HISTORY OF INDIA AND WORLD

Part I: Ancient India

The earliest human fossils associated with stone tools, dating back around 3.5 million years, are found in Africa, often termed
the “Cradle of Humankind.” However, the earliest evidence of human occupation in the Indian subcontinent emerges during the
Middle Pleistocene, beginning roughly 500,000 years ago. India’s ancient history is categorized into three phases: Prehistoric
(no written records; primarily the Stone Age), Protohistoric (documented by external literate cultures but lacking native texts;
c. 2500–600 BCE), and Historic (local written records available; after 600 BCE).

1. Prehistoric Settlements in the Indian Subcontinent: Stone to Iron Age

The oldest human tool discovered in the region is the Pallavaram quartzite hand-axe (near Attirampakkam, Tamil Nadu), dated
to 1.7 million years ago and found by geologist Robert Bruce Foote (regarded as the “Father of Indian Prehistory”) in 1863.
Period Characteristics Key Sites

Paleolithic or Lower Paleolithic (c. 500,000–100,000 BCE): Coinciding ● Siwalik Hills (India & Nepal): Fossil-rich
Old Stone Age with the later Ice Age, two distinct traditions emerged: region with stone tools.
(c. 500,000 ● Soanian Culture: Characterized by choppers and pebble ● Belan Valley (UP):
–10,000 BCE) tools from the Soan Valley (Indus River basin) extending to ● Bhimbetka Rock Shelters (MP):
Potwar Plateau (Pakistan) and Siwalik Hills. Continuous habitation from Paleolithic age
● Acheulian Culture: Marked by handaxes, cleavers, and dating back to 30,000 BCE; Mesolithic
bifacial tools found across peninsular India, like in Hunsgi rock art depicting hunting, rituals and
(Karnataka), Belan Valley (UP), Didwana (Rajasthan), and dances, UNESCO World Heritage Site,
Bhimbetka (MP). referred to as “cradle of Indian
art/painting.”
Middle Paleolithic (c. 100,000–40,000 BCE): Dominated by ● Narmada Valley (MP): Hathnora hominin
the Nevasian Culture, producing flake tools like scrapers, fossil (1.5 million years old), classified as
points and borers found in Nevasa (Maharashtra), Narmada male Homo erectus.
Valley (MP), and Tungabhadra Valley (Karnataka). ● Kurnool Caves (AP): Ash deposits
signaling early controlled use of fire.
Upper Paleolithic (c. 40,000–10,000 BCE): Marked by the ● Patne (Maharashtra): Ostrich eggshell
arrival of Homo sapiens, refined blades, burins and other beads for ornamentation.
flake tools, bone implements, and early cave art (e.g., ● Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu): Lower and
Bhimbetka). Middle Paleolithic stone tools.

Mesolithic or Transition to microliths ● Bagor (Rajasthan): Largest Mesolithic site with huts, burials, and microliths,
Middle Stone (miniaturized stone reflecting hunter-gatherer to semi-sedentary adaptation.
Age (c. 10,000 tools), early rock art, ● Langhnaj (Gujarat): Human skeletons buried with microliths and animal bones.
–6,000 BCE) and semi-sedentary ● Sarai Nahar Rai (UP): Human burials and evidence of communal hunting.
lifestyles ● Adamgarh (MP): Rock shelters with animal and human paintings.

Neolithic or Polished stone tools, ● Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan): Earliest evidence of cotton cultivation and
New Stone Age agriculture (rice, domestication of goats/sheep.
(c. 6,000 wheat), animal ● Burzahom & Gufkral (Kashmir): Pit dwellings and dog burials.
–1,000 BCE) domestication, and the ● Koldihwa (UP): Rice cultivation traces dating to 6000 BCE.
invention of the wheel ● Daojali Hading (Assam): Mortar-pestle tools for food processing.
● Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka): Agrarian settlements with pottery.

