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Sustainability 13 13438 v2

The article presents a GIS-based model for assessing soil quality in the western part of Matrouh Governorate, Egypt, using four main indices: Fertility, Physical, Chemical, and Geomorphologic. The study aims to provide valuable data for decision-makers to improve soil quality and address food security challenges in the region, which relies on seasonal rain for agriculture. The developed soil quality model shows a significant correlation with land capability and can be applied to similar environments for sustainable agricultural practices.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
6 views24 pages

Sustainability 13 13438 v2

The article presents a GIS-based model for assessing soil quality in the western part of Matrouh Governorate, Egypt, using four main indices: Fertility, Physical, Chemical, and Geomorphologic. The study aims to provide valuable data for decision-makers to improve soil quality and address food security challenges in the region, which relies on seasonal rain for agriculture. The developed soil quality model shows a significant correlation with land capability and can be applied to similar environments for sustainable agricultural practices.

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ALI MUHAMMAD
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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sustainability

Article
A GIS-Based Approach for the Quantitative Assessment of Soil
Quality and Sustainable Agriculture
Mostafa A. Abdellatif 1,2 , Ahmed A. El Baroudy 2 , Muhammad Arshad 3 , Esawy K. Mahmoud 2 ,
Ahmed M. Saleh 1 , Farahat S. Moghanm 4 , Kamal H. Shaltout 5 , Ebrahem M. Eid 6,7, *
and Mohamed S. Shokr 2, *

1 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Science (NARSS), Cairo 11843, Egypt;
[email protected] (M.A.A.); [email protected] (A.M.S.)
2 Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt;
[email protected] (A.A.E.B.); [email protected] (E.K.M.)
3 Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61321,
Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
4 Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr El-Sheikh 33516, Egypt;
[email protected]
5 Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt;
[email protected]
6 Biology Department, College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha 61321, Saudi Arabia
7 Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr El-Sheikh 33516, Egypt
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected] (E.M.E.);
 [email protected] (M.S.S.)


Citation: Abdellatif, M.A.; Abstract: Assessing soil quality is considered one the most important indicators to ensure planned
El Baroudy, A.A.; Arshad, M.; and sustainable use of agricultural lands according to their potential. The current study was carried
Mahmoud, E.K.; Saleh, A.M.; out to develop a spatial model for the assessment of soil quality, based on four main quality indices,
Moghanm, F.S.; Shaltout, K.H.; Eid,
Fertility Index (FI), Physical Index (PI), Chemical Index (CI), and Geomorphologic Index (GI), as well
E.M.; Shokr, M.S. A GIS-Based
as the Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing data (RS). In addition to the GI, the
Approach for the Quantitative
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) parameter were added to assess soil quality in the study
Assessment of Soil Quality and
area (western part of Matrouh Governorate, Egypt) as accurately as possible. The study area suffers from
Sustainable Agriculture. Sustainability
2021, 13, 13438. https://doi.org/
a lack of awareness of agriculture practices, and it depends on seasonal rain for cultivation. Thus, it is very
10.3390/su132313438 important to assess soil quality to deliver valuable data to decision makers and regional governments to
find the best ways to improve soil quality and overcome the food security problem. We integrated a
Academic Editor: Jeroen Meersmans Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with Sentinel-2 satellite images to extract landform units of the study
area. Forty-eight soil profiles were created to represent identified geomorphic units of the investigated
Received: 23 October 2021 area. We used the model builder function and a geostatistical approach based on ordinary kriging
Accepted: 1 December 2021 interpolation to map the soil quality index of the study area and categorize it into different classes. The
Published: 4 December 2021 soil quality (SQ) of the study area, classified into four classes (i.e., high quality (SQ2), moderate quality
(SQ3), low quality (SQ4), and very low quality (SQ5)), occupied 0.90%, 21.87%, 22.22%, and 49.23% of
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
the total study area, respectively. In addition, 5.74% of the study area was classified as uncultivated area
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
as a reference. The developed soil quality model (DSQM) shows substantial agreement (0.67) with the
published maps and institutional affil-
weighted additive model, according to kappa coefficient statics, and significantly correlated with land
iations.
capability R2 (0.71). Hence, the model provides a full overview of SQ in the study area and can easily be
implemented in similar environments to identify soil quality challenges and fight the negative factors
that influence SQ, in addition to achieving environmental sustainability.

Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.


Keywords: developed soil quality model; GIS; Egypt; NDVI; geomorphologic index
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
1. Introduction
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Globally, there are more than 800 million people who are chronically undernour-
4.0/). ished [1]. Africa has the highest proportion of people who suffer from chronic hunger [1].

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313438 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability


Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 2 of 24

Assessing and managing soil is considered one of the key ways to achieve food security
by helping to bridge the food demand gap [2]. Political instability in most African coun-
tries affects agricultural practices and leads to underdeveloped and underexploited lands,
having direct consequences for society [3].
In Egypt, agricultural lands are located in the Nile valley and the delta, which represent
about 4% of the total area of Egypt [4]. The agricultural sector in Egypt plays a vital role in
economic growth as it contributes 14.5%, 30%, and 41% of national gross domestic product,
provision of foreign currency, and reducing unemployment, respectively [5].
The definition of soil quality (SQ) is the ability of soil included the ecosystem to supply
plants with the nutrients needed throughout growth stages for the purpose of preserving
crop yield [6–8]. Since SQ supports sustainable soil management as it is linked to soil
productivity, a reliable assessment requires an accurate, multi-faceted quantification [9].
Maintaining soil productivity by soil quality management should be considered earnestly
to ensure sufficient food for the burgeoning world population [10]. Soil quality is influenced
by physical indicators such as bulk density, root depth, and soil texture, and chemical
indicators, such as cation exchange capacity (CEC), electric conductivity (EC), and pH.
There are highly significant correlations between these indictors and soil quality [11,12].
Soil quality could be negatively affected by conversion of land use as soil properties are
significantly influenced by this practice, as it decreases, for example, soil organic carbon
and total nitrogen. In addition, soil contamination by heavy metals may cause risks to
humans and the ecosystem, decrease land suitability for agricultural production, and cause
food insecurity and land tenure problems [13]. Potentially toxic elements have negative
effects on plant growth, crop yield, and quality due to phytotoxicity [14]. Therefore, it is
very important to focus on the sustainable use of agricultural lands to increase the soil
quality [15,16]. To improve soil and water quality, precise measurements and efficient
methods should be conducted [17]. Index indicators are the most appropriate method for
assessing SQ [18]. Developing a soil quality index (SQI) requires selecting an indicator,
scoring it, and then integrating scores into a single value [18]. The weighted additive
index is one of the most used for SQ evaluation based on integrating indicator weights
with corresponding scores [19]. The geometric mean algorism (GMA) and the nth root
of a series of numbers are commonly utilized in assessments of desertification sensitivity
and land suitability [20,21]. The GMA is used to characterize the data average or central
tendency [22]. Analysis of land capability can be used to assess agricultural potential to
face increasing drought impacts [23]. The land assessment concept belongs to the land
performance rate and its capacity for crop production, while land capacity depends on
many factors, such as location and the physical and chemical properties of soil, in addition
to soil potential for agricultural production [24].
Currently, there are many land capability models established to introduce a quantified
procedure to match land with actual and proposed uses, especially for arid and semi-arid
regions, including the study area. An example is the Agricultural Land Evaluation System
for arid and semi-arid regions (ALESarid), developed by Ismail et al. [25]. This model is
combined with Geographic Information System (GIS) software to assess land capability
and could provide a sensible solution given its accuracy, ease of application, and moderate
data required [26]. GIS technology has enabled the spatial variability computation of
different phenomena [27], including investigations of soil properties. Thus, combined GIS
and geostatistical analyses can be very important in assessing the spatial variation of soil
properties and those expected in un-sampled sites [28]. For instance, using variogram
analyses can accurately map the complex spatial relationships between soil data layers [29].
One of the most commonly used interpolation methods is Kriging. This method is based
on the identification of homogeneous subsets of similar yield-limiting factors; thus, it can
sufficiently support precise farming [30,31].
The study area suffers from a lack of awareness of agriculture practices and scarcity
of water as it depends on seasonal rain for cultivation [32]. As the study area is an impor-
tant part of the existent economic activities in Egypt [33], the current study (1) identifies
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 3 of 24

geomorphologic units of the study area and (2) quantitatively assesses soil quality using
the developed model based on four indicators, i.e., chemical, physical, fertility, and geo-
morphologic indices. In addition to the GI, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) parameter were added as a new factors to reflect the specific soil quality and
categorize it into different classes as accurately as possible. Finally, (3) the results from this
model were validated with the weight additive index and correlated with land capability.
To our knowledge, only few studies assess soil quality in the study area, so this paper
offers valuable data to decision makers and regional governments to find the best ways
to increase soil quality and overcome the food security problem, which is one of the most
important challenges in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

2. Materials and Methods


2.1. Study Area Description
The study area is located in the western part of Matrouh Governorate, Egypt. The
studied area, Wadi Al-Halaazin located between longitudes 26◦ 490 58.000 to 26◦ 580 0600 E and
latitudes 31◦ 130 0700 to 31◦ 260 3600 N with total area 21369.74 ha (Figure 1). The international
coastal road passes in the middle of it. Arid climate prevails in the study area as the average
temperature reaches 18 ◦ C in the winter and autumn but ranged from 18 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C in
the summer. The range of rainfall is between 100 and 200 mm/year. In the winter and
spring seasons, the vegetation cover changing due to rainfall is active and the natural
vegetation spreads within study area, particularly in the wadis and streams in addition, the
natural vegetation growth during the autumn and summer seasons because of the natural
vegetation spreads on the fine sand stacks that keep rainwater [31] and barley is the main
crop in the study area in addition small areas of some scattered olive trees (Figures 1 and 2).
In the investigated area, the main geological units are Miocene and Quaternary deposits
according to Ministry of Industry and Mineral Resources (MIMIR) [34] (Figure S1). The
range of elevation is between 11 and 212 above sea level. The lowest elevation was noticed
in the areas close to Mediterranean Sea, while the highest elevation located in the southern
parts (Figure 2). [31]. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) ranged from
low (–0.22) to high (0.73) (Figure S2). The highest values of NDVI (expresses high intensity
of cultivation) [35] were noticed in some small areas of study area (wadi unit) [31].

2.2. Extracting Landforms Units


The input data included: topographic data, information of spectral satellite (sentinel 2
acquired in April/2020), field surveys and stratigraphic characteristics. The NASA Shuttle
Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) Digital elevation model (DEM) (30 ∗ 30 resolution)
(Figure 2) was chosen for study area. A simple filter by focal neighborhood statistics
was used to decrease errors and noises. These noises occurred due to reclassification of
topographic parameters. For the majority and mean focal statistic values, the largest and
average values of the specified neighborhood pixels were assigned to the canter pixel
of the moving window [36]. Algorithm of Planchon and Darboux [37] to correct DEM
then corrected DEM was used to derive the indices of topographic (slope, aspect, plan
curvature, profile curvature, slope length and steepness, relative slope position, valley
depth, and analytical hill shading; Figure S3) with the SAGA GIS software [38]. By this
method, we were able to identify the different landform units relied on satellite image
visual interpretation and DEM in a 3D visualization mode, a hillshade in addition, field
truth points [39] with the help of previous studies that were done on this area [40] trying to
give the most appropriate nomenclature to landforms.
Sustainability 2021,
Sustainability 2021, 13, x13438 4 44ofof 24
Sustainability 2021,13,
13, x of2525

Figure
Figure
Figure1. Location
1.1.Location of
Locationof investigated
ofinvestigated area.
investigatedarea.
area.

2. Landuse
Figure2.
Figure use andland
land coverof
of studyarea.
area.
Figure 2.Land
Land useand
and landcover
cover ofstudy
study area.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 5 of 24

2.3. Calculation of NDVI


Calculation of NDVI was done on sentential 2 image (acquired in April 2020) of study
area using raster calculator function in snap (V8) to subtract values of the Red (R) band from
the Near-infrared (NIR) band, then divide by the sum of the R and NIR bands according to
the following Equation (1):
NIR − IR
NDVI = (1)
NIR + IR

2.4. Collecting Samples and Laboratory Analyses


Forty-eight soil profiles were dug and distribution of them were depends on the
identified geomorphic units of the investigated area (Figure 3). The depth of profiles
is 150 cm or less relies on the hardpan presence. Soil profiles descriptions were done
according to FAO [24]. Classification of soil profile was carried out according to USDA Soil
Survey Staff [41]. The following chemical, physical, and biological properties of soil were
determined: chemical analysis, i.e., salinity, soil reaction (pH), cation exchange capacity
(CEC), and the exchangeable sodium percentage [42–46], physical properties, i.e., bulk
density and the particle size distribution, hydraulic conductivity (HC) and water holding
capacity (WHC) [47] and biological, i.e., soil organic matter content (OM%), available
soil nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) [48,49]. Analysis was done in the
accredited soil, water, and plant laboratory at Tanta University’s Faculty of Agriculture in
accordance with ISO/IEC 17,025:2017 requirements.

