AS343AI- AEROSPACE PROPULSION

Unit –III Aircraft Propulsion Systems

 Course Curriculum

Unit –III 08 Hrs

Aircraft Propulsion Systems: Aircraft Inlets-Working of Subsonic & Supersonic Inlets,
Compressors: Operation of Centrifugal & Axial Flow Compressors, Combustion Chambers: Principle
of operation, Classification of Combustion Chambers, Turbines: Types of turbines-Operating
Principle, Nozzles: Flow through Convergent and Convergent-Divergent Nozzles (Without Derivations
and Numericals).
 Simple Gas Turbine Engines

 Works on Brayton cycle-constant pressure cycle

 Consists of compressor, burner, turbine
 Thermodynamic cycle consists of four processes
• 1-2-isentropic compression
• 2-3-constant pressure heat addition
• 3-4-isentropic expansion
• 4-1-constant pressure heat rejection
 Configuration of Gas Turbine Engines

Possible configuration of a gas turbine engines are

 Turbojet engine
 Turboprop engine
 Turbofan engine
 Turbo shaft engine
 Auxiliary power units (APUs’)-provide electrical power for starting the main engines and mechanical shaft
power for other pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Auxiliary power units (APUs’)

 Turbojet engine

Various parts are

• Diffuser
• Compressor
• Combustion chamber
• Turbines
• Tail pipe
• Exhaust nozzle

Figure: Schematic of a Turbo jet engine

Turbojet Engine Cut Section
 Brayton Cycle

Brayton Cycle
● Conceptualised- George Brayton- 1870
 Gas Turbine Engine

Gas Turbine Engine

● John Barber- 1879

FIRST GAS TURBINE PATENT

Current Generation GTEs
 Gas Turbine Applications-BRAYTON CYCLE
GAS TURBINE
SHAFT POWER CYCLES AIRCRAFT PROPULSION

Marine Gas Turbine

Aircraft Gas Turbine

Industrial Gas Turbine

 Differences b/w Shaft Power and Aircraft Engines

● Altitude of Operation- ρ Varies- Temp, Pressure & Mass flow --- Thrust Varies (Fuel will vary)
○ Piston Engines- Up to 20,000 feet (6km)
Cost of operation varies
○ Turboshafts- Up to 20,000 feet (6km)
○ Turboprops- Up to 30,000 feet (9km) Cost of operation Cost of operation
○ Turbofans- 30,000 to 45,000 feet (9 to 13 km) Sukhoi MK30I LCA Tejas
○ Turbojets- 30,000 to 50,000 feet (9 to 15 km) 15-25 Lakhs per hour 4-5 Lakhs per hour
○ Ramjets- 60,000 to 100,000 feet (18.3 to 30)
○ Scramjets- 80,000 feet and above (24.4 km and above) Cost of operation
● Forward Velocity F35 A, B, C, D
○ Piston Engines- Up to Mach 0.4 (approximately 136 m/s) 25-30 Lakhs per hour
○ Turboshafts- Up to Mach 0.6 (approximately 204 m/s)
○ Turboprops- Up to Mach 0.7 (approximately 238 m/s) These are official numbers
○ Turbofans- Mach 0.8 to Mach 2.5 (approximately 272 to 850 m/s) for commercial engines.
○ Turbojets- Mach 1.0 to Mach 2.5 (approximately 340 to 850 m/s)
For military engines, the speed and
○ Ramjets- Mach 2.0 to Mach 5.0 (approximately 680 to 1,700 m/s) altitude of operation are classified.
○ Scramjets- Mach 5.0 and above (greater than 1,700 m/s) Generally, the speeds and altitudes are
much higher
 Aircraft Inlets / Intake Ducts / Diffuser
● Simple & empty duct –no moving components
● Increasing cross sectional area with length
● Aid in decelerate incoming air
● Convert Kinetic energy to static pressure rise
● Ideal operating range of a compressor Mach 0.5-0.6
 Basic functions of an inlet

