Wildlife and Research Training Institute (WRTI)

DSU202: RESEARCH METHODS

Mr. Eddison Musikoyo

September ©2021
 Module Unit Summary and Time Allocation

Sub-Module Unit Content Theory Practice Total

Introduction to research ❖ Meaning of research methods 2 1 3
methods ❖ Importance of research methods
❖ Challenges faced by researchers
❖ Criteria for classification of research
❖ Types of research
Research Process ❖ Research Process 2 4 6
Research Proposal ❖ Meaning and importance of a research 2 4 6
proposal
❖ Types of proposal
❖ Components of a research proposal
Data Collection ❖ Meaning of terms 4 4 8
❖ Data sources
❖ Instruments and methods of data
collection
Presentation, Analysis and ❖ Data Presentation 2 4 6
Interpretation of Data ❖ Data analysis
❖ Data interpretation
Report writing ❖ Research report format 2 2 4
❖ Presentation of report
Emerging Issues and ❖ Emerging issues and trends 1 1 2
Trends
❖ Challenges posed by emerging issues
and trends
❖ Coping with challenges posed by
emerging issues and trends
TOTAL 15 20 35

Reference Books
1. Donald,K.K. & Delo,L. A. T.(2014).Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction.
Paulines Publications Africa, Nairobi
2. Mugenda, O.M. & Mugenda ,A.G.(1999).Research Methods: Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches. Laba Graphics Services Ltd, Nairobi – Kenya
3. Kothari, C.R.(2004).Research Methodology; Methods and Techniques. New age
international (P) Limited. New Hehli, India
4. Oso, W. Y.(2011).Writing Research Proposal and Report. Prints Arts limited ,Nairobi
Kenya

2|Page
Introduction
This module unit is intended to expose the trainee to practical experiences in project planning
and execution. The trainee is therefore expected to plan, gather, review and present project
materials and information in accordance with given specifications.
General objectives
At the end of the module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a. Appraise scope and challenges involved in carrying out a given research project.
b. Apply methodologies in data collection for different types of projects
c. Carry out research and compile reports
d. Analyze and interpret project data and make conclusions based on the subject matter
e. Appreciate the relevance and importance of research methods in their field of study

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

Meaning of research methods
A research method can be defined as the design of a systematic procedure by a researcher for
facilitating the investigation of specific topics or subjects. It is a strategy that is formulated by
the investigator for performing different tasks during research.
Definitions of terms
a) Research
– The organized, structured, and purposeful attempt to gain knowledge about a subject
of study.
– It’s a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given phenomenon, an exhaustive
study, investigation or experimentation following some logical sequence (Mugenda &
Mugenda, 2003).
– A process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data. Thus, research uses approved methods in data
collection, analysis and presentation (Mouly, 1978).
– Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue".
– It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and
present an answer to the question (Creswell,2008).
– The systematic investigation of a phenomenon, situation or problem in order to
generate new knowledge or validate (prove) existing knowledge.

b) Research methods or techniques-

Methods researchers use in performing research operations i. e What the researcher
actually does in order to collect data and carry out investigations e.g literature
searches, focus groups, personal interviews, telephone surveys, email surveys etc
c) Research methodology – a way to systematically solve the research problem.
- It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

3|Page
 - In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying
his/her research problem along with the logic behind them.
d) Information - Knowledge communicated or received concerning a particular fact or
circumstance
• Processed data sets, a collection of facts or data
• Knowledge derived from study, experience, or instruction
e) Variables - a measurable characteristics that assumes different values (attributes)
among the subjects e.g. sex (male or female), age(young, middle aged or old),
occupation (farmer, teacher, nurse…) etc
f) Data- information, often in the form of facts or figures obtained from experiments or
surveys, used as a basis for making calculations or drawing conclusions
Importance of research Methods
- It helps in executing research in a systematic manner.
- An appropriate research method is important for achieving pre-determined goals.
- It assists the investigator in addressing and helps them in finding a solution to a
particular problem. The research method is important as it enables the reader to ensure
the reliability and validity of the information.
- Techniques used for performing a study help the researcher in developing an
understanding of the relationship between cause and effect.
- It is the choice of the right methods for research that provides the researcher with ease
in reaching the conclusion and helps them in making the right decision.
- The research method section in the academic paper allows the reader to gain
knowledge about strategies used for facilitating the study.
- Appropriate research enables you to analyze the behavior pattern among various
components of the study.
Challenges faced by researchers
- Inconsistent data collection standards
- Lack of training in data collection
- Too much stress, too little time
- Finding research grants or funds
How to overcome research challenges
- Developing a topic that can be done
- Read everything you can on the topic
- Find good literature to support your topic
- Fine-tune your topic based on input from your supervisor
- Manage your time. Invest in a daily planner and keep one calendar for assignments,
exams and family events.
- Learn study skills. Ask questions and participate in class discussions.
- Seek academic advising.
- Manage your finances.

