Homework 2

Section 2.1–2.5 & 8.2

Dam Chi Trung - 2453334
April 27, 2025

Section 2.1
Problem 11
Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.

• a) 0 ∈ ∅
• b) ∅ ∈ {0}
• c) {0} ⊂ ∅
• d) ∅ ⊂ {0}

• e) {0} ∈ {0}
• f) {0} ⊂ {0}
• g) {∅} ⊆ {∅}
Answer:
a) False. Because the empty set ∅ contains no elements, so 0 cannot be inside this set.
b) False. The set {0} contains only the element 0, and ∅ is not equal to 0.
c) False. {0} contains an element, but ∅ has none, so {0} is not a subset of ∅.
d) True. Every set contains the empty set as a subset, since ∅ has no elements to violate subset
conditions.
e) False. {0} is a set containing 0, but not equal to 0, so it’s not an element of itself.
f) True. Every set is a subset of itself.
g) True. Both sets are equal and contain the same element ∅, so the subset relation holds.

Problem 12
Determine whether these statements are true or false.

• a) ∅ ∈ {∅}
• b) ∅ ∈ {∅, {∅}}
• c) {∅} ∈ {∅}

• d) {∅} ∈ {{∅}}
• e) {∅} ⊂ {∅, {∅}}
• f) {{∅}} ⊂ {∅, {∅}}
• g) {{∅}} ⊂ {{∅}, {∅}}

1
 Answer:
a) True. The set {∅} contains exactly one element: ∅.
b) True. The set {∅, {∅}} has ∅ as one of its elements.
c) False. The set {∅} contains ∅, not the set {∅} itself.
d) True. {{∅}} contains one element, which is {∅}, matching the left side.
e) True. All elements of {∅} are also in the set {∅, {∅}}, so it is a proper subset.
f) True. The element {∅} exists in the right-hand set, so the left set is a subset.
g) False. Both sets are equal: they contain the same element {∅} (even though it’s repeated), so it’s
not a proper subset.

Problem 13
Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.
• a) x ∈ {x}
• b) {x} ⊆ {x}
• c) {x} ∈ {x}
• d) {x} ∈ {{x}}
• e) ∅ ⊆ {x}
• f) ∅ ∈ {x}
Answer:
a) True. The set {x} contains the element x.
b) True. Any set is a subset of itself.
c) False. The set {x} contains the element x, not the set {x} itself.
d) True. The set {{x}} contains one element, which is {x}.
e) True. The empty set is a subset of every set.
f) False. Unless x = ∅, then ∅ ∈
/ {x}.

Problem 26
Determine whether each of these sets is the power set of a set, where a and b are distinct elements.
• a) ∅
• b) {∅, {a}}
• c) {∅, {a}, {∅, a}}
• d) {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
Answer:
a) False. Because every power set includes at least 1 element.
b) True. This is a power set of {a}.
c) False. This set has 3 elements ̸= 2n .
d) True. This is a power set of {a, b}.

Problem 27
Prove that P(A) ⊆ P(B) if and only if A ⊆ B.
Answer:

Assume P(A) ⊆ P(B). Show that A ⊆ B: Let a ∈ A. Then {a} ⊆ A, so {a} ∈ P(A). Since
P(A) ⊆ P(B), it follows that {a} ∈ P(B), which means {a} ⊆ B, so a ∈ B. Therefore, A ⊆ B.
Assume A ⊆ B. Show that P(A) ⊆ P(B): Let X ∈ P(A). Then X ⊆ A. Since A ⊆ B, we have
X ⊆ B, so X ∈ P(B). Therefore, P(A) ⊆ P(B).

2
Problem 28
Show that if A ⊆ C and B ⊆ D, then A × B ⊆ C × D.
Answer: A × B creates a pair (x, y) where x ∈ A and y ∈ B. Since A ⊆ C, we have x ∈ C, and since
B ⊆ D, it follows that y ∈ D. Therefore, the pair (x, y) ∈ C × D, which implies that A × B ⊆ C × D.

Problem 41
Explain why A × B × C and (A × B) × C are not the same.
Answer:
A × B × C creates a pair (x, y, z) where x ∈ A, y ∈ B and z ∈ C.
However, (A × B) × C creates a pair ((x, y), z), where (x, y) ∈ (A × B), and z ∈ C.

Problem 42
Explain why (A × B) × (C × D) and A × (B × C) × D are not the same.
Answer:
(A × B) × (C × D) creates a pair ((a, b), (c, d)), where (a, b) ∈ A × B, and (c, d) ∈ C × D.
Meanwhile, A × (B × C) × D creates a pair ((a), (b, c), d), where a ∈ A, (b, c) ∈ B), and d) ∈ D).

Problem 43
Prove or disprove that if A and B are sets, then:

P(A × B) = P(A) × P(B)

Answer: False (by counterexample).

Let A = {x}, B = {y, z}. Then:

A × B = {(x, y), (x, z)} ⇒ |P(A × B)| = 22 = 4

P(A) = {∅, {x}} ⇒ |P(A)| = 2

P(B) = {∅, {y}, {z}, {2, 3}} ⇒ |P(B)| = 4
⇒ |P(A) × P(B)| = 2 × 4 = 8
Since 4 ̸= 8, the statement is not true.

Problem 44
Prove or disprove: If A, B, C are nonempty sets and

A × B = A × C,

then B = C.
Answer: True.
Proof: Assume A ̸= ∅ and A × B = A × C.
Let b ∈ B. Since A ̸= ∅, choose a ∈ A. Then (a, b) ∈ A × B = A × C ⇒ b ∈ C. So B ⊆ C.
Similarly, for c ∈ C, (a, c) ∈ A × C = A × B ⇒ c ∈ B. So C ⊆ B.
Conclusion: B = C

Section 2.2
Problem 15
Prove the second De Morgan law in Table 1 by showing that if A and B are sets, then
A ∪ B = A ∩ B.
a) by showing each side is a subset of the other side.