1. Deceleration of air as required by compressor (M=0.3)

2. Provide total pressure ratio
3. Good starting and stability at all altitudes and AOA
4. Supply Uniform flow
5. Low radar signature
6. Low installation drag
7. Geometry-Smooth and straight
8. Minimum weight
9. Low cost
10. Reliable
 Types of aircraft inlets

Subsonic Inlets
AIRCRAFT Transonic Inlets
Based on Speed Supersonic Inlets
INLETS
Hypersonic Inlets
Streamtube area-velocity relation

AREA-VELOCITY RELATION
 Subsonic Vs Supersonic Inlets
Supersonic Inlets
Subsonic Inlets
● Simple Manoeuvres • Complex Manoeuvres
● Geometry-Simple and Short • Geometry- Complex
● Inlet is visible • Inlet is Buried/ Shielded
● Problem-Flow Separation • Problem-Shock formations
 Subsonic inlets (Pitot or Podded Inlets)
● Operating range within M<1
● Commonly used on civil and military transport aircrafts
● Common type of subsonic intake is the pitot intake
● Pitot inlets have a fixed geometry & diverging cross
sectional shape along its length
● Exhibit a thick lip at the leading edge
● Aerodynamically smoothened-minimum friction
 Subsonic Inlets Contd…

● Inlets transform kinetic energy into a pressure rise

 1
PT 0    1 2  
 1 M0 
P0  2 

P2  P1
Static Pressure Recovery Coefficient CPR q1
 TRANSONIC DUCTS
● Operate at transonic speeds
● designed to keep the shock waves out of the duct
● Exhibits a spike or a probe at the front
● Establishes a Normal shock wave
● Causes deceleration of the flow
 Supersonic inlets/diffusers
BASED ON METHOD OF COMPRESSION
NORMAL SHOCK INLETS
● Simplest type of supersonic diffuser
● Utilizes a single normal shock wave
● Similar to the pitot inlets
● Lip of the normal shock inlet is made sharper
● Modes of Operation
● Critical Mode
● Sub Critical Mode
● Super critical Mode
Critical Mode Sub-Critical Mode Super-Critical Mode
 External compression inlets
● Supersonic diffusion is completed entirely outside the cowl lip
● Establishment of oblique and normal shock waves
● Oblique shock occur outside the intake lip
● Normal shock occurs at cowl lip
● Oblique Shock waves-Supersonic diffusion
● Normal shock wave-Subsonic diffusion
 Internal compression inlets

● Oblique & normal shocks are present within the covered passage of the inlet
● Multiple reflections of oblique shock wave
● Terminate with a normal shock wave at the throat section
 Mixed compression inlet

● Combine the features of both external as well as internal compression inlets

● Attractive design for most supersonic applications
● Better total pressure recovery
 Based on geometry-fixed/variable
TWO DIMENSIONAL INLETS-RECTANGULAR RAMP
● Incorporation of external compression ramps or solid wedges
● Hydraulically controlled
● Control their position
● Total pressure recovery variation
 Axisymmetric inlets with conical forebody

● Equipped with a conical forebody

● Be capable of moving forward and rearward
● Aids in opening and closing the throat area of the duct
 Flow analysis through diffuser

● Reduce fluid velocity M=0.3-0.5

● Incorporate Inlet duct
● Inlet- Increasing cross sectional area
● Area Increasing- V decrease and P increases
● Variation of Area dA 1 1  dP
   1
A  M 2
 

● Use LARGE DIVERGANCE ANGLE for the duct- SHORT DUCT

● Problems with boundary layer separation and losses
● Use SMALL DIVERGANCE ANGLE for the duct- LONG DUCT
● Problems of Skin friction drag and pressure losses
● HENCE, optimum divergence angle is required
 Airflow pattern in a subsonic intake
● Airplanes operate- static conditions to high speed conditions
● Inlet to operate in unison with aircrafts
● Inlet operation- speed or mass flow rate dependent
 COMPRESSORS

Role- Provide High pressure air

 1    1 
  c  1
WN
 t
 1   
   
C PT1  c  r  
c

FUNCTIONS
● High mass flow rate/unit frontal area
● Provide maximum pressure ratio per stage
● High efficiency
● Possibility of Multi-staging
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
1. Centrifugal Flow Compressors
2. Axial Flow Compressors
 Centrifugal flow (Radial Flow) compressors
● Inlet and exit are not same, exit is perpendicular to the
axis of the compressor
PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ARE
1. Inlet casing with an accelerating nozzle
2. Impeller
3. Diffuser
4. Volute