4|Page
Challenges faced by students during their research projects
• Difficulty in deciding the topic for research
• Lack of good knowledge on the methodology
• Inability of finding modern specialized and related references
• Lack of interest in research
• Lack of understanding of the subject matter
• Lack of time
• Lack of research guiding.
Purposes of Research
1. Source of knowledge- it involves the discovery of new facts, their correct
interpretation and practical application
2. Description of a phenomenon-accurate definition of any event involves thorough
description e.g. shape, size, age, weight etc
3. Prediction- the ability to tell in advance that a certain phenomenon is likely to occur
with some degree of certainty
4. Controlling a phenomenon-in scientific researches one or more variables may be
manipulated in order to exert control over others.
5. Explanation of phenomenon-involves accurate observation and measurement of a
given phenomenon
6. Evaluation and development of the current technologies and systems-Theory
development and validation of existing theories
Characteristics of Research
Research has ten distinct characteristics:-
1. Empirical – based on practical experimentation and not past experiences or
assumptions.
2. Systematic –follows a given, sequences steps and procedures
3. Replicable- it can be repeated to fill gaps, revise facts or verify previous findings
4. Deductive- research seeks direction through appropriate hypothesis (reasonable guess)
which are based upon the objectives
5. Parsimonious- should not waste resources
6. Research begins with a question in the mind of the researcher
7. Research demands the identification of a research problem stated in a clear, explicit
and unambiguous terms
8. Logical-Research requires a plan/design that makes sense
9. Objective -research deals with the main problems with a specific aim 1
10. Research is circular:-interrelated components
6 2
1. unanswered question
2. goal/problem statement
3. objectives
4. hypothesis
5. collection and organization of facts 5 3
6. proving an answer to the question, which begins the research cycle
4

5|Page
Types of Research
Types of research/Criteria for classification of research
Research can be classified on the following basis:-
a. PURPOSE- reason why research is conducted :-
1. to understand fundamental structures and processes with an aim of adding knowledge
(basic research) -also known as pure or fundamental research.
2. to apply or test theory and testing its usefulness in solving problems (applied
research)
3. to solve a specific, immediate and concrete problem in a local setting (action
research)
4. collect and analyze data in order to make decisions (evaluation research)
b. Method of Research analysis
i. Descriptive research-tries to describe things the way they are e.g., behaviour, attitudes,
values and characteristics
ii. Causal –comparative research-used to explore relationship between variables
iii. Correlation methods-describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are
related
c. Method of data collection
i. Collecting information from the past (historical research)
ii. Observing (observational research)
iii. Collecting raw data from members of a population using questionnaires or interview
schedule (survey research)
iv. manipulation of independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent
variable (experimental research)
d. Type of data
data involved is numerical data or quantifiable data (quantitative research) data involved is in
form of words rather numerical data (qualitative research)

6|Page
e. Field of study
Based on field of study i.e. social research, business research, etc
For the purpose of study we shall focus on two broad classifications of research
a) Qualitative research:- includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce
discrete numerical data.More often the data is in form of words rather than numbers
and these words are often grouped into categories.
b) Quantitative research:- includes designs, techniques and measures that produce
discrete numerical or quantifiable data.
Quantitative/qualitative research can be divided in to 3 types.
a) Basic research -is concerned with advancement of knowledge for the sake of theory
and not to solve a specific problem. Its design is not controlled by the practical
usefulness of the findings.
b) Applied/action research -is concerned with showing how the findings can be
applied. Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
organization. This type of research seeks a solution to a given problem.
c) Practical research -goes one step further and applies the findings of research to a
specific practical situation
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
- The research process is a guiding tool for conducting a research.
- It clearly explains how to conduct research and the sequence of steps that need to be
followed.
- The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the steps are
interlinked with the other steps in the process.
- The research process comprises of seven major steps:-
Steps of research process
The process involves 7 steps
1: Identify and formulate the research problem
2: Review the Literature
3: Formulate the test hypotheses/research questions
4: Design and plan the research
5: Collect data
6: Analyze the data
7: Communicate the research results