Chalcolithic or Use of copper and later Key Cultures: Ahar-Banas (Rajasthan): Black and Red Ware pottery.
Copper-Stone bronze alongside stone ● Kayatha (MP): Red-slipped ware with chocolate-brown designs.
Age (c. 3,500 tools, painted pottery, ● Malwa Culture (MP/Maharashtra): Large settlements like Inamgaon with
–1,000 BCE) fortified settlements, defensive walls.
and weaving ● Jorwe (Maharashtra): Distinctive painted pottery and agrarian economy.
Other Sites: Indus Valley Civilization: See next section
● Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Mahishadal (WB): Rice cultivation

2. Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE): Bronze Age

One of the world’s earliest urban cultures, the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was located in the northwestern regions of South
Asia in the Indus River basin, covering parts of present-day Pakistan, western India, and northeastern Afghanistan. It was
established around 3300 BCE, flourished between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE (Mature period), started declining around 1900
BCE and disappeared around 1400 BCE.
 Overview of the Major IVC Sites
Site Name Discovered By Location Significant Findings
Harappa Charles Masson (1826), Punjab, Citadel, six small granaries, cemetery with coffins, seals including
later excavated by Daya Pakistan (Ravi male dancer’s torso (Nataraj), pottery, jewelry, pashmina,
Ram Sahni (1921) River) limestone structures and evidence of urban planning.
Mohenjo- Rakhal Das Banerji Sindh, Pakistan Great Bath, Great Granary, assembly hall, collegiate building,
Daro (lit. (1922) (Indus River) proto-Shiva seal, Humped bull seal, dancing girl statue, bearded
mound of man figurine, mother goddess figure, drainage system, flush
dead) toilet, jewelry. Largest site of IVC.
Chanhudaro N.G. Majumdar (1931) Bead-making and shell-cutting factory, pottery, weight making
and metalworks, use of lipstick. Only IVC site without citadel.
Called Lancashire of IVC.
Kalibangan Amlanand Ghosh Rajasthan, Ploughed fields, granary, wooden furrow, seven fire altars, camel
(1953) India (Ghaggar bones, rectangular and circular graves, pottery, burnt bangles, and
River) evidence of early earthquakes.
Lothal S.R. Rao (1954) Gujarat, India Bead-making factory, seals, pottery, circular saw, oldest shipyard
(Sabarmati, and evidence of maritime trade. Manchester of IVC.
Surkotada J.P. Joshi (1964) Bhogavo and Horse burial, oval grave and pit burial, evidence of trade.
Dholavira J.P. Joshi (1967-68) Luni River) Water harvesting and hydraulic system, large stone cut reservoirs,
irrigation, stadium, fortified city divisions, wooden signboard
with inscription, figure of bullock chariot.
Banawali R.S. Bisht (1974) Haryana, India Oval-shaped settlements, radial streets, no drainage, Citadel with
(Ghaggar and fortification, barley and wheat cultivation, terracotta figurines,
Sarasvati touchstone, shampoo, 8-shaped jar, cooking vessels, wash basin.
Rakhigarhi Amarendra Nath (1997) River) Drainage system, toys, seals, terracotta, pottery. Largest Indian
site of IVC.
Bhirrana L.S. Rao (2003) Gemstones, lapis lazuli. Oldest site of IVC.