Working of a centrifugal Compressor

Centrifugal compressor with a combustion chamber
Fig : Pressure Rise across Centrifugal
Compressor
ADVANTAGES
• Simplicity
• Ruggedness
• Less susceptible to FOD
• High pressure ratio per stage
• Flexibility of operation is high
• Low cost

DISADVANTAGES
● Large frontal area
● Multi-staging is difficult
● Efficiency is lower
● Lower mass flow rate for a given frontal area
● High stresses
 Axial flow compressors
● Inlet and exit of air is always parallel to the axis of the compressor

PARTS OF AN AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ARE

1. Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV)
2. Rotor Blades
3. Stator Blades

Representation of Axial flow compressor in a

Turbojet Engine
Working of an Axial Flow Compressor
Axial Flow Compressor and Turbine Blades
ADVANTAGES
• Higher efficiency
• High mass flow rate for a given frontal area
• Easy Multi-staging

DISADVANTAGES
● Comparatively less pressure ratio
● Prone to FOD
● Deposits adversely affect
● Delivery pressure is less
 Combustion chamber
FUNCTIONS
● Provide housing to support combustion
● Convert Chemical energy of fuel into Heat energy
● Reconvert Heat energy to useful work in a turbine
STEPS IN COMBUSTION
The process of combustion in any gas turbine engine has following four steps
 Formation of reactive mixture- Formation of a readily combustible air-fuel mixture
 Ignition- Combustion of a Stoichiometric mixture of air-fuel mixture
1. Rich Mixture: Incomplete Combustion, High Emissions, carbon formation
2. Lean Mixture: Less Power Generation, Less responsive Engine, Combustion Failure
3. Stoichiometric Mixture
 Flame Propagation- Providing a continuous and sustained flame through out the flight
 Cooling of exhaust gases- Bringing down the temperature of exhaust gases to the level acceptable by the
turbine
 Working of a combustion chamber

 Introduction of fuel at the front end of the burner

 Atomization of the fuel
 Supply of air from the compressor
 Air streams supplied in three separate zones
 Primary Zone
 Secondary or Intermediate Zone
 Tertiary or Dilution Zone

Working of a Combustion Chamber

Strip Down Model of a Combustion Chamber
 Types of combustion chambers

● CAN TYPE
● ANNULAR TYPE
● CAN-ANNULAR TYPE
 Can type burner
● Mostly used with centrifugal compressors
● Consists of individual burners
● Arranged in a circular manner around the engine axis
● The primary air from the compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is decelerated, mixed
with fuel, and then ignited
● Equipped with fuel injectors and igniters
● Receives own supply of air
● The secondary air also comes from the compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner

Individual Can of a Can Type burner Can Type Combustion Chamber

 Annular type
 It is essentially a single chamber made up of concentric cylinders mounted co-axially about
the engine axis
 Burner weight if less
 Pressure losses are low
 Improved performance
 They have a uniform temperature exit

Annular Type Combustion Chamber

 Can-annular type

 Combination of CAN type and ANNULAR type burners

 Provided with cross linking ignition tubes
 Doesn’t require separate igniters in each can
 Once the fire is lit in one or two cans, it can easily spread to and ignite the others

Can-Annular Type Combustion Chamber

 Flame Tube Cooling

● Major problem in gas turbine engines

● Overheating due to both convection and radiations
● Rate of heat removal is lesser than rate of heat addition
 Turbines
● Prime Mover-Extracts Energy from moving Fluid
● Drive compressor and accessories
TYPES OF TURBINES
1. Radial flow
2. Axial flow
3. Mixed flow

AXIAL FLOW
1. Impulse turbine
2. Reaction turbine
 Impulse turbine

● Alternating sequence of STATORS and ROTORS

● STATORS-Stationery-& similar to Nozzles
● ROTORS-Rotating
● STATORS-Velocity increases, Pressure decreases (EXPANSION)
● ROTORS-Convert Kinetic energy to Mechanical work,
further to electricity
● STATORS-Energy Transformation
● ROTORS- Energy Transfer
 Reaction turbine

