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 | Contents | vii

Formulating an HRD Strategy 49 Further Reading 80

Developing a Learning Strategy to Useful Websites 80
Support HRD 52 Bibliography 80
– Why does learning matter in the context of
organizations and individuals? 52 Chapter 5 Organizational Learning 84
What Types of Learning Activities are Prioritized? 53
How does Learning take place in Organizations? 53 Learning Outcomes 84
– Where does responsibility for learning reside? 54 Introduction 85
– Who delivers the learning strategy? 54 Organizational Learning Definitions and Theories 85
– How can the HRD function measure the – The learning organization 88
impact of HRD activities? 55 ● Spotlight on Skills 89
– Coordinating the HRD function 55 – Differences between organizational learning
● Spotlight on Skills 56 and the learning organization 89
Budgeting for HRD Activities 56 Group Learning 90
● HRD in the News 57 Knowledge Management and Organizational
Managing Processes and Services 58 Learning 90
Managing People 58 ● HRD in the News 91
The Difference in Approaches between – Sharing knowledge in organizations 92
SMEs and Large Organizations 59 – Tacit knowledge acquisition and transfer
● Active Case Study: Benefit or Cost? 60 methods 93
Summary 61 Developing a Culture that Supports Learning 96
Chapter Review Questions 61 – Organizational learning in SMEs 97
Further Reading 61 ● Active Case Study: After-Action Reviews
Useful Websites 61 in the US Army 98
Bibliography 62 Summary 99
Chapter Review Questions 99
Chapter 4 Individual-Level Learning 63 Further Reading 99
Useful Websites 100
Learning Outcomes 63 Bibliography 100
Introduction 64
Learning: What is it and How Does it Occur? 64 Chapter 6 Organization Development 103
Types of Learning: Formal and Informal 65
Human and Dispositional Factors Influencing Learning Outcomes 103
Learning 66 Introduction 104
Barriers to Learning 66 What is OD? 104
Learning Theories 67 – OD values and principles 105
Experiential Learning and the Learning Cycle 71 What is the Value of OD and what are its Goals? 106
Emotions and Learning 72 The Process of Carrying out an OD Intervention:
Learning Styles 72 The OD Cycle 107
– VARK sensory learning styles 73 ● Spotlight on Skills 109
– Honey and Mumford’s learning styles 73 OD and HRD: The Same, Different or Subsets
– Felder–Silverman’s learning style model 74 of Each Other? 109
● Spotlight on Skills 75 ● Active Case Study: Organization Development
● Active Case Study: Improving Individual in Netflix 110
Learning at The Courtyard Hotel in Tokyo 76 OD Strategy 111
E-learning and Individual Learning 76 OD and Organizational Change Management 111
● HRD in the News 78 ● HRD in the News: The World’s Greatest
Summary 79 OD Challenge? 112
Chapter Review Questions 80 Summary 113
viii | Contents |

Chapter Review Questions 113 Seeking Feedback 138

Further Reading 114 Setting Learning Outcomes: Begin with the
Useful Websites 114 End in Mind 139
Bibliography 114 – Writing learning outcomes 139
Selecting the Content for HRD Programmes
and Activities 140
Process of HRD 117 – Guide to using mind maps to develop
Chapter 7 Identifying Learning Needs 119 content for HRD programmes or activities 141
Selecting an Appropriate Strategy in Designing
Learning Outcomes 119 HRD Programmes and Activities 141
Introduction 120 – General theory learning strategy 142
● Spotlight on Skills 120 – Declarative knowledge learning strategy 142
What is Learning Needs Assessment? 120 – A concept learning strategy 142
– LNA and the needs of the business 123 – A rule learning strategy 143
● HRD in the News: The Impact of Downsizing – A problem-solving learning strategy 143
on Learning Needs 124 – A skill-based learning strategy 143
Fundamental ‘Windows’ through which to Choosing the Facilitator(s) 143
Identify Learning Needs 125 – Guide to choosing a facilitator 143
– Human resource planning 125 Structuring and Sequencing HRD Programmes
– Succession planning 125 and Activities 144
– Critical incidents 126 – Guide to structuring and sequencing
– Management information systems 127 HRD programmes and activities 144
– Performance appraisal 128 Selecting the Location, Venue and Time for
Specifying Precise Learning Needs 128 HRD Programmes and Activities 145
– Survey questionnaires 129 ● Active Case Study: Designing an Induction
– 360-degree surveys 129 Programme at McBurger’n’Fries 145
– Attitude surveys 129 E-learning, Coaching and Mentoring:
– Knowledge pre-tests 129 Contemporary Perspectives on Designing
– Skills matrices 129 HRD Programmes and Activities 147
– Competency profiles/job descriptions 129 – E-learning 147
– Structured interviews 130 – Advantages 148
– Observation 130 – Disadvantages 148
– Focus groups and interviews 130 ● Spotlight on Skills 148
SMEs: A Different Approach? 130 ● HRD in the News: E-learning Revolutionizing
● Active Case Study: The ‘Free Hand’ Approach Education in Africa: The First Massive Open Online
to LNA 131 Course (MOOC) Designed by Africans for Africans 149
Summary 132 – Coaching and mentoring 149
Chapter Review Questions 132 Resource Implications of HRD Programme Design 150
Further Reading 132 Summary 151
Useful Websites 132 Chapter Review Questions 151
Bibliography 133 Further Reading 151
Useful Websites 151
Chapter 8 Designing HRD Programmes 134 Bibliography 152

Learning Outcomes 134 Chapter 9 Delivering HRD Programmes 153

Introduction 135
Designing HRD Programmes in Organizations: Learning Outcomes 153
MNCs vs. SMEs 136 Introduction 154
Key Stages in the Design of HRD Programmes ● Spotlight on Skills 154
and Activities 137 Implementing Learning Outcomes 154
Gathering Data 138 HRD Delivery Methods 155
 | Contents | ix

Styles of Delivery 158 ● Active Case Study: Applying HRD Principles to the
– The instructor 158 Cosmetics Industry: Case Study from Oriflame’s
– The facilitator 159 Research and Development Subsidiary 189
Motivation to Learn 160 Summary 191
What makes an HRD Intervention Effective? 161 Chapter Review Questions 191
● HRD in the News: Is the Lecture Dead? 162 Further Reading 191
– Managing participants’ engagement 162 Useful Websites 191
– Communication skills 163 Bibliography 192
– Questioning 164
– Feedback 164
– Icebreakers 165 Contemporary Challenges 195
– Rapport 165 Chapter 11 Managing Talented Employees 197
– HRD activity environment and room layout 165
– Environmental factors 167 Learning Outcomes 197
– Managing time and content 167 Introduction 198
– Managing expectations 167 Who are Talented Employees? 198
– Presentation skills 167 Why is it Important for an Organization’s
Delivery Costs 168 Performance and Success to Focus on Talented
Characteristics of Effective Trainers 168 Employees? 199
● Active Case Study: Training the Taxman! 168 Preparing a Talent Management Strategy 200
Summary 169 Methods for Identifying Talented Employees 200
Chapter Review Questions 169 Preparing a Talent Management Strategy 202
Further Reading 169 Developing Talent: What are the Options? 203
Useful Websites 170 Motivating Talented Employees 203
Bibliography 170 Choosing a Common or Differentiated Approach
to Talent Management 204
Chapter 10 Evaluating HRD Programmes 171 – Talent management in SMEs 204
Managing Talent in a Recessionary Environment 205
Learning Outcomes 171 ● HRD in the News: Husain Makes History
Introduction 172 on Radio 4 Flagship 205
Explaining the Concept of Evaluation How do we know whether Talent Management
(Where, What and Why) 172 has Succeeded? 206
● Spotlight on Skills 173 – Return on stakeholder expectations 207
– Purpose of evaluation 173 ● Spotlight on Skills 207
Establishing the Output of Evaluation What is the Role for HRD? 207
(When and Who) 174 – Making the business case 208
– Information: Type and timing 174 ● Active Case Study: O’Brien’s Homeware 208
– People: Interest and importance 175 Summary 210
Exploring the Models of Evaluation (How) 176 Chapter Review Questions 210
– Hierarchical models 176 Further Reading 210
– Contextual models 178 Useful Websites 210
Examining Measures of Evaluation (How) 179 Bibliography 211
– Measures for hierarchical models 180
● HRD in the News: Bringing Evaluation into Chapter 12 Leadership Development 212
Play in the Field of Football 184
– Measures for contextual models 185 Learning Outcomes 212
Enabling a Culture of Effective Evaluation (How) 186 Introduction 213
– Appreciate the existence of organizational – What is leader and leadership development? 213
blockages 187 Leadership Development and HRD 215
– Develop transfer of learning among key Leadership Competencies 215
stakeholders 187 ● Spotlight on Skills 218
x | Contents |

A Strategic Approach to Leadership Development 218 Graduate Employment in Small and Medium
Portfolio of Leadership Development Practices 222 Enterprises (SMEs) 246
● Active Case Study: Fosco Data Handling: The Summary 246
Leadership Challenges 223 Chapter Review Questions 247
Challenges for Leadership Development 224 Further Reading 247
● HRD in the News: Fashion Factories: Time for HRD Useful Websites 247
Education to Take a Stance 225 Bibliography 247
Evaluating Leadership Development Efforts 226
Leadership Development in SMEs 227 Chapter 14 Ethics, Corporate Social
Summary 228 Responsibility, Sustainability and HRD 250
Chapter Review Questions 228
Further Reading 228 Learning Outcomes 250
Useful Websites 228 Introduction 251
Bibliography 229 Guiding Principles of Ethics and CSR 251
HRD, Ethics and CSR 252
Chapter 13 Graduate Employability 231 The Drivers for Organizational Ethics and CSR 253
● Spotlight on Skills 254
Learning Outcomes 231 ● HRD in the News 255
Introduction 232 SMEs, Ethics and Corporate Social
New Forms of Organization, Labour Markets Responsibility 256
and Technology 232 The Role of CSR and Ethics Training
● Spotlight on Skills 233 Programmes 257
Graduate Identity and Graduate Employability 234 The Role of HRD in Shaping Organizational
– Graduate employability: What graduates want 236 Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility 258
Graduate Skills: Transferable, Soft and Hard Skills 236 – Organizational culture development 259
– Soft skills and hard skills 237 – Embedding organizational ethics 259
Global HRD and Graduate Employability 238 – Policy and practice development 260
● HRD in the News: €300 Million Investment ● Active Case Study: The Ethical HR
in Seven World-Class Research Centres 241 Value Chain 262
Graduate Work Experience, Placements, Summary 264
Internships and Extra-Curricular Activities 242 Chapter Review Questions 264
Graduate Recruitment and Selection 243 Further Reading 264
– Psychometric testing 244 Useful Websites 264
– Assessment centres 244 Bibliography 265
● Active Case Study: Enterprise Rent-a-Car Graduate
Training and Development Programme 245 Index 268
 List of figures

