SOCIAL WELLBEING- CONCEPT

The current professional preoccupation with matters of social relevance and public policy is bringing
the term 'welfare' more frequently into geographical literature. However, 'welfare' has a number of
different meanings, embracing not only the state of society but also policy instruments designed to
alter that state. Well-being is fundamental for the overall progress of an individual and is considered
a benchmark of societal progress. Social well-being in social geography refers to the assessment and
measurement of the quality of life, happiness, and overall welfare of individuals and communities
within a specific geographic context.

CONCEPTUAL CLARITY

There are different social scientists from different disciplines who have been interested in developing
theoretical frameworks to understand the idea of well-being.

WELL BEING- Well-being is a complex phenomenon and it is necessary to mix objective and subjective
methods to understand this complexity (Forgeard et al. 2011, 98).Well-being is the presence of positive
affects and evaluation; the absence of negative effects of one’s life taking into consideration past
experiences, current life situations, and expectations and well-being must include good physical
health, a healthful physical environment, the benefits of love and the possibility of communication,
and a sense of faith. According to Paul Knox well-being is the satisfaction of the needs and wants of
the population, and the needs associated with different elements of well-being may be resolve in
different ways.

Knowing the historical background to the study of wellbeing is necessary to the definition and
approach of wellbeing. There are two approaches for the study of well-being namely:

i. Hedonic tradition which highlighted happiness, positive affect, low negative affect, and
satisfaction with life
ii. Eudaimonic tradition which highlighted positive psychological functioning and human
development

SOCIAL WELL BEING- Social well-being is associated with the total condition of individual and
community life. The social well-being is largely depends on the level of material possessed or accessed
as that supports all other parts of life and maintain social status. Now, the basic question is that there
is any relationship or linkage between well-being and social well-being? Social well-being and the well-
being of the individual are inseperable. Kenneth Wilkinson, in his book Community in Rural America
(1991), explicitly reveals that the connection when he writes that “the well-being of the individual is
not possible without the well-being of the community”.

JHS Bossard (1927) was probably the first one who works on the issue and problems related to Social
well-being. In his book entitled “Problems of Social Well-being” he has related social well-being with
three components. These are-a. Income in its broad sense b. Physical health and c. state of mind. In
1948, World Health Organization (WHO) identifies social well-being as one of several facets of an
individual‟s overall health. Social well-being is defined as an individual‟s self-report of his or her
relationship with other people, the neighbourhood and the community

Personal Vs Social Well-Being

Personal Well-being:

1. Focus: Personal well-being primarily concerns an individual's internal state, including

emotional, psychological, and physical health.
 2. Aspects:

o Emotional well-being: Refers to a person’s ability to experience positive emotions,

manage stress, and cope with challenges.

o Psychological well-being: Includes factors like self-acceptance, personal growth,

autonomy, and purpose in life.

o Physical well-being: Involves maintaining good health, proper nutrition, exercise,

and overall physical fitness.

3. Individual-centered: It is focused on personal satisfaction, self-realization, and the ability to

achieve one's goals.

4. Measurement: Personal well-being is often measured through subjective indicators, such as

life satisfaction, happiness, and mental health assessments.

Social Well-being:

1. Focus: Social well-being focuses on an individual’s relationships with others and their sense
of belonging to a broader society or community.

2. Aspects:

o Social integration: Feeling connected to society and community.

o Social acceptance: The perception of others in society, often based on trust and
mutual respect.

o Social contribution: The sense that one has something valuable to offer to the
community or society.

o Social actualization: The evaluation of society's potential and future.

o Social coherence: The perception that society is organized and functions well.

3. Community-centered: It is concerned with the quality and satisfaction of social relationships,

networks, and interactions within the community.

4. Measurement: Social well-being is assessed based on an individual’s social connections,

sense of support, and participation in social roles and activities.
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL WELL BEING

According to Keyes (1998) there are five dimensions of social well-being that operational zed at the
level of the individuals. These five dimensions are-Social integration, Social contribution, Social
coherence, Social actualization and Social acceptance.

I. Social Integration: Social integration is an individual’s evaluation of the quality of their

relationships with society and self. This concept draws on theories of social cohesion (Durkheim),
cultural estrangement and social isolation (Seeman), and class consciousness (Marx).