● Both Stator and Rotor are CONVERGENT

● Expansion of gases in both the stators and rotors
● Energy transformation in both Stators and Rotors
● Energy transfer in Rotors
 Materials used for construction
● Thrust to Weight ratio affects the performance
● Ratio of thrust generated to the total weight of the engine (T/W)
● Weight of the engine depends upon the materials used for construction
● Lower the weight of the engine higher will be the excess thrust

Criteria for selection of materials

1. High operating temperatures (900-2000 degrees Celsius)
2. High rotational speeds (5000 rpm to 30000rpm)
3. Longer operating duration-Creep Resistant(Temp, Time and Stress Dependent)
4. Good fatigue properties
5. Erosion and corrosion resistance
6. High reliability
7. Low operating cost
 Operating environment

1. High thermal stresses, thermal gradient, rapid temperature changes

2. High mechanical stresses
3. High thermal Fatigue
4. Oxidation
5. Creep rupture
6. Erosion and corrosion
 Regions of a jet engine

L.P.Compressor

Air inlet H.P.Compressor Combustor Turbine Exhaust

Cold Section Hot Section

 Requirements of cold section materials

• High strength (static, fatigue)

• High stiffness
• Withstand high mechanical stresses
• Low weight

MATERIALS USED TEMPERATURE RANGE COMPONENTS

Titanium alloys 590⁰C Fan, Blades, Compressor disks
Aluminium alloys 350⁰C Fan disks, Engine mounts
Titanium Aluminide (Ti3Al) 700⁰C
Polymer Composites Fan blades, outlet guide vanes, bypass ducts, nose cone spinners, core
engine fairings and variable guide vane rings, afterburner nozzle petals
Alloy Steels Shafts, attachments, brackets, casings, fasteners, discs
Materials used in cold section
 Hot section material requirements
1. High static strength
2. High fatigue strength
3. High creep resistance
4. Corrosion resistance
5. Oxidation resistance
6. Low weight
Examples-Nickel and cobalt based super alloys
Part Temperature °C Desired material properties

Turbine disc 200 – 300 at the centre, 800+ at rim Ductility, yield strength, creep
Turbine blades 600 - 1700 Fatigue strength, stress rupture, ductility,
corrosion, creep, thermal shock

Nozzle block 600 - 1700 Corrosion, thermal shock, yield strength

Combustion chamber 600 - 1800 Corrosion, thermal shock, ductility, thermal

properties, yield strength
 Turbine materials

Most stressed part

● Continuous exposure to high temperatures
● High centrifugal stresses
● High bending stresses
● Minimal resisting area
● 3Dimensional stresses
● Erosion and corrosion
 Blade cooling

● Use of compressed air for cooling

● 20% of total engine air mass flow is used
● Maintain an average temperature of around 800 degrees
Benefits of blade cooling
1. Maintain structural integrity
2. Protect blades from melting
3. Prevent thermal fatigue
4. Increased Life- upto 10000 hrs
 Classification of cooling techniques

● Cooling Site
● External Cooling
○ Film Cooling Technique
○ Transpiration Cooling
● Internal Cooling
○ Convection Cooling
○ Impingement Cooling

● Cooling Medium
● Liquid Cooled
● Air Cooled
 External cooling

FILM COOLING TECHNIQUE

● Also known as Thin Film Cooling
● Most preferred
● Highest heat transfer rates
● Blowing of compressed air through multiple holes
● Dia=0.15mm
● Blanketing of air
● Good cooling
 External cooling

TRANSPIRATION COOLING
● Suited for Porous Materials
● Sintered wire composites
● Sweating of air
● Uniform Cooling
● Low strength at high temperatures
 Internal cooling

CONVECTION COOLING
● Blades Internally cooled
● Internal passages - serpentine form
● Heat transfer through conduction and convection
 Impingement cooling