3
 b) using a membership table.
Answer:
a) Case 1: Show that A ∪ B ⊆ A ∩ B:
Let x ∈ A ∪ B. Then x ∈/ A ∪ B, so x ∈
/ A and x ∈
/ B.
Therefore, x ∈ A or x ∈ B, which means x ∈ A ∩ B.
Hence, A ∪ B ⊆ A ∩ B.
Case 2:Show that A ∩ B ⊆ A ∪ B:
Let x ∈ A ∩ B. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B, so x ∈/ A and x ∈
/ B.
Therefore, x ∈
/ A ∪ B, which means x ∈ A ∪ B.
Hence, A ∩ B ⊆ A ∪ B.
Therefore, A ∪ B = A ∩ B.

b)

x∈A x∈B x∈A∪B x∈A x∈A∩B

F F T T T
F T F T F
T F F F F
T T F F F

Problem 16
Let A and B be sets. Show that
a) A ∩ B ⊆ A
b) A ⊆ A ∪ B
c) A − B ⊆ A
d) A ∩ (B − A) = ∅
e) A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ B
Answer:
• a) Let x ∈ A ∩ B. So x ∈ A and x ∈ B.
• b) Let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ A ∪ B because it creates a value ∈ A or ∈ B. Therefore, A ⊆ A ∪ B.
• c) Let x ∈ A − B. Because x is in A but not in B. So it still belongs to A. Therefore, A − B ⊆ A.
• d) Let x ∈ B − A and y ∈ A. Because x is in B but not in A, so the intersection between x and y
is empty.
• e) The set B − A has elements from B that are not already in A.Therefore, the union of A with
B − A is exactly the same as the union of A and B.

Problem 17
Show that if A and B are sets in a universe U , then A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B = U .
Answer: Let
U = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {3, 4}, B = {1, 2, 3}.
Then
A = {1, 2}, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3} =
̸ U.
Thus this does not contradict
A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ A ∪ B = U.
.

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Problem 19
Show that if A, B, and C are sets, then A ∩ B ∩ C = A ∪ B ∪ C.
a) by showing each side is a subset of the other side.
b) using a membership table.
Answer:
a) Let x ∈ A ∩ B ∩ C. Then




x∈/ A∩B∩C =⇒ x ∈ /A ∨ x∈ / C =⇒ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ C =⇒ x ∈ A∪B∪C.
/B ∨ x∈

b)

x∈A x∈B x∈C x∈A∩B∩C x∈

/A x∈
/B x∈
/C x∈A∪B∪C
T T T T F F F F
T T F F F F T T
T F T F F T F T
T F F F F T T T
F T T F T F F T
F T F F T F T T
F F T F T T F T
F F F F T T T T

Problem 20
Let A, B, and C be sets. Show that
a) (A ∪ B) ⊆ (A ∪ B ∪ C).
b) (A ∩ B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B).
c) (A − B) − C ⊆ A − C.
d) (A − C) ∩ (C − B) = ∅.
e) (B − A) ∪ (C − A) = (B ∪ C) − A.
Answer:
a) Let x ∈ (A ∪ B) and y ∈ C. (A ∪ B ∪ C) includes x and y. Therefore, (A ∪ B) ⊆ (A ∪ B ∪ C).
b) Let x ∈ A ∩ B ∩ C. Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B, so x ∈ A ∩ B, hence (A ∩ B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B).
c) Let x ∈ (A−B)−C. Then x ∈ A\B and x ∈
/ C, so x ∈ A and x ∈
/ C, hence (A−B)−C ⊆ A−C.
d) If x ∈ (A − C) ∩ (C − B) then x ∈
/ C and x ∈ C, a contradiction, so (A − C) ∩ (C − B) = ∅.
e) If x ∈ (B − A) ∪ (C − A) then x ∈ / A and x ∈ B ∪ C, so (B − A) ∪ (C − A) ⊆ (B ∪ C) − A.
Conversely, if x ∈ (B ∪ C) − A then x ∈
/ A and x ∈ B ∪ C, so (B ∪ C) − A ⊆ (B − A) ∪ (C − A).
Hence equality.

Problem 21
Show that if A and B are sets, then
(a) A − B = A ∩ B.
(b) (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
Answer:
(a) Let x ∈ A \ B ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/ B, hence A \ B = A ∩ B.
(b) Let x ∈ A. If x ∈ B then x ∈ A ∩ B, otherwise x ∈ A ∩ B, so A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B).

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 Problem 35
Let A, B, and C be sets. Use the identities in Table 1 to show that

(A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ C) ∩ (A ∪ C) = A ∩ B ∩ C.

Answer:

(A ∪ B) = A ∩ B, (B ∪ C) = B ∩ C, (A ∪ C) = A ∩ C.
Therefore

(A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ C) ∩ (A ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ (B ∩ C) ∩ (A ∩ C)
= A ∩ B ∩ C,

Problem 36
Let A, B, and C be sets. Prove or disprove that

a) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).
b) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C).
Answer:

a) If (x, y) ∈ A × (B ∪ C), then x ∈ A and y ∈ B or y ∈ C, so (x, y) ∈ A × B or A × C.

b) If (x, y) ∈ A × (B ∩ C), then x ∈ A, y ∈ B, and y ∈ C, so (x, y) lies in both A × B and A × C.

Problem 37
Let A, B, C be sets. Prove or disprove:
a) A × (B \ C) = (A × B) \ (A × C).
b) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).

Answer:

a) If (x, y) ∈ A × (B \ C), then x ∈ A and y ∈ B but y ∈

/ C, so (x, y) ∈ A × B and (x, y) ∈
/ A × C.
Hence (x, y) ∈ (A × B) \ (A × C).

b) If (x, y) ∈ A×(B∪C), then x ∈

/ A and y ∈ B or y ∈ C. In either case, (x, y) ∈ (A×B)∪(A×C).

Section 2.3
Problem 25.
Proof. Let f : R → R be a function such that f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R. Show that f (x) is strictly decreasing
1
if and only if the function g(x) = f (x) is strictly increasing.
Proof:
(⇒) Assume f (x) is strictly decreasing. Then for any x1 < x2 , we have:

f (x1 ) > f (x2 )

6
Since f (x) > 0, taking reciprocals preserves the inequality direction:
1 1
<
f (x1 ) f (x2 )
1
Thus, g(x) = f (x) is strictly increasing.
1
(⇐) Now assume g(x) = f (x) is strictly increasing. Then for any x1 < x2 , we have:

1 1
< ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
f (x1 ) f (x2 )

Thus, f (x) is strictly decreasing.

1
Conclusion: f (x) is strictly decreasing if and only if f (x) is strictly increasing.
If you want centered math on its own line, you can use a slash and square bracket.
(∞ ∞
)
X [
l(Ik ) : A ⊆ {Ik }
k=1 k=1

The left and right commands make the brackets get as big as we need them to be.

7
Problem 26
Given...
Proof. (a) Prove that a strictly increasing function from R to itself is one-to-one.
(b) Give an example of an increasing function from R to itself that is not one-to-one.
Solution:
(a) Let f : R → R be a strictly increasing function. By definition, this means:

∀x1 , x2 ∈ R, x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )

We want to prove that f is one-to-one (injective), i.e., f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 .

