structures, have already been referred
to. There are fortresses also of great extent and solidity,—notably
the one at Osaka, erected by Hideyoshi on an eminence near the
city; and though the wooden structures formerly surmounting the
walls were destroyed by Iyeyasŭ in 1615, the stone battlements as
they stand to-day must be considered as among the marvels of
engineering skill, and the colossal masses of rock seem all the more
colossal after one has become familiar with the tiny and perishable
dwellings of the country. In the walls of this fortress are single
blocks of stone—at great heights, too, above the surrounding level
of the region—measuring in some cases from thirty to thirty-six feet
in length, and at least fifteen feet in height. These huge blocks have
been transported long distances from the mountains many miles
away from the city.

Attention is called to the existence of these remarkable monuments

as an evidence that the Japanese are quite competent to erect such
buildings, if the national taste had inclined them in that way. So far
as I know, a national impulse has never led the Japanese to
commemorate great deeds in the nation's life by enduring
monuments of stone. The reason may be that the plucky little nation
has always been successful in repelling invasion; and a peculiar
quality in their temperament has prevented them from perpetuating
in a public way, either by monuments or by the naming of streets
and bridges, the memories of victories won by one section of the
country over another.

Rev. W. E. Griffis, in an interesting article on “The Streets and Street-

names of Yedo,”25 in noticing the almost total absence of the names
of great victories or historic battlefields in the naming of the streets
and bridges in Tokio, says: “It [pg 322] would have been an unwise
policy in the great unifier of Japan, Iyeyasŭ, to have given to the
streets in the capital of a nation finally united in peaceful union any
name that would be a constant source of humiliation, that would
keep alive bitter memories, or that would irritate freshly-healed
wounds. The anomalous absence of such names proves at once the
sagacity of Iyeyasŭ, and is another witness to the oft-repeated policy
used by the Japanese in treating their enemies,—that is, conquer
them by kindness and conciliation.”
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