7|Page
Research design
- The design is used to structure the research, it tells the researcher how all the elements
in the research fit together.
- It is the master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and
analyzing data.
Characteristics of a good design:
1. Has power to detect relationship among variables
2. Appropriate for the research questions
3. Minimizes bias and maximizes reliability
4. Has smallest error
5. Yields maximum information
Factors affecting choice of a research design
- Nature of the study
- Scope of the study
- Level of the study
- Availability of sufficient data
- Proper exposure to the sources of data especially primary data
- Availability of time
- Availability of money and manpower
- Ability, skill, knowledge, and technical background of the researcher
Types of research designs
i. Descriptive design - design where the study seeks to describe and portray
characteristics of an event, situation, and a group of people, community, or a
population

8|Page
 ii. Exploratory design - seeks to provide new insights and discovery of new ideas to
the researcher.
iii. Case study design - A case study emphasizes a full contextual analysis of fewer
events or conditions and their interrelations. Hypothesis may be used, but the study
relies on qualitative data, which makes testing of the hypothesis more difficult.
iv. Survey design - the researcher asks the subjects questions and collects their
responses.
v. Correlational study design - investigates relationships between two variables (or
more) without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them.
vi. Causal /Experimental design - The researcher makes a change in the value of one
variable (independent variable) and then observes the effect of that change on
another variable (dependent variable)

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
- A research proposal is defined as “A document that is written by a researcher,
scientist or academic, which describes the ideas for an investigation on a certain
topic”.
- The research proposal outlines the investigation process from beginning to end.
- It is also a document that can be used to request for funds for the proposed research
project.
Developing the Research Proposal
- In order for an investigation to be productive, effective and purposeful, a researcher
must plan the course of action.
- The document which spells out the methods and reasons for a research is the Research
Proposal.
- The purpose of a research proposal is to determine if a proposed research is feasible,
practical and worth pursuing.
Questions addressed by a Proposal
A research project proposal must answer three basic questions:-
1. What do you plan to do or accomplish?
- Is the project well defined and realistic?
- Are the research questions, hypotheses and objectives clearly defined?
2. Why do you want to do it?
- Is the problem sufficiently important to justify allocation of money, time, and
researcher’s effort?
3. How are you going to do it?
- Have you outlined clear approaches, designs and methods for conducting the
research?
- Are you able to perform the tasks?
Purpose of a research project proposal
The goal of a research proposal is to:-

9|Page
 1. Persuade the reader/donor to believe in the credibility of the investigation or research.
2. Make the reader/donor believe that the solutions and methodologies are practical and
appropriate.
3. Convince the reader/donor that the researcher has chosen the topic after great
consideration, carried out sufficient reading on the topic and possesses sound
information of the issues involved.
4. Persuade the reader/donor to believe that the investigator is capable of providing
details on the proposed research area.
- A research project proposal is usually persuasive and informative.
- It gives the reader an overview of:-
- The problem and its significance
- The objectives of the research
- Approaches and methods for investigating the problem.
- The background of the problem
- Present understandings and knowledge of the subject of study
Types of proposals
The types of proposal differ on the focus of the expected outcome and the implementation
process
a. Research proposal
i. Academic research proposal- done as a requirement to fulfill conditions for award of an
academic certificate such as a diploma, degree etc.
ii. non-academic research proposal: -It’s focus is obtaining data which can be used as a basis
of proposing a project or data which will contribute to knowledge and forms the basis for
recommendation and action.
b. Project proposal
- It’s a proposal that is action- oriented and aimed at undertaking certain activities to solve
a specific problem.
- The proposed strategies and activities are implemented and eventually evaluation will be
conducted to ensure that the projects objectives were met.
- Such proposals include, Business proposals, Grant proposals, Sales proposals
Writing the Research Proposal
- This is putting the research idea on paper for consideration.
- The proposal must contain adequate information to persuade readers that the idea is
important, the topic and major issues are well understood and the methodology is
sound.
- The quality of a research proposal conveys a lot about the project.
- Many research projects are rejected, not because of irrational ideas, but because of
poorly written ideas.
- Therefore, the tone of the proposal must be compelling, clear and coherent.

10 | P a g e
Components of a research proposal
- The following components should be included when composing the proposal and be
well explained or described:-

1. Title page: - A research proposal should be submitted with a title page, having full
particulars pertaining to the following:-
a. Title - should be concise and descriptive(words), Specific and attractive, Clear- show in
terms of a functional relationship- independent and dependent variables.
b. Include author and address. This should also include the affiliation organization or
institution and date.
ASSESSMENT OF THE ROLES OF LOCAL COMMUNITY TO WILDLIFE
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT, IN AMBOSELI NATIONAL PARK.
BY:
Xxxxxx xxxxx
DWM/2015/GSSP/0000.

A RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT OF KENYA WILDLIFE
SERVICE TRAINING
INSTITUTE.