II. Social Contribution: Social contribution refers to an individual’s evaluation of their own social
value, as well as their belief in having something valuable to share with society.

III. Social Coherence: Social coherence is an individual’s perception of the quality, organization, and
soundness of the social world. It is analogous to the feeling of meaninglessness in life (Mirowsky and
Ross, 1989; Seeman, 1959, 1991) and involves appraisals that society is discernible, sensible, and
predictable.

IV. Social Actualization: Social actualization refers to an individual’s belief in the potential for
progress and the possibility of achieving fulfillment through society.

V. Social Acceptance: Social acceptance is the construal of society through the character and
qualities of others as a generalized category. It is the social analogue to personal acceptance—people
who feel good about their personalities and accept both the positive and negative aspects of their
lives exemplify good mental health (Fey, 1955; Ryff, 1989).

SOCIAL WELL-BEING IN SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY

Social well being in Geography came to prominence during 1970s as a result of relevance movement.
During 1970s, the most deprived groups in society, such as blacks, Hispanics, poor, disabled, sexual
minorities and religious minorities etc., started political movements against those laws which
hampered them from leading a dignified life. In response to this political discourse, different
disciplines started to incorporate those methods in their curriculum which helped to assess, measure
and improve the social well being of people. This paradigm shift in different disciplines to stay
relevant to this political discourse is termed as relevance movement
According to Maslow (1943, 1954), human needs were arranged in a hierarchy, with physiological
(survival) needs at the bottom, and the more creative and intellectually oriented ‘self-actualization’
needs at the top.

It's a concept that goes beyond economic indicators like GDP and takes into account the social, cultural,
and environmental dimensions of well-being. social well-being in social geography is a holistic concept
that seeks to capture the complex interplay between the physical and social environment and
individual and community welfare. Here are key aspects of the concept of social well-being in social
geography:

Multi-Dimensional Approach:

Social well-being considers a range of dimensions, including but not limited to health, education,
income, housing, social relationships, safety, and access to amenities. Social geographers use various
indicators and metrics to assess these dimensions comprehensively.

Subjective and Objective Measures:

Social well-being incorporates both objective measures (quantitative data) and subjective measures
(qualitative assessments) to capture people's experiences, perceptions, and feelings about their well-
being. Subjective well-being often includes aspects like life satisfaction and happiness.

Spatial Variation:

Social geography emphasizes that well-being is not evenly distributed across geographic areas. There
are spatial variations in well-being due to factors such as geography, urban-rural divides, and regional
disparities. Understanding these spatial patterns is a crucial aspect of social well-being research.

Place-Based Approaches:

Social geographers explore how the characteristics of a place or community (e.g., social cohesion,
built environment, access to services) impact the well-being of its residents. Place-based approaches
consider the unique attributes of different locales.

Social Justice and Equity:

Social well-being research often focuses on issues of social justice and equity. It seeks to identify and
address disparities in well-being related to factors like income inequality, discrimination, and access
to resources.

Community and Social Capital:

The concept of social capital, which refers to the value of social networks and relationships, is
important in understanding social well-being. Strong social ties and community cohesion are often
associated with higher levels of well-being.

Policy Implications:

Social geography research on well-being can inform policy decisions. It helps policymakers
understand the needs and challenges of specific communities and can guide interventions aimed at
improving well-being.

Resilience and Sustainability:

Social well-being research also considers the resilience of communities in the face of challenges (e.g.,
natural disasters, economic downturns) and the sustainability of well-being over time. This includes a
focus on environmental well-being and sustainable practices.
COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL WELL BEING

The World Health Organisation (WHO) states that “wellbeing exists in two dimensions, subjective and
objective. It comprises an individual’s experience of their life as well as a comparison of life
circumstances with social norms and values”. Examples of life circumstance include health,
education, work, social relationships, built and natural environments, security, civic engagement and
governance, housing and work-life balance. Subjective experiences include a person’s overall sense
of wellbeing, psychological functioning and affective states

Social well-being encompasses a range of components or dimensions that collectively contribute to

the overall quality of life and happiness of individuals and communities. These components are
interconnected and influence one another. Here are some of the key components of social well-
being:

-------------HOUSING----------

Housing has an essential role in economic development of each country, accounting for 10‒20 % of
total economical activity in the country, as well as beingto be the biggest fixed asset of households
(European Commission, 2005).The need for housing is not only one of the basic human basic, but also
the indicator of living standard of the population. Today it is a topical issue that housing has to be
comfortable, economical and reasonably maintainable, as well as architectonically expressive and
compliant with the environment.

