Silicon-Carbon Batteries: Advancing Technology for a Greener Future

Abstract. The increasing demand for higher energy efficiency in smartphones has led to significant
advancements in battery technology. Silicon-carbon batteries, featuring silicon-based anodes, are
revolutionizing the industry by offering higher energy density and faster charging capabilities compared
to traditional lithium-ion batteries with graphite anodes. This paper explores the technological
breakthroughs, advantages, and challenges associated with silicon-carbon batteries. These batteries
excel in providing improved performance in extreme temperatures, increased battery life, and faster
charging, as demonstrated in flagship models like the Honor Magic series and other devices. Despite
their benefits, issues such as microstructure degradation, swelling, and higher production costs hinder
widespread adoption. The integration of silicon with graphite mitigates some challenges, ensuring a
balance between performance and longevity. Beyond smartphones, silicon-carbon batteries show
potential for applications in electric vehicles (EVs), IoT devices, and non-rechargeable batteries,
offering eco-friendly and efficient energy solutions. Ongoing research aims to address limitations,
paving the way for broader adoption across industries. This paper highlights the transformative impact
of silicon-carbon batteries on mobile technology and their prospects in shaping the future of energy
storage.

1. Introduction

Lithium–silicon batteries are lithium-ion batteries that employ a silicon-based anode, and lithium ions as
the charge carriers.[1] Silicon based materials, generally, have a much larger specific capacity, for
example, 3600 mAh/g for pristine silicon.[2] The standard anode material graphite is limited to a
maximum theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g for the fully lithiated state LiC 6.[3]

Silicon's large volume change (approximately 400% based on crystallographic densities) when lithium is
inserted, along with high reactivity in the charged state, are obstacles to commercializing this type of
anode.[4] Commercial battery anodes may have small amounts of silicon, boosting their performance
slightly. The amounts are closely held trade secrets, limited as of 2018 to, at most, 10% of the anode.
[citation needed]
Lithium-silicon batteries also include cell configurations where silicon is in compounds that
may, at low voltage, store lithium by a displacement reaction, including silicon oxycarbide, silicon
monoxide or silicon nitride.[5]

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 [8]

1.2 Specific capacity & volume change for some anode materials

(given in their lithiated state)[4]

Anode material Specific cpapcity (mAh/g) Volume change

Li 3862 -
LiC 6 372 10%
Li 13 Sn5 990 252%
Li 9 Al 4 2235 604%
Li 15 Si 4 3600 320%

Lithium-ion batteries have been powering smartphones for decades, with performance dependent on the
amount and flow of lithium within the battery. A critical factor in this process is the material used for the
negative electrode. Traditionally, graphite has been the standard choice, but it has limited energy storage
capacity per gram.

To address this, silicon-carbon materials are increasingly used, often combined with graphite to mitigate
issues like swelling. While silicon-carbon batteries offer higher capacities, faster charging, and better
performance in extreme temperatures, they degrade faster due to microstructure issues. These batteries
also make smartphones costlier due to the need for sophisticated manufacturing.

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 Aspect Lithium-Ion Battery Silicon-Carbon Battery
Composition Uses graphite as the anode Uses silicon and carbon as
material. anode materials for higher
energy density.
Charging Speed Standard charging rates; risk Faster charging capabilities
of overheating with fast due to improved conductivity.
charging.
Weight Relatively heavier for the Lighter for the same energy
same energy capacity. capacity due to higher energy
density.
Safety Risk of overheating and Improved safety with reduced
thermal runaway. risks of overheating and
dendrite formation.
Applications Common in smartphones, Emerging in high-
laptops, electric vehicles, and performance EVs, drones, and
portable electronics. next-gen electronics.
Environmental Impact Mining of materials (lithium, Lower environmental impact
cobalt) can have a significant with fewer material
environmental footprint. requirements.

1.3 Smartphone Size Preference

Smartphone Dimensions and Battery Trends

Recent trends show an increase in smartphone sizes (6.7–6.9 inches) to accommodate better displays
and larger batteries. However, the most user-friendly form factor lies between 6.2 and 6.5 inches, as
users value comfort, slimness, and compactness. Foldable smartphones further emphasize the need for
thin designs while balancing screen size and battery capacity.

Smartphone Size Preference (6.2–6.5 inches)

Based on user surveys and market analysis, the ideal smartphone screen size lies between 6.2 and 6.5
inches. This size provides a balance between usability and features like battery capacity and display
quality. Larger sizes, while accommodating bigger batteries, are often bulkier and less ergonomic for
daily use.

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 Supporting Data:

 Display and Ergonomics Studies: Reports from sources like GSMArena and Counterpoint Research
indicate that 6.2–6.5 inches is the sweet spot for one-handed usage and portability.

Smartphone size vs Battery Capacity

 Market Trends: Smartphone manufacturers, including Apple and Samsung, consistently offer models
like the iPhone 15 and Galaxy S23 in this range, targeting a broad consumer base.

From 2023, the trend of using silicon-carbon batteries in mobile phones began to emerge. The first
mobile to adopt this technology was the Honor Magic 5 Pro (China variant). We can observe a
significant difference compared to its predecessor, the Honor Magic 4 Pro. The Honor Magic 5 Pro has
dimensions of 162.9 x 76.7 x 8.8 mm (6.41 x 3.02 x 0.35 in), with a thickness of 8.8 mm and a screen
size of 6.81 inches, the same as the Honor Magic 4 Pro. However, it features a larger battery capacity of
5450 mAh compared to its predecessor's 4600 mAh. Additionally, the weight difference is minimal, less
than 4 to 5 grams. The latest Honor Magic 7 Pro offers a 5850 mAh battery in the same thickness and
screen size.