Urban Planning Economy Culture

Town & Drainage: The towns were Agriculture: Used wooden ploughs, stone Social Life: Relatively egalitarian; class
laid out in a grid system, divided into sickles, and irrigation techniques. Key system may have existed rather than
rectangular blocks by roads. Harappa crops included wheat, barley, dates, peas, caste. Men and women wore ornaments
and Mohenjo-Daro had advanced sesame, mustard. Rice husks were found at alike. Small clay carts, dolls, and marbles
networks of covered drains running Lothal and Rangpur. They were the first to were used as toys.
along the streets. cultivate cotton. Craft: Produced stone and bronze tools,
Citadels: Elevated, often fortified Domestication of Animals: Animals such alongside terracotta figurines of birds,
areas in most major cities housed as buffalo, sheep, ox, dog, cat and pig were dogs, sheep, cattle, monkeys and humans.
important buildings such as granaries, domesticated. Camel bones were found at Made both plain and painted Red and
assembly halls, and possibly religious Kalibangan, and a horse jawbone was Black Ware pottery using wheels. Bead-
centers. The Great Bath of Mohenjo- discovered at Surkotada, though there is no making utilized stone, metal, and fired
Daro (12m × 7m × 2.4m), situated in proof of horse domestication. Elephants and clay, with specialization in shellwork
the citadel, was likely used for public rhinoceros were also known. (Nageshwar and Balakot), carnelian
bathing or religious rituals. Below Trade: Used a barter system (as no coins beads (Lothal), and lapis lazuli.
Citadel lay the Lower Town, where have been found), cubical shaped standard Seals & Script: Steatite seals featured
the majority of the population lived. weights made of limestone and steatite, animal motifs like bulls and elephants,
Residential Buildings: Houses were carts and ships. They had commercial links with the unicorn or rhinoceros being the
constructed using standard (7cm × with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Central Asia, most prevalent. The Indus script, found
14cm × 28cm, 1:2:4) kiln-baked or and Oman peninsula. Mesopotamian texts on seals, is pictographic and written in a
sun-dried bricks; featured flat roofs, refer to the Indus region as "Meluha." boustrophedon style (alternating
central courtyards, private well, and Lothal was a maritime trade hub. Rangpur, directions). It remains undeciphered, with
bathrooms connected to street drains. Somnath, and Balakot served as seaports, the fish symbol being the most frequently
Multi-room and houses have been while Sutkagendor and Sutkakoh were key used.
found at Lothal and Mohenjo-Daro. trade outlets. They exported carnelian Religion: Terracotta figurines of the
Granaries: Large, well-ventilated beads, seals, ivory products, cotton textiles, Mother Goddess and the seal of Pashupati
storage structures for surplus grain timber, and agricultural products; and main or proto-Shiva in yogic posture have been
have been found. Mohenjo-Daro imports were: found, but there is no evidence of temples.
features the Great Granary. Items Imported from Worship likely included the pipal tree,
Burials: Practiced complete, Gold Karnataka, Afghanistan bulls, birds (doves, pigeons), stones, and
fractional and post-cremation burials, Silver, Tin Afghanistan, Iran phallus and vaginal (fertility rites)
often with goods. Farmana (Haryana) Lapis lazuli Shortugai in Afghanistan symbols. Amulets indicate beliefs in
is the largest known burial site. Copper Khetri in Rajasthan, Oman ghosts and spells.
 3. Vedic Period (c. 1500-500 BCE): Late Bronze to Early Iron Age
The Boghazköy Inscription, discovered in Anatolia (Asia Minor, modern Turkey; dated to 14th century BCE), supports the
Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis proposed by Max Müller and William Jones, which suggests that Indo-European-speaking
groups (self-identified as Aryans, meaning "noble") gradually migrated from Central Asia (or the Pontic-Caspian Steppe) into
the Indian subcontinent. The inscription mentions four Vedic deities—Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and the Nasatyas (Ashvins).
Although the Rigveda mentions the Battle of Hariyupiya (speculatively tied to Harappa), no evidence confirms Aryan
involvement in the IVC’s collapse. Early Indo-Aryans settled in the Sapta Sindhu region; this phase is characterized by
composition of the Rigveda (Rigvedic Period). Over centuries, they migrated eastward into the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, a period
defined by the composition of the remaining Vedas (Later Vedic Period).
Feature Rigvedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE) Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–500 BCE)

Habitat Centered in Sapta-Sindhu region (land of seven Aryavarta (fertile Ganga-Yamuna Valley, modern Uttar
rivers) along the Indus, its 5 tributaries (Jhelum, Pradesh, Bihar)
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), and Sarasvati
(Ghaggar-Hakra) (modern Punjab-Haryana).

Polity Tribal governance: Jana (tribe) ruled by a Rajan Emergence of Janapadas (kingdoms): Kingship became
(chieftain), with power checked by assemblies: hereditary claiming divine origin. Vidatha declined, Sabha
Sabha (council of elders), Samiti (tribal assembly), and Samiti persisted but influence reduced. New officials:
Vidatha (religious/military assembly), Gana Bhagadudha (tax collector), Sarathi (charioteer), Khshattri
(association). Purohita (chief priest) was the first- (chamberlain), Akshavapa (accountant).
ranking official advising the Rajan.