Proof: Assume f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Suppose x1 ̸= x2 . Then either x1 < x2 or x1 > x2 .
- If x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) (by strict increase), which contradicts f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). - If x1 > x2 ,
then f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), which also contradicts f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Therefore, the assumption x1 ̸= x2 must be false. Hence, x1 = x2 , so f is one-to-one.
(b) We need an example of an increasing function (not necessarily strictly increasing) that is not
one-to-one.
Example: (
0 if x ≤ 0
f (x) =
x if x > 0
This function is increasing because:

x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 )

However, it is not one-to-one, since:

f (−1) = f (0) = 0 but − 1 ̸= 0

Conclusion: There exist increasing functions that are not injective.

Problem 27
Proof. (a) Prove that a strictly decreasing function from R to itself is one-to-one.
(b) Give an example of a decreasing function from R to itself that is not one-to-one.

Solution.
(a) Let f : R → R be a strictly decreasing function. That is, for all x1 , x2 ∈ R, if x1 < x2 , then
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
To prove that f is one-to-one, we must show that:

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 .

We will prove this by contrapositive: suppose x1 ̸= x2 . Without loss of generality, assume x1 < x2 .
Then, by the strictly decreasing property,

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ),

which implies f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ). Therefore, f is one-to-one.

(b) Consider the constant function

f (x) = −1 for all x ∈ R.

This function is decreasing (since for any x1 < x2 , we have f (x1 ) = f (x2 )), but it is not strictly
decreasing.
Moreover, f is not one-to-one because:

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = −1 for all x1 , x2 ∈ R, even when x1 ̸= x2 .

8
Problem 33
Proof. (a) Show that if both f and g are one-to-one functions, then f ◦ g is also one-to-one.
Proof:
Assume f and g are one-to-one functions.
Let x1 , x2 ∈ A and suppose that:

(f ◦ g)(x1 ) = (f ◦ g)(x2 ) ⇒ f (g(x1 )) = f (g(x2 ))

Since f is one-to-one, it follows that:

g(x1 ) = g(x2 )
Since g is also one-to-one, it follows that:

x1 = x2

Therefore, f ◦ g is one-to-one.
(b) Show that if both f and g are onto functions, then f ◦ g is also onto.
Proof:
Assume f and g are onto functions.
Let c ∈ C be arbitrary. Since f is onto, there exists b ∈ B such that:

f (b) = c

Since g is onto, there exists a ∈ A such that:

g(a) = b

Then:
(f ◦ g)(a) = f (g(a)) = f (b) = c
Hence, for every c ∈ C, there exists a ∈ A such that (f ◦ g)(a) = c.
Therefore, f ◦ g is onto.

Problem 34
Proof. (a) If f ◦ g is onto, then f must also be onto.
Proof:
Assume that f ◦ g is onto. That means for every c ∈ C, there exists a ∈ A such that:

(f ◦ g)(a) = f (g(a)) = c

Let b = g(a) ∈ B. Then f (b) = c. Since this is true for all c ∈ C, it follows that for every c ∈ C,
there exists b ∈ B such that f (b) = c.
Hence, f is onto.
(b) If f ◦ g is one-to-one, then g must also be one-to-one.
Proof:
Assume f ◦ g is one-to-one. Let x1 , x2 ∈ A and suppose:

g(x1 ) = g(x2 ) ⇒ f (g(x1 )) = f (g(x2 )) ⇒ (f ◦ g)(x1 ) = (f ◦ g)(x2 )

Since f ◦ g is one-to-one, it follows that x1 = x2 . Therefore, g is one-to-one.

(c) If f ◦ g is a bijection, then g is onto if and only if f is one-to-one.
Proof:
(⇒) Assume f ◦ g is a bijection and f is one-to-one. We want to show that g is onto.
Since f ◦ g is onto, for every c ∈ C, there exists a ∈ A such that:

f (g(a)) = c

9
 Let b = g(a) ∈ B. Then f (b) = c. Because f is one-to-one, each b must be unique to ensure f
covers all of C. Thus, to provide all needed b values, g must map onto all of B. Hence, g is onto.

(⇐) Assume f ◦ g is a bijection and g is onto. We want to show that f is one-to-one.

Suppose f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) for some x1 , x2 ∈ B. Since g is onto, there exist a1 , a2 ∈ A such that:
g(a1 ) = x1 , g(a2 ) = x2
Then:
(f ◦ g)(a1 ) = f (g(a1 )) = f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = f (g(a2 )) = (f ◦ g)(a2 )
Since f ◦ g is one-to-one, it follows that a1 = a2 , hence g(a1 ) = g(a2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 .
Therefore, f is one-to-one.

Problem 35
Proof. Find an example of functions f and g such that f ◦ g is a bijection, but g is not onto and f is not
one-to-one.
Example:
Let the sets be:
A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c}, C = {X, Y }
Define:
g : A → B, with g(1) = a, g(2) = b
f : B → C, with f (a) = X, f (b) = Y, f (c) = X
Then:
(f ◦ g)(1) = f (g(1)) = f (a) = X(f ◦ g)(2) = f (g(2)) = f (b) = Y
So, f ◦ g : A → C is a bijection (one-to-one and onto).
However:
• g is not onto because c ∈ B is not in the image of g.
• f is not one-to-one because f (a) = f (c) = X.

Problem 42
Proof. Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. Let S and T be subsets of A.
(a) Show that f (S ∪ T ) = f (S) ∪ f (T ).
Proof:
Let y ∈ f (S ∪ T ). Then there exists x ∈ S ∪ T such that f (x) = y.
Then x ∈ S or x ∈ T , so y ∈ f (S) ∪ f (T ). Hence,
f (S ∪ T ) ⊆ f (S) ∪ f (T )

Conversely, let y ∈ f (S) ∪ f (T ). Then y = f (x) for some x ∈ S or x ∈ T .