1.1 Trend analysis of term usage in books: 7.1 Process of HRD cycle 121
1950–2008 4 7.2 Sample organizational chart 126
1.2 Trend analysis of web searches: 2005–2013 5 7.3 Organizational chart with ages and
1.3 Organizational chart 14 years to retirement 126
1.4 Process of HRD cycle 20 8.1 Process of HRD cycle 135
1.5 Layout of book 21 8.2 Stages of the HRD design process 138
3.1 Dimensions of learning strategy 53 8.3 HRD Program Design Cost 150
3.2 Managing and resourcing HRD 9.1 Process of HRD cycle 154
in organizations 54 9.2 The learning cube 155
4.1 Social learning theory processes 67 9.3 Linking training style to learning retention 159
4.2 Expectancy theory of motivation 70 9.4 Lecture-style room layout 166
4.3 Kolb’s learning cycle 71 9.5 Bistro-style room layout 166
4.4 Kort’s learning spiral model 72 9.6 U-shaped room layout 166
4.5 VARK sensory learning styles 73 10.1 Process of HRD cycle 172
4.6 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles 74 10.2 Example of a reactions level
4.7 Kolb’s learning cycle and Honey and post-programme questionnaire 181
Mumford’s learning styles 74 10.3 Aligning strategic objectives and HRD
5.1 Types of organizational learning 88 activities among collaborative constituents 189
6.1 The process of an OD intervention 108 12.1 Optimal leadership development matrix 222

xi
 List of Tables

1.1 Definitions of HRD 3 8.3 Types of learning content 141

1.2 Differences between training, development 9.1 Learning and development delivery
and education 6 methods 156
1.3 Main activities of the human resources function 16 9.2 Trainer delivery styles 159
2.1 Key SHRD characteristics – Garavan (1991) versus 9.3 Characteristics of effective trainers 168
McCracken and Wallace (2000a) 32 10.1 Summary of key hierarchical evaluation
2.2 A learning culture self-audit 38 models 177
2.3 Lagging and leading HRD specialists 39 10.2 Summary of hierarchical measures
2.4 The activities of HRD specialists 40 of evaluation 180
3.1 Staged approach to HRD strategy formulation 50 10.3 Summary of potential organizational blockages
4.1 Types of non-formal learning 66 to evaluation from perspective of key
4.2 Workplace learning – facilitators and barriers 67 stakeholders 188
4.3 Adult learning – assumptions, prerequisites 11.1 Sample organization competence
and guidelines 69 framework – core themes 201
5.1 Phases of organizational learning and their 12.1 Future trends in leadership development 214
challenges 86 12.2 The spectrum of development activities that
5.2 Characteristic features of the learning comprise HRD 216
organization 89 12.3 Leading vs. managing competencies 217
5.3 Main differences between organizational 12.4 Key elements of development in
learning and the learning organization 90 organizations 219
5.4 Barriers and facilitators to developing a culture 12.5 Criteria for evaluating leadership
of organizational learning 97 development 227
6.1 OD principles 106 13.1 Attributes, characteristics and skills
6.2 Desired results of OD interventions 107 that promote graduates’ employability 235
7.1 Sample of projected demand for call agents 125 13.2 Soft skills and hard skills 237
7.2 Skills matrix 130 13.3 Country groups by global HRD
8.1 HRD support available to SMEs 137 competitiveness scores 239
8.2 Action verbs for learning outcomes, 13.4 National survey of employers’ views of Irish
grouped by meaning 140 higher education outcomes (2013) 240

xii
 Contributor biographies

Editors Contributors
Dr Ronan Carbery is Senior Dr Claire Armstrong (B.Comm,
Lecturer in Management in the PhD, MCIPD, FRAMI) is an
School of Management and associate lecturer in the Faculty
Marketing at the College of of Business and Law at the Open
Business, University College University and an adjunct lecturer
Cork, Ireland. Ronan is at the Kemmy Business School,
co-editor of the European University of Limerick. Prior to
Journal of Training and this, she held posts at DCU Business
Development. His research School, Limerick Institute of Technology and Shannon
interests include career College of Hotel Management. She also held a visiting
development, talent management and participation appointment at Aston University, UK. Claire’s main
in HRD activities. He was awarded the University of areas of expertise are in organizational behaviour, HRM,
Limerick Teaching Excellence award in 2013. He is research methods and health care management. She
co-editor of Human Resource Management: A Concise has published extensively on these topics in academic
Introduction (2013). journals, including Human Resource Management, The
International Journal for Human Resources Management,
Dr Christine Cross lectures in The International Journal for Quality in Healthcare and
Organizational Behaviour and Advances in Developing Human Resources. She has also
Human Resource Management published several practice-oriented reports on topics
at the Kemmy Business School, such as high-performance work systems, training and
University of Limerick. Prior development, and health care management. She is a
to joining UL she worked for reviewer for a number of HRM, organizational behaviour
a number of multinational and health care management journals and is an associate
organizations in both editor for Advances in Developing Human Resources.
management and human
resource management roles. This experience has led to Dr Paul Donovan is Principal Researcher
a wide range of research, consultancy and publication and Senior Lecturer at the School of
interests covering areas such as the workforce Business at the National University
experiences of immigrants; training and development in of Ireland, Maynooth. He served a
call centres; and investigating the glass ceiling. Christine one-year period as Head of School
is also a co-director of the Age in the Workplace and Director of Teaching and Learning
Research Network (AWR-net), which is located at immediately prior to this appointment.
the Kemmy Business School. This network focuses on He was previously Head of Management
researching multiple issues associated with age in the Development and Registrar at the Irish Management
workplace. Institute (IMI), specializing in Management Development.

xiii
xiv | Contributor biographies |

Before joining IMI he worked as a general operations Academic Development, HRD and Organizational
manager with Bord na Mona, the Irish Peat Development Behaviour at the University of Limerick. At a regional
Authority. He was also Training and Development level, she successfully led an inter-institutional project
Manager of the Bord na Mona group. His private sector on regional teaching enhancement within four higher
experience includes conducting major reviews of HRD educational institutions, establishing a wide range of
capability with hundreds of clients, including IBM, and a professional development initiatives to this end. She
comprehensive identification of training needs with Dell completed her PhD in the area of learning and inter-
and trainer capability upgrades with Boston Scientific. He organizational networks. Her research interests lie
has designed and delivered extensive programmes in the within learning and development, with a particular
public sector, most notably with the Department of Finance focus on the efficacy of professional development
and Enterprise, the Department of Trade and Employment, activities, the student experience in teaching and
and the Health Service Executive. He has written peer- learning, and the role of learning and development
reviewed articles on learning transfer and over ten books in at work. She is a chartered member of the CIPD
training and general management, and writes a column for and a senior fellow of SEDA. She has extensive HRD
HRD magazine, the journal of the Irish Institute of Training consultancy experience within both the private
and Development, of which he is a fellow. Paul holds a and the public sector.
master’s degree in organizational behaviour and another in
technology and learning (both from Trinity College Dublin) Prof. Thomas N. Garavan is
and a doctorate from Leicester University. Professor of Leadership at
Edinburgh Napier Business School.
Dr Linda Dowling-Hetherington He was formerly Professor and
has been with the School of Associate Dean in Postgraduate
Business at University College Studies and Executive
Dublin since 1996. She has Education, Kemmy Business
many years experience in the School, University of Limerick.
management and development He teaches HRD, training and development, and
of part-time, distance learning leadership development. He is author of more than
and off-campus programmes, 100 academic articles, co-editor of European Journal
and has been the Director of the School’s Centre for of Training and Development and a member of the
Distance Learning since its establishment in 2002. Board of Directors of the Academy of Human Resource
From UCD, she holds a Bachelor of Commerce (HRM), Development.
a Master of Business Studies (HRM) and a Certificate
in Adult Education, along with a Doctor of Education Dr T.J. McCabe is Lecturer in
(EdD) from the University of Bath. She has considerable HRM and Research Methods at
teaching experience in the human resource management the National College of Ireland.
and human resource development areas on UCD He leads a number of post-
programmes in Ireland, Hong Kong and Singapore. graduate and undergraduate
Her areas of research interest include human resource modules, including Research
development, transnational education, student-centred Methods, Strategic Human
approaches to the management of distance learning Resource Management, Employee
programmes, development of academic competencies, Relations and HRD. His research interests extend to
undergraduate research experiences, and the changing trust and commitment among nursing professionals,
higher education landscape and its impact on faculty. and human resource management issues in the
health sector. He has presented this work at national
Dr Mary Fitzpatrick (BBS and international conferences, and co-chaired the
with Spanish, GDE (Business), HRM track for the 14th Annual Conference of the
MBS, MCIPD, SFSEDA, PhD) Irish Academy of Management. He has published
is the Regional Teaching and papers in both academic and practitioner journals,
Learning Advocate in the and received the award for Best Paper, Healthcare
Centre for Teaching and and Public Sector Management Track, Irish Academy
Learning and lectures in of Management in 2011.
 | Contributor biographies | xv

Dr Martin McCracken is Senior Dr Jean McCarthy is a lecturer

Lecturer in Organizational and researcher in the areas of
Behaviour at the University Human Resource Management,
of Ulster. He is the editor of Human Resource Development
Education and Training and and Organizational Behaviour
is a member of the editorial at the Kemmy Business
advisory boards of a number School, University of
of influential journals, such as Limerick. A graduate of the
Employee Relations, Leadership University of Limerick, and a former Fulbright
and Organizational Development Journal and The Scholar at Colorado State University, her research
European Journal of Training and Development. interests include adult learning, high-performance
He obtained a PhD from Edinburgh Napier University work systems and the social psychology of work. Her
in 2002 and has been actively researching issues research has attracted financial support from the
connected with human resource development/ Irish Research Council, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
management, employability and organizational change. and the Fulbright Commission. She is also a Global
He has published his work in a number of leading Research Associate with the Sloan Center on Aging
academic journals, including The International Journal & Work at Boston College, and is founder and
of Human Resource Management, Human Resource co-director of the Age in the Workplace Research
Management Journal, Human Resource Development Network (AWR-net), which is an international
International and the European Management Journal, network of researchers seeking to address issues
and has played a key role in carrying out UK research associated with age, generations and diversity at
projects commissioned by (among others): the work. She has extensive experience in teaching and
Department for Education and Employment; Sector supervision at undergraduate, post-graduate and post-
Skills Development Agency; and Leonardo Da Vinci experience levels, as well as working with community-
Research Programme (EU). based and Youthreach education and training
programmes.
Dr Clíodhna MacKenzie is
a lecturer in the School of Dr Sue Mulhall has worked in
Management & Marketing at a variety of human resource
University College Cork. Prior management (HRM) and
to that she lectured at the training/education positions
University of Limerick. She and lectures in human resource
holds a degree in business development at the Dublin
from the University of Institute of Technology (DIT),
Limerick. She has previously Ireland. She is a pracademic,
worked for both US multinationals and global IT combining theory and practice, particularly
consulting firms. She has international experience in the field of career management. Prior to joining DIT
in the IT and telecoms fields and has worked in the in 2012, she ran her own HRM learning, consulting
US, Singapore and Thailand, as well as many parts of and coaching business for over a decade and was
Europe. Her academic research focuses on the ‘dark previously a HRM professional for 13 years. Through
side’ of organizational behavior, such as organizational her research and teaching, she offers fresh insights to
narcissism, leadership derailment, counterproductive the academic and practitioner communities resulting
work behaviour and organizational personality from her exposure to the dilemmas and challenges
disorders (OPDs). Her research interests include facing knowledge workers, managers and leaders in
risk-taking behaviour, corporate governance, ethics, dynamic organizations in the contemporary workplace.
corporate social responsibility, human resource Drawing on her depth and breadth of experience, She
management/development, and leadership and researched her international award-winning doctorate
organization development. She is also a member on career success, exploring how personal transitions
of the University Forum for Human Resource impact on career experiences. Her findings have been
Development (UFHRD) and the Irish Academy of published in international peer-reviewed journals and
Management. at conferences.
xvi | Contributor biographies |

