INTRODUCTION

• All cells reproduce by dividing into two,

with each parental cell giving rise to two
daughter cells each time they divide.
• Growth and reproduction are
characteristics of cells, indeed of all living
organisms.
• Such cycles of growth and division allows
single cell to form structure consisting of
millions of cells.
 CELL CYCLE
• It is sequence of events by which a cell duplicates
its genome, synthesizes the other constituents of
the cell and eventually divides into two daughter
cells.
• Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between
the nucleus and cytoplasm. It therefore becomes
essential for the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-
cytoplasmic ratio.
• Cell growth (in term of cytoplasmic increases) is a
continuous process
• Duration of cell can vary from organism to
organism and also from type cell type to cell type.
e.g., Yeast-cell cycle duration-90 minutes,
Human cell cycle duration-24 hours but cell division
proper lasts for only about an hour.
 PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

Interphase M-phase

• Called resting phase

• Actual cell division phase
• Cell is preparing for division by
• Starts with nuclear division
undergoing both cell growth and
(karyokinesis) and usually ends
DNA replication in an orderly
with division of cytoplasm
manner.
(cytokinesis)
• It lasts more than 95% of the
duration of cell cycle
INTERPHASE
• Divided further into three phases

i. G1 phase (Gap 1)

ii. S phase (Synthesis)

iii. G2 phase (Gap 2)

§ Some cells do not divide further, exit G1 phase to
enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0)
of the cell cycle.

q G0 Phase

§ Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but

no longer proliferate unless called on to do so
depending on the requirement of the organism, e.g.,
Heart cells

q G1 phase

§ Interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA

replication.

§ Cell is metabolically active and continuously grows

but does not replicate its DNA.

§ Most of the organelles duplicate

q S phase

§ This phase marks the phase of DNA replication and

chromosomes duplication.

§ Amount of DNA per cell doubles but there is no

increases in initial chromosome number.

§ In animal cells, centriole duplicates in cytoplasm.

§ DNA replication begins in nucleus.

q G2 Phase

§ Proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis

while cell growth continues

In animal cells mitotic division is only seen in

diploid somatic cells. Plant cells show mitotic
division in both haploid and diploid cells.
 • Most dramatic period of cell cycle
M PHASE (MITOSIS) • Chromosome number in parent and
progeny cells is the same hence celled
Divide into equational division.

CYTOKINESIS
KARYOKINESIS

• It is division of cytoplasm at the end of which cell

division gets competed.
PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE • In animal cells its is achieved by the appearance of a
furrow in the plasma membrane.
• In plant cells cytokinesis is achieved by wall
formation, which starts in the centre of the cell and
grows outward to meet the existing lateral wall.
• The formation of new cell wall begins with the
formation of a simple precursor, called the cell plate
that represents the middle lamella between the wall
of two adjacent cells.
• When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as
a result of which multinucleate condition arises
leading to formation of syncytium, e.g. liquid
endosperm in coconut.
 1. PROPHASE 2. METAPHASE 3. ANAPHASE 4. TELOPHASE
• The complete disintegration • Final stage of
• Frist phase, follows the S • Centromere of each
of the nuclear envelope karyokinesis.
and G2 phases of chromosome split
marks the start of
interphase. simultaneously and
metaphase. • Chromosomes that
• Marked by the initiation of chromatids separate.
• Condensation of have reached their
condensation of
chromosomes is completed respective poles
chromosomal material which • Two daughter
and can be observed clearly decondense and lose
becomes untangled. chromatids, now
under microscope and their individuality.
• Centrosome starts to move referred to as daughter
morphology of chromosomes
towards opposite poles. chromosome begin
is most easily studied. • Nuclear envelope
• The completion of prophase their migration towards
• Each chromosome has two develops around the
can be marked by- the two opposite poles.
sister chromatids which are chromosome cluster
i. Chromosomes condense to
held together by the at each pole forming
form compact mitotic • The centromere of each
centromere. two daughter nuclei.
chromosome. chromosomes remain
• All the chromosome coming
ii. Each centrosome reach at directed towards the
to lie at equator. • Nucleolus, Golgi
pole and radiates out pole arms trailing
• Each chromosome complex and ER
microtubules called asters. behind. (leading to
connected by its kinetochore reform.
The two asters together with different shapes of
to spindle fibre from one pole
spindle fibers form mitotic chromosomes)
and its sister chromatid
apparatus.
connected by its kinetochore
• At the end of prophase cells
to spindle fibre from the Anatomy of chromosomes
do not show Golgi complex,
opposite pole.
ER, nucleolus and nuclear
• The plane of alignment of the
envelope.
chromosomes at metaphase
is referred to as metaphase
Centromere divide ho jaega plate.
in s phase or opposite poles
m prophse m jasega
 KARYOKINESIS