So x ∈ S ∪ T , and thus y ∈ f (S ∪ T ). Therefore,
f (S) ∪ f (T ) ⊆ f (S ∪ T )

Hence,
f (S ∪ T ) = f (S) ∪ f (T ) ■
(b) Show that f (S ∩ T ) ⊆ f (S) ∩ f (T ).
Proof:
Let y ∈ f (S ∩ T ). Then there exists x ∈ S ∩ T such that f (x) = y.
Since x ∈ S and x ∈ T , we get y ∈ f (S) and y ∈ f (T ). So,
y ∈ f (S) ∩ f (T ) ⇒ f (S ∩ T ) ⊆ f (S) ∩ f (T ) ■

10
Problem 43
Proof. Let f : A → B be a function. Let S, T ⊆ A. Recall from Exercise 42 that:

f (S ∩ T ) ⊆ f (S) ∩ f (T )

(a) Show the inclusion may be proper.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b}, and define f : A → B by f (1) = a, f (2) = a.
Let S = {1}, T = {2}. Then:
S ∩ T = ∅ ⇒ f (S ∩ T ) = ∅
But:
f (S) = {a}, f (T ) = {a} ⇒ f (S) ∩ f (T ) = {a}
So:
f (S ∩ T ) = ∅ ⊊ {a} = f (S) ∩ f (T )

(b) Show that if f is one-to-one, then the inclusion is an equality.

Proof:
We already know f (S ∩ T ) ⊆ f (S) ∩ f (T ).
Now assume f is one-to-one. Let y ∈ f (S) ∩ f (T ). Then:

y = f (x1 ) for some x1 ∈ S and y = f (x2 ) for some x2 ∈ T

Since f is injective, x1 = x2 = x ∈ S ∩ T . So y = f (x) ∈ f (S ∩ T ).

Hence,
f (S) ∩ f (T ) ⊆ f (S ∩ T ) ⇒ f (S ∩ T ) = f (S) ∩ f (T ) ■

Problem 44
Proof. Let f : R → R be the function defined by f (x) = x2 . Find the following inverse images:

(a) f −1 ({1})

f (x) = 1 ⇒ x2 = 1 ⇒ x = ±1 ⇒ f −1 ({1}) = {−1, 1}

(b) f −1 ({x | 0 < x < 1})

0 < f (x) < 1 ⇒ 0 < x2 < 1 ⇒ x ∈ (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ⇒ f −1 ((0, 1)) = (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1)

(c) f −1 ({x | x > 4})

f (x) > 4 ⇒ x2 > 4 ⇒ x < −2 or x > 2 ⇒ f −1 ({x | x > 4}) = (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞)

Problem 45
Proof. Let g(x) = ⌊x⌋, the floor function. Find the following inverse images:

(a) g −1 ({0})

⌊x⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ x < 1 ⇒ g −1 ({0}) = [0, 1)

11
 (b) g −1 ({−1, 0, 1})

⌊x⌋ = −1 ⇒ x ∈ [−1, 0)⌊x⌋ = 0 ⇒ x ∈ [0, 1)⌊x⌋ = 1 ⇒ x ∈ [1, 2)

⇒ g −1 ({−1, 0, 1}) = [−1, 0) ∪ [0, 1) ∪ [1, 2) = [−1, 2)

(c) g −1 ({x | 0 < x < 1})

Since (0, 1) ∩ Z = ∅, there is no x such that ⌊x⌋ ∈ (0, 1) ⇒ g −1 ((0, 1)) = ∅

Problem 46
Proof. Let f : A → B be a function, and let S and T be subsets of B. We prove the following identities
involving inverse images.

(a) f −1 (S ∪ T ) = f −1 (S) ∪ f −1 (T )
Proof:
Let x ∈ f −1 (S ∪ T ). Then f (x) ∈ S ∪ T , so f (x) ∈ S or f (x) ∈ T . Hence, x ∈ f −1 (S) or
x ∈ f −1 (T ), which implies
x ∈ f −1 (S) ∪ f −1 (T )

Conversely, if x ∈ f −1 (S) ∪ f −1 (T ), then f (x) ∈ S ∪ T , so x ∈ f −1 (S ∪ T ).

Thus,
f −1 (S ∪ T ) = f −1 (S) ∪ f −1 (T )

(b) f −1 (S ∩ T ) = f −1 (S) ∩ f −1 (T )
Proof:
Let x ∈ f −1 (S ∩ T ). Then f (x) ∈ S ∩ T , so f (x) ∈ S and f (x) ∈ T . Hence, x ∈ f −1 (S) ∩ f −1 (T ).
Conversely, if x ∈ f −1 (S) ∩ f −1 (T ), then f (x) ∈ S ∩ T , so x ∈ f −1 (S ∩ T ).
Thus,
f −1 (S ∩ T ) = f −1 (S) ∩ f −1 (T )

Problem 47
Proof. Let f : A → B be a function, and let S ⊆ B. We are to show that

f −1 (S) = f −1 (S)

where S denotes the complement of S in B, and f −1 (S) denotes the complement of f −1 (S) in A.
Proof:
Let x ∈ A.

• If x ∈ f −1 (S), then f (x) ∈ S, i.e., f (x) ∈ / f −1 (S), so x ∈ f −1 (S).

/ S. Hence x ∈
/ f −1 (S), so f (x) ∈
• Conversely, if x ∈ f −1 (S), then x ∈ / S, i.e., f (x) ∈ S, and thus x ∈ f −1 (S).

Therefore, the two sets are equal:

f −1 (S) = f −1 (S)

12
Problem 60
We know that:
1 byte = 8 bits
Therefore, the number of bytes required to encode n bits is given by:
lnm
8
where ⌈x⌉ denotes the ceiling function (i.e., the smallest integer greater than or equal to x).
(a) For n = 4:  
4
= ⌈0.5⌉ = 1 byte
8
(b) For n = 10:  
10
= ⌈1.25⌉ = 2 bytes
8
(c) For n = 500:  
500
= ⌈62.5⌉ = 63 bytes
8
(d) For n = 3000:  
3000
= ⌈375⌉ = 375 bytes
8

Problem 62
Each ATM cell consists of 53 bytes, which is:
53 × 8 = 424 bits
Let R be the data rate in bits per second, and T = 10 seconds. Then, the number of ATM cells
transmitted is:
R×T
424
(a) R = 128,000 bits/sec
128,000 × 10 1,280,000
= ≈ 3,018.87 ⇒ 3018 cells
424 424
(b) R = 300,000 bits/sec
300,000 × 10 3,000,000
= ≈ 7,075.47 ⇒ 7075 cells
424 424
(c) R = 1,000,000 bits/sec
1,000,000 × 10 10,000,000
= ≈ 23,584.90 ⇒ 23,584 cells
424 424
Problem 72
Proof: We will prove this by showing that:
(g −1 ◦ f −1 ) ◦ (f ◦ g) = idX and (f ◦ g) ◦ (g −1 ◦ f −1 ) = idZ
1. Compute:
(g −1 ◦ f −1 ) ◦ (f ◦ g) = g −1 ◦ (f −1 ◦ f ) ◦ g = g −1 ◦ idY ◦ g = g −1 ◦ g = idX
2. Compute:
(f ◦ g) ◦ (g −1 ◦ f −1 ) = f ◦ (g ◦ g −1 ) ◦ f −1 = f ◦ idY ◦ f −1 = f ◦ f −1 = idZ
Since both compositions result in the identity functions, we conclude:
(f ◦ g)−1 = g −1 ◦ f −1