Dr Clare Rigg is based at the through encountering action learning as an approach to

Institute of Technology Tralee, management development in 1990. She has researched
Ireland, where she leads an and published widely on action learning, critical
action learning-based MBA management learning and HRD, including the co-authored
programme. Following an books Action Learning, Leadership and Organizational
early career in economic Development in Public Services (2006); Critical Human
development and urban Resource Development: Beyond Orthodoxy (2007); and
regeneration in Birmingham, England, she developed an Learning and Talent Development (2011). She is co-editor
interest in collaborative working that was further fostered of the journal Action Learning: Research and Practice.
 Tour of the book

ng services and technological advancements and coaching, mentoring and g

Learning outcomes Key terms d in Chapter 1 allows organizations to manage

D and HRM services remotely as virtual services,
managers express doubt conce
with learning and developmen
her organizations are taking the option of feel exposed due to inexperien
A set of learning outcomes are Each chapter contains an on-page ing their HRD functions. Regardless of the
h taken, whoever is ultimately responsible for
or capability (Garavan et al., 20
often accused of lacking time t
identified at the start of each chapter. explanation of a number of g the HRD function needs to recognize the
ents of the task. We will first look at the role of
and have not necessarily bough
should be part of a leader-led t
function. strategy. Research on the devo
After you have studied the chapter, important words, phrases and suggests that HRD specialists a
devolve, due primarily to conce
completed the activities and answered concepts that you need to know role of the HRD and power and having to focus
ction strategic in nature.
It is the overall vision, value
the review questions, you should be in order to understand HRD, its ideology of the owner, chairm
rtments generally employ people with that have the critical influence
able to achieve each of the stated theoretical basis and its related bility for specialized areas within the overall
tion. A number of HR activities, once the
which HRD operates in an org
organization, it is generally the

objectives. areas. it of the HR function,

devolved to line devolved refers to the process of moving decision
senior m
create t
rs in order to allow making downwards, from HR to line managers operatio
unction to engage in line managers managers who have employees process
cision making and free profile o

2
directly reporting to them and who have a higher level
to focus on strategic of responsibility than those employees are influ
s ▸ Chapter 2. It is the beli

Strategic HRD Making links

manager who works most closely with the
e. The types of activities normally devolved
managers include employee selection,
in the added value that HRD c
organization. For example, Ric
of the Virgin Group, adopts a
To allow you to see the e and performance management. From an
spective, the line manager is also in an ideal
to HRD and believes in contin
how to retain employees over
to identify performance gaps and learning ways he does this is to promo
Martin interconnected nature of the nd through the performance management possible by creating a culture
they can offer opportunities to participate in learning is not restricted to se

By the end of topics in the field of HRD, areas

this chapter you Learning outcomes
should be able
to:
Define Strategic Human Resource Development
that link to topics and concepts in
(SHRD) and understand how it differs from
Human Resource Development
other chapters are identified. An aspect which is clearly agreed upon in all of the
definitions shown above is that SHRD is clearly in
evidence when there is a long-term focus upon planning
SHRD to truly take hold, nine
to be in place in relation to a
factors. These nine factors are
Explain why it is important for organizations to and implementing HRD activities. column in Table 2.1 and inclu
ensure that their HRD activities are linked to As you can appreciate, SHRD clearly stresses that if management support, role of
an organization is to truly have a strategic approach to and how evaluation is carried
corporate strategy
its HRD activities it has to do more than simply align the table, Garavan’s original n
Understand the role of key stakeholders in HRD training and development to corporate strategy, but, in include such fundamentals as
in the organization, namely the HRD function, fact, must elevate these to a higher level. development is integrated wit
and goals and that environme
senior, functional and line managers, as well as
training and development tak
individual employees
Consider this … consider THIs… However, since Garavan’s o
created several authors have
Organizations use a variety of terms to describe and elaborate upon his SHRD
This feature is designed to the work that SHRD professionals undertake. Some
use the term ‘learning and development specialist’,
based upon empirical researc
of large UK-based organizatio
Wallace (2000a) produced an
stimulate your thinking about a others the term ‘organizational development
specialist’, and others describe the SHRD specialist
as a ‘learning solutions specialist’. Why do
characteristics (see Table 2.1)
are discussed in more detail i

specific issue, idea or perspective organizations use so many different titles? What
would you suggest?
1 Organizational missi
related to the chapter topic. Garavan (1991) suggested tha
level SHRD needs to be integr
Theoretical models of SHRD and that those involved in de
should illustrate how HRD ac
This part of the chapter explores two of the most corporate goals and mission o
influential theoretical models of SHRD. In 1991 Garavan this fit or integration is vital, b

The Future of the British Army?

In November 2013 it was soldiers). The rationale given for dow
announced that the British Army the restructuring was that as the ma
was to embark upon a major international security environment tha
restructuring exercise, which changes there will be less need mo
would allow it to be able to for large numbers of regular for
operate effectively and efficiently soldiers or ‘boots on the ground’ as
in a global arena in the future. The innovations in military technology So
most important SHRD implication continue to change how war and BB
of the proposed security situations bel
changes centred are managed. BB

HRD in the news around the skills

and competency
hrD in the news Ultimately, these
innovations
new

Qu
Each chapter contains an example of coverage of its main topic in the media. requirement arising
from increasing
would also
impact on skills
1

the size and expertise of the and competency requirements

The aim here is to highlight how you can apply the constructs and concepts in Army Reserve (soldiers who
are employed by the army on
for soldiers at all levels in the
army. Speaking on BBC Radio
2

the chapter to the management of people in the real world of the workplace. a part-time basis and still have
regular civilian jobs) to 30,000
about the restructuring, the UK
Defence Secretary noted that
soldiers while simultaneously the changes were designed to
A set of questions accompanies each feature to assist with this application to a reducing the size of the regular
full-time army (by around 20,000
reverse the decline of the Army
Reserve, which had been ‘run

practical situation.
Practicalities for the HRD chances of being cons
specialist: Performing to must continuously lin
a strategic level business results.

Table 2.3 Lagging and

xvii
xviii | Tour of the book |

Building your skills

This feature asks you to place yourself in where the
trainers an
building your skills
the position of a line manager and to think way, i.e. lea
resources a
As a student, you may have already developed a
about what you would do in the situation particular set of learning skills or a certain learning
style over the years and become comfortable with
2008). Trai
quickly to g
shorter per
that has been presented to you. this style. However, the adoption of this learning
style may not necessarily result in the best use
easy; many
of your study time or lead to the most effective
earlier in th
outcomes from the perspective of your learning
of feedback
and grades achieved. Consider the VARK sensory
has been le
learning styles described earlier in this chapter.
expected o
E-learning
● Which learning style do you tend to exhibit networks w Active case study
most often?
● How might you draw upon other learning styles?
Social Lear
the growin
These short case studies provide
● How might your learning skills be enhanced by
drawing on a wider range of sensory learning
activities. I
(2013a) hig
the opportunity for you to link
styles? e-learning
● What might your lecturers need to do, or the material covered in the
change, to facilitate your use of the full range The d
of learning styles? years chapter to a real-life situation.
of bot
and p Questions are posed at the end
comp
While e-learning allows organizations to deliver training
dd l i ii i i l li f
such
i
of the case studies, which can be
Chapter review questions answered either in class or as part
Each chapter has eight questions that of an assignment.
can be used as class exercises or for self-
testing and evaluating your knowledge and
understanding of the chapter topic. Developing Leaders for Competitive Advantage: The Ca
The development of leaders JetBlue Speakup Survey revealed
to contribute to the strategic that both managers and employe
growth of an perceived that
organization is leaders within the
recognized as a organization were
this organization.
gy
major challenge.
active case study not effective and
JetBlue, which lacked the skills t
over a period of manage people.
Summary and an Assessment of Implications, Human Resource
13 years has grown from eight to JetBlue senior executives,
Management, 44(4), 413–432.
This chapter highlights the issues involved in managing Economist Intelligence Group (2009) The Role of HR 193 aircraft, took to the skies in including CEO David Neeleman
the HRD function in organizations. It is important to in Uncertain Times, London: Economist Intelligence
highlight that the role of the HRD function is to facilitate
and enable learning rather than to be the sole provider
of learning. In order to obtain commitment from line
Group.
Mafi, S. L. (2000) Managing the HRD Function and Service
Quality: A Call for a New Approach, Human Resource
Useful websites 2000 using a novel concept –
bringing humanity back to air
and president Dave Barger,
realized that this leadership
travel. Based at New York’s gap needed to be addressed
managers and senior management to this approach,
the HRD function plays a key role in formulating HRD
strategy by adopting an ongoing collaborative approach
Development Quarterly, 11(1), 81–86.
An abundance of websites exist on Kennedy International Airport,
JetBlue, a non-union airline,
and designed a new leadership
development programme. The
that involves engagement with these stakeholders. Being useful websites
able to articulate this strategy is essential to managing
the HRD function as it serves as a supporter and enabler
of the overall business strategy.
Bersin by Deloitte https://www.bersin.com/practice/
Browse.aspx?p=Learning-@-Development
topics related to HRD. At the end distinguished itself from other
low-fare carriers by offering seat-
executive team recognized that
leadership development should
This is an excellent resource detailing up-to-date research back entertainment systems with be closely integrated with the
chapter review questions
on industry trends in HRD, benchmarking standards, and
case studies and factbooks.
of each chapter we have identified live television, comfortable seats corporate culture and that
SHRM Organizational and Employee Development: and blue corn chips. The company leadership should be developed a
1 What role does the line manager play in assisting the
HRD function?
2 Outline the role of the HRD function in developing
http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/orgempdev/pages/
default.aspx
This section of the SHRM website provides excellent links
those we believe you will find most quickly grew to about $1.9 billion
in annual revenue in 2012 and
all levels: supervisors, managers
directors and vice presidents. In
an HRD strategy. to current research and guides for those working in HRD
3 What are the steps to formulating an HRD strategy?
4 What should a learning strategy articulate?
5 Suggest some metrics that the HRD function can use
functions.
CIPD Costing and benchmarking learning and
development http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/
useful in furthering your knowledge became increasingly popular with
travellers. It soon realized that
order to systematically identify
development needs, JetBlue used
its massive growth had created the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
to demonstrate its value to the organization.
6 What is the difference between a cost centre and a
service centre?
factsheets/costing-benchmarking-learning-
development.aspx
CIPD’s guide to costing HRD activities gives useful
and understanding of the discipline. a major leadership gap within to help in the needs identification
7 Why do some organizations choose to outsource information on budgeting for HRD activities. the organization. It had a lot of process. Following the needs
their HRD activities? CIPD HR Function page http://www.cipd.co.uk/ inexperienced supervisors and identification process, both the
8 How is the HRD function viewed in SMEs? hr-topics/hr-function.aspx
This provides a lot of information on how to manage the
overall HR function.
further reading Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor
http://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/human-
Clardy, A. (2008) The Strategic Role of Human Resource resources-managers.htm
Development in Managing Core Competencies, Human This site provides information on what skills
Resource Development International, 11(2), 183–197. people working in the HR function require, the
Cooke, F. L., Shen, J. and McBride, A. (2005) Outsourcing working environment, and how to get a job in a
HR as a Competitive Strategy? A Literature Review HR function.