SUPERVISOR: yyyyyyyyy.

APRIL , 2021.

2. Preliminaries pages: come after title page but before chapter one.
All the components are written on separate pages and the pages
numbered in small Roman’s.
They are:-
a) Declaration:- pg (i)
b) Dedication:- pg (ii)
c) Acknowledgements:- pg (iii)
d) Abstract:- pg (iv)
e) Table of Content:- pg (v)

11 | P a g e
Abstract: - brief summary of about 300 words of what the researcher intends to do. It gives an
overview of what the problem is and how the researcher intends to solve it through the
proposed research.
It should be brief, precise and to the point and includes;
– Brief introduction
– Problem statement
– Research objectives
– Rationale for the study,
– Methodology (the sampling design, procedures,
– Sample size
– Data collection tools
– Time frame and work schedule(Gantt chart)
– Data analysis and presentation methods

3. Introduction: - An effective introduction discusses the importance of the study,

presents the problem or issue and advocates for the need to study the chosen object.
▪ It should include the following aspects:-
- Background to the problem
- Problem statement
- Purpose of the Study
- Objectives of the study
- Research Questions /Hypothesis
- Justification &Significance of the Investigation
- Assumptions/ Limitations of the study
4. Literature Review (Background): - Finding and stating what others have said about
the same subject.
▪ The literature review serves the following functions:-
- Ensures that the proposed research is not a duplication.
- Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for the proposed
research.
- Demonstrates the researcher’s knowledge of the research problem.
- Demonstrates the researcher’s understanding of the theoretical and research
issues related to the research question.
- Shows the researcher’s ability to critically evaluate relevant literature
information.
- Convinces readers that the proposed research will make a significant and
substantial contribution to the literature (e.g. resolving an important theoretical
issue or filling a major gap in the literature)
Most researchers’ literature reviews suffer from the following problems:-
1. Lacking organization and structure
2. Lacking focus, unity and coherence
3. Being repetitive
4. Failing to cite influential papers and literatures
5. Failing to keep up with recent developments

12 | P a g e
 6. Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
7. Citing irrelevant or trivial references
8. Depending too much on secondary sources.
NB: since you must acknowledge where you get your information from, then virtually every
paragraph in your literature review will have a citation.
Example of Citations in literature review
Baker (2003) noted that the undergraduates are faced with many new interpersonal, social,
and academic demands during the transition from secondary school life to university, which
is stressful for many of them. The immediate challenges that students face are the decisions
they have to make about the presented career paths in addition to developing and negotiating
new relationships, getting novel ideas that challenge their past-learnt views, and moving
away from home (Lumley & Provenzano, 2003). DeBerard et al., (2004) emphasize that the
potential buffer for stress during the transition into university life is social support from
friends, peers, and religious peers that provide insulation from the harmful impact of stress.
Course load versus time available has also been cited to be a stressful factor in the academic
environment (Zeidner, 1992).
Students report experiencing academic stress with the greatest sources of academic stress
coming from taking and studying for exams, grade competition, and the large amount of
content to master in a small amount of time (Kohn & Frazer, 1986).
5. Methodology:- this section tells readers how the research problem will be tackled.
The section outlines the research design to be applied and how the research will be conducted
(i.e. the sampling techniques, the means to collect the data, and plan of analysis and
presentation)
N/B
Based on the research/project proposal's methodology, the donor/financier will either
approve or disapprove the investigation.
The methodology section consists of the following sections:-
1. Design - What kind of design will be chosen and used? Why is the chosen design
appropriate for the proposed study? Read more on the various research designs
2. Sampling - describes the population from which the sample will be drawn, the sample
size and the sample selection methods. Define the terms; sample, population; identify
different sampling techniques
3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments will be used and why?
4. Procedure - How will the study be carried out? What activities will be done?
5. Data Analysis- How will the data obtained be analyzed? Describe the method of data
analysis, what are you hoping to achieve by using that the data analysis technique
chosen?- in most cases more than one method of analysis is used, the method chosen
depends on the type of research, objectives of the study and the hypothesis to be
tested. Find out about the research instruments, and data collection and analysis
procedures.
6. Time schedule- how long will the researcher use to finish the research? inmost cases
most donors have deadlines to stop funding certain projects and such deadlines should

13 | P a g e
 be adhered to, some activities can overlap . Activities should not be squeezed into
very little time, allowances should be made for unforeseen delays, as going beyond
the time schedule may affect the budget.
E.g.
ACTIVITY TIME TAKEN TO ACCOMPLISH
Proposal development 1 month
Reconnaissance 1 week

7. BUDGET:- A list of items required to carry out the research and their approximate
cost such as travel, equipment hire, subsistence allowances etc. NB: include overhead/
incidental expenses- any unforeseen costs
8. Bibliography/ Reference -This includes references to literature cited in the research
proposal.
It should follow the approved standard format for bibliographic reference citing. i.e.
APA style
You reference to :-
1. Give your work credibility
2. Honestly acknowledge where you got your information to avoid plagiarism (an act
or instance of using or closely imitating the language and thoughts of another
author without authorization and the representation of that author's work as one's
own, as by not crediting the original author)
3. Allow people to follow up your sources
4. Shows your conversant with the area of study.
Citation styles
- APA(American Psychological Association). APA is an author/date based style.
This means emphasis is placed on the author and the date of a piece of work to
uniquely identify it.
- Book: Brookes, R. (2014). Study Guide Little Bird (p: 5). Times publishers
Chicago ,USA.
- Journal: Esen, E., & Collison, J. (2005). Employee development survey report.
Society For Human Resource Management, V(3), Pg 65-73
- Website: About.com Islam,. (2014). Evils of Gossip and Backbiting in Islam.
Retrieved 12 June 2014, from
http://islam.about.com/od/familycommunity/a/Gossip- Backbiting.htm
- Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA, Harvard
referencing is the most well used referencing style in the UK and Australia, and is
encouraged for use with the humanities.
Name of the author(s)
Year published
Title

14 | P a g e
 City published
Publisher
Pages used
- Book- Patterson, J. (2005). Maximum ride. New York: Little, Brown Book with
more than two authors- Vermaat, M., Sebok, S., Freund, S.,
- Campbell, J. and Frydenberg, M. (2014). Discovering computers. Boston: Cengage
Learning, pp.446-448.
- Journal - Ross, N. (2015). On Truth Content and False Consciousness in Adorno’s
Aesthetic Theory. Philosophy Today, 59(2), pp. 269-290.
- Dawson, J., Deubert, K., Grey-Smith, S. & Smith, L. 2002. 'S' Trek 6: Referencing,
not plagiarism. [Online]. Available
from:http://lisweb.curtin.edu.au/guides/studytrekk/str ek6.html. [12 March 2017].
Characteristics of a good proposal
- A good research proposal should have the following characteristics: -
1. Informative title
2. Convincing abstract
3. Clear research question /hypothesis
4. Clear scientific background and rationale
5. Good selection of research methods
6. Ethical considerations
7. Realistic budget and time plan
8. Creative
9. Logical flow of ideas

DATA COLLECTION
Data is:- Facts or information used usually to calculate, analyze, or plan something OR all
information a researcher gathers for his or her study
Terms used in research/data collection
1) Variable/Parameter- a measurable characteristics that assumes different values( attributes)
among the subjects e.g. sex(male or female), age( young, middle aged or old),
occupation(farmer, teacher, nurse…) etc
2) Target population- the entire group of individuals, events or objectives having a common
observable characteristic.
3) Sample- a smaller group obtained from the accessible/target population.

Types of data
Data is classified on the basis of its originality and the proximity to the source of origin
There are three types of data i.e.

15 | P a g e
i) Primary data-information obtained from field through observation, interview schedules,
questionnaires.
ii) Secondary data- based on primary sources, analyze, evaluate, interpret, or criticize
primary sources
iii) Tertiary data- comment on and discuss the evidence provided by primary and secondary
sources e.g articles on Wikipedia
Instruments/tools and methods of data collection
The most commonly used instruments are: questionnaires, interview schedules, observational
forms and standardized tests.
NB:- Construction of data collection tools should be guided by the objectives
1) Questionnaires
Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective, research
question or hypothesis of the study
There are two broad categories of questions:-
i. Structured or closed ended- questions accompanied by a list of all possible
alternatives from which the respondent chooses the alternative that best describes their
situation
Examples of structured questions
1). Where do you live? (tick the right answer)
a) Flat
b) Bungalow
c) Masionattes
d) Cottage
e) Other??????
2). Who do you live with
a) Spouse
b) Children
c) Parents
d) Sponsor

Advantages of closed ended questions

- Easy and quick to answer.
- Response choice can clarify the question text for the respondent.
- Improves consistency of responses.
- Easy to compare with other respondents or questionnaires.
- Easier, quick, and less costly to analyze.
Disadvantages of closed ended questions
- May not have the exact answer the respondent wants to give
- Can put ideas into respondents’ minds
- Respondents may select answers most similar to true response, even though it is
different