1. PROPHASE 2. METAPHASE 3. ANAPHASE 4. TELOPHASE

• Kinetochore is disc shaped structure at the

surface of centromere, serves as the site of
attachment of spindle fibers.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

• Mitosis usually results in identical genetic

complement in daughter cells.
• Growth of multicellular organisms.
• Cell repair.
• Mitotic division in apical and lateral
meristem results continuous growth of
plants throughout their life.
• In some lower plants and in some social
insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
 MEIOSIS
• Specialized kind of cell division that reduces the
chromosome number by half result in the
production of haploid daughter cells.
• Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase
in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms
whereas fertilization restores the diploid phase.
• Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear
division i.e. meiosis I and meiosis II but only
single cycle of DNA replication.
• Meiosis I initiated after parental chromosomes
have replicated.
• Four haploid cells are formed at the end of
meiosis II.
 MEIOSIS I
Zygotene
(REDUCTIONAL PHASE)
• Pairing of Homologous chromosomes
called synapsis.
Prophase I • Synapsis is accompanied formation of
• Typical longer and more complex when compared to complex structure called synaptonemal
prophase of mitosis complex.
Leptotene • The complex formed by a pair of synapsed
homologous chromosomes is called
• Chromosomes become gradually visible bivalent or a tetrad.
under the light microscope. • Leptotene and zygotene are relatively short
• The compaction of chromosomes lived compared to the pachytene.
continues throughout leptotene.
 Pachytene

• Four chromatids of each bivalent

become distinct and clearly appears
as tetrads.

• Appearance of recombination nodule,

the sites at which crossing over occurs
between non-sister chromatids of the
homologous chromosomes.

• Crossing over is exchange of genetic

material between two homologous
chromosomes. It is an enzyme
mediated process, enzyme involved is
called recombinase.

• Crossing over leads to recombination

of genetic material which is completed
by the end of the pachytene leaving
chromosomes linked at the sites of
crossing over.
 Diplotene

• Beginning of diplotene is recognized by the

dissolution of synaptonemal complex and
tendency of the recombined homologous
chromosomes of the bivalent to separate
from each other except at the site of
crossovers.

• This x-shaped structure (site of crossing

over) are called chiasmata.

• In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene

can last for months or year (dictyotene).
 Diakinesis

• This is marked by terminalization of

chiasmata.

• Chromosomes are fully condensed and

mitotic spindle is assembled to prepare the
homologous chromosomes for separation

• By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus

disappears and nuclear envelope also
breaks down.

• Diakinesis represents transition to

metaphase.
MEIOSIS I (REDUCTIONAL PHASE)

METAPHASE I
• Bivalent chromosomes align on the
equatorial plate (Double metaphasic
plate)
• Microtubules from the opposite poles of
the spindle attach to the kinetochore of
homologous chromosomes.

ANAPHASE I
• Homologous chromosomes separate,
while sister chromatids remain associated
at their centromeres.

TELOPHASE I
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus
reappear
• Cytokinesis follows and this is called as
dyad of cells.
INTERKINESIS

• It is the stage between two

meiotic divisions.
• It is generally short lived.
• No DNA replication
• It is followed by prophase II.
MEIOSIS II-(Equational Phase)-Resembles a normal Mitosis

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II

• It is initiated • Chromosomes align • Splitting of • Meiosis ends with

immediately after at the equator centromere allowing telophase I
cytokinesis chromosomes to
• Microtubules from move towards • Two groups of
• The nuclear opposite poles of the opposite poles of the chromosomes once
membrane spindle get attached cell by shortening of again get enclosed by
disappears by the end to the kinetochore of microtubules attached a nuclear envelope
of prophase II. sister chromatids to the kinetochores.
• Cytokinesis follows
• Chromosomes resulting in the
become compact. formation of tetrad of
cells.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

• Conservation of specific chromosomes number

of each species is achieved across generation in
sexually reproducing organisms, paradoxically
results in reduction of chromosomes number by
half.

• Increases genetic variability in the population of

organisms which is important for the process of
evolution.