Other phones using similar battery technology include:

 Redmi Note 14 Pro+

 Oppo Find X8 Pro

 Vivo X200 Pro

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 iQOO 13

 OnePlus 13

 Realme GT 7 Pro

Model Thick Battery Scree Weigh Predecess Weight Battery

ness Capacit n Size t (g) or Differenc Differenc
(mm) y (in) e (g) e (mAh)
(mAh)
Honor 8.8 5850 6.81 ~222 Honor |~3 +400
Magic Magic 6
7pro Pro
OnePlus |~8.6 5200 6.74 ~207 OnePlus ~3 +350
13 12
Realme ~8.7 6500 6.78 ~210 Realme ~2 +400
GT 7 GT 6 pro
Pro
Vivo ~8.8 ~5000 6.78 ~215 Vivo X100 ~4 +400
X200 Pro
Pro

One of the problems with lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries is their tendency to drain quickly in extreme
temperatures. In both high and low temperatures, the chemical reactions within the battery are affected,
causing faster discharge. However, silicon-carbon batteries do not face this issue to the same extent. For
instance, when the Honor Magic 6 Pro was tested at high altitudes with temperatures ranging from -
18°C to -20°C, its battery dropped from 100% to just 86% after three hours—a notable improvement
compared to traditional Li-ion batteries.

1.4 Advantages of Silicon-Carbon Batteries

 Longer Battery Life

Silicon-carbon batteries have a higher capacity, allowing phones to last longer between charges.

 Faster Charging
These batteries are designed to support faster charging times.

 Better Performance
Silicon-carbon batteries are more durable and resistant to wear and tear, so their performance doesn’t
degrade as quickly.

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 More Sustainable
Silicon is more abundant than other materials, making silicon-carbon batteries more environmentally
sustainable.

 Safer
Silicon-carbon batteries have a reduced risk of overheating, making them safer than Li-ion batteries.

1.5 Challenges with Silicon-Carbon Batteries

Despite their advantages, silicon-carbon batteries face several challenges that limit their widespread use:

1. Degradation Over Time

Studies suggest that silicon-carbon batteries degrade faster than Li-ion batteries over time:[7]
 Pressure: While pressure can increase energy density by up to 12%, excessive pressure
accelerates degradation.
 Cycle Number: The number of charge-discharge cycles impacts the structural integrity of the
anode.
 Microstructure Degradation: This remains the primary weak point, causing capacity loss.
 Swelling: Silicon-carbon batteries can swell up to 300% during charging and return to normal
size during discharge, leading to mechanical wear.

2. Higher Costs
Manufacturing silicon-carbon batteries requires advanced equipment, which increases production
costs. Their high capacity also adds to the overall price of devices that use them.
3. Ongoing Research
As a relatively new technology, silicon-carbon batteries require further research to overcome these
limitations and optimize their performance.

Current Composition

Most silicon-carbon batteries currently in use are not entirely silicon-carbon. Instead, they are a mixture
of silicon and graphite, with graphite helping to mitigate swelling and degradation issues.

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 1.6 Other Applications of Silicon-Carbon Batteries

Silicon-carbon batteries hold significant potential for use beyond smartphones, including:

1. Electric Vehicles (EVs)

 Silicon-carbon batteries are an excellent fit for EVs due to their higher energy density
and capacity.
 They can address some major challenges in EV adoption by improving range,
capacity, and charging speed, making EVs more convenient for users.
 Additionally, as silicon is more abundant than lithium, these batteries offer a slightly
more eco-friendly alternative, further enhancing EVs' status as environmentally
friendly transportation solutions.
2. IoT Devices
 Silicon-carbon batteries can be utilized in small Internet of Things (IoT) devices,
where compact size, long life, and fast charging are critical.
3. Non-Rechargeable Batteries
 The technology has potential applications in producing AA and AAA batteries.
Despite these batteries being non-rechargeable, incorporating silicon-carbon can
improve their energy storage and longevity.

2. Conclusion

Silicon-carbon batteries represent a significant leap forward in energy storage technology, offering
higher energy density, faster charging, and improved performance in extreme conditions compared to
traditional lithium-ion batteries. These advancements have profound implications for smartphones,
where the demand for longer battery life and quicker charging is ever-growing. The integration of
silicon with graphite addresses critical challenges such as swelling and degradation, enabling a balance
between capacity and longevity.

Beyond smartphones, silicon-carbon batteries hold great promise for broader applications, including
electric vehicles, IoT devices, and non-rechargeable batteries, paving the way for a greener and more
efficient future. Despite challenges like higher production costs and microstructure degradation, ongoing
research and innovation are poised to overcome these hurdles, driving the widespread adoption of
silicon-carbon batteries across industries.

As technology advances, the transformative potential of silicon-carbon batteries will play a pivotal role
in shaping the future of energy storage, fostering sustainable and efficient solutions for modern energy
demands.[1][2][3]

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 References

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[3] Shao, Gaofeng; Hanaor, Dorian A. H.; Wang, Jun; Kober, Delf; Li, Shuang; Wang, Xifan; Shen,
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[8] Silicon/Carbon Composite Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries