1

by
Cleyo Lawrence
Educational Technology, PhD
Science Education, MEd
Physics, BSc (Hons.)
Chemical Technology, Dip.
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CONTENTS

Year 10

SECTION A: PHYSICAL SECTION C: THERMAL PHYSICS

MEASUREMENTS AND KINETIC THEORY
• Quantities and Units • Heat and Kinetic Theory
• Scientific Notation • Temperature and Thermometers
• SI Prefixes • Thermal Expansion
• Scales • Ideal Gas Laws
• Errors • Heat Capacity
• Significant Figures • Latent Heat
• Graphing • Phases of Matter
• Areas and Volumes • Boiling and Evaporation
• Archimedes’ Principle • Thermal Energy Transfer
• Density • Surface Radiation

SECTION B: MECHANICS SECTION D: WAVES AND

• Vectors and Scalars OPTICS
• Resultant Vectors • Wave Motions
• Gravity and Stability • Wave Features
• Forces and Equilibrium • Sound Waves
• Levers and Moment • Sound and Hearing
• Deformation
• Motion and Ramp
• Laws of Motion
• Momentum and Impulse
• Energy and Work
• Power and Efficiency
• Pressure: Area and Depth
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Year 11

• Electromagnetic Waves • Series and Parallel Circuits

• Diffraction • Electricity in the Home
• Interference • Rectification
• Young’s Double Slit • Cells and Charging
• Nature of Light • Electronic Gates
• Light rays • Magnetism
• Eclipses • Making a Magnet
• Reflection of Light • Electromagnetism
• Refraction of Light • Uses of Electromagnets
• Total Internal Reflection • The Motor Effect
• Applications of Refraction • DC Motor
• Dispersion of Light • The Loudspeaker
• Lenses and Refraction • Electromagnetic Induction
• Images and Lenses • AC Generator
• Magnification and Lens Equation • Transformer
• Pinhole Camera
• The Human Eye SECTION F: PHYSICS OF THE
• Eye Defects and Lenses ATOM
• Models of the Atom
SECTION E: ELECTRICITY AND • Atomic structure
MAGNETISM • Subatomic Particles
• Electrostatics • Isotopes and Radioactivity
• Electric Charge • Uses of Radioisotopes
• Electric Fields • Radiations and Risks
• Current Electricity • Half-Life
• Components and Symbols • Nuclear Equations
• Electrical Quantities • Nuclear Energy
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INTRODUCTION

Physics is the science of matter and energy and their

interactions. Matter is defined as anything that has mass
and occupies space. Energy is the capacity to do work or
cause heating. Physics includes topics such as mechanics,
light, sound, heat, electricity and branches such as particle
physics, nuclear physics, biophysics etc.

SECTIONS OF SYLLABUS
Physical Quantities and their measurements
Physical quantity: a property that can be measured using an
instrument. They include fundamental quantities and derived
quantities. The quantities have corresponding fundamental
(base) units and derived units.

Forces and their effects

Mechanics deals with the motion of objects. It describes
relationships between matter, force and energy as they
affect the motion of objects.

The Kinetic Theory and its application

Thermal physics and kinetic theory focus on the effects of
heat on matter. This section explains the particle nature of
matter and allows for the prediction of the behaviour of
those particles when heated. It also describes the behaviour
of surface radiation.
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Waves, their properties and effects

This section focuses on the features and properties of
particle and electromagnetic waves. It also explains the
nature and behaviour of light and lenses.

Electricity and its applications

This section deals with electricity, its properties and
behaviour, and its relationship to logic gates and magnetism.
It includes Ohm’s law and the properties of circuits.

Physics of the Atoms

This section focuses on the structure of the atom and the
behaviour of subatomic particles. It also describes
radioactivity and the application of Einstein’s mass-energy
equation.
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SECTION A: MEASUREMENTS

Fundamental Quantities
The fundamental or base quantities are physical quantities
defined by accepted standards and are independent of each
other. Each standard must be well defined, invariable,
convenient, and accessible. The International System of units
(SI units) has seven base quantities.

Fundamental Quantities and their units (C.M.A.L.T.)

Quantity SI Units
Current intensity, I Ampere, A
Mass, m kilograms, kg
Absolute temperature, T kelvin, K
Length, l or distance, x or s meter, m
Time, t second, s
NB: Others are amount of substance (mole) and light intensity (candela).

Derived Quantities
Derived quantities are a combination of the base quantities.

Common Derived Quantities and their Units

Derived Quantity SI Unit A.K.A.
Area, A metre squared, m2
Density, ρ Kilogram per metre cubed, kg m-3
Velocity or Speed, v m s-1
Momentum, p kg m s-1
Force, F kg m s-2 Newton, N
Pressure, P N m-2 or kg m-1 s-2 Pascal, Pa
Energy, E kg m2 s-2 Joule, J
NB: Each symbol MUST be written exactly as shown. ( https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/checklist.html)
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Scientific Notation
Scientific notation or standard form is a convenient way of
writing very large or very small numbers. It is written in the
form m × 10n (1 ≤ m < 10). The power (n) is the number of
places the decimal point is moved.

a) 965,000 = 9.65 × 105 (NB: for a number > 1; power is positive)

b) 0.000001 = 1.0 × 10-6 (NB: for a number < 1; power is negative)
[Check yourself]

SI Prefixes
For convenience, multiple of ten (×10n) may be replaced by a
prefix. For example, 1 ×103 g = 1 kg and 1 ×10-9 m = 1 nm

Common Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Factor
Multiples Tera T × 1012
Giga G × 109
Mega M × 106
kilo k × 103
Sub- centi c × 10-2 = 1/100
multiples milli m × 10-3 = 1/1000
micro µ × 10-6
nano n × 10-9
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SCALES

Linear Scale
A linear scale is a scale with equal
intervals for the same change in quantity,
for example a ruler. The variables are
proportional to each other.

Non-Linear Scale
A non-linear scale is one with unequal
intervals for the same change in
quantity. The variables are not
proportional.

Analogue and Digital

An analogue scale operates using
mechanical actions and is usually easy to
calibrate. A digital scale operates using electronic binary
mechanisms and usually gives more precise readings.
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ERRORS

An error is the difference between an experimental value

and the accepted value. Errors such as parallax, reaction
time and zero error fall in one of two categories below.

Zero error Parallax error Reaction time error

Random Errors
Random errors are due to unavoidable variations in conditions
or technique. Thus, some readings are high and others are
low.
Reducing random errors
• Always read scales squarely to reduce parallax error.
• Use an electronic timer to reduce reaction time error.
• Do at least three measurements and use their mean.

Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are caused by faulty equipment or
technique. Thus, readings are all too high or all too low.
Reducing systematic errors
• Place the apparatus on a flat surface and read it at
eye level or read it squarely to reduce parallax error.
• Reset the instrument, use a new one or subtract the
error to reduce zero error.
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Significant Figures
One way to show precision is to use significant figures/
digits (1.21 and 1.20 are more precise than 1.2 and 1.1).
These are all the digits read from the scale plus an estimate
(half the smallest scale division).
• All digits are significant EXCEPT
o leading zeros in a decimal (0.00309) and
o trailing zeros in a whole number (309000).
• When in doubt, use scientific notation (e.g. 1,230 to 4
s.f. is 1.230 × 104; to 3 s.f. it is 1.23 × 104).
• Counts and constants have an infinite number of
significant figures and so do not affect precision (e.g. 3
trials, g and 𝛑).
[Self Check]

Rounding
At this level, all calculations will involve either a form of
addition (subtraction), multiplication (division, squares, roots)
or both.
• For multiplication, the answer should be as precise as
the measurement with the fewest significant figures.
Eg. 0.25 × 1.325 = 0.33 (to 2 s.f.)
• For addition, the answer should be as precise as the
measurement with the fewest decimal places. Eg. 0.251
+ 1.3 = 1.6 (to 1 d.p.)
• During calculation, keep at least one more decimal place
than the least precise measurement (if you have to
write; otherwise, reuse the calculator answer).
[Self Check]
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CALCULATIONS

Areas of Regular Shapes

• Circle: area = pi × radius squared (A = πr2)
• Rectangle: area = length × width (A = lw)
• Triangle: area = ½ × base × vertical height (A = ½ bh)

Divide all other shapes into circles, rectangles and triangles

and add the area of each.

Prove that the total area of this trapezium = 42.5 cm2

Areas of Irregular shapes

Trace the object on a graph, add all the whole squares
inside the trace to half the number of incomplete squares.

NB: Using smaller squares will give a more accurate estimate of the area.
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Volumes of Regular Shapes (area of base × vertical height)

Rectangular block

V = length × width × height

(lwh)
= 12 × 4 × 5 = 240 cm3
= 200 cm3 (to 1 s.f.)

Cylinder
V = pi × radius squared × height
(πr2h)
= 3.14 × 52 × 20 = 1570 cm2
= 2000 cm2 (to 1 s.f.)

Irregular Shapes
The volume of a submerged object is equal to the amount of
water (fluid) it displaces.

a) Using only a measuring cylinder

Measure the volume of water in the cylinder. Gently place a
rock inside without splashing (eg. use a string). Measure the
new volume with the rock inside.

Volume of the rock = volume water with

rock - volume of water alone
= 40.0 – 30.0 = 10.0 mL
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b) Using a eureka (overflow) can

Place the eureka can on a level surface and fill it up to the
spout. Set a measuring cylinder below the spout and gently
lower an object into the water. The volume of water that
flows out is the volume of the object.

What is the volume of the cork above? What assumption did you make?
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GRAPHS

A graph is a visual representation of data. It is plotted with

a sharp pencil on a graph paper.

Axes
Use the DRyMIx rule: dependent/responding variable on the
y-axis and manipulated/independent variable on the x-axis.
The independent variable is what the investigator changes to
see its effect. It causes the other (dependent) variable to
change.

(For example, the nearer you are to the bell the louder it sounds: independent =
distance from the bell; dependent = loudness of the bell.)

Line of Best Fit

A line of ‘best fit’ is drawn so that the points spread equally
above and below. (It does not have to pass through any of the plotted
points.)

Interpolation: lines on a
graph used to determine a
value (x or y) within the range
plotted. Based on interpolation
4.5 cm3 of jam would weigh
about 65 g.

Extrapolation: lines on a
graph used to determine a
value outside the range plotted.
Based on extrapolation, 8.5 cm3
of the jam would weigh about
125 g.
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Purpose
• shows the relationship (directly proportional or inversely
proportional) between the variables (y and x)
• reduces the effect of errors and so gives the best
estimate of the gradient.

Gradient, m (slope)
A large triangle (more than half the line) reduces the error
in the gradient calculated.

∆y 110 - 30
m= =
∆x 7.5 – 2.0

= 80 ÷ 5.5 = 14.5 m s-2

= 10 m s-2 (to 1 s.f.)

Equation of a Straight Line

y = mx + c (m = gradient, c = y-intercepts)

What is the equation of each line on the grid below? (Merit!)

NB:
For line graphs: use the SPLAT check. (S = scales, linear and largest; P = plot
with Ï or ¤; L = line of best fit smooth; A = axes with labels and units; T =
title: y-label against x-label).
For bar graphs: use the BATS check. (B = bars, neat with equal width and
spacing; A = axes with labels and units; T = title; S = scales, linear and largest)
 16

DENSITY

Why do ships float but coins sink? How far an object sinks
or floats depends on how compact it is. So, a solid steel ball
would sink further than a hollow one. The density of a
substance is the ratio of its mass to its volume. It is a
measure of how close its particles are.

m
Density, ρ = V
( ρ = rho, m = mass and V = volume )

The SI unit for density is kg m-3

Relative Density
Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to
the density of a reference material. The reference material
is usually water for a solid or liquid and air for a gas. The
density of water at 4 oC is 1000 kg m-3 or 1 g cm-3.

Calculating relative density

Determine the relative density of mercury if its density is
13.6 g cm-3.
ρHg
ρr =
ρwater

= 13.6 g cm-3/ 1.00 g cm-3

= 13.6 (relative density has no units)

Thus, mercury is 13.6 times denser than water. A relative

density less than 1 means that the substance is less dense
than water and would float in it.
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Determining relative density

The density bottle has a specific volume, V. If it
is weighed with water and then with another
liquid of unknown density, then the relative
density of the liquid is ρr.

ρr = ρx ÷ ρw ( ρx = density of unknown; ρw = density of water )

mx mw m
= ÷ = x ( mx = mass of unknown; mw = mass of water )
V V mw

Thus, the relative density of a liquid is equal to the ratio

of its mass to the mass of an equal volume of water. It
tells how much denser something is than water or a
specified substance.
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ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

Archimedes’ principle
An object in a fluid at rest experiences an upthrust equal to
the weight of the fluid it displaces. So, if you dunk an object
(eg. beach ball) that is lighter than the fluid it displaces, the extra
upthrust would make it rise. If the object is heavier, it will sink.

The principle of floatation

A floating object weighs the same as the fluid it displaces.
This is a special case of Archimedes’ principle when the
object’s weight is equal to the upthrust.
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VECTORS

A vector quantity is a measurement that has magnitude

(size) and direction. A measurement with only magnitude is a
scalar quantity.

Scalar Vector
Length, time, speed, mass, Displacement, velocity, force,
energy, power, magnetic acceleration, momentum,
flux, temperature temperature change, moment,
voltage, magnetic field

Resultant Vector
A resultant vector is the combined effect of all vectors.

Parallel and Antiparallel Vectors

1. Add the magnitudes of vectors in the same direction.
2. Subtract the magnitudes of vectors in opposite
directions.

Parallel Antiparallel
(Same direction) (A is negative)

Perpendicular (90 o) Vectors

1. Redraw the vectors head to tail and the line that
closes the figure gives the resultant (polygon rule).
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2. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to determine the magnitude of

the resultant (R) and the tangent ratio to determine its
direction (ϴ).

From Pythagoras’ theorem: R2 = 602 + 412

The magnitude, R = √(602 + 412)
= √(5281)
= 72.7 km = 73 km (0 d.p.)

The direction ϴ = tan-1 (opposite/adjacent)

= tan-1 (41/60) (Recall: SOH.CAH.TOA)

= tan-1 0.683
= 34.3o

Oblique Vectors
1) Parallelogram rule (for 2 vectors acting at the same point)
(i) Decide on a scale (eg. 1 cm : 5 N). Draw each vector to
scale (best on graph paper).
(ii) Redraw each vector starting at the head of the other
to form a parallelogram. The diagonal starting at the
original point will give the resultant.

(iii) Measure the length of the resultant and use your

scale to determine its magnitude (R).
(iv) Use a protractor to measure the direction (ϴ).
(v) Write down the magnitude and direction of the
resultant.
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2) Polygon rule (for 2 or more vectors acting at the same point)

1) Identify your scale (eg. 1 cm : 5 N). Draw one vector to
scale (horizontally).
2) Starting at the head of the previous vector, draw the
other vector(s) based on your scale and the angle given.
3) The resultant will be the line that closes the figure
starting at the tail of the first vector.

4) Measure the magnitude and direction of the resultant.

Self-Check
1. A man drove 55.0 m s-1 at 20.0o and then 35.0 m s-1 at 63.0o.
Determine the resultant velocity of the driver.
2. A jet travelled 25 km NE, 40 km E, and then 20 km SE before
landing. Determine the length of the journey and the
displacement of the jet.
3. Two boys lift a bucket with forces 12.5 N and 15.0 N at an
angle of 90o. How heavy is the bucket?
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Statics

A force (F ) is a push or a pull. Forces can cause a change in

direction, size, shape, or motion of an object. All forces are
represented by an arrow, which gives the magnitude (arrow
length) and direction (arrowhead) of the force. The unit of
force is the newton (N).

One newton is the force needed to accelerate a mass of 1

kg by 1 m s-2.

Types of forces
Contact Forces: friction, tension, compression, normal force
(upthrust)
Non-contact or action-at-a-distant forces: gravitational,
nuclear, magnetic, electrostatic

Zero net or resultant force There will be a net force (40 N, E)

Mass versus Weight

Mass is the amount of matter that makes up an object while
weight is the pull of gravity on an object. On earth, the
acceleration due to gravity (g = 10 ms-2) is also called the
gravitational field strength (10 N kg-1). The mass of an
object will always be the same, but its weight will change
based on g, which depends on the mass of the celestial body.
The gravitational pull or weight W = mg ( m = mass in kg )
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Gravity and Weightlessness

Gravitational force is directly proportional to
mass but inversely proportional to distance.
Falling objects that experience only the force
of gravity are in free fall. They would all land
at the same time if dropped from the same
height in a vacuum – no drag.

Weightlessness is the sensation felt due to the lack of

normal force (upthrust) when in free fall (zero g or
microgravity).

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity (CG) is the point through which the

entire weight of an object seems to act. It is the same as
the centre of mass in a uniform gravitational field. It is at
the geometric centre of a uniform body but could be on or
off an irregular-shaped object. An object will balance on a
pivot at its CG.

For irregular shapes, the CG is the point where at least

three plumblines (gravity lines) intersect.
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Stability and Equilibrium

Stability is the tendency of an object to recover (its position
or path) after it is disturbed. An object in equilibrium is not
accelerating (not changing speed or direction).

Types of equilibrium
Stable equilibrium: a slight shift raises its CG
but the gravity line still passes through its
base, so it returns to its original position.
Unstable equilibrium: a slight shift lowers its
CG and the gravity line passes outside its
base, so it topples.
Neutral equilibrium: a slight shift does not
change the height of its CG and the gravity
line always pass through its base, so it
remains wherever it is shifted.

To increase stability and reduce toppling

• lower the CG (racing cars)
• widen the base (pyramids)
• increase the mass towards the base (drinking glasses)
 25

MOMENT OF A FORCE

Levers
A lever is a simple machine to which a small force (the
effort) can be applied to overcome a larger force (the load).
It may be a beam or rigid bar which rotates about a fulcrum
or pivot. Levers are classified based on what is in the middle.

First order levers (Fulcrum in the middle)

Second order levers (Load in the middle)

Third order levers (Effort in the middle)

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Applications
Opening a door requires a large effort at A or a
small effort at B. Also, due to the greater
distance from the pivot, the same effort would
produce a greater moment or leverage at B than
at A.

Moment is the turning effect of a force. It is

the product of a force and its perpendicular
distance from the pivot. Moment is due to two or
more forces acting at different points on a rigid object.

Moment or torque, T = Fx
(F = Force; x = perpendicular distance from pivot) Engine torque

NB: N m is the SI unit for the moment. (It is not the same as Joule).

Conditions for Equilibrium

If a rigid object is balanced, the net force on it and the net
torque about the same point are zero. This means
1. the total force in one direction is equal to the total force
in the opposite direction.
2. the total clockwise moment is equal to the total
anticlockwise moment about the same point. This is the
principle of moments.
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Examples

1) The plank below is pivoted at its centre. Is it in equilibrium? What is

the upthrust from the pivot?

Total anticlockwise moment = (6 × 4) + (4 × 2) = 32 N m

Total clockwise moment = 8 × 4 = 32 N m
Both torques are equal so the lever is balanced (condition 2).
Also, the upthrust from the pivot = 6 + 4 + 8 = 18 N (condition 1)

2) Look at the diagram of the athlete below.

a) Where are the reaction forces?

b) Locate the effort, load and pivot.
c) What effort is exerted to push up?
d) What is the total reaction from the floor?
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DEFORMATION

Deformation is the change in size or shape of an object by a

force (stretch, squash, bend, twist). If its elastic limit is not
exceeded, the object reverts to its original size or shape
once the force is removed.

Hooke’s law
The extension of an object is directly proportional to the
applied force if the proportional limit is not exceeded.

Thus, a graph of force against extension gives a straight line

from the origin up to the proportional limit.

Testing Hooke’s law Metal spring Rubber band

F = kx (k = spring constant = gradient of graph)

(NB: If the axes are switched (graph of x against F), then the gradient is 1/x. Explain. Merit!)

What’s the difference between the limit of proportionality and the elastic limit ?
(Merit!)
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DYNAMICS

Distance is the length of the path

between two points. displacement

Displacement is the net distance

distance

moved in a given direction.

Speed is the change in distance per
Displacement is a ‘shortcut’
unit time.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Classify the terms above as scalar or vectors.

Equations of Motion

Without acceleration (constant velocity)

displacement, x = area under graph

= area of rectangle ABCD
= length × width
x = vt

Cover the unknown variable

to see how to calculate it.
 30

With constant acceleration (changing velocity)

acceleration, a = gradient of graph

= vertical side ÷ horizontal side
v-u
a= t
(1) v = u + at

displacement, x = average velocity × time

= area under graph
= area of trapezium
= ½ sum of parallel sides × separation
= ½(v + u)t
(v + u)t
(2) x= 2
(v = final velocity; u = initial velocity)

Equations 1 and 2 may be combined to give the other

equations of motion:

1) v = u + at For (3), replace v in (2) with its expression

from (1) then simplify.
2) x = ½(u + v)t
3) x = ut + ½at 2 For (4), replace t in (2) with its expression
4) v = u + 2ax
2 2
from (1) then simplify.
 31

Applications
NB: Choose the equation with the variables in the question given.
1) If a book falling from a shelf took 3 s to hit the floor, what
would be its maximum velocity? [30 ms ] -1

2) Upon hearing the bell, a physics student sitting 30 m away from

class decides to start running at 15 ms-1. How long does she take
to reach? [4 s]
3) Calculate the height reached by water from a fountain after 1.5
s if it is sprayed upwards at a speed of 8 ms-1. [80 cm]
4) On seeing the principal, a boy on a hoverboard moving at 11 ms-1
jumped off and slowed down at a rate of 7 ms-2. How far would
he travel before stopping? [9 m]
5) In a crash test, a car moving at 50 ms-1 decelerates uniformly
over a distance of 0.5 km. Determine (a) the deceleration of the
car and (b) the time it takes to come to rest.

Graphs of Motion
Graph of distance against time
Distance-time graph
Label the graph with
the following letters:
A - constant speed
B - stationary
C - higher constant speed
D - constant speed
backward

1) What is the speed during the first 20 s?

2) How far is the object from the start after 60 s?
3) What is the speed during the last 40 seconds?
4) When is the object travelling the fastest?
5) How long does the journey last?
 32

Speed-time graph
Graph of speed against time
1) Look at each of the
sections OA, AB, BC, CD,
DE and EF on the speed-
time graph. Choose one
of the following words to
describe the motion
taking place:
acceleration, steady
speed, stationary.
2) At any moment, how would the driver know his
instantaneous speed?
3) At what time during the journey did the bus reach its
greatest speed?
4) For how long did the bus stop during its journey?
5) During which section of the journey did the bus have the
greatest acceleration?
6) Calculate the acceleration of the bus during section DE.
7) Which section may be described as a deceleration?
8) What is the total distance travelled by the school bus?
9) How long did the journey take?
10) Determine the average speed of the bus over the entire
journey.
 33

Examples
1. A sprinter starts from rest and accelerates at 1 m s-2 for 20 s.
He then travels at a constant speed for 1 minute and finally
decelerates at 2 m s-2 until he stops. Find his maximum speed in
km h-1 and the total distance covered in metres. [72 km h-1;
1500 m]

2. Describe the motion for each interval. Then determine the total
displacement and the average speed.

3. Describe the motion for each interval and the corresponding

velocity.
 34

Motion down a Ramp

A ramp or inclined plane is a simple machine. Objects fall
vertically too fast for their acceleration to be measured, so
Galileo used an inclined plane and basic geometry to
determine the value of g.

h l

Displacement of falling object, x = ut + ½at2

(x = distance along the ramp; t = time for the ball to roll down)

But u = 0 m s-1 (if the ball is gently released)

∴ x = ½at 2

A graph of x vs. t2 gives straight line with gradient equal to

½a. So, acceleration down a ramp is constant.

a = gh/l (according to Galileo)

∴ a = gh (for a ramp 1 m long, l = 1 m)

∴ gradient = ½gh (slope ∼ 5× your ramp height in m)

• Sources of error: parallax, zero error, reaction time error.

• Limitations: friction, rolling ball, sagging ramp.

A brick falls from a balcony 5 m high. Calculate the velocity with which the
brick hits the ground and the time it takes to reach the ground.
( Clue: mgh → ½mv 2; v = u + at ). Merit!
 35

LAWS OF MOTION

Aristotle’s Law of Motion

He observed that a force is needed to keep an object moving
and a greater force would make it go faster.

Aristotle’s law
The velocity of an object is proportional to the applied
force.
v∝F
Limitations
• It was based on observations not controlled experiments
(for example without friction).
• Without friction, an object will speed up by a constant
force - astronauts in space walks.
• A body in free fall has no net force acting on it -
satellites and skydivers.
• Increasing friction can reduce the speed of an object –
emergency stopping lane or near a roundabout.

Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton studied gravity, forces, and diffraction of light but is
best known for his three laws of motion. He argued that
force causes velocity to change; not just increase, as
Aristotle thought.

First Law
Without a net force, an object will maintain its velocity.
This is the law of inertia - resistance to acceleration.
 36

Second Law
The rate of change of momentum of an object is equal to
the net force on it.
∆mv
F= t
(for ∆m ≠ 0, eg. jets, missiles, etc.)
m∆v
∴ F= t
(for ∆m = 0, eg. bullets, arrows, marbles)
∆v
∴ F = ma (because a=
t
)

A newton (1 N) is the force required to give a mass of 1 kg

an acceleration of 1 m s-2.

Third Law
When one object exerts a force on another, the second
reacts with an equal and opposite force.

So, if you push a book with 5 N to the right, it will push you
with 5 N to the left.

Applications of Newton’s laws

Law 1: A rocket travels through outer space at a constant
speed in a straight line without propulsion. The resultant
force on the rocket is zero as there is no forward force or
air resistance.
Law 2: A car initially with a constant speed decelerates
when going uphill. Its weight causes a resultant force
opposite to the driving force and so decreases it.
 37

Law 3: A rifle recoils when fired. The rifle exerts a forward

force on the bullet, which in turn exerts an equal backward
force on the rifle.

Note: N1 applies when forces are balanced. N2 applies when forces are
unbalanced. N3 applies to a pair of interacting objects.
Try these:
1. An object in free fall has a constant terminal velocity. N1
2. Objects in space keep moving. Eg. probes, satellites, planets. N1
3. The effect of sudden change in speed. Eg. braking, whiplash. N2
4. An object accelerates when dropped or decelerates as it goes uphill. N2
5. Objects of different masses require different size forces to move? N2
6. Things separating or colliding. Eg. a rocket, a gun, a garden sprinkler,
jumping on a trampoline/off a boat, deflating a balloon? N2, N3
7. A block of mass 2 kg has a constant velocity when it is pushed along a
table by a force of 4 N. When the push is increased to 10 N, find (a) the
resultant force and (b) the acceleration. (6 N; 3 m s-2)
 38

LINEAR MOMENTUM

Linear momentum is the tendency of an object moving along

a straight path to continue doing so. Momentum is related to
Newton’s first two laws.

Momentum = mass × velocity

p = mv

The unit is kg m s-1

Law of Conservation of Momentum

The total momentum before a collision is equal to the total
momentum after the collision if there is no net force.

Elastic Collisions Inelastic Collisions

momentum and kinetic energy only momentum is conserved
are conserved (unchanged)

objects bounce off each other objects move together or deform

like charges or poles of a magnet cars crashing or people catching

repel balls
 39

Examples
1. Analyse the diagram and determine the velocity of the orange
ball after collision.

Total initial momentum, pi = m1u1 + m2u2

= 10 × 20 + 8 × 5 = 240 kg m s-1

Total final momentum, pf = m1v1 + m2v2

= 10 × 10 + 8v2

Law of momentum: pf = pi
100 + 8v2 = 240 kg m s-1
v2 = (240 - 100)/8 = 17.5 m s-1

2.

Total initial momentum, pi = maua + mbub

= 80 × 6 + 40 × 0 = 480 kg m s-1
Total final momentum (pf): 40vc + 80vc = 120(vc)

According to the law, pf = pi

120(vc) = 480 kg m s-1
vc = 480/120 = 4 m s-1
 40

3. A 1200 kg cannon shoots a 12 kg ball at 75 m s-1. What is the

velocity of the cannon?

Total initial momentum, pi = mcuc + mbub

= 1200 × 0 + 12 x 0 = 0 kg m s-1
Total final momentum, pf = mcvc + mbvb
= 1200(-vc) + 12 × 75 (-vc recoil)
Momentum is conserved, pi = pf

900 - 1200vc = 0 kg m s-1

1200vc = 900
vc = 900/1200 = 0.75 m s-1

4. Analyse these diagrams.

(a)

vb = 200 m s-1
mb = 50 g
mw = 2 kg
vw = ? m s-1
(b) ub = 500 m s-1 uw = 0 m s-1

(c)
 41

Impulse
Impulse is a change in momentum.
By Newton 2nd law
∆mv
F= t
(∆mv = change in momentum)

Impulse = ∆mv = Ft

∴ the unit is kg m s-1 or N s

So, for a given change in

momentum, a short time
interval causes a greater
force.

Think about catching a cricket ball. Stopping the ball too suddenly causes some
pain! The speed of the ball should be reduced using padded gloves or rapid hand
retraction.

Find the mass of a bullet moving at 900 ms-1 if it was

stopped by an impulse of 4.5 N s.
Ft = ∆mv (for a bullet ∆m = 0, so ∆mv = m∆v)

4.5 = m (900 – 0) (u = 0 ms-1)

m = 4.5/900

= 0.005 kg
 42

Example
1) A force of 15.34 N was exerted on an object for 4.48 s. What
was the change in momentum of the object?
2) Calculate the force that caused an object of mass 1.89 kg to
change velocity by 26.23 ms-1 in 12.43 s.
3) What is the final velocity of a 2.29 kg object moving with a
velocity of 17.27 ms-1 if it experiences a force of 4.88 N over a
period of 11.08 s?
4) Describe the best way to catch a fresh egg dropped from
upstairs.
5) Explain this diagram
 43

ENERGY

There are two main types of energy – kinetic (due to motion)

and potential (due to position). These types of energy exist
in many forms – nuclear, elastic, gravitational, light,
electromagnetic, chemical, thermal, and sound.

List the different forms under the correct heading(s).

Kinetic Energy (Ek = ½ mv2) Potential Energy (Ep = mgh)

? ?

The unit of energy is the Joule (J).

One joule is the work done in moving a load of 1 N to a point

1 m away.

So, 1 Joule = 1 N m

Examples
1. Calculate the potential energy of a 40 kg girl who ran up a flight
of stairs 5 m high.
Ep = mgh
= 40 × 10 × 5
= 200 J

2. What is the maximum kinetic energy of a 440 g ball travelling at

a speed of 10 ms-1?
Ek = ½mv 2
= ½ × 440/1000 × 102 (change 440 g to kg)

= 22 J = 20 J (1 s.f.)
 44

Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed
into other forms.

Examples
• Television: converts electrical energy to light, sound and
thermal energy (wasted).
• Microwave oven: converts electrical energy to light
(microwave radiation) and sound (wasted).
• Hydroelectric dam: converts gravitational potential
energy to kinetic energy to electrical energy.
• Cell phone:
• Radio:

WORK

Useful work is the energy transferred when a load is

displaced. It has unit joule (J).
Work done = force × displacement
W = fx

Calculate the work done when a force of 20 N is used to

push an object 5 meters.
W = fx = 20 × 5 = 100 J

If Bolt weighs 94 kg, calculate the work done when he runs

a 100 m race?

NB: Moving a load and returning it to its original position does no useful work
because the displacement (x) is zero.
 45

POWER

Power is the rate of doing useful work or the energy

transferred per second. The unit is the watt (W).
1 W = 1 J s-1 (= 1 kg m2s-3)

Power = Work done ÷ time taken

W
P= t
fx
= (W = fx)
t
x
= fv (v = )
t

Calculate the power used by a 45 kg student to run up a flight of

stairs 4 m high in 3 s.
P = mgh/t = 45 × 10 × 4/2 = 900 W
How much power is generated by a bulldozer pushing 500 N of dirt at
a constant speed of 5 ms-1?
P = fv = 500 × 5 = 2500 W = 3000 W (1 s.f.)

Efficiency
Efficiency is the percentage of energy input that is
converted to useful work by a machine. It indicates how well
energy is transferred without wastage.

energy output × 100% power output × 100%

Efficiency, η = =
total energy input power input
 46

PRESSURE

Pressure is the perpendicular force per unit area. It has

units mm Hg, atmosphere, psi and SI unit N m-2 or Pa.

Pressure P = F/A (F = force; A = area)

A 15 N rectangular block in different positions

In which position does the box above exert more pressure? Explain.
Which is better to wear on the beach, high heel shoes or flip flops? Explain.

The Hydraulic Jack

The pressure due to the small
piston, P1 = F1/A1
The pressure due to the large
piston, P2 = F2/A2
Liquids cannot be
compressed
∴ P1 = P2
F1 F2
=
A1 A2
 47

Car Breaking System

The brake fluid (red) is
incompressible. So, any force on
the brake pedal (2) produces a
pressure in the break cylinder (3)
which is transmitted through the
fluid to the master cylinder (5).
Thus, the piston (blue) moves outwards and the break pad
(6) pushes against the brake disc (7) on the wheel (8). This
increases friction and so the car slows down.

HYDROSTATICS

Pressure in liquids increases with depth (a) because the

deeper you go the greater the weight of liquid above. Also,
Liquid pressure
Liquidpressurepressure at a particular depth acts equally in all directions
1 Pressure
weight of (b).
in a liquid
1 Pressure
liquid
weight Hence,
increases
in a liquid
above.
of liquid
increases
In Figure
above.
with
In Figure a16.2a
with
16.2a liquid
depth
water spurts will
depthbecause thefurther
because the
waterspurts
further
outfastest
out fastestrise
down
down
andand
youyou
to
go, the
furthest
furthest the
go,greater
the greater
fromfrom
the
the
same
the
the lowest
lowest level no matter the
hole.
shape oracts size of a column (c).
hole.
2 Pressure
2 Pressure at oneatdepth
one depth
acts equally
equally ininall
alldirections.
directions. The
Thecan
can of of
water in Figure
water 16.2b16.2b
in Figure has has
similar holes all round it at the same level. Water comes out equally fast and spurts equally
similar far
holes all round it at the same level. Water comes out equally fast and spurts equally
from each hole. Hence the pressure exerted by the water at this depth is the same in all
far fromdirections.
each hole. Hence the pressure exerted by the water at this depth is the same in all
directions.

a b
3 A liquid finds its own level. In the U-tube of Figure 16.3a the liquid pressure at the foot of P
c
is greater than at the foot of Q because the left-hand column is higher than the right-hand one.
When the clip is opened the liquid flows from P to Q until the pressure and the levels are the
3 A liquidsame,
findsi.e.itstheown
liquid ‘finds its own level’. Although the weight of liquid in Q is now greater
level. In the U-tube of Figure 16.3a the liquid pressure at the foot of P
than in P, it acts over a greater area because tube Q is wider.
is greater
In Figure 16.3b foot
than at the of Qisbecause
the liquid thelevel
at the same left-hand
in eachcolumn
tube and is higherthat
confirms than
thethe right-hand
pressure at one.
When thethe clip is aopened
foot of the liquid
liquid column flows
depends onlyfrom P vertical
on the to Q until the
depth of pressure
the liquid and theonlevels
and not the are the
same, i.e.
tubethe liquid
width ‘finds its own level’. Although the weight of liquid in Q is now greater
or shape.
than in
Why is a saline pack hung above a patient’s body? Merit!
4 Pressure
P, it actsdepends
at any
In Figure given
16.3b
on the density
over a greater
thedepth.
of the liquid.
area because tubeTheQ isdenser the liquid, the greater the pressure
wider.
liquid is at the same level in each tube and confirms that the pressure at
the foot of a liquid column depends only on the vertical depth of the liquid and not on the
tube width or shape.
4 Pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The denser the liquid, the greater the pressure
at any given depth.

218
 48

Pressure and Depth

The pressure due to the liquid on the base of
the block is
P = F/A (F = weight; A = area of base)

= mg/A (m = 𝜌V)

P = 𝝆Vg/A (h = V/A)
b) U-tube manometer
∴ P = 𝝆gh
In Figure 16.12a each surface of the liquid is acted on equally by atmospheric pressure and the
levels are the same. If one side is connected to, for example, the gas supply (Figure 16.12b), the
gas exerts a pressure on surface A and level B rises until
pressure of gas = atmospheric pressure
+ pressure due to liquid column BC

U-tube Manometer
The pressure of the liquid column BC therefore equals the amount by which the gas pressure
exceeds atmospheric pressure. It equals hρg (in Pa) where h is the vertical height of BC (in m)
and ρ is the density of the liquid (in kg/m3). The height h is called the head of liquid and
Asometimes,
manometerinstead of statingis an ininstrument
a pressure Pa, we say that it is so used
many cm ofto
watermeasure
(or mercury the pressure
for higher pressures).
of a gas.

When both ends are opened, the pressure is the same so the
c) Mercury barometer
mercury (blue)which
A barometer is a manometer is measures
at the same
atmospheric level.
pressure. The extra
A simple barometer is pressure of
the
equals thegas supplied issurface
given by the height
The height (h)
XY of liquid in BC.
shown in Figure 16.13. The pressure at X due to the weight of the column of mercury XY
atmospheric pressure on the of the mercury in the bowl.
measures the atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury (mmHg).
The vertical height of the column is unchanged if the tube is tilted. Would it be different with
a wider tube? The space above the mercury in the tube is a vacuum (except for a little mercury
The actual pressure of the gas is
vapour).

227
Pgas = Patm + PBC (Patm = atmospheric pressure; PBC = extra pressure)

Pgas = Patm + 𝝆gh (PBC = 𝝆gh)

 49

Mercury barometer

A barometer is a manometer which measures atmospheric

pressure. The pressure at B due to the column of mercury
equals the atmospheric pressure at A. Thus, the height (h) is
a measure of the atmospheric pressure in cm of mercury. (At
sea level the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm Hg at 0 ℃.)

Units of atmospheric pressure

76 cm Hg = 1 bar = 100 kPa = 1 atm (atmosphere)

For a mercury barometer, the pressure is given by the

vertical (perpendicular) height of the column, which is
unchanged if the tube is tilted or wider.
 50

SECTION B: THERMAL PHYSICS AND KINETIC THEORY

The Nature of Heat

Caloric theory
Lavoisier argued that heat was a
weightless, invisible fluid called ‘caloric’.
He claimed that caloric surrounded atoms
and would go from hot objects into cooler
ones making them larger and warmer.
Limitations
• All fluids have mass, which stays the same after being

heated (gaining caloric).

• Different temperatures can be reached even when

heated equally (given the same amount of caloric). (eg.

drilling)
• The surfaces of both objects get hotter when rubbed.

Kinetic theory
Heat was assumed to be the total kinetic energy of the
particles in a substance. Larger objects have more particles
and therefore more heat. Even very cold substances have
heat due to the motion of their particles.
Joule found that the loss in potential
energy (falling mass) is proportional to the
rise in temperature and the amount of
water. This led to the law of conservation
of energy.
The law states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, only change form.
 51

TEMPERATURE

Temperature (T or θ) is a measure of the average kinetic

energy of the particles in a medium. It tells how hot
something is. Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
It has units °C (degree Celsius), ˚F (degree Fahrenheit) or K
(kelvin, the SI unit).

Types of Thermometer

Laboratory thermometer

Thermocouple
Clinical thermometer

Comparison of thermometers
(http://www.md-health.com/Types-Of-Thermometer.html)

Thermometer Feature Purpose

Laboratory Range −10℃ to Measures various
Based on height of mercury (range - 110oC; accuracy temperatures of
39 to 357 oC) or coloured alcohol 0.1oC lab chemicals
(range -117 to 78 oC) in a sealed Prismatic (lens- Magnifies thread
tube. The liquid expands or contracts shaped) tube for easy reading
along a oC or oF scale. Narrow bore Increased
Accurate, easily calibrated, fragile, sensitivity
slow response; mercury expands Small bulb with thin Quicker response
uniformly; alcohol vapour is nontoxic. glass; liquid metal
Clinical Range 35 oC to 42 oC Measures normal
Based on height of mercury in a (Hg only), accuracy variation in body
sealed tube. The liquid expands or ± 0.1 C
o
temperature
 52

contracts along a scale calibrated in Constriction in bore Stores the last

o
C and oF. reading; flash to
Accurate, easily calibrated, fragile, reset
slow response, mercury vapour is Prismatic tube Magnification for
toxic. easy reading
Thermocouple Range -250 to 1500 Measures very
Based on the current in two o
C, accuracy 0.1 oC wide range of
different types of wires joined to temperatures in
form two tiny junctions. Temperature factories
difference between the two junctions Small junctions quick response
causes a voltage drop detected by a
voltmeter that is calibrated in in oC
or oF.
Easy to read, rapid response, durable,
hard to calibrate, expensive.

Calibrating a Thermometer
This involves marking a scale on the thermometer at
standard atmospheric pressure. The maximum temperature is
marked where pure water boils (100 °C, the upper-fixed or
steam point). The minimum temperature is marked where
pure ice melts (0 °C, lower-fixed or ice point). The scale is
then divided into 100 equally spaced marks.
 53

THERMAL EXPANSION

Heating an object energises its particles causing them to

vibrate more and move apart. This makes the object expand.
Different materials expand at different rates for the same
temperature rise: gases more than liquids more than solids.

Road on a bridge Frozen liquid

Train lines

Power lines
 54

IDEAL GAS LAWS

An ideal gas is one made of tiny particles that are always

moving randomly. The gas laws are only obeyed by ideal
gases.

Boyle's law
For a fixed mass of gas, the pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume at constant temperature.
1
P ∝V (T is constant)

∴ PV = k (k is a constant of proportionality)

or P1V1 = P2V2

Method
Use the pump to increase the
pressure gradually. Each time,
measure the volume of air in the
tube based on the level of the
oil. Boyle’s law apparatus

Observation
As the pressure of the gas
increased, its volume decreased.

Explanation
There is a lot of spaces among the particles. As the
pressure rises, the particles are pushed closer together.
 55

Graphical relationship

Examples
a) 25.0 cm3 of a gas at 350 kPa was compressed to 150 kPa. What
volume will the gas occupy?
b) A bicycle pump has its outlet closed off, and it contains air at a
volume of 50 cm3 and pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa. If the volume is
reduced to 12.5 cm3, what will be the new pressure?

c) A fish in deep water at a pressure of 5 atmospheres releases a

bubble of volume 2 cm3. Calculate the volume of the bubble just
before it breaks the surface (assume the pressure will now be 1
atmosphere.)

Charles' law
For a fixed mass of gas, the volume is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature at constant pressure.

V∝T (P constant)
V
=k
T

V1 V2
∴ =
T1 T2
 56

Method
Heat the beaker to different
temperatures and check the
volume of air each time.
Observation
The volume of the gas increases
with temperature.
Charles’ law apparatus

Explanation
A rise in temperature increases the KE of gas particles, so
they move faster and farther apart. Thus, the gas takes up
more space (volume).

Graphical relationship

Charles’ law graph

The lowest temperature is 273°C (0 K, absolute
zero)

The intervals (spaces) on the Celsius and Kelvin scales are

equal, so a change of 1°C = a change of 1K.
• T = kelvin temperature; θ (theta) = Celsius temperature
• All temperatures for this topic (gas laws) MUST be in kelvin.
 57

Conversions
T = θ + 273 (transpose for °C)
θ = (°F – 32)/1.8 (transpose for °F)

Pressure law
For a fixed mass of gas, the pressure is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature at constant volume.
P∝T (V constant)

P
=k
T
P1 P2
∴ =
T1 T2

Method
Heat the beaker to different
temperatures and check the
pressure of the air each time.

Observation
The pressure of the gas
Pressure law apparatus
increases with temperature.

Explanation
The temperature rise makes the particles move faster and
collide more frequently with each other and the wall of
the container. Thus, the gas pressure increases.
 58

Graphical relationship

Combined gas law

For a fixed mass of an ideal gas, the three equations above
can be combined to form:

P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
 59

HEAT CAPACITY

Heat capacity (C) is the heat required to raise the

temperature of an object by 1 K. Formula: C = E/∆θ. Unit: J
K-1.

Specific heat capacity (c) of a substance is the heat

required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of it by 1 K.

Formula: c = E/m∆θ. Unit: J kg-1 K-1

Heating (E) increases the average kinetic energy of the

particles, which causes the temperature to change by an
amount ∆θ (or ∆T).

Heat transfer E = mc∆θ = C∆θ

∴ C = mc (the big one is the product of the little ones)

Determining Specific Heat Capacity

Take the temperature of a given
mass of water in a calorimeter
(insulated vessel) before and after
immersing a hot metal bob of known
mass.
If all the heat lost from the metal
is absorbed by the water, then
mbcb∆θb = mwcw∆θw (cb = specific heat capacity
of the bob)
cb = mwcw∆θw/mb∆θb
 60

Assumptions the water is pure; there is negligible heat loss to

the surroundings (air, cup, string, and thermometer)/
complete transfer of heat from metal to water.
Limitations difficulty in measuring the temperature of the
metal; difficulty in distributing the heat uniformly in
the water; the string could affect the mass or
purity of the water.
Sources of parallax error could occur while measuring the mass
error or temperature; zero error could also affect the
reading on the balance.

Precautions to reduce parallax error, read the thermometer

squarely/hold thermometer vertically and read at
eye level; use a thin, non-absorbent string; transfer
the hot metal bob quickly to avoid heat loss and
gently to avoid splashes; ensure that the weighing
surfaces/ apparatus are clean.

Examples
1. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 50 g of
water from 30 °C to 70 °C? Assume the specific heat capacity
of water is 4.2 J g-1 °C-1.

2. An unknown metal absorbed 3.4 kJ of energy and its

temperature rose by 15 °C. What is its heat capacity?
 61

LATENT HEAT

While heating or cooling, a substance will reach a point at

which it starts to change its phase (physical state). The
heat absorbed during a phase change is called latent heat
(unit J). This happens at the boiling and melting points.

Latent heat is used to break intermolecular bonds (decrease

potential energy) not to increase the average kinetic energy
of the particles. Therefore, the temperature remains
constant (∆θ = 0). Both phases are said to be in thermal
equilibrium; that is, they exist at the same temperature.

Specific latent heat (l ) is the energy change when 1 kg of a

substance changes state.

Latent heat, E = ml
∴ l = E/m Unit: J kg-1

Melting/freezing point involves specific latent heat of fusion

(lf).

Boiling/condensation point involves the specific latent heat

of vaporisation (lv).
 62

Determining Specific Latent Heat

Weigh the water in an insulated (well-lagged) container
(calorimeter) and then use an immersion heater to evaporate
some of the water for a specific amount of time. Then
reweigh the water.

Heat supplied by heater Eh = Pt

Heat absorbed by water Ew = mwlv

If all the heat lost from the

heater is absorbed by the
water, then
Pt = mwlv
lv = Pt/mw

(P = power rating of the heater, t = heating time, lv = specific latent heat of

vaporisation of water, mw = mass of water evaporated)
 63

KINETIC THEORY MATTER

Assumptions
• matter is made of nanoscopic particles.
• the particles are in constant, random, linear motion.
• there are forces between the particles.
• the particles do not lose energy when they collide.

Evidence
Brownian Motion
This is the random movement of microscopic particles due to
collision with particles around them.

Diffusion
This is the spreading of particles to an area where they are
in a lower concentration.

PHASES OF MATTER

All matter can exist as solid, liquid and gas depending on the
temperature and pressure.

Arrangement of Particles
sublimation

melting boiling

freezing condensing
solid liquid gas

sublimation

Heating or lowering pressure

 64

Phase Properties
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Kinetic energy
low medium high
of particles
Microscopic

Interparticle
strong moderate negligible
forces
Arrangement tight, regular
loose clusters scattered
of particles pattern
Shape fixed variable variable
Macroscopic

Volume fixed fixed variable

Compressible no no yes

Temperature and Phase

Temperature

gas
boiling gas-liquid
x
point equilibrium

liquid

melting liquid-solid
x
point equilibrium

Solid

Cooling time

Cooling curve for a pure substance

?
Sketch and label the heating curve for pure water. +
 65

Boiling versus Evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
• occurs throughout the liquid • occurs at the surface
• occurs only at the boiling • occurs at any temperature due
point due to applied heat or to large surface area, warmth,
pressure drop. wind, low density.
• constant temperature as it • cooling results as the high-
involves latent heat only. energy particles are lost.
• liquid turns into steam • liquid turns into water vapour

Examples
1) Explain why steam at 100 oC is more dangerous than water at
the same temperature.
2) Explain why people feel hotter on days when it is humid even if
the temperature did not increase.
 66

THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER

Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of particles due

to their random motion. Heat is the transfer of energy due
to a difference in temperature. It occurs by conduction,
convection and radiation.

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal
energy due to collision of vibrating
particles.
If an object is heated, its particles gain kinetic energy and
vibrate faster. So, they bump into nearby particles and
energise them. This continues from the heated area to
cooler areas in contact.
Materials through which energy travels readily are called
conductors. A very poor conductor is an insulator. Metals
are good conductors and non-metals are poor conductors.

Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal
energy due to circulating fluid (liquid or
gas). The particles in a heated fluid move
apart so the fluid gets less dense and
rises. At the top the cooler fluid is denser
and so sinks to replace the warm one.
This continuous rise of warm fluid and fall of cooler fluid
results in convection currents, which transfer warm fluid to
cooler areas.
 67

Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by
electromagnetic waves called infrared radiation
(heat waves). All objects above 5 K emit IR in
all directions even through a vacuum. Thus, we
feel the heat of the sun. Hotter objects radiate
more thermal energy.

Rough, dull, dark, surfaces are good absorbers and emitters

of radiation. Smooth, shiny, white surfaces are poor
absorbers and emitters of radiation but good reflectors.
Also, the larger the surface area the more heat will be
absorbed, emitted and reflected.
 68

SECTION C: WAVES AND OPTICS

Types of Waves
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy. Mechanical
waves are vibrations of particles in a medium, which is not
displaced. Electromagnetic waves are vibrations of electric
and magnetic fields that do not require a medium. There are
two forms of waves. (Wave animations)

Transverse: the source and the particles or fields vibrate at

90o to the direction of the wave. Eg. light waves and string
vibrations

Transverse wave on a rope

Longitudinal: the source and the particles in the medium

vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. Eg. sound
waves and seismic P waves

Longitudinal wave on a slinky

The clustered (high pressure) areas show compression and

the scattered (low pressure) areas show rarefaction.
 69

Displacement-Position graph
This is a diagram that shows a snapshot of all the particles
in a wave train at a given instant (it shows how far each point on the
wave is from rest).

Wave direction ☞

Amplitude is the maximum distance from the rest position

(crest height/trough depth).

Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two consecutive

points with the same velocity.

Displacement-Time graph
This is a diagram that shows the path of one point along a
wave train for a certain amount of time.

Wave direction ☞

Displacement-time graph
 70

Period (T ) is the time taken for one wave to pass a point or

the time for one oscillation.
Frequency (f ) is the number of waves that passes a point in
one second (f = 1/T ).
Speed (v) is how fast a wave travels between two points.
x
v = t
v = λ/T ( if x = λ and t = T )

= λf (f = 1/T )

Wave equation: v = f λ (v in ms-1, f in Hz, and λ in m)

Other Wave Properties

Reflection – bouncing of waves off a surface.
Refraction – change in direction of waves at an interface.
Diffraction – spreading of waves on passing an obstacle.
Interference – interaction of waves to produce one with a
different amplitude.

Examples
1. If 10 waves pass a point in 2 s, what is the frequency of the wave
train?
2. What is the period of a wave train with frequency 5 mHz?
3. Calculate the speed of a wave with wavelength 3.5 × 10-5 m and
frequency 4 MHz?
4. A laser beam took 1 minute and 15 seconds to bounce off a mirror.
Given that the speed of light is 3 × 108 m s-1, how far away is the
mirror?
 71

SOUND WAVES

Production and Propagation

Sound waves are longitudinal
waves produced by the
vibration of particles in a
medium. A vacuum has no
particles and so cannot
transmit sound.
Where particles cluster on a sound wave are called
compression and where they spread is called rarefaction.

Properties of Sound
Speed
The speed of sound in air at sea level is about 340 m s-1.
Sound travels more slowly at a lower temperature and
density and a higher altitude. This is because the particles
are less energetic or farther apart and so they vibrate less.

Pitch
Pitch is how high a note is and corresponds
to the frequency of a sound wave. Smaller high pitch sound
things vibrate faster and so produce higher
low pitch sound
notes.
The normal audible range of frequencies for humans is 20 Hz
to 20,000 Hz. Below this range are infrasonic vibrations and
above are ultrasonic vibrations.
 72

Loudness
Loudness is the intensity of a sound based
on the amplitude of the wave. The greater soft sound

the amplitude of a sound wave the louder

the sound would be. loud sound

Quality
Quality refers to the peculiar features of
a note and depends on the smoothness of
the vibration of a sound wave.