16 | P a g e
 - Many options may confuse the respondent
- Respondents with no opinion may answer anyway
- Does not give information about whether or not the respondent actually
understood the question being asked

ii. Unstructured or open ended- questions that give the respondent complete freedom
of response. The amount of space provided guides the respondent on the length of
the answer.
Examples of open ended questions
1. What topic was most interesting in life skills and why? Explain
2. Which topic was least interesting and why? Explain
3. What topics should be included in the module?
Advantages
- Can provide detailed information
- Give the real insights of the respondent
- Allows an infinite range of answers
- Provide rich qualitative data
Disadvantages
- Time-consuming
- Low response rate
- Difficult to analyze and interpret data
- Not a good way to find out quantitative statistics
- Can gather a lot of irrelevant data
Other types of questions are contingency questions and matrix questions

iii. Contingency questions

▪ They are also known as filter questions.
▪ Their purpose is to probe more information
▪ They are usually subsequent to the initial questions
▪ They simplify the respondents task as the respondent is not required to answer
questions that are not relevant to them
▪ They can either be open ended or closed ended Examples:-
Put a tick in the box next to the right response
1. Have you ever travelled by train? Yes
No
If yes, how many times have you travelled by train?
1) once
2) 2- 5 times
3) 5- 10 times
4) over 10 times

17 | P a g e
 2. Have you ever used birth control measures?
if yes, answer question 3 & 4, if no, skip question 3 &4 and go directly to question 5
iv) Matrix questions
▪ They are questions that share the same set of response categories
Indicate whether you: strongly agree=1, agree=2, neither agree nor disagree=3,
disagree=4, strongly disagree=5 with the following
a) I am satisfied with my financial status
b) I am satisfied with my friends
c) I am satisfied with my level of education
d) I am satisfied with social status
Qualities of a Good Question
1. Evokes the truth-must be non-threatening
2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension- purpose of a survey is to find out
information e.g "Were you satisfied with the quality of our food and service?
3. Can accommodate all possible answers e.g computer brands(list all not a specific
one)
4. Has mutually exclusive options-leaves no ambiguity in the mind of the respondent
e.g Where did you grow up-A. country B. farm C. city
5. Follows comfortably from the previous question-Transitions between questions
should be smooth(guided by objectives/ordered)
6. Produces variability of responses-What do you think about this report?
A. It's the worst report I've read
B. It's somewhere between the worst and best
C. It's the best report I've read
7. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs-avoid an unwarranted assumption e.g
types of insurance/business
8. Does not imply a desired answer-strive for objectivity e.g Don't you think
Manchester united is doing poorly ?
9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined words-Quantifying adjectives
(e.g., most, least, majority) mean different things to different people
10. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations-Remember who your audience is and
write your questionnaire for them
11. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions e.g 1. Do you currently have a
life insurance policy ? (Yes or No) If no, go to question 3
12. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of more than five items-
increases difficult as the number of items increases, and the answers become less
reliable

18 | P a g e
Advantages of questionnaires
1. Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face- to-face interviews-
involving large sample sizes and large geographic areas.
2. Questionnaires are easy to analyze.
3. Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no middle-man
bias.
4. Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to- face surveys
Disadvantages
- Possibility of low response rates-Low response is the curse of statistical analysis –
Response rate should be above 75%
- Inability to probe responses-structured instruments that allow little flexibility to the
respondent with respect to response format.
- The lack of personal contact may affect have different effects depending on the type of
information being requested e.g A questionnaire probing sensitive issues or attitudes
may be severely affected.
- Respondent may not be the same person you sent the questionnaire to e.g kids respond
as a prank -It is a confounding error inherent in questionnaires.
- Not suited for some people-poorly educated people might not work because of reading
skill problems.

2) Interview
- An interview in qualitative research is a conversation where questions are asked to
elicit information e.g individual, phone, group etc.
- A set of questions the researcher asks when interviewing- standardizes the interview
(ask the same questions in the same manner).
Types of interview
1. Personal Interview - Is a face to face two way communication between the
interviewer and the respondents. Generally the personal interview is carried out in a
planned manner and is referred to as ‘structured interview’. This can be done in many
forms e.g. door to door or as a planned formal executive meeting.
Generally a personal interview should go through the following five/5 stages as
follows.

a. Rapport Building
- Interviewer should increase the receptiveness of the respondent by making him
believe that his opinions are very useful to the research, and is going to be a pleasure
rather than an ordeal.

b. Introduction
- An introduction involves the interviewer identifying himself by giving him his name,
purpose. An introductory letter goes a long way in conveying the study’s legitimacy.