2.5. Distribution of Soil Properties


Ordinary Kriging (OK) is an advanced geostatistical procedure that can create a
continuous surface from scattered soil samples depending on their characteristics [50]. In
the present study, OK was chosen as the geostatistical model for estimating soil properties
spatial distribution. Z(Xi) is supposed to be a regionalized variable with a variogram
γ(h), which is a function labelling the spatial aggregation field or random process Z(u).
Methods of the exponential, Gaussian, spherical, and circular Equations (2)–(5) were used
as the semi-variance model and choose of the best variogram based on the leave-one-out
cross-validation results.
The exponential function was defined as the following:
(
Y (h) =  0, h = h0 (2)
C0 + C 1 − e− a , h > 0

The Gaussian function was defined as:


(   2 
C0 + C 1 − exp − ha2 , h > 0
Y (h) = (3)
0, h = 0

The spherical function was defined as:


   3 
3h 1 h
 C0 + C 2a − 2 − a , 0<h≤a


Y (h) = (4)

 C0 + C, h > a
0, h = 0

The circular function was defined as


 q
 C0 + C(1 − π2 cos−1 h2 + 1 − (h2 /a2 ), 0 < h ≤ a

Y (h) = C0 + C, h > a (5)

0, h = 0

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 6 of 24

In these equations, a is the actual ranges for the spherical, circular, exponential, and
Gaussian functions, respectively. h is the spatial lag, C0 is the nugget, and C is the partial sill.
The spatial variation of the soil samples for these variograms was isotropic. Traditional OK
can introduce equitable estimates with minimum error. The OK function was expressed as:
n
Z ( x0 ) = ∑ λi(x0 )Z(xi ) (6)
i=1

where: ∑ni = 1λi(x0 ) = 1; Z × (x0 ) is the predicted value of variable z at location x0 ; Z(xi ) is
the measured data; λi(x0 ) refers to the weights linked with the measured values; and n is
Sustainability 2021, 13, x 6 of 25
the number of predicted values within certain neighbor soil samples. The OK was applied
utilizing the Create Fishnet tool in ArcGIS (Version 10.7, Esri, Inc., Redlands, CA, USA).

Figure 3. Profile distribution within study area.


Figure 3. Profile distribution within study area.

2.5. Distribution of Soil Properties


Ordinary Kriging (OK) is an advanced geostatistical procedure that can create a con-
tinuous surface from scattered soil samples depending on their characteristics [50]. In the
present study, OK was chosen as the geostatistical model for estimating soil properties
spatial distribution. Z(Xi) is supposed to be a regionalized variable with a variogram γ(h),
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 7 of 24

2.6. Assessment of Soil Quality


The different agricultural practices and various types of land use influence the physical,
chemical, and biological properties, affecting soil quality [51]. Soil quality index is a flexible
model so, it can be used for assessing of soil quality and describe the soil degradation in a
specific area [52,53]. In this work, a soil quality index is developed to combine chemical,
physical, fertility, and geomorphologic properties of study area for better and accurate
estimation of soil quality. Four indices were used to assess soil quality, i.e., geomorphologic
(GI), fertility (FI), physical (PI), and chemical (CI), as the following:
The GI was described according to Equation (7):

GI = (GS × GA × GPC × GPrC )1/4 (7)

where: GI = geomorphologic index; GS = slope; GA = aspect; GPC = plan curvature; and


GPrC = profile curvature.
The four mentioned variables integrated in the GI indicate which lands can be exposed
to erosion and, implicitly, to degradation [45]. In the standard MEDALUS model the slope
is integrated in soil quality index (SQI) a parameter integrated as indicator to intensity
changes in hydric erosion [54]. The slope aspect conditions expose lands to both water
and wind erosion [55–57]. Plan curvature, which indicates the horizontal degree of slope
curvature focus on convergent runoff sectors [58,59], soil losses through erosion created
different types of SQ-related problems [60]. Thus, it is included in this work for first time
to reflect SQ status in the investigate area accurately.
The fertility index was described according to Equation (8):

FI = (FN × FP × FK × FOM × FNDVI )1/5 (8)

where: FI = fertility index; FN , FP , FK = available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, respec-


tively; FOM = organic matter (%); and FNDVI = Normalized Difference Vegetation Index.
NDVI added to fertility index as it is sensitive to vegetation conditions dynamic change,
including several factors, for instance soil quality [61,62] in addition, there are positive
correlation between NDVI and soil quality [2].
The physical index was described according to Equation (9):

PI = (PD × PT × PBd × PHC × PWHC × PS )1/6 (9)

where: PI = physical index; PD = profile depth; PT = soil texture; PBD = bulk density
(g/cm3 ); PHC = hydraulic conductivity (cm/h); WHC = water holding capacity (%); and
Ps = % surface stoniness.
The chemical index was described according to Equation (10):
1/6
CI = CEC × CpH × CCaCO3 × CCaSO4 × CESP × CCEC (10)

where: CI = chemical index; CEC = soil salinity; CpH = soil reaction; CCaCO3 = proportion of
soil calcium carbonate; CCaSO4 = prcentage of gypsum CESP = soil exchangeable sodium
percentage; and CCEC = cation exchange capacity.
The final DSQM index was described according to Equation (11):

DSQM = (CI × PI × FI × GI)1/4 (11)

where: DSQM = Developed soil quality model; CI = chemical index; PI = physical index; FI
= fertility index; and GI = geomorphologic index. The parameters or factors were rated
(Tables S1–S4) based on experts’ suggestions and a review of literature [15,54,63–68].
The NDVI values ranges from –1 to +1 [69], negative values express bare surface,
water and clods while positive values represent vegetated surfaces [70,71]. Sentential 2
data have the ability to distinguish vegetation cover [72].
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 8 of 24

2.7. Modeling of Soil Quality Parameters


To produce the spatial model of SQ, the model builder function in ArcGIS 10.7 was
used. This tool displays selected spatial analysis of parameters in a diagram chain [2]
(Figure 4). Output of each process is used as the input to next process. The following stages
were implemented in this work to obtain the final SQ map of the study area: (a) soil proper-
ties were interpolated from point based to raster layer; (b) the output from (a) reclassified
into five classes (i.e., very high, high, moderate, low, and very low); (c) assigning score for
each SQ parameter according to (Tables S1–S4) feeding Equations (7)–(11) using the raster
Sustainability 2021, 13, x calculator tool; and I the output from (d) used as input in weighted overlay function to 25
9 of
produce and display the DSQM final map.