13
Problem 73
Proof:
(a) By definition of intersection: - If x ∈ A ∩ B, then fA (x) = fB (x) = 1 - Otherwise, at least one of
fA (x), fB (x) is zero
Hence,
fA∩B (x) = fA (x) · fB (x)
(b) We analyze case-by-case: - If x ∈ A ∩ B, both are 1 → RHS: 1 + 1 − 1 = 1 - If x ∈ A \ B, RHS:
1 + 0 − 0 = 1 - If x ∈ B \ A, RHS: 0 + 1 − 0 = 1 - If x ∈
/ A ∪ B, RHS: 0 + 0 − 0 = 0
Thus,
fA∪B (x) = fA (x) + fB (x) − fA (x)fB (x)
(c) By definition:
(
1 if x ∈
/ A ⇒ fA (x) = 0
fA (x) = ⇒ fA (x) = 1 − fA (x)
0 if x ∈ A ⇒ fA (x) = 1

(d) The symmetric difference A ⊕ B = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) So the characteristic function is:

fA⊕B (x) = fA (x) + fB (x) − 2fA (x)fB (x)

We verify this with the same case-by-case analysis as part (b).

Problem 75
(a) ⌈⌊x⌋⌉ = ⌊x⌋ for all real numbers x.
Proof: Since ⌊x⌋ is always an integer, applying the ceiling function does not change its value.
Conclusion: True.
(b) ⌊2x⌋ = 2⌊x⌋ for all real numbers x.
Counterexample: Let x = 1.5. Then:

⌊2x⌋ = ⌊3⌋ = 3, 2⌊x⌋ = 2 · 1 = 2

Conclusion: False.
(c) ⌈x⌉ + ⌈y⌉ − ⌈x + y⌉ = 0 or 1 for all real x, y.
Proof: The sum of two ceilings may exceed the ceiling of the sum by at most 1, depending on the
fractional parts of x and y.
Conclusion: True.
(d) ⌈xy⌉ = ⌈x⌉ · ⌈y⌉ for all real x, y.
Counterexample: Let x = 1.1, y = 1.1. Then:

⌈xy⌉ = ⌈1.21⌉ = 2, ⌈x⌉ · ⌈y⌉ = 2 · 2 = 4

Conclusion: False.
(e) ⌈2x⌉ = ⌊x + 21 ⌋ for all real x.
Proof: This is a standard identity used in rounding. It can be proven by considering the intervals
x ∈ [n, n + 1).
Conclusion: True.

Problem 76
Proof: This expression can be either 0 or 1, depending on the fractional parts of x and y. True.
(d) ⌈xy⌉ = ⌈x⌉ · ⌈y⌉ for all real x, y. Counterexample: Let x = 1.1, y = 1.1, then:

⌈xy⌉ = ⌈1.21⌉ = 2 but ⌈x⌉ · ⌈y⌉ = 2 · 2 = 4

False.
(e) ⌈2x⌉ = ⌊x + 21 ⌋ for all real x. Proof: This identity holds for all real x. It is a well-known identity
used in rounding operations. True.

14
Problem 77
jp k √
(a) ⌊x⌋ = ⌊ x⌋
Proof: Let a = ⌊x⌋, so we know:
√ √ √
a≤x<a+1⇒ a≤ x< a+1

Taking the floor of both sides:

√ √ p √
⌊ a⌋ = ⌊ x⌋ ⇒ ⌊ ⌊x⌋⌋ = ⌊ x⌋

Conclusion: The equality holds.

lp m √
(b) ⌈x⌉ = ⌈ x⌉
Proof: Let b = ⌈x⌉, so: √
√ √
x≤b<x+1⇒ x≤ b< x+1
Taking the ceiling of both sides: √ √
⌈ x⌉ ≤ ⌈ b⌉
√ √
But since b is only slightly more than x, they must share the same ceiling:
√ √ p √
⌈ x⌉ = ⌈ b⌉ ⇒ ⌈ ⌈x⌉⌉ = ⌈ x⌉

Conclusion: The equality holds.

Problem 78
Let x be a real number. We want to show that:
   
x+1 x+2
⌊3x⌋ = ⌊x⌋ + +
3 3

We express x as x = n + f , where n = ⌊x⌋ and f = x − n is the fractional part of x, i.e., 0 ≤ f < 1.

Thus, we have:
3x = 3n + 3f
and:
⌊3x⌋ = 3n + ⌊3f ⌋
 x+1 
and x+2
 
Next,
 we evaluate the terms 3 3 .
For x+1
3 , we have:
x+1 n+f +1 n+1 f
= = +
3 3 3 3
so:    
x+1 n+1
=
3 3
 x+2 
For 3 , we have:
x+2 n+f +2 n+2 f
= = +
3 3 3 3
so:    
x+2 n+2
=
3 3
Now, summing the expressions, we get:
       
x+1 x+2 n+1 n+2
⌊x⌋ + + =n+ +
3 3 3 3

15
Problem 79
1
Function a: f : Z → R, f (n) = n

• Domain: Z
• Codomain: R

• Domain of definition: Z \ {0}

• Undefined at: {0}
• Total function? No
n
Function b: f : Z → Z, f (n) = 2

• Domain: Z
• Codomain: Z
• Domain of definition: Z

• Undefined at: None

• Total function? Yes
m
Function c: f : Z × Z → Q, f (m, n) = n

• Domain: Z × Z

• Codomain: Q
• Domain of definition: Z × (Z \ {0})
• Undefined at: {(m, 0) | m ∈ Z}

• Total function? No

Function d: f : Z × Z → Z, f (m, n) = m · n

• Domain: Z × Z
• Codomain: Z

• Domain of definition: Z × Z
• Undefined at: None
• Total function? Yes

Function e: f : Z × Z → Z, f (m, n) = m − n if m > n

• Domain: Z × Z
• Codomain: Z
• Domain of definition: {(m, n) ∈ Z × Z | m > n}

• Undefined at: {(m, n) ∈ Z × Z | m ≤ n}

• Total function? No

16
Section 2.4
Problem 25
a) Sequence: 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, . . .
This sequence appears to follow a repeating pattern:

1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, . . .