Smith (1776) defines the housing as a commodity; Ricardo (1817) ‒ as tangible asset with potential
return; Jevons (1871) – as fixed asset regardless the housing is owned or rented. Torgersen (1987)
explainsthe concept “housing” as “the wobbly pillar under the welfare state” because incontrast to
the health and education provision, the state does not see its role as the main service provider in this
field

Housing conditions are significant primarily due to people's basic need for shelter. However, these
conditions also play a crucial role in fulfilling many other needs, making them an important factor in
overall social well-being.

HOUSING QUALITY

Housing quality refers to the physical conditions of a person’s home as well as the quality of the social
and physical environment in which the home is located.2,3 Poor-quality housing is associated with
various negative health outcomes.

Poor housing quality often induces stress and inhibits the home from providing a peaceful or
restorative space. Jones-Rounds et al. (2014) found that psychological wellbeing correlated with
housing quality; that is, people in high-quality housing were less depressed and more energetic and
peaceful than those living in low-quality housingviii. Substandard housing represents a potential
psychological detriment by causing low self-esteem and hindering family self-sufficiencyix. For
example, residents of low-quality housing worry about the integrity of the home’s structural
components. Housing-related stress or anxiety has been shown to lead to depression and stress-
related mental illness.

HOME DESIGN AND STRUCTURE

Home design and structure have a significant impact on housing quality and can influence both mental
and physical health. Poor housing conditions, such as the presence of lead, mold, asbestos, poor air
quality, and overcrowding, can contribute to negative health outcomes, including chronic diseases and
injuries. For example, lead exposure from paint, pipes, and faucets can cause irreversible health
effects. Even low levels of lead exposure can have serious consequences on children's health and
behavior, affecting nervous system and cognitive development. Lack of air conditioning and heating
can also impact residents' health. Cold indoor conditions have been linked to high blood pressure,
respiratory issues, and depression. Furthermore, water leaks can lead to mold growth, which has been
shown to harm respiratory health and increase the likelihood of asthma, coughing, and wheezing. The
absence of smoke alarms, carbon monoxide detectors, and other fire safety measures can result in
injury or death. Finally, residents of overcrowded homes may face risks related to poor mental health,
food insecurity, and the spread of infectious diseases.

HOUSING FACTORS AND SUBJECTIVE WELL BEING

Living Space: Larger living spaces are generally linked to better SWB, promoting freedom and status,
with some studies finding a threshold beyond which the effect diminishes.

Housing Expense: The relationship between housing cost and SWB is complex. While affordable
housing is often associated with higher SWB, high housing expenses can be linked to better quality of
life. However, spending more than 35% of income on housing can negatively impact SWB.

Housing Satisfaction: Positive housing satisfaction, including factors like housing size, service, and
management, strongly correlates with SWB, as shown in studies from Nigeria and Norway.

Housing Tenure: Homeownership tends to positively influence SWB due to both practical benefits
and social status. Renters may face more insecurity, impacting their well-being.

Combined Effects: Studies examining multiple housing factors suggest that SWB is influenced by a
combination of factors like housing tenure, quality, and living area, with variations across countries
and regions.

AFFORDABILITY

Although the ability to find appropriate, affordable housing has always been a crucial social issue, it’s
an especially pressing one in 2023.

Affordable housing is generally defined as that which is adequate in quality and location and does not
cost so much that it prohibits its occupants from meeting other basic living costs or threatens their
enjoyments of the basic human rights.

There are three common measures used to assess housing affordability, based on housing costs and
household income. The first is the house price-to-income ratio, calculated by dividing the median
house price by the median household income. The second measure is the house rent-to-income ratio,
calculated by dividing the median annual rent by the median annual renter household income, which
helps assess affordability for renters.

GLOBAL HOUSING PROBLEM

1.6 billion people live in inadequate housing conditions, without access to basic services or sanitation,
and struggling to afford housing costs (UN Habitat).