Figure 4. Structure of developed model based on model builder in ArcGIS.


Figure 4. Structure of developed model based on model builder in ArcGIS.

2.8.
2.8. Validation
Validation of of Developed
Developed Model
Model
2.8.1. Validation Using Kappa
2.8.1. Validation Using Kappa Analysis
Analysis
Weighted Additive
Weighted method
Additive waswas
method used according
used to the
according tofollowing Equation
the following (12) for
Equation val-
(12) for
idation:
validation: n
WAI = ∑i=1 Wi × Si (12)
WAI=∑ni=1 Wi × Si (12)
where: WAI = Weighted Additive index; Si = the indicator score; n = number of indicators;
and Wi = the weight of indicators.
All parameters were weighted according to communality of each indicator which
calculated by mathematical statistics means of factor analysis using (IBM, SPSS Statics 22).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 9 of 24

where: WAI = Weighted Additive index; Si = the indicator score; n = number of indicators;
and Wi = the weight of indicators.
All parameters were weighted according to communality of each indicator which
calculated by mathematical statistics means of factor analysis using (IBM, SPSS Statics 22).
The calculation of weight value for each parameter depended on divided each value by
summation of overall values, on other words, as a ratio [73]. Kappa coefficient was used
to assess the level of agreement between model and weighted additive model. It is a
quantitative measure of consistency for two rates that are rating the same thing according
to the following Equation (13):
k=I (13)
where: K = the kappa coefficient; P(A) = the percentage of times that the coders agreIand
P(E) = the percentage of times that we would expect them to agree by chance. Levels of
agreement are shown in (Table 1).

Table 1. Interpretation of kappa coefficient results according to [74,75].

Values Level of Agreement


≤0 no agreement
0.01–0.20 none to slight
0.21–0.40 Fair
0.41–0.6 Moderate
0.61–0.8 substantial
0.81–1 almost perfect

2.8.2. Correlation Based on Land Capability


The ALESarid software was used for evaluation of study area land capability. The
output values of this model were correlated with SQ values which extracted from developed
using (IBM, SPSS Statics 22) according to the following Equation (14) at a significance level
(p-value) < 0.001:
2
∑n (y − ŷi )
R2 = 1 − in=1 i 2
(14)
∑i=1 (yi − yi )
where: n = the number of samples; yi = measured value; ŷi = the predicted value; and y =
the mean of measured value.

2.9. Evaluation of Geostatistical Analysis


The above-mentioned geostatistical models were used to map soil properties. Four
indices (Equations (15)–(18)) were used to evaluate the models as the following:

1 N
N ∑ i=1 1 1
Mean standardized error (MSE) = [Z (X ) − Z2 (X2 )] (15)
r
1 N N 2
Average standard error (ASE) = + ∑I=1 [Z1 (xi ) − [∑i=1 Z2 (xi )]/N] (16)
N
r
1 N
N ∑ I=1 1
Root mean square error (RMSE) = [Z (xi ) − Z2 (xi )]2 (17)
r
1 N
N ∑ I=1 1
Root mean square standardized error (RMSSE) = [Z (xi ) − Z2 (xi )]2 (18)

where: Z1 (xi ) = Measured values; Z2 (xi ) = Expected values.

3. Results and Discussion


3.1. Geomorphology of Study Area
As shown in Table 2 and Figure 5 plains landscape includes five landforms’ units, i.e.,
sand sheet, sand plain, coastal plain, sand beach, and sabkha (wet and dry) with an area
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 10 of 24

1978.13, 462.27, 193.85, 113.70, and 705.73 hectares, respectively, it formed by erosion of the
plateau. Soils of this unit are very important for agriculture due their flatness. Wadi unit
consider one of the most diagnosed geomorphological units in the study area and extends
in large areas of the north-western coast of Egypt [32] and occupying the north part of the
study area. It receives high amounts of runoff in comparison to surrounding upland due to
it is location in gentle slopes. This landscape covers about 733.05 hectare (3.34%) of total
area including two landforms’ units (wadi and wadi outlet). Terraces units are formed
by alluvial sediments cyclic erosion and deposition stages (cut and fill) in a setting that
generates a staircase [76]. This unit classified into very high alluvial terraces (1227.42 ha),
high alluvial terraces (1241.03 ha), slightly moderate alluvial terrace (1615.76 ha), moderate
alluvial terrace (885.84 ha), and low alluvial terraces (2179.60 ha). Basins are defined as
lowland where the accumulation of rainfall and drained water done on their outlet. Basins
include both of the accumulative surface runoff, and nearby streams which, downslope
towards the shared outlet represent 399.27 ha of total area. Pavement plain unit occupies
3588.68 ha (16.8%) of the total area and formed by the erosion processes over a long time.
This unit is divided into Pediment plain (high, moderate and low with areas 444.14, 659.26
and 1054.62 hectares, respectively, and peneplain (1430.66 ha). The included landforms in
the reference’s terms landscape are plateau (1444.62 ha), escarpment (774.97 ha), table land
(3444.89), waterlogging, and rock outcrop (380.94 ha).

Table 2. Areas of landforms units in the study area.

Land Scape Geomorphology Landforms Area—km2 Area—Hectare (ha) % Area


Sand sheet High sand sheet 19.78 1978.13 9.26
Sand plain Sand plain 4.62 462.27 2.16
Coastal plain Coastal plain 1.94 193.85 0.91
Plain Sand Beach Sand Beach 1.14 113.70 0.53
Dry sabkha 6.32 631.81 2.96
sabkha Wet sabkha 0.74 73.92 0.35
Basin basin Basin 3.99 399.27 1.87
Wadi Wadi 7.26 726.14 3.40
Wadi Wadi Wadi outlet 0.07 6.91 0.03
Very High Alluvial terraces 12.27 1227.42 5.74
high Alluvial terraces 12.41 1241.03 5.81
Terraces Alluvial terraces Slightly Moderate Alluvial
16.16 1615.76 7.56
terrace
Moderate Alluvial terrace 8.86 885.84 4.15
Low Alluvial terraces 21.80 2179.60 10.20
High Pediment plain 4.44 444.14 2.08
Pediment plain Moderate Pediment plain 6.59 659.26 3.09
Pavement plain
Low Pediment plain 10.55 1054.62 4.94
peneplain Peneplain 14.31 1430.66 6.69
Plateau Plateau 14.45 1444.62 6.76
Escarpment Escarpment 7.75 774.97 3.63
High table land 13.07 1306.70 6.11
Reference terms Table land Moderate table land 13.75 1374.56 6.43
Low table land 7.64 763.63 3.57
Waterlogging Waterlogging 0.54 54.24 0.25
Rock outcrop Rock outcrop 3.27 326.70 1.53
Sustainability 2021,13,
Sustainability2021, 13,13438
x 11
12 of
of2425

Figure 5. Geomorphology map of study area.


Figure 5. Geomorphology map of study area.
3.2. Soil Properties of Study Area
propertiesofofStudy
3.2. Soil Properties the study
Areaarea are recorded in (Table 3) and interpolated in (Figure S4).
The settings of the study area
Soil properties of the study arearea
mildly/strongly
are recorded inalkaline due
(Table 3) tointerpolated
and the pH values range
in (Figure
from 7.90 to 8.54, with an average value of 7.28 [77]. Physical, chemical, and biological
S4). The settings of the study area are mildly/strongly alkaline due to the pH values range
properties
from 7.90 are affected
to 8.54, withbyansoil pH [78,79].
average valueValues
of 7.28of[77].
ESPPhysical,
differ from 7.9% to and
chemical, 10.2%, which
biological
means that the area is not exposed to sodicity risks [80]. The results of CEC ranged
properties are affected by soil pH [78,79]. Values of ESP differ from 7.9% to 10.2%, which from
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 12 of 24

1.2 to 7.0 cmole/kg. The low values of it due to low content of clay and organic matter as
there are significant positive correlations between CEC, clay, and organic matter [28], while
organic matter percentage (OM%) content ranges from 0.04% to 0.71%. There is no specific
distribution pattern of OM in the study area (Figure S4d) while, soils of the study area
were characterized as having low content of OM, in agreement with [71]. OM play very
important role in improving soil physical and chemical properties [81,82]. Texture differs
between sandy clay loam, sandy loam, and sandy. Hydraulic conductivity (HC) expresses
of water movement and pore structure in soil [83], it ranged from 1.61 to 15.66 (cm/h) in
addition water holding capacity is relatively low due to coarse texture. Hydraulic conduc-
tivity is an important indicator of water movement and pore structure in soil. Soil depth
ranged between 40 and 90 cm while surface stoniness is less than 20%. The study area is
diagnosed by none to high salinity soils due to ECe values varying from 0.1 to 14.89 dS/m
with an average value of 5.04 dS/m [84]. According to the interpolated map the highest
value of EC was found in the north part of study area it might due to sea water (Figure S4k).
Most salinized soils are present in arid and semi-arid conditions due to low precipitation
and high evaporation [2]. CaCO3 ranges between 2.12% and 34%. Areas near to sea had
the highest value of CaCO3 ; it might be due to shell fragments. The highest CaCO3 value
in some areas can cause formation of very hard layers impermeable to water and crop roots
in addition, phosphorus fixation fertilizer in calcareous soils [85] areas in the southeast of
study area has the highest values of CaCO3 it might due to shell fragments (Figure S4k).
CaSO4 ranged from 0.2% to 3.1% with an average 0.6%. The available N ranges from 20.3 to
66.14 mg/kg (45.4 to 148.15 kg N/ha) demonstrating that the nitrogen content in the study
area differ from low to moderate [71] while, high content of N located in the middle part of
study area due to agriculture practices (Figure S4n). The available P and K content in the
study area are classified as low according to [77] as the average values are 9.18 kg P/ha and
186.74 kg K/ha. To estimate and map the unknown soil properties, the OK interpolation
method was used (Figure S4). Accuracy of the model was confirmed for each soil property
depending on mean standardized error (MSE), average standard error (ASE), root mean
square error (RMSE), and root mean square standardized error (RMSSE) (Table 4). The
results indicate that spherical model is suitable for EC, pH, bulk density, HC, WHC, and
CaSO4 , the Gaussian model is suitable for OM, ESP, sand% N, P, and K. Finally, the circular
and exponential models are suitable for K and clay%, as RMSSE and MSE are close to one
and zero, respectively, thus the mentioned models are the appropriate for predicting the
unsampled location [67,86].

Table 3. Statistics of some soil properties which used in SQ assessment.

Standard
Properties Min. Max. Mean
Division (STD)
pH 7.90 8.54 7.28 0.35
ESP 7.93 12.61 10.24 1.03
CEC (cmole/kg) 1.19 6.98 3.46 1.68
OM% 0.05 0.71 0.38 0.17
Bulk density (g/cm3 ) 1.12 1.68 1.48 0.16
HC (cm/h) 1.61 15.66 11.09 3.25
WHC (%) 10 20 10.79 2.43
EC (dS/m) 0.10 14.89 5.04 3.67
CaCO3 (%) 2.12 34 12.59 5.10
CaSO4 (%) 0.22 3.10 0.62 0.49
N (ppm) 20.3 45.47 66.15 9.63
P (ppm) 2.01 6.84 4.18 1.40
K (ppm) 24.13 174.59 83.37 30.64
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 13 of 24

Table 4. Semi-variogram models and geostatistical analyses of some soil properties.

Soil Parameters Model Type Mean RMSE MSE RMSSE ASE


pH Spherical 0.03 0.40 0.07 0.91 0.38
ESP Gaussian 0.0003 0.93 0.00 1.32 0.69
CEC (cmole/kg) Circular 0.003 1.65 0.00 1.00 1.64
OM% Gaussian 0.002 0.15 0.01 0.97 0.16
Bulk density (g/cm3 ) Spherical 0.002 0.1687 0.01 0.99 0.16
HC (cm/h) Spherical 0.46 3.13 0.07 0.56 5.97
WHC (%) Spherical 0.03 2.43 0.005 1.16 1.97
EC (dS/m) Spherical 0.22 2.65 0.01 0.87 3.95
CaCO3 (%) Gaussian 0.01 9.40 0.00 0.98 9.40
CaSO4 (%) Spherical 0.01 0.48 0.04 1.1 0.40
Sand (%) Gaussian 0.15 6.34 0.04 0.97 6.76
Silt (%) Gaussian 0.52 4.36 0.02 1.15 1.93
Clay (%) Exponential 0.15 0.99 0.03 0.99 4.32
N (ppm) Gaussian 5.31 14.08 0.1 0.49 28.02
P(ppm) Gaussian 0.009 1.24 0.02 0.94 1.36
K (ppm) Gaussian 0.77 26.72 0.03 1.02 25.24

3.3. Geomorphological Index (GI)


Geomorphologically, the GI values indicate that about 307.55 ha is located under very
high class (G1) while around 9867 ha is high class (G2) and moderate geomorphology class
(G3) cover 6919.26 ha of total study area and the poorest geomorphological conditions, i.e.,
low (G4) covers around 3045.7 ha due to the values of slope, aspect, plan, profile curvature
show an accelerated, convergent surface runoff leads to hydric erosion (Figure S3a–d;
Tables S5, S6, and Table 5 and Figure 6).

Table 5. Areas of geomorphologic index.

Classes Symbol Area (ha)


Very high G1 307.55
High G2 9867.42
Moderate G3 6919.26
Low G4 3045.671
Reference terms 1229.82

3.4. Fertility Index (FI)


Soil fertility mapping is a key issue for a lot of implementations in research fields
ranging from sustainability of soil management to the precision farming concept [67].
According to FI index, the study area fell into very high (F1), high (F2), moderate (F3), and
low (F4) classes, respectively. A descending order of fertility index in the study area is F3
(9946.33 ha), F4 (7729.22 ha), F2 (2350.65 ha), and F1(113.70 ha) (Table 6 and Figure 7). As
clear from results that most of study area located under F3 class because of deficiency of
OM, N, P, and K values in addition low values of NDVI from remote sensing data over the
study. NDVI is helping in achieving precision agriculture by predicting and mapping the
land degradation extension and allowing farmers and decision makers to make accurate
decisions on time [2,87]. The major causes of low productivity are soil fertility losing and
nutrients depletion [88], so to achieve sustainable development, it requires decreasing
losing and increasing the efficiency of use [89].
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 14 of 24
Sustainability 2021, 13, x 15 of 25

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Spatial
Spatial distribution
distribution of
of GI
GI in
in the
thestudy
studyarea.
area.

3.4. Fertility Index (FI)


Table 6. Areas of fertility index.
Soil fertility mapping is a key issue for a lot of implementations in research fields
ranging from sustainability of soil management
Classes Symbol to the precision farming
Areaconcept
(ha) [67]. Ac-
cording to FI index, the study area fell into very high (F1), high (F2), moderate (F3), and
Very high F1 113.70
low (F4) classes,
Highrespectively. A descendingF2order of fertility index in the study area is F3
2350.65
(9946.33 ha), F4 (7729.22
Moderate ha), F2 (2350.65 ha),
F3 and F1(113.70 ha) (Table 6
9946.33Figure 7). As
and
clear from results
Low that most of study area located
F4 under F3 class because of deficiency of
7729.22
Reference terms 1229.82
OM, N, P, and K values in addition low values of NDVI from remote sensing data over
the study. NDVI is helping in achieving precision agriculture by predicting and mapping
the land degradation extension and allowing farmers and decision makers to make accu-
rate decisions on time [2,87]. The major causes of low productivity are soil fertility losing
and nutrients depletion [88], so to achieve sustainable development, it requires decreasing
losing and increasing the efficiency of use [89].
Classes Symbol Area (ha)
Very high F1 113.70
High F2 2350.65
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 Moderate F3 9946.33 15 of 24
Low F4 7729.22
Reference terms 1229.82

Figure7.7.Spatial
Figure Spatialdistribution
distributionof
ofFI
FIin
inthe
thestudy
studyarea.
area.

3.5.
3.5.Physical
PhysicalIndex
Index
The
Thedata
datagiven
givenininTable
Table77and
andFigure
Figure88andandindicate
indicatethat
thatPI
PIininthe
thestudy
studyarea
areaisisvaried
varied
from very high physical index (P1) to very low (P5). Rating of soil physical index
from very high physical index (P1) to very low (P5). Rating of soil physical index indicates indicates
that
thataround
around 77(ha)
(ha)of
ofstudy
studyarea
areaisisvery
veryhigh-quality
high-qualitysoil
soildue
dueto todeep
deepsoil
soilprofiles,
profiles,low
low
content
content of gravels, while 6457.6, 6634.14, 6409.43, and 331.80 (ha) of total agricultureareas
of gravels, while 6457.6, 6634.14, 6409.43, and 331.80 (ha) of total agriculture areas
are
areclassified
classifiedasashigh
high(P2),
(P2),moderate
moderate(P3),
(P3),low
low (P4),
(P4), and
and very
very low
low (P5)
(P5) classes,
classes, respectively.
respectively.
The
The soil limiting factors are coarse texture, high values of bulk density, and shallowdepth.
soil limiting factors are coarse texture, high values of bulk density, and shallow depth.
Table 7. Areas of physical index.

Classes Symbol Area (ha)


Very high P1 6.90
High P2 6457.61
Moderate P3 6634.14
Low P4 6409.4323
Very low P5 631.80
Reference terms 1229.82
Very high P1 6.90
High P2 6457.61
Moderate P3 6634.14
Low P4 6409.4323
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 16 of 24
Very low P5 631.80
Reference terms 1229.82

Figure8.8.Spatial
Figure Spatialdistribution
distributionofofphysical
physicalindex
indexininthe
thestudy
studyarea.
area.

3.6.
3.6.Chemical
ChemicalIndex
Index(CI)
(CI)
Soil
Soildegradation
degradation (chemical,
(chemical, physical, and biological),
biological), means
meansreducing
reducingofofsoil
soilquality
qual-
ity [89].
[89]. Spatial
Spatial distribution
distribution mapofofchemical
map chemicalindex
index(Figure
(Figure 9)9) shows
shows that aa wide
widerange
rangeofof
chemical
chemicalquality
qualityranging
rangingfrom fromvery
verylowlowquality
quality(C5)
(C5)totovery
veryhigh
high(C1).
(C1).The
Theareas
areaschemical
chemical
index
indexare
areasasthe
thefollows:
follows:7291.9
7291.9hahaisisvery
veryhigh
highquality,
quality,3794.7 haha
3794.7 is high quality,
is high 3407
quality, ha is
3407 ha
moderate quality, 3773.91 ha is low quality, and 1872.83 ha is very low. C1 class
is moderate quality, 3773.91 ha is low quality, and 1872.83 ha is very low. C1 class charac- character-
ized by low
terized values
by low of ECe,
values ESP, ESP,
of ECe, and pHandon pHtheonother hand,hand,
the other low values of CEC
low values ofwhich may
CEC which
causing chemical degradation [90] and high content of CaCO are the main
may causing chemical degradation [90] and high content of3 CaCO3 are the main limiting limiting factors
offactors
C5 class soils
of C5 (Table
class soils8).(Table 8).
Classes Symbol Area (ha)
Very high C1 7291.49
High C2 3794.64
Moderate C3 3407.02
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 Low C4 3773.91 17 of 24
Very high C5 1872.83
Reference terms 1229.82

Figure9.9.Spatial
Figure Spatialdistribution
distributionofofCI
CIininthe
thestudy
studyarea.
area.

3.7. Assessment
Table of Soil Quality
8. Areas of chemical index.
Soil physical, chemical, and biological quality parameters are the key indicators of
Classescombination of these parameters
SQ. An optimal Symbol increases agronomicArea (ha)
productivity and
reach to management
Very high systems sustainabilityC1[91], furthermore geomorphologic
7291.49 properties
have a directHigh
effect on land state throughC2 increasing of hydric erosion3794.64
process [51]. Ac-
Moderate C3 3407.02
cording to (Figure 10) the DSQM the study area classified into four classes. The first class
Low C4 3773.91
is characterized by high quality representC5
Very high
around 194 ha (0.9%) of the total study area.
1872.83
The second class is characterized by Reference
moderateterms
quality occupied 4748.61 ha (22.22%) of the
1229.82
total study area. The soil third quality class (low) covers 4675 ha (21.87%) of the total study
area and, finally, the very low-quality class is the most representative class as it occupies
3.7. Assessment of Soil Quality
10522.45 ha (49.23%) of total area. Around 5.7% of study area is reference, i.e., table land,
Soil physical, chemical, and biological quality parameters are the key indicators of SQ.
waterlogging and rock outcrop, these areas are not cultivated. It could be concluded from
An optimal combination of these parameters increases agronomic productivity and reach
the interpolated map that; the highest class of soil quality is located in the wadi unit (Fig-
to management systems sustainability [91], furthermore geomorphologic properties have
ure 10a). Low values of OM%, CEC, N, P, K led to negative effect on soil quality in
a direct effect on land state through increasing of hydric erosion process [51]. According
to (Figure 10) the DSQM the study area classified into four classes. The first class is
characterized by high quality represent around 194 ha (0.9%) of the total study area. The
second class is characterized by moderate quality occupied 4748.61 ha (22.22%) of the
total study area. The soil third quality class (low) covers 4675 ha (21.87%) of the total
study area and, finally, the very low-quality class is the most representative class as it
occupies 10522.45 ha (49.23%) of total area. Around 5.7% of study area is reference, i.e.,
table land, waterlogging and rock outcrop, these areas are not cultivated. It could be
concluded from the interpolated map that; the highest class of soil quality is located in the
wadi unit (Figure 10a). Low values of OM%, CEC, N, P, K led to negative effect on soil
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 18 of 24
Sustainability 2021, 13, x 19 of 25

quality in addition physical properties, i.e., shallow depth, coarse texture affect particles
addition physical properties, i.e., shallow depth, coarse texture affect particles and pores
and pores organization and therefor, impacts on root growth, speed of plant emergence,
organization and therefor, impacts on root growth, speed of plant emergence, and agri-
and agricultural cultural
practices water infiltration [83].
practices water infiltration [83].

(a)

(b)
Figure 10. Spatial distribution of SQ in the study area: (a) developed soil quality model (DSQM); and (b) weighted addi-
Figure 10. Spatial distribution of SQ in the study area: (a) developed soil quality model (DSQM); and
tive.
(b) weighted additive.
Generally, soil quality is affected by agricultural practices and climatic conditions,
Generally, soil quality
which, is affected
in turn, byphysical,
affect the agricultural practices
chemical, and climatic
and fertility conditions,
properties of the soil [25].
which, in turn, affect the physical, chemical, and fertility properties of the soil [25]. Calcula-
tion of SQ in the study area by weighted additive index were according to the following
Equation (19):
Sustainability 2021, 13, x 20 of 25

Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 19 of 24


Calculation of SQ in the study area by weighted additive index were according to the
following Equation (19):

SQ = (0.047 × SS) + (0.038 × SA) + (0.047 × PC) + (0.03 × SPRC) + (0.036 × SN) ×
SQ =×
(0.042 (0.047 × SS) +×
SP)(0.044 SK) ×
(0.038 + SA ) + (0.047
(0.024 × PC) + (0.03 ×
× SOM)+(0.037 ×SPRC ) + (0.036
S NDVI) × SN)×
+ (0.039 × SD) +
( 0.042 × SP )( 0.044 × SK ) + ( 0.024 × SOM ) + ( 0.037 × SNDVI ) + (
(0.046 × ST) + (0.047 × SBD) + (0.05 × SHC) + (0.043 × SWHC) + (0.04 × SSS) + 0.039 × SD )+ (19)
(0.046 × ST) + (0.047 × SBD) + (0.05 × SHC) + (0.043 × SWHC) + (0.04 × SSS)+ (19)
(0.004 × SEC) + (0.047 × SpH) + (0.045 × SCaCO3) + (0.046 × SCaSO4) +
(0.004 × SEC) + (0.047 × SpH) + (0.045 × SCaCO3) + (0.046 × SCaSO4)+
(0.04
(0.04 ××SESP
SESP)
) ++ (0.037
(0.037 × SCEC)
× SCEC )
The results
The results shows
shows that
that 3635.76
3635.76 ha
ha (17%)
(17%) of
of soils
soils are
are moderate
moderate quality, 4792 ha
quality, 4792 ha (22.4%)
(22.4%)
of soils
of soils are
are fell
fellinto
intolow
lowclass,
class,and
andwhile, most
while, of of
most study area
study areare
area characterized by very
characterized low
by very
class around 11,712.11 ha (54.8%) (Figure 10b). These results indicate high agreement
low class around 11,712.11 ha (54.8%) (Figure 10b). These results indicate high agreement be-
tween weighted additive index and developed model as most of study
between weighted additive index and developed model as most of study area around area around
49.23% is
49.23% is classified
classified as
as very
very low-quality
low-quality class
class according
according to to developed
developedmodel.
model.