Further reading
There are numerous HRD
resources and other topics
that are also covered in this
textbook. The aim here is to
highlight a few specific texts and
journal articles we believe can
assist you in developing your
understanding and furthering
your knowledge of the many
areas introduced in this book.
 Spotlight on skills:
Text and video feature

This feature aims to encourage you to develop your skills Companion website
in HRD by asking you to consider specific questions and
activities. This gives you the opportunity to identify and The book’s companion website at www.palgrave.com/
diagnose problems and develop possible solutions or carbery-hrd offers a number of resources for both
actions in relation to the chapter topic. Each of these lecturers and students. Lecturers can access PowerPoint
features is accompanied by a link to video interviews slides, a comprehensive testbank of multiple choice
with professionals on the book’s companion website. questions and solutions to the Active Case Study
The skills-related questions posed in the text feature are questions.
addressed by the practitioner in the video. To maximize
this resource, you should first attempt to answer the
questions in the book and then watch the video.

spotlight on skills
Working as an HRD manager, you have been asked
to justify your expenditure on HRD programmes
undertaken by the organization over the past
12 months. How can you demonstrate the value
of HRD? Will you focus on the value to the
organization, to employees, or both?
To help you answer the questions above, visit www.
palgrave.com/carbery-hrd and watch the video of
Jemma Carty talking about the value of HRD.

xix
 Case Study Grid

Chapter Title Industry Focus

2 Developing Leaders for Competitive Aviation, US Development for strategic growth
Advantage: The Case of JetBlue
3 Benefit or Cost? Pharmaceutical, US Budgeting for HRD
4 Improving Individual Learning at Hospitality, Japan Facilitating employee learning
The Courtyard Hotel in Tokyo
5 After-Action Reviews in the US Army Military, US Capturing organizational learning
6 Organization Development in Media, US Developing organizational culture
Netflix
7 The ‘Free Hand’ Approach to LNA Manufacturing, UK Identifying learning needs
8 Designing an Induction Programme Services, Ireland Devising learning objectives and designing
at McBurger’n’Fries an induction programme
9 Training the Taxman! Government Delivering an HRD programme
10 Applying HRD Principles to the Cosmetics, global Evaluating HRD programmes
Cosmetics Industry: Case Study
from Oriflame’s Research and
Development Subsidiary
11 O’Brien’s Homeware Retail, Ireland Developing a talent management strategy
12 Fosco Data Handling: The Leadership Information and Identifying leadership development
Challenges communications challenges
technology, UK
13 Enterprise Rent-a-Car Graduate Car rental, global Linking graduate training to business needs
Training and Development
Programme
14 The Ethical HR Value Chain Information and Developing an ethics awareness
communications programme
technology, US

xx
 Mapping of the text to CIPD standards

The CIPD HR Profession Map captures what HR people Standard 4: Organization Development
do and deliver across every aspect and specialism of Standard 5: Resource and Talent Planning
the profession, and it looks at the underpinning skills, Standard 6: Learning and Talent Development
behaviour and knowledge that they need to be most
successful. The map identifies ten professional standards, We have mapped each chapter in the textbook to
and each standard comprises a range of performance these three standards. For a detailed description of each
behaviours that span four levels of competence. The standard, please see http://www.cipd.co.uk/cipd-hr-
standards we are most concerned with for this text are: profession/hr-profession-map/.

CIPD Standard Chapter(s)

4.1 OD strategy, planning and business case development 6
4.2 Organization capability assessment 2, 6
4.3 Culture assessment and development 2
4.4 Organization development intervention and execution 2, 6
4.5 Change communications 6
4.6 OD methodology 6
4.7 Project and programme management 6
4.8 Cultural differences 2, 5, 6
4.9 Culture change 5, 6, 14
4.10 Change management 3
4.11 Change communications 3

5.1 Workforce planning 1, 2

5.2 Resourcing 1, 2
5.3 Talent identification and succession 11
5.4 Assessment and selection 7
5.5 Induction 8
5.6 Exit 7, 13
5.7 Legal framework 14
5.8 Resourcing 1, 2
5.9 Recruitment 13
5.10 Talent and succession 11
5.11 Assessment 8, 9
5.12 Induction 8

xxi
xxii | Mapping of the text to CIPD standards |

CIPD Standard Chapter(s)

6.1 Capability and skills assessment 1, 2, 7
6.2 Organization capability strategy, planning and business case 1, 2, 3
development
6.3 Design L&D solutions 8
6.4 Deliver L&D solutions 9
6.5 Leadership development 12
6.6 Talent management 11
6.7 Capability assessment 2
6.8 Learning styles 4
6.9 Blended learning solutions 4, 8
6.10 Supplier management 8, 9
6.11 Facilitation 9
6.12 Diversity 1, 12
6.13 Measure and evaluate interventions 10
 Skills development

Presentation Skills Handling nerves

Regardless of the industry sector, or the size of the Many people find this the most difficult part of making a
organization you work in, you will need to have the presentation.
ability to present your ideas clearly and succinctly. This ● Be well prepared and organized. Most people will feel
will often happen in a setting where you use a software nervous before a presentation. Knowing what you
programme such as PowerPoint to provide an overview are going to say and being organized will reduce your
of the context and key points. Increasingly, some job level of nervousness. The first two minutes of any
vacancies require you to make an oral presentation as presentation are the most crucial. If you feel confident
part of the selection process. In order to present your and clear about what you are going to say in the early
ideas and arguments clearly, there are a number of stages stage of the presentation, this will help alleviate your
involved in the making of an oral presentation. Some of nerves for the remainder of the presentation. Once you
the key issues involved are outlined here in order to assist have passed the first two minutes and you mentally
you in developing this important skill, either through believe that the presentation is going well, this will allow
your coursework or after college. the reminder of the presentation to run more smoothly.
● Don’t read directly from your notes – use visual aids. This
means that the words/pictures you use on the screen
Planning your presentation should act as your ‘prompt’. Do not use hand-held notes
as they will just act to provide a false sense of security. If
Be clear about what your core message is and repeat this at you lose your place in the notes, or have learned what to
different stages during the presentation in order to increase say and then mix up your notes, your level of effectiveness
its impact. Is it to inform? To sell your idea? To defend a in the eyes of the audience will be diminished.
position? To present a new idea? Whatever the answer, ● Rehearse in advance. Trial runs are an excellent method
keep asking yourself why in different ways. What is the of preparation and allow you to establish how long
objective I want to achieve? What will I accept as evidence your presentation will take. This also develops your
that my presentation has succeeded? What do I want the self-confidence, which will work to reduce your
audience to think or feel at the end of the presentation? nervousness.
Analyse your audience. What are their expectations ● Pay attention to your ‘mannerisms’ and work to
of your presentation? Do they expect to be informed? overcome them. Ask a friend/family member to
Persuaded? Have their existing ideas challenged? What highlight any repeated unconscious behaviours you
do you they already know? The key to a successful might have, such as running your hands through
presentation is to know what your audience expects and your hair; shaking the change in your pocket; swaying
that you meet or exceed that expectation. from side to side; or speaking too fast. These are very
How much time do you have for your presentation? distracting for the audience.
Be careful not to run over an allocated time slot. This will ● Practise deep breathing before you get to the room/
detract from your effectiveness. place where the presentation is to be made. This will
What should you wear? This may seem a little strange help reduce the overall feeling of nervousness.
to include here; however, confidence is an important ● Be in the room in plenty of time and check that the
element in an effective presentation. You need to be equipment and your presentation are working.
comfortable and appropriately dressed to project the ● Thinking positive means you are more likely to feel and
‘right’ message. behave positively.

xxiii
xxiv | Skills development |

Structuring your presentation Time Management Skills

The golden rule is simple: People who effectively manage their time are the highest
● Tell them what you are going to tell them achievers in all walks of life, from business, to sport,
(introduction). to public service. Yet, they have only the same number
● Tell them (main body). of hours in a day as the rest of us. This is why time
● Tell them what you’ve told them (conclusion). management is believed to be a critical skill for success.
Many people spend their days in a frenzy of activity, but
achieve very little because they are not concentrating on
The introduction the right things. Mobile phones, laptops and e-mail mean
we are virtually contactable 24 hours a day. People often
● The introduction should comprise approximately 10 feel unable to go on holiday without being able to be
percent of your presentation. It should provide a map contacted. Technology has made us accessible no matter
for the reader of what is going to come. where we are, whether it’s in the Outer Hebrides or on
● Introduce the topic, and yourself (if necessary). the Amazon. In the section below we provide some tips
● Start with an attention-getting hook – make a bold and techniques to help you become more effective at
claim, present a striking fact/statistic, ask a question, managing your most valuable resource – your time.
use a quotation. If you have a suitable quote, surprising
information or a visual aid – use it to grab the
audience’s attention. Your workspace