Fifty five million new slum dwellers have been added to the global population since 2000. Sub-Saharan
Africa has a slum population of 199.5 million, South Asia 190.7 million, East Asia 189.6 million, Latin
America and the Caribbean 110.7 million, Southeast Asia 88.9 million, West Asia 35 million and North
Africa 11.8 million. It is unacceptable today that about 1 billion people live in slums and other sub-
standard housing, with precarious security of tenure and inadequate water and sanitation. By 2030
about 3 billion people, or about 40 per cent of the world’s population, will need housing, basic
infrastructure and services.

REGIONAL PATTERN

1. Urbanization in Asia involves around 44 million people being added to the population of cities
every year. To put this in perspective, each day a further 120,000 people are added to the
populations of Asian cities, requiring the construction of more than 20,000 new dwellings.
Nepal, despite having the lowest urbanization rate in South Asia at 14%, experiences the
highest urban growth rate in the region, at 6.4% annually. Over the past decade, urban
population growth has been three times faster than the national population growth rate,
leading to a significant rise in squatter settlements. In Kathmandu, the number of squatter
settlements grew from 17 in 1985 to 40 in 2010, with most located on marginal public land
along riverbanks. Nearly 7% of the urban population now resides in these settlements. The
critical urban challenges for Nepal are: access to land, affordability and growing squatter
population
2. Housing conditions in most UNECE countries have improved in the last decade. The general
ratio of dwellings per thousand inhabitants—a crude indicator of the adequacy of housing
provision—varies, with Finland and France having the highest number of over 500 units per
1,000 residents, followed very closely by Greece, Sweden and Portugal. eless comparable to
those in Western Europe. The number of dwellings per 1,000 people is lowest in Albania
(254/1000) followed very closely by Poland (314/1000) and Slovakia (318/1000). Housing
shortages across most countries in the region are often associated with particular housing
types, locations and qualities than with the absolute shortage of housing in general. Tenure
choices are much broader in Finland, Sweden, Austria and Denmark thanks to a balanced
tenure structure offering a ladder of opportunities ranging from social to private renting to
homeownership. By contrast, in several European countries the rental option is severely
curtailed (Spain, Greece, Italy)
3. Estimates concerning total housing needs in Africa have been set at around 4 million units per
year. One of the challenges is to widen access to formal housing finance. Exclusion from access
to both formal and informal financial services vary from 30 per cent in countries such as Kenya
and Namibia to over 50 per cent in Malawi and Tanzania and over 70 per cent in Mozambique
and Nigeria. In Ghana, it is projected that urban households will grow from 1.7 million in 2000
to 3.7 million in 2020 under current population growth trends. there will be a need between
4.2 to 7.2 million rooms to accommodate the increase in urban population, depending on the
occupancy rate one would take.

------------------EDUCATION--------------------

Education is a pivotal component of social well-being, influencing employment opportunities, income

levels, and health literacy. Higher educational attainment is associated with better health outcomes,
as it equips individuals with the knowledge and skills to make informed health decisions and access
resources effectively. Moreover, education fosters social inclusion and economic stability, which are
vital for overall well-being. Investing in accessible and quality education systems can reduce
inequalities and promote social mobility.

Improved Health Outcomes:

Education is strongly linked to better health. Higher levels of education typically correlate with better
health behaviors, such as regular exercise, healthier eating, and avoiding harmful behaviors like
smoking. Educated individuals are also more likely to seek medical advice and adhere to treatment,
leading to overall better health outcomes. According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
education is a significant determinant of health and well-being.

EDUCATION AND RESOURCES

Another explanation comes from Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, which suggests that
socioeconomic status (SES) is closely linked to resource availability (Hobfoll, 2011). Individuals with
higher education and income typically have greater access to resources and are better equipped to
protect and preserve those resources. In contrast, individuals with lower education and income face
challenges in acquiring and safeguarding resources. In line with COR theory, people with fewer
resources are more likely to experience lower wellbeing, which often includes individuals with lower
levels of education.