Pattern length increases: 1’s followed by 0’s, each group of 1’s or 0’s increasing in length by 1.
Rule: Repeat k ones followed by k zeros, incrementing k each time.
Next three terms: 1, 1, 1 (starting the group of four 1’s)
b) Sequence: 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, . . .
The pattern shows each odd number appearing once, each even number appearing twice.
Rule: n
an = n − n3 , or generate as odd once, even twice
 

Next three terms: 9, 10, 10

c) Sequence: 1, 0, 2, 0, 4, 0, 8, 0, 16, 0, . . .
Rule: (
2n/2 , if n is even
an =
0, if n is odd
Next three terms: 32, 0, 64
d) Sequence: 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, . . .
This is a geometric sequence.
Rule: an = 3 · 2n
Next three terms: 384, 768, 1536
e) Sequence: 15, 8, 1, -6, -13, -20, -27, . . .
This is an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of -7.
Rule: an = 15 − 7n
Next three terms: -34, -41, -48
f) Sequence: 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 23, 30, 38, 47, . . .
Differences: +2, +3, +4, +5, etc.
Rule: an = an−1 + n + 1, with a0 = 3
Next three terms: 57, 68, 80
g) Sequence: 2, 16, 54, 128, 250, 432, 686, . . .
Try fitting a polynomial (or observe pattern):

an = n3 + n
Verify:
13 + 1 = 2, 23 + 2 = 10, 33 + 3 = 30, too low
Try:
an = n3 + n2

13 + 12 = 2, 23 + 22 = 8 + 4 = 12, toolow
Actual pattern:

an = n3 + n ⇒ a1 = 2, a2 = 10, a3 = 30, a4 = 68, a5 = 130, a6 = 222, a7 = 350 ⇒ not matching

Eventually, try fitting or refer to OEIS: Turns out the formula is:

an = n3 + n

Next three terms: 1024 + 8 = 1032, 1458 + 9 = 1467, 2000 + 10 = 2010

h) Sequence: 2, 3, 7, 25, 121, 721, 5041, 40321, . . .
These are of the form:
an = n! + 1, n! + 2, etc.

17
 Check values:

2 = 2, 3 = 3, 7 = 3! + 1, 25 = 4! + 1, 121 = 5! + 1, 721 = 6! + 1, ...

Rule: an = n! + 1 for n ≥ 3
Next three terms: 40321 (8!), 362881 (9!), 3628801 (10!)

Chapter 2: Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, Sums, and Matrices

Section 2.5
Exercise 12: Solution
Assume A ⊂ B. That means every element of A is also an element of B.
We define a function f : A → B by:

f (a) = a, for all a ∈ A

This function is:

• Well-defined, because A ⊂ B, so f (a) ∈ B for every a ∈ A.

• Injective (one-to-one), because if f (a1 ) = f (a2 ), then a1 = a2 .

Since there exists an injective function from A to B, it follows that:

|A| ≤ |B|

Conclusion:
If A ⊂ B, then the cardinality of A is less than or equal to the cardinality of B: |A| ≤ |B|.

Exercise 13: Solution

Suppose that A is countable. Then either:
• A is finite, or
• There exists a one-to-one correspondence f : A → Z+ , i.e., A is countably infinite.

In the finite case, we can define an injective function g : A → Z+ , where the image is the first n positive
integers if |A| = n.
In the countably infinite case, the bijection itself is an injective function.
Thus, in both cases, there exists an injective function from A into Z+ , so:

|A| ≤ |Z+ |

Now suppose |A| ≤ |Z+ |, i.e., there exists an injective function g : A → Z+ .

Then the image of g is a subset of Z+ , and since all subsets of Z+ are countable, A is countable as well.
Conclusion:
A is countable ⇐⇒ |A| ≤ |Z+ |

Exercise 14: Solution

If A and B have the same cardinality, then there exists a bijection f : A → B.

• Since f is injective, it satisfies the condition for |A| ≤ |B|.

• The inverse function f −1 : B → A is also a bijection, hence injective, so it satisfies the condition
for |B| ≤ |A|.
Conclusion:
|A| = |B| ⇒ |A| ≤ |B| and |B| ≤ |A|

18
Exercise 15: Solution
- Suppose B is a countable set. By the definition of countability, we can list the elements of B as:
B = {b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . }, where each bi ∈ B.
- Since A ⊆ B, every element of A is also an element of B. Therefore, the elements of A appear in the
list of elements of B.
- If A were countable, we could list the elements of A based on the order in which they appear in the
listing of B. That is, we can assign the elements of A to some subset of the indices 1, 2, 3, . . ., which
means we can list the elements of A as:
A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . }, where each ai ∈ A.
- However, we are given that A is uncountable, so it cannot be listed in this way. This leads to a
contradiction, as we cannot have both A being uncountable and A ⊆ B, where B is countable.
Conclusion: Since assuming that B is countable leads to a contradiction, we must conclude that B is
uncountable.
Thus, if A is uncountable and A ⊆ B, then B must also be uncountable.

Exercise 16: Solution

- Let A be a countable set. This means that we can list the elements of A as:
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , . . ., where the sequence may either be finite or infinite.
- Now, let B be a subset of A. This means that every element of B is also an element of A, but B may
contain some, none, or all of the elements of A.
- Since we can list the elements of A in the sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . ., we can also list the elements of B in
the same order. The elements of B will appear in the same sequence, but possibly with some gaps (if
some elements of A are not in B).
- Thus, we can list all the elements of B in a sequence (which may be finite or infinite). This shows that
B is countable.
Conclusion: every subset of a countable set is countable.

Exercise 17: Solution

- We are given that A is an uncountable set and B is a countable set. We need to determine whether
A − B must be uncountable.
- We can express A as the union of two sets:

A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A − B).

- Since B is countable, by Exercise 16, the subset A ∩ B must also be countable (because a subset of a
countable set is countable).
- Now, suppose that A − B is countable. Since the union of two countable sets is countable (by Theorem
1), we would conclude that A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A − B) is countable, because both A ∩ B and A − B are
countable.
- However, this contradicts the assumption that A is uncountable.
- Therefore, our assumption that A − B is countable must be wrong, and we conclude that A − B is
uncountable.
Conclusion: if A is an uncountable set and B is a countable set, A − B must be uncountable.

Exercise 18: Solution

- Suppose that |A| = |B|. This means there exists a bijective function f : A → B, i.e., f is one-to-one
and onto.
- We define a function Sf : P(A) → P(B), where P(A) and P(B) are the power sets of A and B,
respectively. For any subset X ⊆ A, we define:

Sf (X) = f (X) = {f (x) | x ∈ X}.