Where you work has a significant impact on your

Body language productivity and mental wellbeing! While some people
are happy to work surrounded by paper, files, teacups
● Speak clearly and audibly throughout. Vary the etc., other people seem to be able to work at a clutter-
tone of your voice, as this creates interest in your free desk. In reality, the brain can only concentrate fully
message. on one thing at a time. The more ‘stuff ’ on your desk, the
● Face the audience, not the screen behind you or your more tempted you will be to be distracted by it and to
laptop. Speak to the audience and make eye contact pick it up. This instantly causes a distraction. Cluttered
with people in the room. This demonstrates that you desks are not conducive to clear thinking. You should:
are paying attention to them and encourages them to ● Clear your desk of everything not related to what
pay attention to you. you are working on now. Otherwise your attention is
● Don’t speak too fast, as your message can get lost in constantly being drawn to other issues/tasks.
translation. ● Resist the temptation to leave papers/a file/book on
● Show enthusiasm for the topic/issue/idea, as your desk.
enthusiasm is contagious. ● Always leave your desk tidy and empty when you are
● Project your voice out towards the audience. Do not finished working at night.
speak down to your shoes!
● Regard the presentation as an opportunity
to shine. Work efficiently

Handle each piece of paper/each e-mail only once. The

The conclusion principle behind handling paper/e-mails only once is
that it forces you to make a decision about every piece
● Remind the audience of what you set out to do at of paper/e-mail you touch. Avoid reading something
the start. That means stressing the key point of your and then saying ‘I’ll deal with that later’. The rules are
presentation. either:
● Briefly repeat the main points you made. ● Do it straight away.
● End on an interesting point, as this assists people in ● Decide to postpone it until later and identify that it
remembering your presentation. still needs to be done.
● Thank the audience for listening and invite questions. ● When in doubt . . . throw it out or delete it!
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It is the poet, again, who has
continued the use of the word flagon, regardless of the anachronism. Be it a
tankard, a mug, jug, can, pot, bottle or glass, such prosaic terms are swept
aside in verse to figure as the “flagon” or the “flowing bowl.”
The tankard of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries becomes more
utilitarian, and more national in character. The body is drum-like in form, and
the cover is flat. In order to show how little the form differed from Charles II
to William III, the examples illustrated on page 111 prove this point. The
earlier example, on the right, is chased with acanthus and palm leaves. The
beaded ornament on the handle is a feature in both.
Two other specimens are illustrated on page 111, both with the York date
letter B for 1684, the year before the death of Charles II. One is made by
George Gibson and the other by William Busfield. The taller tankard has a flat
two-membered lid, and the other has a flat one-membered lid. In both these
examples it is observable that the scroll handles have an extension of no
utilitarian value. It is not beautiful nor useful. In comparison with the William
III example illustrated on same page, the difference will at once be seen. In
these examples a noticeable feature is the moulded base. Gradually the
spread foot became of diminished size. It was of no practical use. Later forms
show a restraint, almost a poverty of symmetrical design, by the absence of
the foot. The form becomes more squat. We are accustomed to it in English
plate, but it compares slightly unfavourably with foreign plate, where the
balance is more sustained. The massive handle really demands a more solid
base. In the York examples, where the finials of the handle trail on the
ground, it is especially noticeable. The billets or thumb-pieces are evidently
designed for ornament, and follow earlier examples of greater proportions. If
they err, they err on the side of strength.
In the Exeter example illustrated on page 115, the maker’s mark is ., and
the piece also bears the stamped marks of Britannia and the lion’s head
erased, denoting the higher standard. The date letter is for 1705. This is
typically Queen Anne style, and is a year after Marlborough’s great victory at
Blenheim. The scroll handle is massive and the terminal is level with the base.
The marks are illustrated at the foot of the page, and can be seen clearly on
the body of the piece below the cover. It is an extremely interesting specimen,
worthy of the cabinet of the collector. The thumb-piece is in the form of a
convoluted scroll resembling the shell-like ornament placed on early salt
cellars. It is essentially a metal-worker’s device, but it may be remarked that
in salt cellars of faience the same ornament is used. The Lambeth delft salt
cellar of the late seventeenth century, illustrated on page 161, indicates this
parallel between the potter and the silversmith.

QUEEN ANNE TANKARD.

With Exeter marks for 1705. Maker’s mark
Ao. Including the Higher Standard marks.
(Illustrated above.)
(By courtesy of Spencer Cox, Esq.)
 GEORGE II MUG.
With Exeter marks for 1733 illustrated.
 GEORGE II TANKARD.
With Exeter marks for 1748 (illustrated p.
391).
(By courtesy of Messrs. Ellett Lake & Son,
Exeter.)
The other two Exeter examples are illustrated on page 117, and are of the
period of George II. It will be seen that the cover leaves the flat form hitherto
fixed during a long period extending back to Charles II, and begins to resume
the domed shape of the early Elizabethan types. But there is no knob or
button with baluster ornament such as in the earlier forms. The dome top of
the later period is exceptionally reticent. In turning back to the William III
example illustrated on page 111, in date 1701, it will be seen that the flat top
did, on occasion, have an ornament; in this example the ornament takes an
elaborate form, but as a rule the flat-topped tankard without ornament may
be said to extend from about 1640 to 1740. In the Exeter tankard, dated
1748, the handle still follows the previous styles, and adds an ornamental
form in its terminal which gives a pleasing effect with its terminal in double
curves. The adjacent mug is the precursor of the new form of vessel which
became individual. The tankard was passed around and followed the custom
observed in the loving-cup. But the mug was personal and exhibited a change
in the drinking habits of the common folk. It became a common utensil in inns
in pewter, and its proportions were governed by statute. The date of this
silver mug is 1733, in the reign of George II. The marks, with the Exeter date
letter for the year 1733, are shown under the illustration (page 117).

The Stuart Beaker

The potter and the glassworker were always dogging the heels of the
silversmith. Now and again the silversmith borrowed an idea from the other
arts. The Stuart beakers are a class apart. We illustrate examples from the
opening years of the seventeenth century—James I, 1606, to the days of
Charles II. The James I beaker, in date 1606, shows the engraved floral
design of well-balanced proportions. It is a tall, cylindrical vessel, and the
decoration is in keeping with the surface to be ornamented. The engraving
slightly suggests in its character, though not in its technique, the strapwork
decoration of the same period. The marks of this piece are given on page
361.
These are interesting illustrations of evolution. The second example of the
time of Charles I shows a slackness in design which compares unfavourably
with the specimen of the previous reign. This is a piece just prior to the
outburst of the Civil War. Even here, slight as is the engraving, we catch the
suggestion of the later Stuart lozenge decoration employed in other arts, as
for instance in furniture, notably in Stuart chair backs of this period. The love
for the parallelogram was not confined to the silver worker.
The Charles II beaker, in date 1671, is without ornament. It was made a year
after the infamous secret treaty of Dover, when Charles II became a
pensioner of Louis XIV to the tune of £150,000 down and £225,000 a year.
 JAMES I BEAKER. CHARLES II CHARLES I BEAKER.
1606. BEAKER. 1671. 1631.

Marks (illustrated p. 361.)

(By courtesy of Messrs. Elkington & Co.)
The process of evolution is plain. First the tall shape with the spreading foot,
followed by the squatter form with less ornament where the foot disappears,
and is succeeded in a short time by the plain type. Here we have the
precursor of the glass tumbler. What the silversmith made was obviously too
expensive for the ordinary person. The glass workers introduced by the Duke
of Buckingham from Venice in the reign of Charles II found a fashion ready to
their hands. This silver beaker of the days of the Merry Monarch stands as a
prototype of the modern glass tumbler. The succession of forms is something
to be proud of in the history of a country. The peculiar usage of words, the
continuance of old observances, and the development of costume, have each
found exponents to specialize on the evolution of types and the succession to
present forms. But who has idealized the glass tumbler of the public-house
bar? Here in silver is the definite prototype, and no glass maker has invented
anything more suitable. For wear and tear he has made the base thicker, or
shall we say to disguise the fact that the glass contains less than it purports to
hold?
The Wine Cup
The Stuart wine cups of silver are of exceptional interest. They are of graceful
form and exhibit a variety of baluster ornament of pleasing character. The tall
wine cup of the time of James I is the work of Peter Peterson, a noted
silversmith of Norwich. The Norwich mark of the castle and the maker’s mark
of the orb and cross are clearly visible in the illustration of the cup itself, and
are further illustrated on page 395. The stem is slender and of baluster form.
The upper part of the bowl has small trefoils of engraved ornament depending
on the line running around the brim. The lower part of the bowl is embossed
with leaves and floral conventional pattern. The foot is similarly embossed.
Sometimes these wine cups, or grace cups as they are termed, because it is
believed that they were used at the end of a banquet to drink a grace, have
octagonal bowls. These are found in the early seventeenth century. Other
forms are like the modern open-bowled champagne-glass.
Charles I wine cups obviously are not common. The Civil War laid a heavy toll
on such portable articles. During the Commonwealth, according to all report,
in the words of Butler in his Hudibras, the Roundheads had a tendency to

Compound for sins they are inclin’d to

By damning those they have no mind to,

and we have Lord Macaulay’s well-known pronouncement that the Puritans

condemned bear-baiting not so much for the pain which it gave to the bear,
as for the pleasure which it gave to the spectators. It is not to be supposed,
therefore, that wine cups of the Commonwealth period were much in
evidence. To come to the days of Charles II, the Great Fire of London in 1666
did enormous damage. The Clothworkers’ Hall burnt for three days and nights
on account of the oil in the cellars. The Pepys Cup happily was saved, as we
have seen. This was in September, but so great was the area of the fire in the
city that the ground continued to smoke in December. Lady Carteret told
Pepys that pieces of burned paper were driven by the wind as far as
Cranborne in Windsor Forest. London remained in ruins till 1668. Pepys goes
to Whitehall at the outset of the fire to tell the King what he had seen, and he
suggested precautions by blowing up houses to stop the spread of the fire.
Pepys is solicitous for the safety of the Navy Office, which was between
Crutched Friars and Seething Lane, and Sir William Penn brought the
workmen from Woolwich and Deptford yards to demolish houses on the
“Tower Street and Fenchurch sides.” It is interesting to read that the Diarist
sent off his money, plate, and valuables to Sir W. Rider at Bethnal Green, and
then he and Sir William Penn dug a hole in their garden in which they put
their wine and Parmezan cheese. All this is piquant in regard to the
vicissitudes of fortune through which our old plate has passed.

JAMES I TALL WINE CUP.