EDUCATION AND NON-MONETARY BENEFITS

Alternative theories argue that the value of education for an individual's well-being extends beyond
monetary rewards. Brighouse (2006) highlights that education fosters individual autonomy, which is
essential for leading fulfilling lives. While human flourishing is not synonymous with happiness, it is
closely linked, and education can promote happiness by empowering individuals to make their own
choices. Michalos (2017) agrees, emphasizing that simple measurements of education and happiness
are insufficient. He suggests that education enhances happiness by enabling people to appreciate
intellectual pursuits, physical health, relationships, and a sense of belonging, in addition to material
wealth.

EDUCATION AND HAPPINESS

Several studies have found a positive correlation between education and happiness, with individuals
having higher education generally experiencing more positive emotions, better job quality, improved
health, and greater wealth. Education also enhances marriage prospects and social networks,
contributing to higher happiness levels. Longitudinal studies, such as those by Hartog and
Oosterbeek (1998), show that individuals with higher education report better health, happiness, and
wealth. Additionally, education can lead to higher job satisfaction, as seen in Ilies et al.'s (2019)
study. However, the direct impact of education on happiness is inconsistent.

Access to high-quality education is globally recognized among researchers and advocates as a great
equalizer that sets the foundation for all subsequent development and learning.

Social Equity and Reduced Inequality

• Reduction of Poverty and Inequality: Education is one of the most effective tools for
breaking the cycle of poverty and reducing social inequality. It provides individuals with the
skills and knowledge necessary to access better job opportunities, higher incomes, and
improved living standards, which in turn reduce economic disparities and foster social
stability.

• Example: The World Bank highlights that education, especially for women, can dramatically
reduce poverty and inequality. Educated women are more likely to participate in the
workforce, earn higher incomes, and contribute to their communities, which has a cascading
positive effect on their families and societies at large.
Civic Engagement and Social Participation

• Increased Civic Engagement: Education fosters active participation in social and political life.
Educated individuals are more likely to vote, volunteer, and engage in community activities.
This increased civic engagement contributes to stronger communities and greater social
cohesion.

• Example: Research published by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) has
shown that individuals with higher education levels are more likely to participate in civic
activities such as voting, volunteering, and joining local organizations, which strengthens the
social fabric of a community.

Intergenerational Benefits

• Impact on Future Generations: Education not only benefits individuals but also has long-
term effects on future generations. Educated parents are more likely to provide a better
upbringing for their children, leading to higher educational attainment and better health
outcomes for the next generation, perpetuating the cycle of well-being.

• Example: A study by the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health found that children of
educated parents are more likely to achieve better educational and health outcomes. This
intergenerational effect plays a critical role in social mobility and overall societal well-being.

-------------HEALTH---------------

The importance of health needs no explanations. It is at the root of personal happiness and the
ability to enjoy and appreciate all other aspects of life. It also has a strong influence on productivity
and earning capacity.

There are two types of health. a) Physical Health: Good physical health is a fundamental component
of well-being. It includes factors such as access to healthcare, nutrition, exercise, and the absence of
chronic illnesses or disabilities. b) Mental Health: Mental well-being is equally important. It involves
psychological factors like emotional stability, resilience, and the absence of mental health disorders.

Health systems are under financial pressure. This reflects a challenging economic climate, with
competing priorities squeezing the public funds available for health • In 2019, prior to the
 pandemic, OECD countries spent on average 8.8% of GDP on healthcare, a figure relatively
unchanged since 2013. By 2021, this proportion had jumped to 9.7%. However, 2022 estimates
point to a significant fall in the ratio to 9.2%
Unhealthy lifestyles and poor environments cause millions of people to die prematurely.
Smoking, harmful alcohol use, physical inactivity and obesity are the root cause of many
chronic conditions • Obesity rates continue to rise in most OECD countries, with 54% of adults
overweight or obese, and 18% obese on average.
Quality of care is improving in terms of safety and effectiveness, with greater attention to
making healthcare more people-centred. Avoidable hospital admissions have fallen in most
OECD countries over the past decade, with large reductions observed in Lithuania, Mexico,
Poland and the Slovak Republic. This is an indication that primary care is helping to keep
people well and treating uncomplicated cases.
Digital health has enormous potential to transform health systems. However, many countries
are ill-prepared for a digital health transformation A country’s readiness for the digital
transformation depends on strong health data governance, coherent approaches to digital
security, and the capacity to responsibly use digital tools (including artificial intelligence) for
the public good. • While 90% of OECD countries have an electronic health portal in place, only
42% reported that the public could both access and interact with all their data through the
portal.