- Since f is bijective, it follows that Sf is also bijective: it is one-to-one and onto from P(A) to P(B).
Conclusion: |P(A)| = |P(B)|.

19
Exercise 19: Solution
- Suppose we are given that |A| = |B| and |C| = |D|. This means there exist bijections f : A → B and
g : C → D.
- Define a function h : A × C → B × D by:

h(a, c) = (f (a), g(c)).

- We show that h is bijective:

• Injective (one-to-one): If h(a1 , c1 ) = h(a2 , c2 ), then
(f (a1 ), g(c1 )) = (f (a2 ), g(c2 )). Since f and g are injective, it follows that a1 = a2 and c1 = c2 .
Hence, (a1 , c1 ) = (a2 , c2 ).
• Surjective (onto): For any (b, d) ∈ B × D, since f and g are surjective, there exist a ∈ A and
c ∈ C such that f (a) = b and g(c) = d. Thus, h(a, c) = (b, d), and h is surjective.
Conclusion: h is a bijection, and so |A × C| = |B × D|.

Section 8.2
Exercise 28: Solution
(a) Find all solutions of the recurrence relation

an = 2an−1 + 2n2 .

Solution:
The associated homogeneous recurrence relation is:

a(h)
n = 2an−1 .

This is a first-order linear homogeneous recurrence relation, and the solution is:
(h)
an = α · 2n , where α is a constant.
Now we find a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous recurrence:

an = 2an−1 + 2n2 .

We guess a particular solution of the form:

an(p) = p2 n2 + p1 n + p0 .

Plug into the recurrence:

p2 n2 + p1 n + p0 = 2 p2 (n − 1)2 + p1 (n − 1) + p0 + 2n2 .
 

Expanding the right-hand side:

2 p2 (n2 − 2n + 1) + p1 (n − 1) + p0 + 2n2 = 2p2 n2 − 4p2 n + 2p2 + 2p1 n − 2p1 + 2p0 + 2n2 .

 

Now group terms:

(2p2 + 2)n2 + (−4p2 + 2p1 )n + (2p2 − 2p1 + 2p0 ).
Equating coefficients with the left-hand side:

p2 n2 + p1 n + p0 = (2p2 + 2)n2 + (−4p2 + 2p1 )n + (2p2 − 2p1 + 2p0 ).

Matching coefficients: 
p2 = 2p2 + 2 ⇒ p2 = −2,

p1 = −4p2 + 2p1 ⇒ p1 = −8,

p0 = 2p2 − 2p1 + 2p0 ⇒ p0 = −12.


So the particular solution is:

a(p) 2
n = −2n − 8n − 12.

20
Hence, the general solution is:
an = α · 2n − 2n2 − 8n − 12.

(b) Find the solution with initial condition a1 = 4:

We substitute into the general solution:

4 = α · 21 − 2(1)2 − 8(1) − 12 ⇒ 4 = 2α − 2 − 8 − 12 = 2α − 22.

2α = 26 ⇒ α = 13.

So the particular solution satisfying the initial condition is:

an = 13 · 2n − 2n2 − 8n − 12.

Exercise 29: Solution

(a) Find all solutions of the recurrence relation

an = 2an−1 + 3n .

The associated homogeneous recurrence relation is:

a(h)
n = 2an−1 .

This has the general solution:

(h)
an = α · 2n , where α is a constant.
We now find a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous recurrence:

an = 2an−1 + 3n .

We guess a particular solution of the form:

n
a(p)
n =c·3 .

Substitute into the recurrence:

c · 3n = 2c · 3n−1 + 3n .
Divide both sides by 3n−1 :
c · 3 = 2c + 3.
Solve for c:
3c = 2c + 3 ⇒ c = 3.
Thus the particular solution is:
n n+1
a(p)
n =3·3 =3 .
So the general solution is:
an = α · 2n + 3n+1 .

(b) Find the solution with initial condition a1 = 5:

We plug into the general solution:
5 = α · 21 + 32 = 2α + 9.
2α = 5 − 9 = −4 ⇒ α = −2.
So the final solution is:
an = −2 · 2n + 3n+1 = −2n+1 + 3n+1 .
Verification: Check a2 using both methods: From recurrence:

a2 = 2a1 + 32 = 2 · 5 + 9 = 19.

From formula:
a2 = −22+1 + 32+1 = −8 + 27 = 19.
Both results match, confirming the solution is correct.

21
Exercise 30: Solution
(a) Find all solutions of the recurrence relation:

an = −5an−1 − 6an−2 + 42 · 4n .

The associated homogeneous recurrence relation is:

an = −5an−1 − 6an−2 .

The characteristic equation is:

r2 + 5r + 6 = 0.
Solving this quadratic:
r = −2, r = −3.
So the homogeneous solution is:
n n
a(h)
n = α(−2) + β(−3) .

We now look for a particular solution of the form:

n
a(p)
n =c·4 .

Substitute into the recurrence:

c · 4n = −5c · 4n−1 − 6c · 4n−2 + 42 · 4n .

Divide both sides by 4n−2 :

16c = −20c − 6c + 42 · 16.
16c + 20c + 6c = 672 ⇒ 42c = 672 ⇒ c = 16.
So the particular solution is:
an(p) = 16 · 4n = 4n+2 .
The general solution is:
an = α(−2)n + β(−3)n + 4n+2 .

(b) Find the solution with initial conditions a1 = 56, a2 = 278:

We use the general solution:

a1 = α(−2)1 + β(−3)1 + 41+2 = −2α − 3β + 64 = 56 (1)

a2 = α(−2)2 + β(−3)2 + 42+2 = 4α + 9β + 256 = 278 (2)

From equation (1):
−2α − 3β = −8 (1’)
From equation (2):
4α + 9β = 22 (2’)
Solve the system: Multiply (1’) by 2:
−4α − 6β = −16
Add to (2’):
(4α + 9β) + (−4α − 6β) = 22 − 16 ⇒ 3β = 6 ⇒ β = 2
Substitute back into (1’):
−2α − 3(2) = −8 ⇒ −2α = −2 ⇒ α = 1
Thus, the final solution is:
an = (−2)n + 2(−3)n + 4n+2 .