Norwich hall-mark. Maker,
Peter Peterson.
(Marks illustrated p. 395.)
(By courtesy of Messrs.
Crichton Brothers.)
The examples of wine cups illustrated on page 129 show two forms. One is
taller than the other, and they stand as the great prototypes in solid silver of
our modern wine glasses. Indeed, there is nothing to indicate that they are of
silver in the illustration, save the dark surface of the bowl. It is pleasant to be
able to give a Charles I piece dated 1631. The maker of this is William Shute.
This belongs to the earlier period of the reign of Charles I, when the shadows
were deepening. It is a delicately balanced cup with slender stem and finely
proportioned baluster ornament. The marks are illustrated page 361. The
other cup is of the Charles II period, and the marks are shown beneath, the
maker’s being P. D. and the date letter being for 1665, an eventful year.
The Plague of London was now at its height. The first Dutch war commenced,
and in June the Dutch were defeated under Van Tromp at Lowestoft.
The adjacent illustration (page 129) shows other contemporary metal work.
Here is a brass candlestick of the middle seventeenth century. The baluster
ornament is common to the silver cup and to the brass candlestick. No two of
these candlesticks are alike, the baluster ornament varying according to the
individual mood of the maker. It is the same factor which predominates in
Jacobean furniture with turned rails with varying ornaments. The chain is
complete. The silversmith, the brass-worker, the woodcarver, and the
glassblower each found, according to his technique, this style of ornament
pleasing to his mind. Accordingly the collector who comes after may see for
himself the influence each has had on the other. The student may see in the
established form of the stem of the modern wine glass something tempting
him to linger over the process of evolution.

The Punch-bowl
Artists and writers have made the punch-bowl of the eighteenth century
familiar. The china collector well knows that it was not always of silver. The
amateur collector is always to the fore with his punch-ladle with silver bowl
and ebony handle, and the said ladle must always have a coin of the period
soldered at the bottom of the bowl to denote its genuineness. Alas! so few of
these are authentic. The coin, which among other things should be the stamp
of veracity, does not agree with the hall-marks—and one lie in a piece damns
it in its entirety. It is a sad story, but punch-ladles seem to be the first step in
obliquity of the faker. They are easy to make, and apparently easy to palm off
on the young collector. There are hundreds of people who have a punch-ladle
with a history—not the real history—but they have not a punch-bowl. It is like
having a bridle without a horse.
 STUART SILVER WINE CUPS.
Taller, 1631 (Charles I). Maker, William Shute. (Marks
illustrated p. 361.)
Smaller, 1665 (Charles II). (Marks illustrated
beneath.)
(In possession of Messrs. Garrard.)
 BRASS CANDLESTICK.
English Middle Seventeenth
Century.
Height 7 in.
(In collection of author.)
The “Monteith” form of punch-bowl, with removable rim of scalloped form,
made thus for the insertion of wine glasses, was known as early as 1701.
Nobody can say why the term “Monteith” was applied to this, but presumably
it was taken from the inventor or first user, much in the same manner as our
current words, sandwich, orrery, cardigan, wellington, identify objects first
used by, or contemporary with, the persons whose names they bear.
The punch-bowl is comparatively modern, inasmuch as the beverage itself is
not of ancient date. The word “punch” is said to have been derived from the
Hindustani, signifying the five ingredients—spirit, water, sugar, lemon, and
spice. “A quart of ale is a dish for a king,” says Shakespeare in A Winter’s Tale;
“Then to the spicy nut-brown ale,” says Milton in his L’Allegro. With the advent
of William III there is no doubt that spirit drinking became prevalent, though
it was not till the middle of the eighteenth century that the evil became a
national crime fostered by the greed of the Government for taxes. The
drunkenness in the reign of George II was appalling. William Hogarth, the
great satirist of the eighteenth century, holds the mirror to his day in the two
prints, Beer Street and Gin Lane, published in 1751. In the former, though it
cannot be said to be idyllic, the comparative prosperity of the populace under
the beer-drinking regime is satirically compared with their condition under the
dominion of Gin in his companion picture, where for gruesome details the
graver of the satirist is unsurpassed. In the foreground of this truly horrible
print is a woman half in rags, evidently in a drunken condition, while the
infant is slipping from her arms into a cellar, from which hangs the distiller’s
spirit measure. Hogarth does not believe in half-truths. A stupefied wretch
close by is clutching a keg of gin. On an adjacent parapet a dog is sharing a
bone with a sot. The pawnbroker is shown as doing a busy trade. A woman is
giving gin to her infant from a glass. The tottering buildings with falling bricks
are symbolic of the utter rottenness of the social fabric. The spire of St.
George’s, Bloomsbury, stands out as indicative of the aloofness of the Church
to this devilish orgy. St. Giles is triumphant. The lurid background completes a
terrible indictment of the Government of the day—the ghouls lifting a man
into a coffin with a naked child at the foot, the bandaged heads and lifted
stools of a drunken mob, the drunken man in a wheelbarrow with more gin
being poured down his throat. Hogarth with his touch of irony combines the
pathos of tears, young children standing innocently apathetic to all this, the
everyday environment of their lives. This was Hogarth’s biting criticism on the
attempt to stimulate the drinking of spirits and decrease the consumption of
beer. Hogarth is coarse, he is offensive, he is brutal; but he deserves well of
all who love truth. Rabelais had to paint his satires in gigantic gruesomeness
to reach the ear of his day. Brutishness cannot be exorcised by the sprinkling
of rose-water.
The punch-bowl comes straight from this period. We take it as we find it,
symbolic of days when Members of Parliament did not disdain to hiccough
their drunken speeches in the House, when Cabinet Ministers were not
ashamed of being drunk.
This belongs to the early Georgian era; it is associated with Jacobite plots,
with suppers held in secret, with toasts drunk in solemn ritual to the King over
the water. It belongs to the hunting squires and parsons too, to the nabobs
from “John Company,” and to the nebulous period of Hanoverian ascendancy.
The Stuarts were dead with their fateful, romantic, and final downfall. Their
memory lingered in the people’s hearts; it was kept alive by the old religion,
and it haunted the songs of the people. But the Georges, by law elect, had
planted their feet firmly—and the House of Hanover survived all romance.
Among the classes of punch-bowls the Monteith takes the aristocratic place.
Its decoration is pretentious. Its utility, with its removable rim with the
scalloped edge, is its claim to recognition, by the collector. The specimen
illustrated (page 135), in date 1704, comes straight from the days when
Charles Mordaunt, Lord Peterborough, performed his marvellous exploits in
Spain. He captured Barcelona in 1705. Scholar, wit, man of fashion, he was
Commander-in-Chief of the armies and the fleet in the Spanish War. He was
as chivalrous as Don Quixote. He married Anastasia Robinson, the prima
donna of her day. “Brave to temerity, liberal to profusion, courteous in his
dealings with his enemies, a protector of the oppressed, an adorer of woman
—the last of the knights-errant. He lived,” says Walpole, his biographer, “a
romance, but was capable of making it a history.” This specimen comes
straight from these days of sea fight and land fight in Spain and in the Low
Countries under Marlborough, when “our army,” to quote Uncle Toby, “swore
terribly in Flanders.”
The Queen Anne soberness of design seems to have been discarded in these
Monteiths. There is something rococo and elaborate, as though in defiance of
established reticence. The heavy ornament of lion’s head and handles, the
massive gadrooned edge of the scalloped design, the bowl deeply fluted, the
embossed medallion with coat of arms, and the foot enriched with beaded
ornament, all indicate that such specimens were regarded as the Standing
Cup, so to speak, of the period.
With the punch-bowl an end practically is made of silver vessels for drinking.
The sovereignty of glass was now established. Porcelain and even
earthenware had made inroads into the silversmith’s domain. The age of
modernity was at hand.
 “MONTEITH” PUNCH BOWL. LONDON, 1704.
Higher Standard Marks and Maker, Andrew Fogelberg.
(By courtesy of Messrs. Elkington & Co.)
 SALE PRICES
Prices are always problematical. Specimens vary according to state, and
other factors determining the price per ounce at which they are sold.
Some of the following prices obtained at auction may be of interest to
readers:—

STANDING CUPS.
These are among the most sumptuous pieces of English silver. Prices
always range high.
£
Tudor cup, 6 oz. 15 dwt. (1525) 880
” on foot, 14 oz. 3 dwts. (1521) 4,130
” and cover (James I) (1640), 66 oz. 4,000
Standing cup, Charles I, 470s. per oz. 82
” Charles II, 1 oz. 13 dwts., 520s. per oz. 42
Loving-cup, Charles II (1678), 170s. per oz. 69
” William and Mary (1688), 165s. per oz. 88
” Queen Anne (1703), 120s. per oz. 140

TANKARDS.
£
James I tankard (1504) 1,720
Elizabethan tankard and cover (1599), 21 oz. 15 dwt. (a record
2,300
price)
Elizabethan (Huth sale) (1573) 1,700
Charles I plain tankard (1629), 750s. per oz. 667
Plain tankard; York; maker, Marmaduke Best (1671), 195s. per
234
oz.
Commonwealth (1649), maker AF., 290s. per oz. 413
The range of prices is: Commonwealth, about £20 per oz.; Charles II, £8
to £10 per oz.; William and Mary, £4 per oz.; Anne, £2 per oz.; George
I, 20s. per oz.

BEAKERS.
£
Henry VII, silver-gilt (1496), 6 oz. 16 dwt. sold in 1902 1,270
Elizabethan (1599), 490s. per oz. 197
Charles I (1635), 315s. per oz. 73
Charles II (1662), 290s. per oz. 46
William III (1699), 170s. per oz. 66

WINE CUPS.
£
Elizabethan goblet, 7 oz., 530s. per oz. 188
Charles I, wine cup (1638), 3 oz. 14 dwts. 88
Commonwealth Goblet (1650); maker, HS., 800s. per oz. 118