Describe the quality of sound expected from the waves on the right.

Reflection – echoes in caves or large empty rooms.

Refraction – bend of sound waves at an interface
(on entering water or up in daylight/down at nights).
Diffraction – spreading of sound around corners.
Interference – variation of sound level between speakers of
sound systems.
 Support 7A.2 How microscopes helped to
8L.3
change
Hearing
our sound
ideas

Activity 8L.3b The ear 73

HEARING
Use page 142 to help you with this.
(see simulation)

1 Label the parts of the ear using words from the list.

microscopes helped
8L.2
to change
Travelling
our sound
ideas

experiments
ou have seen theearflap
three experiments.
cochlea canalMain eardrum
parts of the human ear
ese words. three small bones semi-circular canals nerve to brain

me backwards forwards no
wave Match
frequency thespread
following. Then write them in order in your books.
n cannot 2 Draw lines to match each part of the ear to its function.
earflap
carries the electrical signal to the brain

eardrum movement
burning with of flamemakes small electrical signals
eaker makes a
canal
. pass on the vibrations to the cochlea
es the air
three small bones
to make a collects the sound wave
els through
cochlea
e of the loudspeaker vibrates as the sound wave hits it
e. It makes the
nerve to brain
as the carries the sound to the eardrum

bell jar glass

air
The bell jar
vacuum
shown to an
When the air is taken out of the bell jar, the
When the air
454 space inside is called a ____________.
Spectrum Key Stage 3 Science © Cambridge University Press 2003
8L.3b
ace inside is

Now we cannot _________ the bell ringing.

ell ringing. bell
This is because there are no ____________ to
particles
vibrate inside the jar.

g
slinky spring
, its prongs
lls the end of
and forwards.
 74

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

An electromagnetic wave consists

of electrical and magnetic field
oscillating at right angle to each
other and the direction of
propagation.

There are many types of electromagnetic (EM) waves. They

have different wavelengths and frequencies.
Sunlight that reaches us is mostly infrared, visible (red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) and ultraviolet
light; the other waves are absorbed or reflected by the
atmosphere.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Mnemonic: Rihanna Makes Interesting Videos Using eXciting Graphics

 75

Electromagnetic Waves Details

Type Sources Detectors Typical uses Danger
Radio Electronic Radios, tv, telecommunication, none
waves circuits, radio cell phones, telescope
transmitters, radio
telescopes
Microwaves Microwave WiFi antennae telecommunication, Burning,
ovens, cell cooking cataract
phones
Infrared Stars, remote Black-bulb Security lighting, Burning,
(IR) control device thermometer, thermal imaging, blindness
skin remote control,
physiotherapy
Visible Stars, lamps Eyes, cameras seeing, blindness
light photography, fibre
optics, laser
surgery
Ultraviolet Sun, electric Skin, sun-tan, forensics, sunburn, skin
(UV) sparks, UV fluorescent sterilization, cancer,
lamps tubes makes vitamin D in blindness
skin
X-rays X-ray tube, Photographic Medical, industrial cell damage,
stars film, Geiger and security scan mutation,
counter cancer
Gamma Carbon-14, Photographic Cancer therapy, cell damage,
rays (g) cobalt-60, film, Geiger sterilisation, mutation,
caesium-137 counter, chemical tracers cancer
scintillation
chamber

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

• transverse waves
• oscillating electric and magnetic fields
• travel through vacuum at velocity of 3 × 108 m s-1
• diffract, interfere, reflect and refract
 76

DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the spreading of waves as they pass a barrier

or through a gap. The wavelength has to be less than or
equal to the width of the gap. Light has much shorter
wavelengths than sound and so diffracts less.
The wider the gap (a vs b) or the shorter the wavelength (c
vs d) the less the waves will diffract. This is because wide
gaps and short wavelengths (high frequency waves) lead to
more wave cancellation at wide angles.

wavelength
diffraction ∝
gap

Diffraction of radio wave by hills

Why are sunsets red orange and why do clouds have silver
linings?
 77

INTERFERENCE

Interference is the combination of waves when they meet.

According to the principle of superposition, the amplitude of
the combined waves is the sum of the displacement of the
individual waves. Maximum interference occurs when the
interacting waves are coherent (crests and troughs are in
sync). Minimum interference occurs when the interacting
waves are completely out of sync. After the interaction, the
waves continue with their original amplitudes.

Constructive Interference
Constructive interference the combination of waves in phase
(sync) that results in an increase in the amplitude. The
resultant amplitude is higher as corresponding crests and
troughs add up.

Destructive Interference
Destructive interference is the combination of waves out of
phase (sync) that results in a reduction in the amplitude.
The resultant amplitude is lower as crests and troughs
interact and cancel each other.
 78

Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

A monochromatic (one colour/
wavelength) light passes via
two similar slits. The waves
diffract as they pass through
the slits, and then interfere
to form a series of bright and
dark bands on a screen. (If
light was made of particles only
two bright bands would be seen.)
Closer slits give fewer fringes which are wider and farther
apart.
NB: sw ∝ λD (s = slit separation; w = fringe width; D = distance of screen
from slits; λ = wavelength; Clue: product of verticals ∝ product of horizontals).

NATURE OF LIGHT: WAVES-PARTICLE DUALITY

• Light consists of waves and undergoes reflection,

refraction, diffraction, and interference:
o Huygens: light self-propagates and particles cannot
o Young: light diffracts and interferes
o Foucault: light travels slower in water that air
• Light consists of a stream of particles and undergoes
reflection, refraction and causes the photoelectric effect:
o Newton: particles travelling in a straight line
o Einstein: light eject electrons from the surface of
metals.
• Quantum theory explains light as wave pulses or packets
of energy called photons.
 79

LIGHT RAYS

A beam is a band of light and the path of the light is

represented by a ray. Light travels in a straight line, so the
rays are drawn with straight arrows. Below is evidence of
the straight path.

Holes aligned, so the light is seen. Holes not aligned, so the light is not
seen.

Eclipses
An eclipse is the blocking of light to or from a celestial
object. This means people might not see the whole object.

Lunar Eclipse Solar Eclipse

How to draw eclipse diagrams

1. Draw the Sun and the earth.
2. For a lunar eclipse, draw the moon (hidden in the dark) behind earth.
3. For a solar eclipse, draw the moon in front of earth (obscuring the Sun).

We only see an eclipse when the

three objects align.
 80

REFLECTION

Reflection is the bouncing of a wave off a surface. Some

examples are:
• Tank: ripples hit the walls and bounce off in the
opposite direction.
• Cave or empty hall: sound waves bounce off the walls
and send echoes of your voice into your ears.
• Smooth surface: light bounces back to form an image.

Note that light travelling along the normal (line

perpendicular to the mirror) is reflected along the normal.

Reflection in a plane mirror

Laws of reflection
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all
lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

Types of Reflection
Reflection of light may be regular for smooth surfaces
(mirror, water) or diffused for rough surfaces (tables, walls,
 81

ground). In both cases, you see the surface but in the

second you may not see an image.

Regular: light reflected in one Diffused: light reflected in many

direction and so produces an directions and so produce no
image. image (or a blurred one).

Characteristics of Plane Mirror Image

The image is
• virtual (you can’t touch
it)
• laterally inverted (flipped
sideways)
• same size as object
• same distance from the
mirror

REFRACTION

Refraction is the bending of light when it enters a medium

of different optical density. On entering an optically denser
medium (one with a higher refractive index), a wave slows
down. The wavelength of the light decreases but its
frequency is unchanged (v = f λ). Similarly, water waves
travel slower in shallower areas.
 82

speed of light in vacuum (or air)

The refractive index (n) of a medium =
speed of light in the medium

a) b)

NB: light bends towards the normal (inward - a) on entering a denser medium (air
to water) and away from the normal (outward - b) on entering a less dense
medium (water to air). (Think: IDOL)

sin θi c1 λ1 n2
= = =
sin θr c2 λ2 n1

(ϴi = angle of incidence; ϴr = angle of refraction; c = speed of light; λ =

wavelength; n = refractive index)

Light from the straw bends away from the A coin placed in a cup can’t be
normal as it enters the air. Thus, the seen over the rim until water is
straw seems bent. It also looks shorter as added. Explain.
its end seems to be less deep.
Note: n = B/B’ (B = depth).

Waves move more slowly in the shallow water and so the

wavelength decreases.
v = fλ
 83

The Laws of Refraction

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all
lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction is constant for a pair of
media. This is Snell's law.

sin θ1 n2 n2
Thus, = ( is constant)
sin θ2 n1 n1

Glass Block

sin i ng
= = ng (na = cvac/cair =
sin r na
1)

( ng may be written as ang - the

refractive index of glass relative
to air)
NB: The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray. They are
separated by a perpendicular distance (x) called the lateral
displacement of the incident ray due to the glass block.

Total Internal Reflection

The critical angle (c) is the angle of
incidence in a denser medium that
causes a ray to refract 90o.
Total internal reflection is the
bouncing of a ray off a boundary
back into a denser medium because 1
sin c =
its angle of incidence is greater than n

the critical angle in the medium.

 84

Example
Would there be total internal reflection in the prism below?

XYZ is an isosceles glass prism (ng = 1.6) and so ϴ =

450.
sin i n sin c n
From inside the prism sin r = na , ∴ sin 90° = na
g g

1 1
Sin c = ng
= 1.6
= 0.625 ( sin 90o =1; na = 1 )

c = sin-1 0.625 = 39o.

Since ϴ > 39o, there is total internal reflection.

APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Mirage
Warm air near the ground has low refractive
index. So, the rays from the sun, passing through
the cooler upper atmosphere, undergoes total
internal reflection. The reflection of the sky
resembles a puddle of water.

Periscope
A periscope can be used to see around obstacles. It may be
designed using mirrors or prisms. The prism type makes use
of total internal reflection.
 85

Optical Fibres
These are thin, flexible, transparent strands made of glass
or plastic.

Light inside the fibre does not exit until it reaches the
end. It experiences total internal reflection as air has a
lower refractive index than the fibre. Thus, the fibres are
used to transmit signals without any loss in strength.

Endoscope
An endoscope is a device using light via an
optical fibre and a camera to see inside a
room or organ.

Total internal reflection also occurs in cat’s eye reflectors and diamonds.
 86

DISPERSION

Dispersion is the separation of light into its constituent

colours. It occurs when a beam of white light hits one of the
rectangular faces of a prism. The colours separate because
they have different frequencies and so are refracted at
different angles. (amount of refraction ∝ frequency)

The visible spectrum: red, orange,

yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
(ROY-G-BIV).
Dispersion of light by a prism

If the different colours enter an inverted prism, they will

reunite and produce a beam of white light.

A rainbow is formed because each raindrop behaves like a

prism. Light is refracted, reflected off the inside and
refracted again as it leaves the raindrop.

Single rainbow Double rainbow

 87

LENSES

Lenses are transparent curved glass or plastic blocks that

focus light rays. A converging lens allows parallel rays of
light to come together at a single point on the other side of
the lens. A diverging lens spread parallel rays of light as if
they are radiating from a single point in front of the lens.

Converging (convex) lens Diverging (concave) lens

light bends light bends

towards the away from
normal the normal

Key terms
The optical centre (O) is the centre of the lens via which rays pass
without refracting.
The principal axis is a line through the optical centre at right angle
to the lens surface.
The principal focus or focal point (F) is where rays (seem to) meet on
the principal axis.
The focal length (OF) is the distance between the optical centre and
the principal focus. This is half the radius of curvature of the lens.
The focal plane is a surface at the principal focus perpendicular to
the principal axis (it’s like a projection screen).
 88

Refraction Rules for Lenses

1. Any incident ray via the optical centre will not refract.

2. An incident ray parallel to the principal axis will refract

and (seem to) pass through the focal point.

3. An incident ray via (toward) the focal point will refract

parallel to the principal axis.

4. Only two incident rays are needed to locate an image.

5. Parallel incident rays will focus exactly where a ray via

the optical centre meets the focal plane.
 89

Appearance of image based on position of object

eyeglasses; camera; projector; eyeglasses, peepholes, flashlights,

magnifying glass and headlights

Object-Image Relations for Convex Lens

Position of Position of Nature of image Use
object (u) image (v)
Between F and beyond object upright, virtual, magnifying
lens larger glass
At F at infinity none* spotlight
Between F and beyond 2F inverted, real, projector
2F larger
At 2F at 2F inverted, real, telescope
same size
Beyond 2F between F and inverted, real, camera
2F smaller
*Refracted rays neither converge nor diverge; they remain parallel.

Real Versus Virtual Image

Real Virtual
• formed where rays meet • rays don’t meet; just extended
• formed on a screen • cannot form on a screen
• always inverted (upside down) • always upright (erect)
by eyes, cameras, projectors by concave lenses, magnifying glass,
mirrors
 90

Magnification and the Lens Equation

image height (h i ) image distance (v)

Magnification = =
object height (ho ) object distance (u)

1 1 1
Lens equation: = + (f = focal length)
f v u
 91

THE PINHOLE CAMERA

Characteristics of the image

Real, inverted (flipped vertically and horizontally), diminished

THE HUMAN EYE

The pupil - is the hole in the centre of the iris where light
enters the eye.
The lens - transparent crystalline (biconvex) ball behind the
pupil that focuses light.
The retina – is a light sensitive layer onto which an image is
focused. The image is inverted and diminished.
 92

Eye Defects
Nearsightedness (myopia) is a condition where nearby objects
are seen well, but the eyes focus light from distant objects
in front of the retina. It is caused by weak ciliary muscles,
thick lenses, bulging cornea, or long eyeballs. It may be
corrected with concave (diverging) lenses.
(Clue: Problem – image near to lens; treatment - lens with sides near to its
centre.)