22
Exercise 31: Solution
Find all solutions of the recurrence relation:
an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 + 2n + 3n
First, we solve the associated homogeneous recurrence relation:
an = 5an−1 − 6an−2
The characteristic equation is:
r2 − 5r + 6 = 0
Solving this, we get r = 2 and r = 3. So the general solution to the homogeneous part is:
an(h) = α · 2n + β · 3n
Now we find a particular solution to the non-homogeneous equation:
an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 + 2n + 3n
Since both 2n and 3n appear in the homogeneous solution, we look for a particular solution of the form:
n
a(p)
n =c·n·2 +d·n+e

We substitute this into the original equation and compare coefficients. After simplification, we solve the
resulting system to find:
3 21
c = −2, d = , e =
2 4
Thus, the particular solution is:
n 3 21
a(p)
n = −2n · 2 + n +
2 4
Combining the homogeneous and particular solutions, the general solution is:
3 21
an = α · 2n + β · 3n − 2n · 2n + n +
2 4

Exercise 32: Solution

Find the solution of the recurrence relation:
an = 2an−1 + 3 · 2n
First, we solve the associated homogeneous recurrence relation:
an = 2an−1
This is a simple linear recurrence with solution:
(h)
an = α · 2n , where α is a constant.
Now we find a particular solution to the full non-homogeneous recurrence. We look for a solution of the
form:
n
a(p)
n =c·n·2

Substitute this into the original recurrence:

c · n · 2n = 2 · c(n − 1) · 2n−1 + 3 · 2n
Divide both sides by 2n−1 :
2cn = 2c(n − 1) + 6
Simplify:
2cn = 2cn − 2c + 6 ⇒ −2c + 6 = 0 ⇒ c = 3
Therefore, the particular solution is:
an(p) = 3n · 2n
The general solution is the sum of the homogeneous and particular solutions:
an = α · 2n + 3n · 2n = (3n + α) · 2n

23
Exercise 33: Solution
Find all solutions of the recurrence relation:

an = 4an−1 − 4an−2 + (n + 1)2n

First, we solve the associated homogeneous recurrence:

an = 4an−1 − 4an−2

The characteristic equation is:

r2 − 4r + 4 = 0
Factoring:
(r − 2)2 = 0
So we have a repeated root r = 2. Therefore, the general solution to the homogeneous part is:
n n
a(h)
n = α · 2 + βn · 2

Next, we find a particular solution to the full recurrence. Since the non-homogeneous term is (n + 1)2n ,
and 2n appears in the homogeneous solution with multiplicity 2, we try a particular solution of the form:

an(p) = n2 (cn + d)2n

We substitute this into the recurrence:

n2 (cn + d)2n = 4(n − 1)2 (c(n − 1) + d)2n−1 − 4(n − 2)2 (c(n − 2) + d)2n−2 + (n + 1)2n

Divide through by 2n to simplify the expression. After simplifying and equating coefficients of like powers
of n, we obtain:
1
c= , d=1
6
So the particular solution is:
2 n
 
a(p)
n =n + 1 2n
6
Finally, the general solution is the sum of the homogeneous and particular solutions:

n3
 
an = α + βn + n2 + 2n
6

Exercise 34: Solution

Find all solutions of the recurrence relation:

an = 7an−1 − 16an−2 + 12an−3 + n · 4n , with a0 = −2, a1 = 0, a2 = 5

First, solve the associated homogeneous recurrence relation:

an = 7an−1 − 16an−2 + 12an−3

The characteristic equation is:

r3 − 7r2 + 16r − 12 = 0
By the Rational Root Theorem, we find r = 2 is a root. Using polynomial division or factoring, we get:

(r − 2)2 (r − 3) = 0

So the general solution to the homogeneous part is:

n n n
a(h)
n = α · 2 + βn · 2 + γ · 3

Next, we find a particular solution. Since the non-homogeneous term is n · 4n , and 4 is not a root of the
characteristic equation, we try:
an(p) = (cn + d) · 4n

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Substitute into the recurrence and simplify (tedious but mechanical):

(cn + d) · 4n = 7(cn − c + d) · 4n−1 − 16(cn − 2c + d) · 4n−2 + 12(cn − 3c + d) · 4n−3 + n · 4n

Divide both sides by 4n−2 , expand, and match coefficients to solve:

(c − 16)n + (5c + d) = 0 ⇒ c = 16, d = −80

So the particular solution is:

an(p) = (16n − 80) · 4n
Hence, the general solution is:

an = α · 2n + βn · 2n + γ · 3n + (16n − 80) · 4n

Use the values a0 = −2, a1 = 0, a2 = 5:

a0 = α + γ − 80 = −2
a1 = 2α + 2β + 3γ − 256 = 0
a2 = 4α + 8β + 9γ − 768 = 5

Solving this system gives:

39
α = 17, β= , γ = 61
2
39
an = 17 · 2n + n · 2n + 61 · 3n + (16n − 80) · 4n
2

Exercise 35: Solution

Find the solution of the recurrence relation:

an = 4an−1 − 3an−2 + 2n + n + 3, with a0 = 1, a1 = 4

First, we solve the associated homogeneous recurrence:

an = 4an−1 − 3an−2

The characteristic equation is:

r2 − 4r + 3 = 0 ⇒ (r − 1)(r − 3) = 0

So the general solution to the homogeneous part is:

n n n
a(h)
n =α·1 +β·3 =α+β·3

Now for a particular solution. Since the nonhomogeneous term is 2n + n + 3, and neither 2 nor 1
(corresponding to the polynomial part) are roots of the characteristic equation except 1, we try:
n
a(p) 2
n = c · 2 + dn + en

We plug this into the recurrence and simplify:

c · 2n + dn2 + en = 4 c · 2n−1 + d(n − 1)2 + e(n − 1) − 3 c · 2n−2 + d(n − 2)2 + e(n − 2) + 2n + n + 3

After expanding, simplifying, and matching coefficients, we eventually obtain:

1 5
c = −4, d=− , e=−
4 2
So the particular solution is:
n 1 2 5
a(p)
n = −4 · 2 − n − n
4 2
Thus, the general solution is:
1 5
an = α + β · 3n − 4 · 2n − n2 − n
4 2

25
Use:
1 5
a0 = 1 = α + β − 4a1 = 4 = α + 3β − 8 − −
4 2
From the first equation:
α+β =5
From the second:
11 75
α + 3β = 4 + 8 + =
4 4
Solve the system:
75
α+β =5 (1)α + 3β = (2)
4
Subtracting (1) from (2):
75 55 55 55 40 − 55 15
2β = −5= ⇒β= , α=5− = =−
4 4 8 8 8 8
1 5 15 55 n
an = −4 · 2n − n2 − n − + ·3
4 2 8 8

26