19 | P a g e
 c. Probing
- Technique of encouraging the respondents to answer completely, freely and
relevantly.

d. Recording
- The interviewer can either write the response at the time of interview or after the
interview. In certain cases, where the respondent allows for it, audio or visual aids can
be used to record answers.
e. Closing
- Interviewer should thank the respondent and once again assure him about the worth of
his answers and the confidentiality of the same.

2. Telephone interview- information is collected from the respondent by asking him

questions on the phone
3. Focus Group Interview- an unstructured interview which involves a moderator
leading a discussion between a small group of respondents on a specific topic.Depth
Interview- nondirective in nature where the respondent is given freedom to answer
within the boundaries of the topic of interest
4. Projective Techniques - involve the presentation of an ambiguous, unstructured
object, activity or person that a respondent is asked to interpret and explain e.g
behavoiur of others
Advantages of Interview Method
1. Opportunity for Feedback – Interviewer can provide direct feedback to the
respondent, give clarifications and help alleviate any misconceptions or apprehensions
over confidentiality that the respondent may have in answering the interviewer’s
questions.
2. Probing Complex Answers – Interviewers can probe if the respondent’s answer is too
brief or unclear. This gives interviewers some flexibility in dealing with unstructured
questions and is especially suited for handling complex questions.
3. Length of Interview – If the questionnaire is very lengthy, the personal interview is
the best technique for getting respondents to cooperate, without overtaxing their
patience.
4. Complete Questionnaires – Personal ensures ensure that the respondent will answer
all questions asked, unlike in telephone interview where the respondent may hang up
or in mail questionnaire where some questions may go unanswered.
5. Props & Visual Aids – Interviewers have the opportunity of showing respondents
items such as sample products, graphs ands sketches, which can aid in their answers.
6. High Participation – Interviewing respondents personally can increase the likelihood
of their participation, as many people prefer to communicate verbally and sharing
information and insights with interviewers
Disadvantages of Interview Method
1. Cost –more expensive than mail, telephone and internet surveys. Factors influencing
the cost of the interview include the respondents’ geographic proximity, the length
and complexity of the questionnaire, and the number of non- respondents

20 | P a g e
 2. Lack of Anonymity – Respondents are not anonymous in a personal (face-to-face)
interview and may be reluctant to disclose certain information to the interviewer.
3. Necessity for Callbacks – When a person selected for interview cannot be reached the
first time, a callback has to be scheduled which result in extra cost and time spent
4. Variance Effects –demographic characteristics of the interviewer can influence the
answers of the respondents. In one study, male interviewers had a much larger
variance of answers than female interviewers in a sample of most female individuals.
5. Dishonesty – Interviewers cheat to make their life easier and save time and effort.
6. Personal Style – The interviewers individual questioning style, techniques, approach
and demeanor may influence the respondents’ answers.
7. Global/cultural considerations – Cultural aspects may influence peoples’ willingness
to participate in an interview (e.g. repressive Middle Eastern cultures discourage
females from being questioned by male interviewers)
Rules of communication in an interview
1. Language used must ensure effective communication i.e. the respondent must fully
understand the language.
2. Avoid harsh words and discriminatory remarks and negative approaches
3. Establish rapport to put the respondent at ease and to inspire confidence
4. Monitor the interview situation e.g. if a sensitive question is noted it can be
withdrawn or revisited differently.
5. Explain the purpose of the study honestly to the respondents

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

- After collection, data has to be processed and analyzed.
- Analysis of data, is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming and modeling
data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and
supporting decision-making.
- It is computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among the data groups.
- Processing implies coding, editing, classification and tabulation of collected data.
Hypothesis
- A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can
be tested-tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two variables
There are 3 types of hypothesis:
a) Null hypothesis :-states that there is no relationship between the two variables being
studied (one variable does not affect the other).
Ho: μ1 = μ2 (null hypothesis) also called two tailed
b) Alternative hypothesis:- predicts that two groups will be different; but doesn’t say in what
direction: (alternative hypothesis) also called two tailed
H1: μ1 ≠ μ2

21 | P a g e
 Example: A study that is trying to test whether there is a significant difference between
the effectiveness of medicine against heart arrest, the alternative hypothesis will be that
there is a relationship between the medicine and chances of heart arrest.
Alternative directional hypothesis: -It predicts that the independent variable will have an
effect on the dependent variable, then goes ahead and specifies the direction of the effect. Eg
H1: μ1 ≥ μ2 or H1: μ1 ≤ μ2