Correcting nearsightedness

Farsightedness (hyperopia) is a condition where objects far

away are seen well but the eyes focus light from nearby
objects behind the retina. This is caused by thin lenses,
flattened cornea, or short eyeballs. It may be corrected
with convex lenses (converging).
(Clue: Problem – image far from lens; treatment - lens with sides far from its
centre.)

Correcting farsightedness
 93

SECTION D: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the study of stationary electric charge
distribution. The charges include protons, electrons and ions.
An atom is electrically neutral because the number of
negative particles (electrons) and positive particles (protons)
are equal.

Structure of an atom

Subatomic Particles
Property Proton Neutron Electron
Relative mass 1 1 0
Relative charge 1+ 0 1-
Relative location nucleus nucleus orbit around nucleus

Charge Imbalance
When atoms interact, the number of electrons may change
because they are on the outer part of the atoms. When an
atom gains an electron, it forms a negative ion (an anion)
because it would have an extra negative charge. When an
atom loses an electron, it forms a positive ion (a cation)
because it would have an extra positive charge.
 94

Charging by Friction
When two objects of different materials come in contact,
friction causes one object to gain electrons from the other.
Thus, each object becomes oppositely charged.

Object (charge) Rubbed with (charge)

Polythene rod, rubber balloon (-ve) Felt, wool, cloth (+ve)
Glass, acetate, Perspex (+ve) Cloth (-ve)

Charging by Induction
A neutral rod placed close to a negative one would be
attracted to it. This is because electrons in the neutral rod
are repelled towards its far side by the negative rod. The
charges would reunite after removing the negative rod.

While the two rods are close, if the neutral one is grounded
(connected to the earth by a conductor) some of its
electrons would flow to the earth. Thus, the neutral rod
would gain a permanent positive charge. It is said to be
charged by induction.
 95

The Unit of Charge

Q = quantity of electric charge
C = Coulombs (the SI unit of electric charge)
The charge on an electron is -1.6 × 10-19 C and the charge on a
proton is +1.6 × 10-19 C.

Can you tell how many electrons would make up a charge of 1 C?

Gold Leaf Electroscope

An electroscope is used to detect or
measure electric charge. It consists
of a metal disc on top of a narrow
metal stem with a hinged gold leaf.

A negative rod near the disc would repel electrons down

the stem and into the leaf. So, the leaf would rise due to
repulsion by the negatively charged stem. As the negative
rod is pulled away the leaf would fall.

As a negative rod gets close to a

positively charged electroscope the leaf
falls. This is because electrons are
pushed down the stem and leaf.
So, the strength of the positive charge is reduced and the
leaf is repelled less.

Write down a way to charge an electroscope? Merit!

 96

ELECTRIC FIELDS

An electric field is a region around a charged particle in

which it can exert a force on another charge. The field is a
vector whose strength increases with the size of the charge
and decreases with distance. Also, its direction is given by
the force on a positive charge at that point.

Fields of isolated positive and negative charges

Interactions of Charges
Like charges repel

Two positive charges Two negative charges

Unlike charges attract

Opposite charges Oppositely charged parallel plates

 97

Applications of Electrostatics
Electrostatic spraying
An electrostatic spray gun applies a
positive charge to the paint. The tiny
drops repel each other giving a fine, even
spread.
They are attracted to the surface of the car, including the
shadow areas, to form an even layer. The car may be
earthed to improve the process. Similarly, pesticides and
fertilisers may be applied to crops by charging the spray
and releasing it on the neutral plants.

Electrostatic precipitator
Exhaust gas is ionised as it passes through a
charged wire mesh inside a factory chimney.
Thus, the dust particles in the gas are
charged by friction and are later attracted
to earthed metal plates near the top of the
chimney. The plates are shaken periodically
so that the trapped dust falls to the bottom.

Photocopying
A shadow of the pattern to be copied is
cast onto a positively charged drum while
the lit areas are neutralised. The negatively
charged ink is sprayed onto the remaining
pattern. The drum then rolls onto a blank
paper to reproduce the desired pattern
(text or diagram).
 98

Safety
Lightning strikes
A lightning conductor is made of metal spikes
above the roof connected to a thick copper
conductor along the outer wall and an
earthed metal plate.

Negatively charged clouds induce a positive

charge on the spikes, which pull electrons
from the air and repel cations upwards. This
reduces the charge on the clouds and
attenuates the discharge (strike).

Refuelling
The chassis of vehicle can be charged as air passes over it.
So its tyres may be made of conducting rubber to earth the
chassis and avoid an explosion due to sparks at the fuel
pump. An anti-static agent may also be added to the coating
of the chassis to make it more conductive and reduce the
buildup of charges.

Powder explosion
Any finely divided combustible materials scattered in the air
may become ionised. Therefore, the three things needed for
a fire would exist – heat, oxygen and fuel.
 99

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

An electric current is the rate of flow of charges. Electric

charges include electrons in solid conductors, ions in
electrolytes and plasma, and holes (positive charges) in
semiconductors. While the actual electric current is the flow
of electrons, conventional current (I ) is the flow of positive
charges.
Current (I ) is measured by an ammeter in SI unit called
ampere (amp or A). An ammeter is connected in series (in
line) with the other components. It has very low resistance
so it has negligible impact on the current.
The ampere is the flow of 1 coulomb of charge per second.
I = Q/t [I = current (A), t = time (s), Q = charge (C)]
∴ Q = It

Conductors and Insulators

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

charges flow readily charges flow restricted (no)
conditionally charge flow
metals, electrolytes, metalloids - silicon, non-metals except
graphite germanium graphite

Metals are good conductors because, unlike insulators, they

have a band of mobile electrons in their structures. Bonding
restricts the motion of some electrons in other materials and
make them poor conductors or insulators.
 100

Types of Electric Current

Direct current (DC) flows in one direction from the positive
to the negative terminal. Alternating current (AC) changes
direction 100 or 120 times per second (a frequency of 50 Hz
or 60 Hz). The national grid, outlets and sockets deliver AC
but most modern appliances are made to use DC. So many
appliances have a rectifier that converts the AC to DC.

Circuit Components

Typical connection of components

The components are connected in one or more loops. The

switch is turned on only after the components are connected
in the correct orientation and the junctions tightened.

?
How many components can you identify?
-.
 101

Common Circuit Symbols

LIST OF GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS AS USED IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

DESCRIPTION GRAPHICAL SYMBOL(S) DESCRIPTION GRAPHICAL SYMBOL(S)

EARTH G
GALVANOMETER OR

CELL SEMI-CONDUCTOR
DIODE

BATTERY OF ELECTROLYTIC CELL

CELLS OR VOLTAMETER

+
D. C. SUPPLY FUSE OR

A. C. SUPPLY FIXED RESISTOR OR

SWITCH VARIABLE RESISTOR OR

JUNCTION OF ELECTRIC MOTOR

CONDUCTORS

ONE WIRE
CROSSING LOUDSPEAKER
ANOTHER
NO OR
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION

FILAMENT TRANSFORMER
LAMP OR OR
BULB

VOLTMETER V GENERATOR GEN

AMMETER A

CXC 22/G/SYLL 13 76
 102

ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Electrical Energy
Electrical energy (E ) can be generated from gravitational
potential energy (hydropower), chemical energy (cells/
batteries), kinetic energy (moving water or wind), light
(photovoltaic cells).

The electrical energy transferred or work done per unit

charge passing through a section of the circuit is called
voltage. It is measured by a voltmeter in volts (V). A
voltmeter is connected across (in parallel with) the other
components. It has a high resistance so it does not divert
the current from the components.

V = E/Q (V = voltage; E = electrical energy; Q = charge)

∴ E = VQ (Q = It)
= VIt

Electromotive force (EMF) is the voltage of a cell or battery

in an open circuit but potential difference (PD) is the voltage
drop across a component in a closed circuit. Energy can be
measured in joules using a joulemeter but electric meters
use the unit kilowatt-hour (kWh). One kilowatt-hour is equal
to 3.6 × 106 J.
 103

Electrical Power
Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is
transformed by a device. It has the unit watt (W).

Power P = IV (V = voltage; I = current)

= I.IR (V = IR)
= I 2R
Also, P = V.V/R (I = V/R)
= V 2/R

Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is restriction of an electric current
through a material. It is caused by friction as the electrons
move. The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). Factors that
affect the resistance of a conductor: (marathon analogy)
• Length - longer wires have more resistance. (friction on track)
• Thickness - thicker wires have less resistance. (width of a lane)
• Material - different structures have varying effects on
the flow of charges. (beach versus track)
• Temperature - resistance increases with temperature due
to increased collisions. (people running bare feet on a hot trampoline)

Ohm’s law states that the current in a metallic conductor is

directly proportional to the voltage drop, if the temperature
and other conditions are constant.

I∝V [I = current (A); V = voltage (V)]

∴ I = V/R
V = IR
 104

A Variable Resistor

symbol

A variable resistor or rheostat is used to control current and

may be placed in dimmer circuits. Only terminals A and C
along with the slider are used. Connecting terminal B turns
the rheostat into a potentiometer, which controls voltage.

Testing Ohm’s Law

A potentiometer may be used to vary the voltage (V) across
a load and the resulting current (I) can be monitored. An I-V
graph that is a straight line through the origin implies that
the loads obeys Ohm’s law and is an ohmic conductors. The
gradient is 1 ÷ resistance (1/R) of the load.

Metals and electrolytes Filament lamp Semiconductor diode

Metals and electrolytes are ohmic conductors. High current

in a lamp leads to more heat loss (I 2Rt ), which warms the
 105

filament and increases its resistance. So, the graph gets less
steep. In a diode, current in one direction, and above a
certain threshold, increases sharply. In the other direction,
or below the threshold voltage, there is negligible current.

CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS

Series Circuits
All resistors are connected end to end in one loop.

V: water enters each straw

with different energy.
R: thinnest straw restricts the
overall flow.
I: the net flow rate is the same
via all straws.

• Each bulb works only if all others are working.

• The current through each resistor is the same value
from the power supply: I = I1 = I2 = I3
• The sum of the voltage drop across each resistor equals
the voltage supplied. The total voltage Vt = V1 + V2 + V3
• Adding more resistors in series increases the total
resistance (Rt).

Vt = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

= I(R1 + R2 + R3)
but Vt = IRt
IRt = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
∴ Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 (÷ I )
 106

Parallel Circuits
All resistors are connected side by side in another loop.

V: the same energy reaches

each straw.
R: the thickest straw allows
fastest flow.
I: water flows at different
rates via each straw.

• Each bulb works independently.

• The voltage across each loop equals the supply voltage:
V = V1 = V2 = V3
• The sum of the current in each loop equals the total
current supplied. Also, the total current entering a
junction equals the total current leaving the junction.
The total current It = I1 + I2 + I3.
• Adding more resistors in parallel reduces the total
resistance (Rt).

It = I1 + I2 + I3
= V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
= V ( 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
but It = V/Rt
V/Rt = V (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
1 1 1 1
∴ = + + (÷ V)
Rt R1 R2 R3

Which connection series or parallel would drain the bottle first?

 107

Circuit Analysis

Identify the type of connection in these circuits?

What is the current circuit above?

What is the total resistance in the circuit below?

Calculate the voltage of the battery in the circuit below if the ammeter shows 2 A.

(4.201)
 108

ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME

Domestic Wiring
Home appliances are connected in parallel so that they can
operate independently. They will also get the same voltage
from the mains instead of an unpredictable voltage due to a
series connection.

Safety
A fuse has a short thin wire, which melts
and breaks the circuit when there is too
much current. The fuse selected should be
rated
just above the current needed. So, appliances would be
saved from a power surge.

Similarly, a circuit breaker

has a coil, which becomes an
electromagnet that opens the
circuit when there is excess
current. Then the switch can
be manually reset.

Three-Pin Plug
Small appliances have double insulation
to avert shocks when loose live wires
touch their cases. Large appliances with
metal casings have 3-pin plugs and use
earth/ ground wire.
 109

The earth wire grounds the metal casing so electricity from

loose wires is diverted from users. Also, the fuse protects
the appliance against any power surge via the live wire.

Fluctuating Voltage
Low voltage damage motors as they struggle to draw enough
current. High voltages can burn the circuit components of
devices and melt fuses. Many appliances today are built with
voltage regulators to offset these problems.

Mains Electricity
This is the alternating current (AC) from the national grid.
Many devices operate at 110 V but heavy-duty ones
(washing machines, air conditioning units) may need 220 V.
Devices will not work well with the wrong voltage; for
example, clocks may slow down or speed up.

Conserving Electrical Energy

It is important to conserve electrical energy because fossil
fuels are limited and their combustion contributes to global
warming.
• Use fluorescent and LED lights instead of incandescent ones
• Use solar or geothermal water heaters instead of electrical
ones
• Use more efficient refrigerators
• Open windows and use fans instead of air condition units
• Can you add others?