PUNCH-BOWLS.
£
William III “Monteith” (1701), 100s. per oz. 398
Queen Anne “Monteith” (1705), 70s. per oz. 267
Punch-bowl (1750), 23s. per oz. 15
IV
THE
SALT CELLAR
 CHAPTER IV
THE SALT CELLAR
Early salt cellars—The standing salt—The hour-glass form—
The bell-shaped salt—The seventeenth century—octagonal
and circular types—The eighteenth century—trencher salts
—Tripod salts—The openwork style with glass liner—The
evolution of form in the salt cellar of the later periods.
In the old days when costume determined the gentle from the simple,
when demarcations of rank were definitely pronounced, when men wore
feathers in their hats and swords at their sides, when retainers and
menials sat at the same board with their lord and lady, the customs of
the table were not our customs. It was only in Elizabeth’s day, when
dinner was served at a long table, that the oaken floor replaced rushes.
The diners threw bones to the dogs, and although sweet sounds came
from the musician’s gallery, the scene one may recall is one rather of
barbaric splendour than of luxurious refinement. To him who loves to
quicken the dry bones of collecting into something pulsating with life,
the salt cellar provides a delight which is not easily equalled. It was an
honoured guest at every feast. It was the social thermometer which
marked the exact degree of rank of the sitters. Persons of distinction sat
above the salt, and between it and the head of the table. Those who sat
below the salt were dependents and inferior guests.
If only these salt cellars reproduced as illustrations could give tongue to
the secrets they caught in whisper from the upper end of the table
before the withdrawing chamber, prototype of our modern drawing-
room, became a necessity! If walls had ears, and if the salt cellars of
Tudor England or of the stormy days of the Stuarts could have been
fitted with American gramophone wax cylinders, the by-ways of secret
history would be less tangled to the historian.
Had this been the case, modern millionaires would have been in
competition with one another to secure precious records, as it is only a
rich man who can afford to gather together a representative collection
of old salt cellars. But for all that, the collector with small means, who is
less ambitious, may obtain specimens that are of exceptional interest,
and in his quest he may, even in these days when collectors scour
Europe, come across an example which may be antique.
As may be imagined, these “salts” are very varied in character. They
may be of silver, of earthenware, or of ivory. They may be of simple
form with little to distinguish them artistically, or, on the other hand, of
such intricate design and rare workmanship as to make them superb
examples of the art of the jeweller or silversmith.
 STANDING SALT CELLAR. GOTHIC
PERIOD. c. 1500.
Hour-glass form. Height 9¹/₄ in. From a
drawing by De la Motte.
(At Christ’s College, Cambridge.)
Take, for instance, the salt cellar sold at Christie’s in 1902 for £3,000. It
was only 7⁵/₈ inches in height. It is silver-gilt, bearing the London hall-
mark for 1577, and the maker’s mark, a hooded falcon, probably the
work of Thomas Bampton, of the “Falcon.” The receptacle for the salt is
of rock crystal, and the base stands upon claw feet, which are of crystal.
The cover is square, having a circular dome top, above which stands a
delicately modelled figure of a cherub as an apex.
A standing salt of the time of James I, with the London hall-mark for
1613, was sold at Christie’s in 1903 for £1,150. The height of this is 11³/
₈ inches, and beyond its special value on account of its age and rarity,
its form is not possessed of greater elegance than many a lowly pepper
caster whose presence it would scorn on the same board.
From the rare Henri II majolica of the sixteenth century to the humble
trencher salt, the range of salt cellars is a comprehensive one. The most
sumptuous examples, set in a magnificence of chased design exhibiting
the finest craftsmanship of the goldsmith and silversmith, command
high prices on account of their rarity, and old salts of exceptional
character place their collecting in the hands of the elect whose cabinets
are known all over the world. But there are many lesser examples of the
silversmith’s work, and it is not yet too late to acquire pieces suggestive
of days when at the table “the jest was crowned at the upper end and
the lower half made echo.”
The City Companies possess many fine examples, and among the
college plate at Oxford and Cambridge there are many unequalled
specimens of the high-standing old salts. There is the silver-gilt plain salt
presented by Roger Dunster to the Clothworkers’ Company in 1641, and
another a drum-shaped salt, silver-gilt, the “Guift of Daniel Waldo,
Clothworker, Esquire, ano 1660.” Then there is the circular salt and
cover, 22 inches high, of the Goldsmiths’ Company, with the date letter
of the year 1601, which was “the guift of Richard Rogers, Comptroller of
His Majties Mynt” ... “desiring the same may bee used at their solemne
meetings and to bee remembered as a good benefactor, anno dni 1632.”
This salt has a body of glass, round which are two silver-gilt collars in
chased and repoussé work. The Goldsmiths’ Company have other salts,
notably one the “Gift of Thomas Seymour” in 1693. The Haberdashers’
Company have a circular salt the gift of Sir Hugh Hammersley in 1636.
The Innholders’ Company have two circular salts the gift of John
Wetterworth in 1626, and a circular salt, silver-gilt, 16 inches high, with
a dome raised on four scrolls, terminated by an obelisk, the gift of Anne,
widow of John Sweete, 1635. The Ironmongers’ Company have two fine
silver salts, parcel gilt, shaped like hour-glasses, having six-foiled sides,
in three of which is foliage engraved. The date of one is 1518 and of the
other 1522. The Skinners’ Company have a silver-gilt octagonal salt 9
inches high, the gift of Ben Albin, a member, in 1676. The Mercers’
Company salts we are enabled to illustrate by courteous permission. The
Vintners’ Company have a fine silver-gilt salt, the gift of John Powel,
Master of the Company, in 1702. It is like a square casket in form, with
panels richly decorated in bold relief with figures, and the cover
surmounted by an urn upon which stands a female figure.
ELIZABETHAN BELL-SHAPED SALT CELLAR.
Having compartments for salt and spices. On
three ball feet. London 1601. Decorated
with designs of roses in flat chasing in
upright panels.
(By courtesy of Messrs. Crichton Brothers.)
Some rare examples are in the possession of corporate bodies. There is
the silver-gilt salt and cover, 15¹/₄ inches high, belonging to the
Corporation of Norwich. This is, as the inscription indicates, “The Gyfte
of Petar Reade Esqviar.” The plate marks are a roman capital letter D,
the arms of Norwich, and a cross mound within a lozenge. It was made
at Norwich, and its date is not later than 1568, for Peter Reade died in
that year.
Then there is the wonderful Ashburnham salt cellar and cover of the
time of Henry VII, the earliest standing salt, 12¹/₂ inches high, bearing
the London hall-mark of the year 1508, and the maker’s mark, a rising
sun. This was bought by Messrs. Crichton Brothers for £5,600.
Later salt cellars, while still being collectors’ pieces, depart from the
older form when “below the salt” had no meaning. The old silver salt
cellars of Queen Anne and Georgian days are another story. The
elegance of form and the quaint reticence of design make them
desirable acquisitions for any modern dining-table.
During the past twenty years, when the furniture of Chippendale and of
Sheraton has been collected with such avidity to refurnish old homes
and to give age to modern mansions, the demand for old silver
accessories of the table has been equally great. In consequence,
spurious silver of later date, with the old hall-marks cunningly inserted,
has appeared in great quantities. As a warning to the collector of “old
salts,” it cannot too strongly be urged that in his earliest flights he
should consult a friend who has passed through the same stages before
him. The same advice is, unfortunately, necessary in connection with
collecting old china and old furniture. The literature of these two
subjects is more ready to hand, and there are many popular handbooks
designed to set the feet of the novice in collecting on the right path. In
silver collecting there is always a sure road. In furniture or in china there
is no puissant company of furniture experts or china moralists. The
buyer may be advised to use his common sense and demand that the
dealer put on the invoice the exact description of the goods he is selling.
If after expert advice the purchaser finds he has been deceived, he has
his remedy in a court of law. But with silver, there are the hall-marks
determined by law for the protection of the public. The Goldsmiths’
Company exist to safeguard the public against fraud, and their
honourable traditions extend, as we have seen, over four hundred years.
If any buyer has any doubt as to the London marks or the provincial
marks on a piece of silver he has purchased, it is easy to establish their
authenticity. If, for instance, the mark is a London one, the Goldsmiths’
Company would obviously be pleased to discover the identity of any one
counterfeiting their ancient marks. They have statutory powers to inflict
fines on persons convicted of such malpractices, and in the public
interest they would naturally prosecute inquiries as to how false marks
came to be placed on silver purporting to be assayed by an old and
honourable company.

CIRCULAR SALT CELLAR.