● Blade-Hollow with internal passages

● Necessary holes and slots
 Cooling medium
LIQUID COOLED
MERITS
1. High Specific Heats
2. Good Heat Transfer Rates
DEMERITS
1. Overcooling of Blades
2. Prone to vaporization
3. Circulation of vapour is difficult
4. Water to be supplied beyond its vapour pressure
5. Increased complexities
6. Susceptible to corrosion
 Air cooled

● Very Simple
● Air from the compressor can be used
● Around -1-3% of high pressure air is used
● Circulation is easier
● Discharging is also easy
 Nozzles

1. Relatively simple device

2. Varying cross section
3. Used to modify the characteristics of the fluid
4. Discharge, Direction, Pressure, Velocity, Mass flow rate etc. Nozzle
5. Applications- Fuel nozzle, arc welding tip, chemical treatment plants, aircraft engine exhausts etc.
6. Aircrafts-Accelerate the fluid to subsonic, sonic and supersonic velocities

Inlet
 Functions of a nozzle in aircraft engines

● Accelerate the flow to a high velocity with minimum total pressure loss
● Match exit and atmospheric pressure as closely as possible
● Permit afterburner operation without affecting main engine operation-this function requires a variable
area nozzle
● Allow for cooling of walls
● Mix core and by pass streams of turbofan if necessary
● Allow for thrust reversing
● Suppress jet noise and infrared radiation if desired
● Thrust vector control should be permitted
 Types of nozzles
There are different types of nozzles used on aircrafts:
● Convergent Nozzle
● Convergent-Divergent nozzle or Con-Di nozzle or De-Laval nozzle
CONVERGENT NOZZLE
• Simple convergent duct
• Mainly used when the pressure ratio is less (less than about 4).
• Can accelerate the flow only up to sonic (M=1) condition
• Used on subsonic aircrafts
 Flow analysis through a convergent nozzle

Reservoir Pressure Back Pressure (Pb) (Po-pb) Mach number M Mass flow rate
(Po) at the throat m Kg/s
Case1 Po=10 Bar Pb=10 Bar 0 0 0
Case 2 Po=10 Bar Pb=9 Bar 1 Bar Slightly Increases Slightly Increases
Case 3 Po=10 Bar Pb=8 Bar 2 Bar Low subsonic Increases
Case 4 Po=10 Bar Pb= 7 Bar 3 Bar High subsonic Increases considerably
Case 5 Po= 10 Bar Pb= 6 Bar 4 Bar Almost Sonic Significantly increases
velocity
Case 6 Po= 10 Bar Pb= 5.23 Bar 4.77 Bar Sonic velocity M=1 Choked Flow
Case 7 Po= 10 Bar Pb= 5.23 Bar 4.77 Bar Sonic velocity M=1 Constant Mass Flow Rate

Fig: Flow through a convergent nozzle

 CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT NOZZLE / CON-DI NOZZLE /
DE-LAVAL NOZZLE / C-D NOZZLE

● C-D Nozzle has 2 sections

○ Convergent Section
○ Divergent Section
● Used for pressure ratios r>6
● Used along with Variable area nozzle
● Achieve supersonic conditions
● Used in High performance aircrafts
Flow analysis through a C-D nozzle
 Thrust reversers
● Temporarily changing the direction of exhaust gases
● Acts against the forward motion of the aircraft

USES OF THRUST REVERSERS

1. Deceleration of the aircraft
2. Landing on short runways
3. During rejected take-offs
4. Bad weather
5. Increase the manoeuvrability of the fighter aircrafts
6. Reduce the stress on aircraft brakes
7. Increase the efficiency of the braking system
 Types of thrust reversers
1. Target Type
2. Clam Shell Type
3. Cascade Type
TARGET TYPE THRUST REVERSERS
● Consist of pair of extendable buckets
● Used in braking and parking assist
 Clam Shell type
● Presence of deflection doors
 Cascade Type
● Used on turbo fan engines
● Uses only the bypass air
 Thrust vectoring

● Independent movement of the engine nozzle

● Manipulate the direction of the thrust from the engine
● Control the angular velocity or the attitude of the aircraft
● Increases manoeuvrability
Flow Through Diffusers