Access to care

Ensuring equitable access is critical for high-performing health systems and more inclusive societies.
Population coverage – measured by the share of the population eligible for a core set of services and
those satisfied with the availability of quality healthcare – offers an initial assessment of access to
care.

In terms of the share of the population eligible for coverage, most OECD countries have achieved
universal (or near-universal) coverage for a core set of services. However, in Mexico, population
coverage was 72% in 2021, and coverage was below 95% in a further five countries (Costa Rica, the
United States, Poland, Chile and Colombia).

Quality of care

High-quality care requires health services to be safe, appropriate, clinically effective and responsive
to patient needs. Antibiotic prescriptions and avoidable hospital admissions are examples of
indicators that measure the safety and appropriateness of primary care. Breast cancer screening is an
indicator of the quality of preventive care; 30-day mortality following acute myocardial infarction
(AMI) and stroke measures the clinical effectiveness of secondary care.
HEALTHSYSTEM IN INDIA

The healthcare sector in India has experienced rapid growth, emerging as one of the largest and most
progressive service industries in the country. In 2002, it contributed 5% to India's GDP and employed
around 4 million people. By 2012, it was projected to contribute 8.5% of the GDP, with the sector's
value increasing from US$ 40 billion to US$ 78.6 billion. The Indian healthcare market, estimated at
US$ 30 billion, includes pharmaceuticals, healthcare services, medical diagnostics, and surgical
equipment. By 2020, the sector is expected to become a US$ 280 billion industry, with annual health
spending growing at 14%. Private healthcare will make up a significant portion of this, rising from US$
14.8 billion to US$ 33.6 billion by 2012. Private spending accounts for about 80% of total healthcare
expenditure, while the public sector contributes around 15-20% of the required US$ 86 billion
investment.
Here are real-life examples of each component contributing to well-being:

1. Economic Well-Being: A person with a stable job, regular income, and job security is better
equipped to handle life’s challenges. For instance, individuals working in professions such as
healthcare or teaching may experience greater financial stability and job security, which
positively impacts their mental health and overall well-being.

2. Social Relationships: A family or group of friends that offer emotional support during
difficult times can significantly boost a person’s well-being. For example, a cancer patient
with a supportive family network tends to experience less stress and better recovery
outcomes than someone who lacks such support.

3. Community and Social Capital: In a neighborhood with strong community ties, such as one
where neighbors organize social events or provide mutual assistance, residents tend to have
higher levels of happiness and well-being. An example is the vibrant, interconnected
communities found in smaller towns or co-housing developments where social bonds are
prioritized.

4. Safety and Security: Living in a low-crime area or a country with effective law enforcement
contributes to a sense of safety. For example, countries like Denmark and Sweden
consistently rank high in safety and security, contributing to the well-being of their citizens.

5. Environmental Quality: Cities like Copenhagen and Vancouver, which have a focus on
environmental sustainability with ample green spaces and clean air, have residents who
report higher life satisfaction due to access to a healthy environment.

6. Cultural and Recreational Opportunities: Access to cultural institutions, like museums,

theaters, or sports events, can enhance well-being. For example, the opportunity to attend
live concerts, plays, or participate in community sports leagues can provide a sense of joy,
fulfillment, and personal expression.

7. Subjective Well-Being: A person who feels happy with their life, regardless of material
wealth, tends to have a high subjective well-being. For example, someone living a simple life,
feeling connected to family and purpose, may report high life satisfaction even without a
high income.

8. Equity and Social Justice: Communities with low levels of discrimination and where social
justice is prioritized generally see improved well-being for all residents. For instance, in
countries with progressive social policies, such as Finland, there is greater access to
healthcare and education, reducing disparities and promoting social inclusion.

9. Civic Engagement and Participation: People who participate in local governance or volunteer
in their community often experience a sense of empowerment and belonging. For example,
individuals who volunteer at food banks or serve on local committees feel more connected
to their community and have higher life satisfaction.

10. Spirituality and Values: Individuals who practice spirituality or adhere to a strong set of
personal values often report higher levels of life satisfaction. For instance, many people find
meaning and purpose through religious practices, meditation, or personal philosophies,
which can positively impact their overall sense of well-being.