There are many ways of data analysis, for our study we shall discuss two methods
a) Qualitative analysis
Tries to establish patterns, trends and relationships from the information gathered. Data
presented in frequency distribution tables.
b) Quantitative analysis
- Analyzing data in terms of descriptive or inferential statistics.
- Descriptive statistics include frequencies, measures of central tendency (mean ,mode
and median ) and measures of dispersion (standard deviation, range or variance).
- Inferential statistics involve measurement of relationships and differences between or
among variables. Include correlation, regression and analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Data is presented in terms of tables, graphs or charts, etc.
Data interpretation
- This is the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after a study.
- Interpretation helps a researcher to link up the findings of his/her research with those
of other studies.
- Interpretation helps the researcher and others to understand the real significance of
his/her research findings based on the objectives of the study and relationship between
variables.
- Enables hypothesis testing

Ethical issues in research

"ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable
behavior.
Moral principles that guide a persons behavior or the conducting of an activity.
Research ethics are therefore consideration of moral rules and professional codes of conduct
to the collection, analysis, reporting and publication of information about research subjects.
Why ethics in research?
a) Promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error
b) Promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness

22 | P a g e
 c) Accountability to the public.
d) Help to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund a research
project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.
e) Promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and
safety
Ethical principles in research
- Honesty
- Objectivity
- Intergrity
- Respect for intellectual property/avoid plagiarism
- Confidentiality
- Responsible publication
- Respect for colleagues
- Social responsibility
- Non-discrimination
- Human subject protection
- Animal care
Report writing
- Research report is written in the past tense unlike the research proposal which is in
the future tense
- The research report informs the reader of the problem the researcher initially set out to
investigate , the method of investigation used and the researchers findings.
- The report presents data fully and adequately.
- The report should relate the findings back to the objectives, hypothesis and
hypothesis.
- A well written report comprises of the following sections or components

Components of a research report

1) Cover page:-contains the research title, name and particulars of the researcher, name of
supervisors of the project and date of submission. This page is not numbered, but it takes
position of Roman (i)
2) Preliminaries:- all the components are written on separate pages and the pages numbered
in small Roman’s. they are:-
a) Declaration……………………………………..(ii)
b) Dedication……………………………………..(iii)
c) Acknowledgements…………………………..(iv)
d) Abstract…………………………………….(v)
e) table of contents………………………………(vi)

23 | P a g e
f) list of tables(if any)…………………………..(vii)
g) list of figures(if any)…………………………(viii)
h) List of appendices……………………………..(ix)
i) Lists of abbreviations and acronyms…………. (x)
j) Operational definition of terms…………………(xi)
3) Chapter one: introduction :-(include all the sections of the introduction appearing in
the research proposal) pg1-…
4) Chapter two: literature review:- pg…-…
5) Chapter three: methodology:- (include all sections as in the research proposal) pg…
6) Chapter four : data analysis , interpretation and discussion of results :- pg…-…
7) Chapter five: conclusion , recommendations and areas for further study:-make
conclusions based on the objectives. Pg…-…
8) References/ bibliography:- pg…-…
9) Appendices:- may include tables, instruments used in data collection , letters of
consent, research permit, work plan and budget.
EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS IN RESEARCH METHODS
Emerging issues are potential problem/opportunities in their earliest stage of development in
research methods.
Trends are potential problem/opportunities that have fully emerged, and might develop into
mature problem/opportunities in research methods.
They include:
- Expanding regulatory requirements – research is increasingly subject to government
regulations and guidelines that impose financial and administrative requirements on
researchers e.g. a researcher has to apply for a permit from NACOSTI to undertake
research.
- Information technology has greatly improved research methods by increasing their
accuracy and allowing the analysis and manipulation of large data sets effectively. It
has also made it possible to conduct investigations that were not possible before.
- Globalization of research methods – Research knows no borders and governments
have encouraged scientist to engage with other researchers from across the globe to
foster knowledge transfer and sharing.
- Climate change is shaping the future of research. Use of papers for questionnaire is
becoming an issue of concern due to the destruction of trees for paper production.
Plastics use is emerging as a persistent pollutant in nature. Other methods of data
collection are being reviewed to consider the sustainability of our environment.

24 | P a g e
Challenges posed by emerging issues and trends.
- Bureaucracy in provision of permits slows research activities and affects the time
plans
- Need to perform modern research is constrained by financing
- Globalization of research could result in culture shock or cause teething problems
when employing certain unfamiliar methods.
- Lack of originality and interest in research has encouraged plagiarism, abuse of
intellectual property rights and duplication.
Coping with challenges posed by emerging issues and trends
- Proper planning to overcome bureaucratic hurdles
- Researchers analyzing secondary data and reporting which cuts cost of research.
- Embracing technological changes which hastens research and improves the quality of
work
- Climate change technologies adaptations that protect our carbon sinks like forests,
wetlands and grasslands.

25 | P a g e