Society Relatively egalitarian, clan-based (kula) with fluid The Varna system became a more rigid and birth-based
occupation-based divisions (Varna): Brahmins hierarchy with Brahmins and Kshatriyas dominance. Four
(priest), Kshatriyas (warrior), Vaishyas Ashrama concept appeared towards the end of the period:
(commoner/farmer/trader) and Shudras (servant). four life stages (Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha,
Family was Patriarchal (father as the head), Sanyasa) for achieving Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha,
monogamous (polygamy among elites). Sons Kama, Moksha), mentioned in the Jabala Upanishad.
inherited father's property. The cow was deemed Polygamy became more frequent.
Aghanya (not to be killed). Education imparted
orally within the teacher's home (Gurukul system),
focusing on sacred texts.

Position Relatively better position than Later Vedic period; The status of women generally declined; restricted from
of could attend rituals and assemblies (e.g., Vidatha), political assemblies. Aitareya Brahmana states that a son is
Women and choose their husbands. Widow could remarry the protector of the family, while a daughter is a source of
her deceased husband's younger brother to produce misery. Privileged women like Gargi participated in
an heir (Niyoga/levirate). Female seers (Rishikas) philosophical debates (Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue in
like Lopamudra, Ghosha, and Apala are mentioned Brihadaranyaka Upanishad).
in the Rigveda.

Economy Primarily nomadic pastoral. Wealth measured in Became agrarian and settled. Used iron tools (Shyama Ayas)
cattle (Gomat). Barter based trade with cow and for clearing forests and ploughing land. Manure was known.
gold ornaments (Nishka), no currency. Used tools Rice (Vrihi), barley (Yava), beans, sesame, and wheat were
made of stone, copper or bronze (Shyama and cultivated. Barter continued, but metal currency like gold or
Krishna Ayas). Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) silver pieces (Nishka, Shatamana, Krishnala) became more
culture was predominant. common. Characterized by Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
pottery.

Religion Henotheism/Polytheism: Worship of Indra Increased ritualism and priestly dominance. Yajnas became
(thunder), Agni (fire), Varuna (cosmic order, more elaborate. Mahayajnas (Grand sacrifices) like the
Rita), Dyaus (sky). The pantheon included 33 gods Rajasuya (royal consecration), Vajapeya (strength-gaining),
categorized by their abode (celestial, atmospheric, Asvamedha (horse sacrifice), and Agnistoma (Soma
terrestrial). Rituals: Simple yajnas (sacrifices) in sacrifice) became main rituals for rulers. New deities like
open spaces; no temples or idols. Offerings in Prajapati, Vishnu, and Rudra gained prominence. Concepts
sacrifices included milk, ghee, grain, flesh, and the of Brahman (ultimate reality), Atman (soul), Punarjanma
intoxicating drink Soma. (reincarnation), Karma (action), and Moksha (liberation from
cycle of birth and death) developed, reflected in the
Upanishads. Towards the end of this period heterodox
movements emerged against ritual excess.

Literature
Vedas: The Vedas (lit. "knowledge") are the oldest scriptures and foundation of Hinduism, regarded as Śruti (divinely heard),
Nitya (eternal) and Apauruṣeya (not human-authored). Compiled by sage Vyasa, each Veda is structured into four parts:
● Samhita: Core hymns, prayers, incantations and benedictions (e.g., Rigveda’s hymns to Agni, Indra).
● Brahmana: Ritual explanations and ceremonial guidelines.
● Aranyaka: Transitional "forest texts" blending rituals with early philosophy.
● Upanishad: Philosophical texts exploring Brahman, Atman, Moksha, marking the culmination of Vedic thought, hence called
Vedanta (end of the Vedas). Literally means "to sit near (the Guru)"; total 108 in number.
Details on the Vedic Samhitas

Veda Significance and Composition Associated Texts Notable Contents

Rig

Sama

Yajur

Atharva
The first three Vedas—Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Samaveda—are collectively known as the Vedatrayi (Triad of Vedas). The
Atharvaveda is considered a later addition, and might be composed by non-Aryans.
Other Vedic Literature