Rectification
Generation and transmission of electricity is more efficient in
the form of AC but many modern devices require a constant
 110

DC. For example, electronic switches would go on and off if

the voltage varies too much. Therefore, many devices have
circuits with rectifiers, which convert AC to DC.

Half-wave rectification
A single semiconductor diode can produce half-wave
rectification. Only half of the AC wave is removed as the
current can only flow one way through a diode. An
oscilloscope can be used to view the variation in voltage with
time.

Input 2 Hz AC voltage Output varying DC

rectifier circuit
voltage
 111

ALTERNATE SOURCE OF ELECTRICITY

The primary cell (dry cell)

This (1 V) cell has a central carbon
cathode and a zinc anode (case). The
zinc reacts with the electrolyte paste
(manganese dioxide and ammonium
chloride/potassium hydroxide to
generate a current (up to 1 A). Simple primary cell

Hydrogen builds up around the cathode and raises the

internal resistance (0.5 Ω), and makes the cell hot while in
use. The MnO2 reduces the gas build-up (polarization).

The secondary cell – lead accumulator (car battery)

This is a combination of 6
lead-acid cells. Each (2 V) cell
has a lead anode and lead
oxide cathode immersed in a
liquid electrolyte (diluted
sulphuric acid). The electrodes
react with the electrolyte to Lead-acid battery (with three cells)

generate a current (∽400 A).

The electrolyte evaporates over time and must be topped
up with distilled water. Also, the voltage of the battery
falls due to its internal resistance (0.01 Ω).

Recharging a car battery

A battery is continuously charged by the alternator in the
car. If it is discharged completely, recharging is done using a
power supply with a higher EMF as shown below.
 112

The discharged battery is connected in

parallel with its charger. So, like
terminals are connected (positive to
positive and negative to negative).

Primary versus secondary cells

Primary Cell Secondary Cell
• Low terminal voltage and current • Higher terminal voltage and current
• Electrolyte paste (semi-solid) • Liquid electrolyte (H2SO4)
• High internal resistance • Lower internal resistance (no gas
• Not rechargeable due to build-up)
irreversible reaction • Rechargeable
• Portable • Less portable
• Usually no toxic heavy metal • Toxic heavy metal (lead)
 113

ELECTRONICS

Logic gates
These are switching circuits used in electronic systems. Their
output signals (high = 5 V, low 0 V) depend on the voltage at
each input. The input voltage depends on the signals from
sensors such as temperature, pressure, light and position
sensors. The behaviour of each gate is described by a truth
table, which shows the output for all possible inputs. A ‘1’
indicates true/high/on while ‘0’ indicates false/low/off.

Symbol Description Truth Table

A B Output
0 0 0
Output is 1 only if each input, A and
0 1 0
B, is 1. (Both/all 1)
AND gate 1 0 0
1 1 1
A B Output
0 0 0
Output is 1 if any input, A or B, is 1.
0 1 1
(Either is 1)
1 0 1
OR gate
1 1 1
A Output
Called an inverter as it flips the
0 1
NOT gate input. (Switch)
1 0
A B Output
0 0 1
NOT-AND: Output is 1 unless each
0 1 1
input, A and B, is 1. (Not all 1)
NAND gate 1 0 1
1 1 0
A B Output
0 0 1
NOT-OR: Output is 1 only if neither
0 1 0
input A nor B is 1. (Neither is 1)
NOR gate 1 0 0
1 1 0

Note: Except for the NOT gate, all the others can have two or more inputs. The
small circle at the output end of the last three symbols implies inversion.
 114

Logic Systems (Illustrate each)

Simple alarm
Security for a museum piece. The item sits on a push switch
that sends a 1 to a NOT gate. If it is lifted a 0 is sent to
the NOT gate, which gives an output of 1 and sounds the
alarm.
Safeguard (dual or two-factor authentication)
Allows two distinct conditions to control a mechanism. When
the correct key and fingerprint are used, a 1 reaches each
input of an AND gate, so a vault opens or device turns on.
Automatic lighting
Security lights can be turned on manually or automatically
when it is dark. The signals from a switch and a light sensor
(LDR) are sent to an OR gate. If either input is 1, the gate
gives an output of 1 and the lights turn on.

Electronics and Society

Electronics is important as it has social, economic and
environmental impacts due to
• Mass production of microchips making them cheaper and
smaller for more portable systems - more sales and social
networking; automation (robotisation) of work force, fewer jobs.
• Using solid state technology to improve the reliability,
durability, and efficiency – more sales; increase life
expectancy, leisure time, connection speed and data storage;
longer shelf-life, less pollution, lower energy demand

Examples
1) Design and draw block diagrams for logic control systems to indicate how the
following jobs could be done.
 0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Next we fill in the C column given that we know what a NOR gate does.
115
A B C Output
0 0 1
a) 0 A 1smoke
0 detector triggers a sprinkler system.
1 0 0
b) 1 Accessing
1 0 an app on a tablet.
c) since
Next, we can fill in the output, Allowit willaalways
doorbell to work
be the opposite only during
of C (because of the day.
d) Give a warning when the temperature of a domestic hot water system is
he NOT gate).
A B C Output
too high or
0 0 1 0
when a switch is pressed to test the alarm.
d)e)The
0 Switch
1 0 on1 a bathroom heater when it is cold and light.
1 0future 0 1
f) 1 Sound
1 0 an 1alarm when it is cold or a switch is pressed.
The only certain prediction about the future is that new technologies will be developed and
g) like
Finally we see that this these, Give
combination warning
of gates
present does if
thewill
ones, the
same temperature
job as
continue an OR of a room
gate. a considerable
to have falls during
influence the day and also
on our lives.
Today allow a test switch
the development to check
of ‘intelligent’ the alarm
computers works.
is being pursued with great vigour, and
voice recognition techniques are already in use. Optical systems, which are more efficient than
h) Give
electronic ones,warning
are beingof frosty conditions
increasingly developed for atdata
night to a gardener
transmission, who
storage and is sometimes
processing
ogic gate is manufactured from very tired after a hard day and may want to switch off the alarm.
of information.
two or more transistors. Other circuits can be made
ogic gates, as we shall see in the next section. We shall show you how to count and
umbers using logic gates. This means that if you have enough transistors, and you
t them correctly to make the right logic gates, you can make circuits which count and
umbers. Questions
2) The combined truth tables for four logic gates A, B, C, D are given below.
tice, the cheapest gate1toThe combined truth the
tables
showed that NAND gatesof
State
manufacture
what kind
is usually
offor
NAND fourAdditionally,
gate
gate. logic gatesCharles
each one A,(AB,to
C, D are given
D) is. below. State what kind
gate(aseach
alone one
well as NORis. gates alone) can be used to reproduce
other logic gates.

Exercise: The Principles of Digital Electronics

1. Why is digital electronics important to modern technology and information
processing?
2. What two symbols are used in digital electronics, to represent a “high” and a
“low”? What is this system known as?
3. What is a logic gate?
4. What are the five main types of logic gates? Draw the symbol for each logic
gate. 2 What do the symbols A to E represent in Figure 42.12?
5. Write out the truth tables for each of the five logic gates.
3)table
6. Write out the truth Write
for thethe outputs
following for: single gate is this
circuit.29.6
Which CHAPTER 29. ELECTRONICS - GRADE 12
circuit equivalent to?

a) b)
7. Write out the truth table for the following circuit. Which single gate is this
circuit equivalent to?
615
3 Design and draw the block diagrams for logic control systems to:
a wake you at the crack of dawn and which you can also switch off,
b protect the contents of a drawer which you can still open without setting off the alarm.
29.6 Using and Storing Binary Numbers

In the previous section, we saw how the numbers 0 and 1 could represent ‘false’ and ‘true’ and
could be used in decision making. Often we want to program a computer to count with
numbers. To do this we need a way of writing any number using nothing other than 0 and 1.
When written in this way, numbers are called binary numbers.

c) d)
Definition: Binary 607
A way of writing any number using only the digits 0 and 1.

29.6.1 Binary numbers

In normal (denary) numbers, we write 9+1 as 10. The fact that the ‘1’ in 10 is the second digit
from the right tells us that it actually means 10 and not 1. Similarly, the ‘3’ in 365 represents
300 because it is the third digit from the right. You could write 365 as 3 × 100 + 6 × 10 + 5.
You will notice the pattern that the nth digit from the right represents 10n−1 . In binary, we
 116

MAGNETISM

Magnets
Some magnets occur naturally (lodestone – formed when
ferromagnetic materials harden in the Earth’s magnetic field);
others can be made from ferromagnetic metals (iron, nickel,
cobalt and their alloys). The ends of a magnet are its North-
and South-seeking poles. Also, since a magnet has two poles,
it is called a magnetic dipole.

The Earth acts like a giant bar

magnet with its south pole at its
geographic north pole.

Earth’s magnetic field blocks radiation

(Find out about the auroras.)

Finding North
If a magnet swings freely, its north-seeking pole will point
towards the Earth’s North pole.
 117

Source of Magnetism
Magnetism (or electromagnetic force) is due to moving
electric charges (nuclei and electrons). The motion of the
charges causes many atomic dipoles inside a metal to align
and form areas with uniform magnetic fields called domains.

In an unmagnetised bar the domains are

unaligned and their fields cancel. A strong
external magnetic field causes the
domains to align so that their fields
intensify and the bar becomes a magnet.

Alternating current, hammering and high temperatures

destroy magnets by scrambling the domains.

Magnetic field
A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where its
force extends, and it increases with the strength of the
magnet. The field lines are concentrated at the poles, where
the strength is highest. The number of field lines through an
area is called magnetic flux.
Describe the direction of the field inside and outside a magnet. Do field lines
ever cross?

Field of isolated bar magnet

 118

Types of magnets
Permanent magnets retain their magnetism once they are
made because their domains remain aligned. They are made
from a hard magnetic material like steel or magnadur. Hard
magnetic materials do not gain or lose magnetism easily.
Temporary magnets lose their magnetism once they are
removed from an external magnetic field because their
domains become unaligned. They are made from a soft
magnetic material like iron or mumetal. Soft magnetic
materials are easily magnetised and demagnetised.

Rules of Magnetic interactions

• Only attraction can exist between a magnetic material
and a magnet.
• For two magnets, like poles attract and unlike poles
repel. So only magnets can repel.
• Magnetic force is strongest near a magnet, especially
its poles.

Visualising magnetic fields

Anti-parallel magnets Parallel magnets

Pole to pole magnets attracting Pole to pole magnets repelling

 119

Pattern shown with iron filings or plotting Field around an isolated bar
compass magnet

Field around repelling bar magnet Field around attracting bar magnet

Antiparallel magnets Parallel magnets

 120

Making a Magnet
A magnet can be made by using a) stroking and b) a direct
current in a cylindrical coil of wire (solenoid).

Stroking
This involves repeatedly swiping one pole of a permanent
magnet along a steel bar, from end to end, in the same
direction. The permanent magnet is raised high above the
steel bar between swipes

The steel bar is magnetised so that the pole at the end of

the swipe is opposite to the stroking pole. This is due to
attraction between the domains at lift-off.

Using a Direct Current

An electric current in a straight conductor produces a
magnetic field around it. The right-hand grip rule gives the
direction of the magnetic field.

Direction of field around a single

Magnetic field around wire Single loop loop

(⊙ = current out; ⊗ = current in)

 121

Using a solenoid increases the

magnetism. A molten ferromagnetic
metal inside the solenoid would form a
permanent magnet.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

An electromagnet is a current carrying solenoid wrapped

around a soft iron core. The field lines inside a solenoid are
closer together so the field inside is stronger than outside.
Unlike a permanent magnet, an electromagnet can be turned
on and off.

bar magnet
electromagnet overlapping field of each
loop

The coils in a solenoid have circular field lines which overlap

to form the pattern shown. (Think: conveyor or caterpillar/tank wheel.)

Right-hand grip rule: thumb

Inspection: current goes clockwise at points north if other fingers
the south pole follow the current
 122

Strength of an electromagnet

A simple electromagnet No core: weak field Iron core: strong field

An electromagnet can be made stronger by increasing the

• voltage (more cells or stronger battery)
• number of turns (use more turns/windings)
• current through the circuit (use a thicker wire or a
better conductor)

Uses of electromagnets
Electromagnets are used to make electric bells, magnetic
relays, starter motors, loudspeakers, circuit breakers and
cranes.
Electric bell
Closing the switch turns on the
electromagnet. It attracts the
armature and causes the
hammer to hit the gong. Thus,
the bell rings.

At the same time, the contacts separate and turn off the
electromagnet. So, the armature springs back and closes
the contacts. Then, the cycle repeats.
 123

Magnetic relay
A magnetic relay is a switch
controlled by an
electromagnet. Closing the
switch turns on the
electromagnet, which attracts
the armature. The armature
tilts and closes the contacts. Simple relay switch
This turns on the target
circuit.
A relay allows a low voltage circuit to operate many
circuits or one with a high voltage. It is used in elevators,
starter motor, and telephone exchange.

Starter motor
A starter motor requires a
large current and so a
magnetic relay is used. The
leads for the ignition
circuit are thinner than
those in the motor circuit.
Also, the relay and the motor are in parallel and like the
battery are grounded via the car chassis.
 124

THE MOTOR EFFECT

(Force on a current-carrying conductor)

If a current-carrying wire is set perpendicular to a magnetic

field it will be thrusted perpendicularly to both the current
and the field. This is due to the interaction of the magnetic
fields of the magnet and the current in the wire. Fleming’s
Left-Hand Rule shows the force on the wire. (Thumb = Thrust;
First finger = Field; seCond finger = Current)

Fleming’s left-hand rule live wire in magnetic field

The two fields add: antiparallel field to the right of the wire cancel
while parallel field to the left of it intensify; thus, the wire moves to
the right. Applications: electric motors, loudspeakers, electric meters,
and galvanometers.