Silver-gilt. Dated 1638, and having
London hall-mark of that date.
Greatest height 6³/₁₆ in.
 Engraved with the arms of the Mercers’
Company and the arms of John
Dethick, the donor.
(See marks illustrated p. 365.)
(By courtesy of the Mercers’ Company.)
You may search the chronological tables of the statutes through and
through, and you will find nothing relative to punishments specially laid
down to meet the case of fabricators of old furniture or old china, but in
regard to forging old silver marks there are a multitude of protective
measures. There is reform needed in the laws relating to silver, and
urgently needed. We offer this suggestion to some Member of
Parliament bursting to distinguish himself. It was urgently recommended
by the Committee of 1856, and a Bill was prepared by the
Commissioners of Inland Revenue in 1857, but nothing came of it. The
Select Committee of the House of Commons, again, in 1879 made
further recommendations, but no restrictive measure has ever been laid
before Parliament. “There is much to say for the old demand of the
Goldsmiths’ Company for further powers of enforcing the law than the
mere right to sue for penalties. Sales by auction now take place with
practical impunity, no matter how spurious and debased the goods may
be, and there is evidence and to spare to show that the general sense of
the trade and the public is in favour of the preservations of the old
guarantee.”
The study of salt cellars suggests a flying word on the salt spoon. To
quote from an essay by Addison, dated 1711, the Spectator says, in an
account he gives of dining with a fine lady: “In the midst of these my
Musings she desires me to reach her a little Salt upon the point of my
Knife, which I did in such Trepidation and hurry of Obedience, that I let
it drop by the way, at which she immediately startled and said it fell
towards her. Upon this I looked very blank; and, observing the Concern
of the whole Table, began to consider myself with some confusion, as a
person that had brought some Disaster upon the Family.” This is a pretty
picture of eighteenth century “high life.” The superstition concerning the
spilling of salt is still with us, but helping salt with a knife is no longer in
fashion in “polite society.”
In general salt cellars may be classified as follows, commencing with the
Standing Salt, with its determination of rank as to those who sat above
the salt and those who sat below it:—
Standing Salts.—The earliest are shaped like hour-glasses. These
belong to the fifteenth and first half of sixteenth century.
Cylindrical and casket forms, with rich ornamentation in
repoussé work, with chased figures and surmounted by cover
with standing figure, are found in the sixteenth century. E.g.
the Standing Salt, part of the Stoke Prior treasure, dated
1563 (at the Victoria and Albert Museum).
The Bell-shaped Salt is of the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth century, and the tall Steeple Salt belongs to the
same period. The above types often had compartments in
tiers reserved for spices.
The circular and octagonal forms of lesser height, with three
and sometimes four guards with scroll ends, belong to the
seventeenth century.
 OCTAGONAL SALT CELLAR.
With four guards. London, 1679.
Having the arms of the company and
inscribed “Ex dono Henrici Sumner.
Mr.” This is known as the Sumner Salt,
the gift of the Master of that date.
Greatest height 8³/₈ in.
(For marks see p. 357.)
(By courtesy of the Mercers’ Company.)
Trencher Salts.—These were in use contemporaneously with the tall
standing salts, either on less formal occasions or at the lower
end of the table below the salt.
 Early forms in the first half of the seventeenth century are
circular (1603) or triangular (1630). These were diminutive,
measuring only some 3 inches across, and being sometimes
only 1 inch high.
Eighteenth-century Salts.—A great variety of form is apparent, and
many styles succeeded each other, disappearing only to be
revived a quarter of a century later. Circular (1698-1710),
oval, octagonal (1715-40), tripod (1750). Circular with three
feet; oblong and octagonal, slightly taller (1775), with
pierced work on four feet, and with glass liner. Oblong, plain,
with four feet. Tureen-shaped or boat-shaped, plain, with
swelling foot, sometimes with rings as handles, or with two
handles (1780). Shell-shaped salts in vogue 1788; circular,
vase-shaped, with lions’ heads and tripod feet (1798).
Early Nineteenth-century Salts.—George IV and William IV styles,
a reversion to some of the older types. The tureen and the
circular-shaped salt, with four or three feet (1820-1830).
Circular bowls on stands, with tripod and elaborate feet, the
fashion (1810-1830). Many pieces betray classical influence.
The illustrations of the various types of salt cellars should be sufficient to
indicate to the reader the great field which is open to him. The
examples range from the rarer earlier periods to the beginning of the
nineteenth century. The descriptions given of the successive stages in
fashion and in design should stimulate the interest of the student in
regard to the undercurrents of evolution progressive, and often
retrogressive, through three centuries of the silversmith’s art.
The standing salt, in hour-glass form, of the Gothic period at Christ’s
College, Cambridge, illustrated (page 143), is in date about 1500. Its
height is 9¹/₄ inches. It belongs to that great period of Henry VII. It is
contemporary with the magnificent chapel in Westminster Abbey. It has
survived the spoliation of the days of Henry VIII. Its perfect symmetry,
its delicate ornament, its exquisite grace delight the eye. There is
nothing redundant, nothing that calls for amendment. It stands as a
perfect creation of the English silversmith. The unwritten, and never to
be written, history of such a piece is not the least which appeals to us
nowadays. We may revere the exquisite craft of the designer. But there
is a tribute we owe to the sagacious custodians who, possibly in fear of
death, preserved this for posterity. Its hiding-places, its narrow escapes,
its glorious emerging into the light of day, to occupy a niche, almost
sacred, in modern regard, these are happenings that cannot be
chronicled. As an historic relic, a page remaining from the old history of
these realms, such an example claims adoration.
A fine bell salt is illustrated (page 147). It is on three ball feet. It has the
London mark, the letter D in Lombardic capitals, for 1601. It is
decorated in upright panels, with flat chasing with floral design of roses.
It is constructed in compartments for salt and spices and pepper. These
bell salts belong to the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the
seventeenth century; they are mostly on three feet. At the Dunn-
Gardner sale, in 1902, £600 was paid for a specimen. They stand, in
point of time, between the hour-glass form and the steeple salts. Few
appear to have been made, or, at any rate, few are now in existence,
and in consequence they bring great prices on account of their rarity.
The ring at the top is noticeable, mainly as the prototype of the ring-
handle of cruets, with the same contents now in use three hundred
years afterwards. And the ball foot, peculiar to the silversmith as
something especially applicable to his technique is still retained in silver
cruets of to-day.
The circular Stuart salt cellar comes straight from the days of Charles I.
It has the date letter for 1638. See Marks illustrated page 365. This salt
stood on the Mercers’ Company table in 1642—eventful year, when
Charles was misguided enough to go in person to the House of
Commons with his guards to arrest the five members. This was the
signal for the Civil War. The salt cellar we now see was hurriedly put in
the vaults of the Mercers’ Company. The trained-bands of London were
up. The city declared for the Parliament, and Charles raised his standard
at Nottingham. John Dethick, the donor, may have fought in the civic
cause. Here is the salt he gave to his Company in those stirring days, an
illustration of which we are enabled to produce by the courtesy of the
Mercers’ Company. It has three handles with scroll ends. It is an
important piece. It is silver-gilt, and engraved with the arms of the
Mercers’ Company and the arms and crest of John Dethick.
The octagonal salt illustrated (p. 155) shows the style of Charles II. It
has four handles with scroll ends. These handles were for supporting a
napkin which was placed around the salt. It is of the year 1679, and the
marks are illustrated on page 357. It is inscribed, “Ex dono henrici
Sumner Mr.” This is known as the Sumner Salt, and Henry Sumner, the
donor, was Master of the Mercers’ Company at that date. Its diameter is
9¹/₂ inches and its greatest height is 8³/₈ inches. This is the year of the
Habeas Corpus Act. This Act defines the liberties of the subject. All
prisoners except those charged with felony or treason can demand that
they be brought before a judge to test the validity of their detention. All
persons charged with felony or treason must be tried at the next
sessions or else admitted to bail, or, failing this, be discharged. No
person could be recommitted for the same offence and no person
imprisoned beyond the sea. Heavy penalties were imposed on those
who violated this Act.

SPECIMENS OF EARTHENWARE SALT CELLARS.

 LAMBETH DELFT SALT ROUEN FAIENCE SALT
CELLAR. CELLAR.
Late seventeenth century. Early eighteenth century.
Height 4¹/₂ in. Height 3 in.
(In collection of author.)

Contemporary with the silversmith’s work it is interesting to notice in

passing what the potter was doing. We illustrate (p. 161) a Lambeth
delft salt cellar of the late seventeenth century. Its height is only 4¹/₂
inches. It simulates the silver style. The guards or handles are more
shell-like in form than those of the silversmith. The technique of the
potter with his twisting of the plastic clay is responsible of this. But the
furniture maker of the period has something to add, too, in regard to
this form of ornament. In his technique it is termed the “Spanish foot.”
It appears in feet and in the scrolls of handles for chairs.
A salt cellar of Rouen faience is illustrated (p. 161) of the early
eighteenth century. In height this is 3 inches. It shows the square form,
with slight depressed surface at apex for the salt, as though the salt
were a rare commodity. It is interesting, and should help the student to
cast his eyes farther afield in attempting to arrive at conclusions in
regard to definite styles.
Of Trencher salts there is much to say. All that is not poetry is prose, as
Monsieur Jourdain found out. A salt may be Standing—that is, it may be
a ceremonial piece demanding the ritual of its order—or it may be a
mere trencher salt; the name indicates its usage. Instead of being
among the great folk, it was among the dependents at the lower
stratum of the table. Trencher salts were once menial in the earlier
periods, but as time went on the great standing salt disappeared and
trencher salts became general for gentle and simple.
Throughout the eighteenth century, from Queen Anne to George IV
(1820), and in succeeding years the salts were all trencher salts—
because there were none other.
In the early days trencher salts were associated with servility or with
dependence, but later the salt at the elbow of the master of the feast
carried with it nothing derogatory.
From Queen Anne, 1702, to the end of the reign of George I, 1727, little
difference is noticeable and the lowly trencher salt changes very slightly.
It is oblong or it becomes octagonal. But in practical form it is
substantially the same. Two specimens exhibiting this are given (p. 165).
The circular salts, with three feet, belong to the early George III period.
The feet in these are in hoof form with cone-shaped terminals (see
illustration, p. 165).
The early George III period exhibits other varieties of the salt cellar.
There was the wire-work cellar with cast additions, and the pierced and
cut sheet silver. Most of these types are oblong in shape and were
designed to receive a glass liner. These specimens are usually with four
feet. The example dated 1769 is of wire work. The other example
adjacent with floral wreath, dated 1785, is in the French style, which
became prevalent at the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The feet
of these examples are usually claw-and-ball or lion’s paw feet. It may be
interesting to note the contemporary styles of the chair maker. The
same influences were at work governing the worker in wood and the
craftsman in metal.

TRENCHER SALTS.

QUEEN ANNE. 1712. GEORGE II. 1730.

 CIRCULAR SALT WITH THREE FEET.

EARLY GEORGE III. GEORGE III. 1785.

1768.

Feet with hoof-shaped and cone-shaped

terminals.
(By courtesy of Messrs. Elkington & Co.)

SALTS WITH GLASS LINER AND FOUR FEET.

EARLY GEORGE III. GEORGE III. 1785.

1769.

Wire work with cast additions and pierced

and cut sheet silver. Floral wreaths and
 chain period in French style. Claw and ball
feet and lion’s paw feet.

CIRCULAR SALT OBLONG SALT

WITH THREE FEET. WITH FOUR FEET.
GEORGE III. 1786. GEORGE III. 1789.
Cloven hoof feet. Feet with club
terminal.

(By courtesy of Messrs. Elkington & Co.)

The cloven-hoof foot or the club terminal are found in the round shaped
salt cellar in the same period or slightly later. Usually this type is found
with three feet. This plain form dispenses with the glass liner.
Towards the close of the eighteenth century the styles become varied.
There is the tureen form, from which type many variations are based.
Similarly the boat-shaped salt is typical of many similar plain designs of
this nature—some with two handles.
The examples illustrated (p. 171), in vogue from 1781 to 1797, show the
generic type from which similar forms deviate.
As in the above types the swelling foot is a feature, so with other
examples, from 1789 to 1803, the foot disappears. The piece in date
1789, illustrated (p. 171), may be compared with similar circular forms
made by the Staffordshire potters in lustreware for cottage use.
The washing-tub shaped salt cellar, in date 1803, indicates the
decadence of design. The opening years of the nineteenth century show
these poor forms in replacement of the early designs.
Specimens of the days of George IV and William IV (one in date 1820
and the other 1832) are illustrated (p. 173). Here is a reversion to older
forms, the tureen shape with gadrooned edge and with four legs, and
the circular form with three legs.
Of the circular form the classic rotund urn or vase shape seized the
fancy of the silversmith at various periods. As early as 1771 we find the
form in the perforated work, with swags and classic ornamentation,
rather suggestive of French fashions, and obviously intended for use
with a glass liner. This is illustrated (p. 173), and adjacent is a piece
dated 1810, made by Messrs. Rundell, Bridge, and Rundell, of the late
George III period. It is important, as it is silver-gilt. It stands as typical
of the attempt to popularize the Pompeiian forms. The winged figure,
found on tables of the period, the tripod feet of club or goat-like form,
the base with key-pattern ornament, stamp it as of the First Empire.
George III was not yet dead, he was only insane, and Bonaparte had
not been banished to St. Helena. In fact, Wellington was fighting in
Spain, and Waterloo had yet to be fought in 1815. But here is a piece
with the same artistic impulses as the chairs and tables at
Fontainebleau.
The story of the salt cellar comes to an end. Its customs and its dignities
are lost except to those who love the delving into the record of the
manners of past days, “now here, at upper end o’ the table, now i’ the
middle.” The salt cellar has a complete history for three hundred years,
and with its evolution pari passu is the march of social custom.

SALE PRICES

STANDING SALTS.
£
Elizabethan (1573), 10 oz. 245
” (1577), 13 oz. 18 dwts. 720
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