Upveda

Vedanga

Purana

Mahakavya

Smriti

Shad-
Darshan

Rise of Mahajanapadas:
Rise of Magadha:
4. Maurya Empire (c. 322-185 BCE)
The Maurya Dynasty, founded by Chandragupta Maurya, transformed the Magadha from a Mahajanapada into a large empire,
unifying a vast portion of the Indian subcontinent for the first time.
Rulers
Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321–297 BCE): Purana identifies him as a Shudra, though Buddhist texts link him to the Moriya
clan of Shakyas (to which Buddha belonged). Following Alexander the Great's retreat from northwestern India, Chandragupta,
with the guidance of his mentor Kautilya (also known as Chanakya or Vishnu Gupta), launched a war against the unpopular
Nanda dynasty, overthrowing its last ruler Dhanananda and establishing the Mauryan Empire with its capital at Pataliputra.
Known to the Greeks as Sandrokottos, Chandragupta repulsed Greek invasion. He defeated Seleucus I Nicator (305 BCE), who
ceded Indus Valley, Afghanistan and Balochistan via treaty, while Chandragupta gifted Seleucus 500 elephants and married
Seleucus's daughter, Helena. Megasthenes, Seleucus' envoy, wrote Indica (only fragments survive). Chandragupta poured
manpower on maintaining the Uttarapath (Northern Road) which is now Grand Trunk Road. Towards the end of his life he
embraced Jainism under Bhadrabahu, abdicated the throne, and died at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) through Sallekhana (fast
unto death).
Bindusara (c. 297–273 BCE): Succeeding Chandragupta, his son Bindusara expanded the Mauryan Empire southward into the
Deccan, encompassing nearly the entire subcontinent except Kalinga (Odisha) and the far south. He maintained ties with
Hellenistic kingdoms: Antiochus I Soter, son of Seleucus I Nicator (Seleucid Empire) sent ambassador Deimachus. Bindusara
requested sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist; Antiochus sent the rest but declined the sophist due to Greek laws. Ptolemy II
Philadelphus (Egypt) dispatched envoy Dionysius to Pataliputra. Greek sources refer to him as Amitrochates (Sanskrit
Amitraghata means "Slayer of foes"). Some ancient texts suggest that he inclined toward the Ajivika sect, influenced by the
ascetic Pingalavatsa.
Ashoka (268–232 BCE): One of the most prominent rulers of ancient India, Ashoka initially served as governor of Ujjain and
quelled a revolt in Taxila under his father, Bindusara. Following Bindusara's death, Ashoka won a succession struggle and
ascended the throne (c. 273 BCE, but coronation by c. 268 BCE) after securing loyalty. As detailed in his Major Rock Edict 13
(found in Jaugada, Odisha), Ashoka waged a war against Kalinga (modern Odisha, 261 BCE), but the carnage led him to remorse
and abandon violence and conquest.
● Ashoka's Dhamma: Following the Kalinga war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism and instituted Dhamma (Sanskrit dharma,
meaning “righteousness”), an ethical code promoting non-violence, religious tolerance, compassion, charity, and social
welfare initiatives like planting trees and digging wells. He replaced Bherighosha (war drums) with Dhammaghosha
(proclamation of peace) in court and, in his fourteenth year, appointed Dhammamahamattas to spread Dhamma and oversee
social welfare. He also sent Buddhist missionaries, including his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra, to Sri Lanka.
● Ashoka's Inscriptions: Ashoka communicated his policies and moral vision through numerous Rock and Pillar Edicts
inscribed across his empire, primarily written in Prakrit using the Brahmi script, though Kharosthi, and Greek-Aramaic were
used in specific regions. They were First noted by Padre Tieffenthaler (18th century) but deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep
via the Delhi-Meerut Pillar Edict (Brahmi script).

5. Sangam Period (1st - 3rd Century CE)

6. Gupta Period (c. 320-550 CE)
The Golden Age of India, known for advancements in science, mathematics, astronomy, literature, and art. The decimal system
and the concept of zero were developed.