3.8. Assessment of Land Capability


The results of of land
land capability
capability are showed
showed in (Figure
(Figure 11)
11) itit could
could be
be concluded
concluded from from
these results that the study area fell into three classes, i.e., fair (C3), poor (C4), and non-
agriculture class
class(C5)
(C5)with
with anan
area of 1125.41
area ha (5.26%),
of 1125.41 12,713.27
ha (5.26%), ha (59.50%),
12,713.27 and 6301.22
ha (59.50%), and
6301.22 ha (29.50%),
ha (29.50%), respectively.
respectively. Moreover,Moreover,
around 6% around 6% area
of study of study area is as
is classified classified
referencesas
references terms (uncultivated
terms (uncultivated area). The
area). The results results
showed thatshowed
the most that
of the most
study area ofisstudy area as
classified is
classified as poor for agriculture
poor for agriculture (59.50%)
(59.50%) which meanswhich
thatmeans
these that
soilsthese
havesoils
a lothave a lot of hazards,
of hazards, such as
such as shallow
shallow depth,texture
depth, coarse coarse texture
low valueslow of
values of fertility
fertility indicators.
indicators. The class
The lowest lowest class lo-
located in
cated in the north part of study area and some areas near to the middle of it
the north part of study area and some areas near to the middle of it (Figure 10). The soils (Figure 10). The
soils
of C5ofcannot
C5 cannot be cultivated
be cultivated consistently;
consistently; duedue to the
to the management
management process
process of of agriculture
agriculture is
is difficult
difficult [61].
[61].

Figure 11. Spatial


Figure 11. Spatial distribution
distribution of
of LC
LC in
in study
study area.
area.

3.9. Developed Soil Quality Model (DSQM) Validation


Validation
To calculate the agreement between developed model and weighted additive index,
kappa coefficient was calculated. The kappa value was 0.67 indicating substantial agree-
ment (Table 1). It is implemented to show agreement between the two models involves all
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 20 of 24

parameters regardless their relative importance or weights [18]. Although, the geometric
mean algorism provides enhanced assessment of central conditions due to the arithmetic
mean may be skewed away from the median because the presence of outliers and anoma-
lous results [22]. DSQM is s significantly high correlated with CI (R2 = 0.71, p < 0.001),
these results indicate that the DSQM is accurate model for assessment of soil quality in the
agreement of [2]. The CI is chosen because it is using for assessing the potential of land for
a specific type of use like DSQM, but the DSQM is a newly developed approach, while CI
has been in use since 1961 [92].

4. Conclusions
Generally, soil quality assessment is very important for sustainable agricultural prac-
tices management and for precision farming especially. In this study soil physical, chemical,
biological, and geomorphological properties were used for SQ evaluation. For this purpose,
GMA jointly used with GIS to quantitative assessment of SQ and map it. The results
indicated that the soil quality (SQ) of study area classified into four classes, i.e., high quality
(SQ2), moderate quality (SQ3), low quality (SQ4), and very low quality (SQ5) occupied
0.90%, 21.87%, 22.22%, and 49.23% of the total study area in addition 5.74% of study area
is uncultivated. The results were validated by calculation kappa coefficient and showed
substantial agreement with weighted additive index, moreover significantly high correlated
with CI. As a whole, the developed soil quality model (DSQM) is qualified to assess soil
quality actuary in the study area and re applied in the same environments. Improving
SQ in the study area requires some agriculture practices for instance; reduce risks of soil
erosion which might occurs due to, geomorphologic properties of study area, increase
the rainwater and fertilizers efficiency used as, the cultivation in the study area depends
on winter rains and minimize losing of organic matter and nutrients. In conclusion, it is
very important to assess soil quality periodically to identify limiting factors of SQ and
try to maintain high crop yield, for the purpose of reduce a gap between production and
consumption and it is suggested that increasing field work and approaches of soil quality
calculation in the future studies.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/


10.3390/su132313438/s1. Figure S1: The main geological units of study area. Figure S2: NDVI of
investigated area. Figure S3: The indices of topographic in the study area: (a) slope; (b) aspect; (c) plan
curvature; (d) profile curvature; (e) Slop length factor (LS-factor); (f) slope length and steepness;
(g) valley depth; and (h) analytical hill shading. Figure S4: Interpolation maps of some physical,
chemical, and biological properties: (a) soil reaction (pH); (b) exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP); (c) cation exchange capacity (CEC, cmole/kg); (d) organic matter (OM, %); (e) sand (%); (f)
silt (%); (g) clay (%); (h) bulk density (g/cm3 ); (i) hydraulic conductivity (cm/h); (j) water holding
capacity (%); (k) soil salinity (EC, ds/m); (l) calcium carbonate (CaCO3 , %); (m) gypsum (CaSO4 , %);
(n) nitrogen (N, ppm); (o) phosphorus (P, ppm); and (p) potassium (K, ppm). Table S1: Scores of GI
parameters. Table S2: Scores of FI parameters. Table S3: Scores of PI parameters. Table S4: Scores of
CI parameters. Table S5: Values and classes of CI, FI, PI, and GI indices. Table S6: Final SQ range of
study area.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.A., A.A.E.B., E.K.M., A.M.S., F.S.M. and M.S.S.;
methodology, M.A.A., A.A.E.B., E.K.M., A.M.S., F.S.M. and M.S.S.; software, M.A.A., A.A.E.B.,
E.K.M., A.M.S., F.S.M. and M.S.S.; validation, M.A.A., A.A.E.B., E.K.M., A.M.S., F.S.M. and M.S.S.;
formal analysis, M.A.A., A.A.E.B., E.K.M., A.M.S., F.S.M. and M.S.S.; investigation, M.A.A., A.A.E.B.,
E.K.M., A.M.S., F.S.M. and M.S.S.; resources, M.A.; data curation, M.A.A., A.A.E.B., E.K.M., A.M.S.,
F.S.M. and M.S.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.A., A.A.E.B., E.K.M., A.M.S., F.S.M.
and M.S.S.; writing—review and editing, M.A., K.H.S. and E.M.E.; supervision, E.M.E.; project
administration, E.M.E.; funding acquisition, M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University
(grant number RGP.1/301/42).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 13438 21 of 24

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.


Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in the main manuscript
and the supplementary materials.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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