Direct Current Motor

A simple DC motor converts
electrical energy into kinetic
energy. It has a rectangular coil
between two opposite magnetic
poles. A current through the coil
generates a magnetic field around
the wire.
 125

The two fields interact causing opposite torques (a couple)

on the sides of the coil near the poles. This turns the coil
clockwise until it is vertical. Then its momentum causes it
to continue and the split-ring commutator reverses the
current. Thus, each side keeps moving the same way.
Improvements: use (a) radial magnetic field; (b) more
turns/coils; (c) laminated iron core.

Loudspeakers
In a loudspeaker, a voice
coil is wrapped around a
paper tube attached to the
base of a paper cone. The
tube is fitted over the
cylindrical centre pole.

As the voltage to the coil changes, it is forced in a

different direction. So the cone vibrates and produces
sound waves in the air in front of the speaker.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faraday’s 1st law

If a conductor cuts across
magnetic field lines, its
electrons will experience an
electromotive force (EMF = energy
per charge; it’s not a force).
Also, if the conductor forms a closed circuit a current will
be induced in a direction given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
 126

Faraday’s 2nd law

The induced EMF is proportional to the
rate of change of the flux linkages
(number of turns, current and field
strength).
Lenz’s law
The direction of the induced EMF is
opposite to the change causing it.
Switching poles would reverse the current and no movement
induces no EMF (the field lines must be crossed).

Alternating Current Generators

An electricity generator converts kinetic energy into
electrical energy. The kinetic energy comes from turbines
spun by hand, wind, water or steam. The EMF produced is
proportional to the rotor speed, the magnetic field strength
and the number of turns on the coil.
In a simple AC generator, each side of the coil changes
direction every half turn and so does the current. The slip
rings carry the current via the stationary brushes to the
external circuit. The direction of the current is given by
Fleming’s right-hand rule.

A simple AC generator AC generated seen on oscilloscope

 127

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is used to increase (step up) or decrease (step

down) a voltage. It consists of two separate coils of wires
(the primary coil and the secondary coil) wound on an iron
core. When an alternating current enters the primary coil, it
induces a current in the secondary coil.

Diagram of a step-up transformer Diagram of a step-down transformer

Transformer formula
voltage of primary coil (Vp ) turns in primary coil (Np )
=
voltage of secondary coil (Vs ) turns in secondary coil (Ns )

Vp Np
=
Vs Ns

The transformer obeys the law of conservation of energy. So

all the energy, and therefore power, from the primary coil
passes to the secondary coil.

For an ideal transformer Pout = Pin.

Since P = IV, and P is constant; then I is inversely
proportional to V. Therefore,
Vp Is N p
= =
Vs Ip N s
 128

Efficiency of a transformer
• In reality power is always lost because the changing
magnetic field induces small eddy currents, which heats
up the core and cause energy loss. Eddy currents can
be reduced by using a laminated core (layers of
insulated iron sheets).
• The coils are made of thick wires to lower the
resistance and further reduce heat loss.
• The core is designed so all the magnetic flux is linked
with the secondary coil.

Power Transmission
Efficiency is increased by transmitting electricity as AC
instead of DC. AC results in less power loss (P = I2R) and is
therefore more efficient. Power loss is also achieved with
lower current, which is achieved by stepping up the voltage
(V ∝ 1/I ).

Lowering the resistance could also increase efficiency but

cooling the cables, using thicker or more conductive ones is
costly. Also, thick wires are heavy, difficult to install and
sag in hot weather.
 129

SECTION E: PHYSICS OF THE ATOM

Models of the Atom

Thompson claimed that metals emit

negative particles when exposed to
very high voltages. Since atoms are
neutral, he thought that the
electrons were scattered in a
sphere of positive charge (like prunes
in pudding). Thompson’s model

Geiger and Marsden fired alpha

particles at a gold foil and noticed
that most of them passed through,
a few swerved and even fewer
bounced back. So, Rutherford
thought that the atom was mostly
vacuum with a tiny positive nucleus
orbited by very tiny electrons. Rutherford’s model

Based on emission spectra, Bohr

argued that electrons orbit the
nucleus at specific distances
(energy levels or shells) like planets
around the sun. Later Chadwick
discovered the neutron, which are
also in the nucleus. Bohr’s model
 130

Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest particle of matter with the identity
of an element.

or simply

Simple version

The maximum shell capacity is 2n2. Shell 1 can hold up to 2

electrons; Shell 2: up to 8; and Shell 3: up to 18 (but only
up to 8 for the first 20 elements).

Draw the structures of 4 atoms from different groups of the first 20 elements.
1. Write down the number of each particle in the nucleus.
2. Draw shell 1 and fill it then draw the next shell(s) and fill it (them) with the
remaining electrons.

Relative Properties of Subatomic Particles

Property Proton Neutron Electron
Relative mass (amu*) 1 1 0.00054
[actual (kg)] (1.673 × 10-27) (1.675 × 10-27) (9.109 × 10-31)

Relative charge 1+ 1-
(+1.6 × 10 )
0 (-1.6 × 10-19)
[actual (C)]
-19

Relative position nucleus nucleus orbit

*amu = atomic mass unit

Atoms are neutral as the number of protons equal the

number of electrons.
 131

The particles are held in the nucleus by the strong nuclear

force while the electrons are held in orbit by electrostatic
attraction to the nucleus.

The Periodic Table

Moseley rearranged the elements in the periodic table in
order of increasing atomic (proton) number. So, the elements
fall into horizontal rows called periods (1 to 7) and vertical
columns called groups (I to VIII).

The period indicates the number of shells in the atom and

the group indicates the number of outer electrons. For
example, Cl has 3 shells with 7 outer electrons. This means
the atom looks like

Can you analyse 3 other elements?

 132

ISOTOPES

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different

numbers of neutrons. So, the isotopes have identical chemical
properties (reactions) but may have different physical
properties (eg. mass, density).

Identify these isotopes

12 13 14
6C 6C 6C

6 protons 6 protons 6 protons

6 electrons 6 electrons 6 electrons
6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons

Nuclear Stability
A nucleus is unstable if there are many more neutrons than
protons. To become stable, an isotope with such a nucleus
would spontaneously emit radiation - radioactive decay (or
radioactivity). This type of isotope is called a radioisotope.

Type Alpha (𝝰) Beta (𝝱) Gamma (𝛄)

4 0
Notation 2He -1e none
Nature helium nucleus high speed electrons electromagnetic wave
Speed slow (0.1c*) fast (0.9c) rapid (c)
Ionising ability high medium low
Shield 5 cm of air, thin wide air space, 3 mm thick concrete, 3 cm
sheet of paper thick aluminium foil thick lead
*c = speed of light in vacuum = 3.0 × 108 m s-1
 133

Properties and Uses of Radioisotopes

Property Application
react like the stable isotopes can replace stable isotope
emit particles can be monitored
emit toxic radiation can kill living cells
have constant decay rates used for measuring time
release heat used as a power source

Typical uses
Area Isotope (radiation) Use
Uranium-235 (𝝰) nuclear energy
Industry Americium-241 (𝝰) smoke alarm, detecting leaks
Sodium-22 (𝝱) measuring thickness
Iodine-131 (𝝱, 𝛄) thyroid disorder
Medicine Cobalt-60 (𝛄) radiotherapy, sterilisation
Plutonium-238 (𝝰) pacemaker & spacecraft battery
Phosphorus-32 (𝝱) tracing minerals
Research Carbon-14 (𝝱, 𝛄) radioactive dating
Uranium-238 (𝝰) radioactive dating

SOURCES OF RADIATION

Radiation comes from all around us: the ground, space,

people, food, hospitals, nuclear power stations and weapons.
This makes up background radiation.
Radiation consists of charged particles or produces them and
so may be detected by gold-leaf electroscope, photographic
film, Geiger-Müller counter and diffusion cloud chamber.
 134

Identifying the Radiation

Firstly, use a GM counter to check the background radiation.
Then proceed as follow (best in a vacuum).

Absorption test: Wrap the source with paper, aluminium foil

or lead and then use the GM counter to check if it is alpha,
beta, or gamma radiation, respectively.

Electric field test: Place the source in an electric field and

move the GM counter until radiation is detected. Note that
unlike charges attract.

Magnetic field test: Place the source in a magnetic field and

move the GM counter until radiation is detected. Fleming's
left-hand rule gives the direction of α particles.
 135

Diffusion cloud chamber test: Place the source in the cloud

chamber. Vapour will condense on the ions created in the
path of the radiation to form specific patterns.

Alpha tracks Beta tracks Gamma tracks

Thick, straight tracks Thin and twisted due to Short, thin tracks may
due to high ionisation limited ionisation and appear due to rare
of air particles and frequent deflection by ionisation of air
few deflections of 𝝰 - air particles particles
particles

Radiation Risks
The probability of radiation harming us depends on
• its type (𝝰, β or 𝛄)
• its location (outside or inside the body)
• its concentration (or exposure)

Type of Radiation
Location
𝝰 β 𝛄
Inside body Radiates outwards affecting many cells Affects
Outside body Affects surface cells Damages skin cells in its
path
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Dangers of Radiation
Radiation causes ionisation. This is because it knocks
electrons off atoms, so they become charged particles called
ions. Ionisation increases from gamma to beta to alpha.
Radiation may cause burns, diarrhoea, cancer, vomiting,
mutation, birth defects, infertility and even death.

HALF-LIFE

An unstable isotope disintegrates or decays at a constant

rate called its activity. The decay process is random or
unpredictable. The time for the amount of a sample or its
activity to be halved is called its half-life. A graph of
activity against time is called a decay curve.

To determine the 1st half-life:

1) draw a line from 50% of the
original activity to the curve.
2) then draw another line down
to the time axis.

The half-life is the interval OA.

Likewise, the next half-life is
AB, then BC and CD.
The best estimate for the half-life of a sample is the
average of the four half-lives shown.

Half-Life Calculations
The fraction (R) of material left after decay is the ratio of
the amount (At) after time (t) to the original amount (A0).
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At
R=
A0

1
= (n = number of half-lives passed)
2n
Examples
1) The half-life of an radioisotope is 24 seconds. Starting with a 100.0 g
sample, calculate how much would be left after 72 seconds?

n = 72/24 = 3
At 1
n = 72/24 = 3 half-lives gone R= =
A0 2n
So, 100 → 50 → 25 → 12.5 g At = A0/23 = 100/8 = 12.5 g
or

2) If there are 400 atoms of an element with a half-life of 4 days, how

many would remain after 16 days? [25 atoms]
3) After 3 half-lives what fraction of any element would have decayed? [⅜]
4) A GM tube was used to measure the activity of a radioactive sample and
the following graph was plotted.

Determine the half-life of the sample and suggest what element was
present.
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NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

The isotopes americium-241, strontium-89 and cobalt-60

decay according to the following equations:
241 237 4
𝝰-decay: 95Am → 93
Np + 2He
89 89 0
𝝱-decay: 38Sr → 39Y + -1e
60 60 0
𝛄-decay: 27Co → 27Co + 0γ

Examples
238 234
1) 92U → 90Th + ?
37 37
2) 18Ar → 17Cl + ?
9
3) 4Be + 42He → ? + 1
0n
235 1 ? 92
4) 92U + 0n → 56Ba + ?Kr + 3 10n

Mass-Energy Equivalence
Thermal energy is released when a large nucleus splits
(fission) or small nuclei combine (fusion). (Fission: spontaneous in
environment/induced in reactors & weapons. Fusion: in stars at ultra-
high temperature and pressure).

A small amount of matter can be converted into a large

amount of thermal energy and light. The unified atomic mass
unit, u or amu, is the unit for small masses. (1 amu = 1.66 ×
10-27 kg.)

Einstein’s mass-energy equation

∆E = ∆mc 2 (c = speed of light)
ΔE = energy released or binding energy
Δm = change in mass or mass defect
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Examples
1) How much energy would be released if 1 g of matter were completely
converted into energy? [90 TJ]
2) The Sun emits light at 3.6 × 1023 J s-1. How much mass is lost per second?
[4 Mg]
3) Determine the energy released when a neutron causes a U-235 atom to
fission into Ba-141, Kr-92 and three neutrons. [U=235.04; n=1.01;
Ba=140.91; Kr=91.93; 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-27 kg]

235 1 141 92
92U + 0n → 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 10n
Δm = initial mass – final mass
= 235.04 + 1.01 – (140.91 + 91.93 + 3 × 1.01)
= 0.18 amu
= 0.18 × 1.66 × 10-27 kg
= 2.988 × 10-28 kg

∆E = ∆mc 2
= 2.988 × 10-28 × (3.0 × 108)2
= 2.69 × 10-11 J

Nuclear Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
low running cost high cost of building and demolition

efficiency nuclear waste is radioactive

more jobs high risk jobs

medicine for radiotherapy waste could be weaponised

minimal air pollution accidental leakage/fallout

A Fusion reactor produces more energy than fission reactor, its fuel
can be readily extracted from the sea, its waste is nontoxic, short-
lived isotopes but its more costly to set up.