Books Written

Writer Books Patron King/Regime Time Period

Kautilya Arthashastra (Treatise on statecraft, economics, and Chandragupta Maurya 4th century BCE
(Chanakya) military strategy) (Mauryan Empire)

Bhasa Swapnavasavadattam Uncertain (Pre-Gupta period) 2nd–3rd century CE

Pratijna Yaugandharayana

Kalidasa Abhijnanashakuntalam Chandragupta II (Gupta 4th–5th century CE

Meghaduta Empire)
Raghuvamsha
Kumarasambhava

Visakhadatta Mudrarakshasa (Play on Chandragupta Maurya) 4th–5th century CE

Aryabhata Aryabhatiya (Mathematics and Astronomy) Buddhagupta (Gupta Empire) 5th century CE

Varahamihira Brihat Samhita (Astrology and Astronomy) Vikramaditya (inaccurate) 6th century CE
Pancha Siddhantika (Five Astronomical Treatises) (Gupta Empire)

Bharavi Kiratarjuniya (Epic poem) Durvinita (Western Ganga D) 6th century CE

Magha Shishupala Vadha (Epic poem) Uncertain 7th century CE

Banabhatta Harshacharita (Biography of Harsha) Harshavardhana (Vardhana 7th century CE

Kadambari (Romantic novel) Dynasty)

Dandin Dashakumaracharita Uncertain 7th century CE

Bhoja Sarasvatikanthabharana (Art and culture treatise) Bhoja (Paramara Dynasty) 11th century CE

Kalhana Rajatarangini (History of Kashmir) Jayasimha (Kashmiri King) 12th century CE

Foreign Visitors
Visitor Origin Time Period Ruler/Regime Books/Accounts Written
Megasthenes Greece 302–298 BCE Chandragupta Maurya (Mauryan Indica (now lost, fragments
(Macedonia) Empire) survive)
Fa-Hien China 399–412 CE Chandragupta II (Gupta Empire) Foguoji (A Record of Buddhist
(Faxian) Kingdoms)
Hiuen Tsang China 630–645 CE Harshavardhana (Vardhana Great Tang Records on the
(Xuanzang) Dynasty) Western Regions
I-Tsing (Yijing) China 671–695 CE Pala Empire A Record of Buddhist Practices
Al-Masudi Baghdad, 10th century CE Gurjara-Pratihara Empire Meadows of Gold, Mines of
Iraq (Arab) Gems
 Foreign Visitors
Al-Biruni Persia (Iran) 11th Century CE Mahmud of Ghazni (Ghaznavid Kitab al-Hind or Tarikh-i-Hind
b. Uzbekistan Empire) (Book of India)
Marco Polo Venice (Italy) 13th century CE Pandya Kingdom The Travels of Marco Polo
Ibn Battuta Morocco 1333–1342 CE Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Delhi Rihla (The Travels)
Sultanate)
Thomas Roe England 1615-1619 CE Jahangir (Mughal Empire)
Captain England 1759-1781 CE British East India Company Considerations on Indian Affairs
William Bolts
John Marshall England 1902-1934 CE British Raj The Buddhist Art of India
Ferdowsi - Shahnameh (Book of Kings) - mahmud of ghazni *Appendix
 Part II: Medieval India
1. Arab Invasions
First Arab / Muslim Invasion: Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sindh and defeated the local ruler, Raja Dahir, in 712 CE. Sindh
and Multan incorporated as provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate, marking the end of the Brahmin dynasty.
First Major Turk Invasion: Mahmud Ghaznavi, the Sultan of Ghazni, led 17 invasions into India between 1001 and 1025. He
raided and destroyed many temples, including the famous Somnath Temple in Kathiawar (1025). He earned the title But-shikan
(destroyer of idols) and Yamin-al-Dawla (Right hand of the State). His dynasty is known as the Ghaznavid dynasty or Yamini
dynasty. Al-Biruni and Ferdowsi accompanied him.
Second Major Turk Invasion: Muhammad Ghori (Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam) invaded India and captured Multan
and Upper Sindh between 1175 to 1178. Mu’in al-Din Hasan Chisti accompanied him. First Battle of Tarain (1191): Ghori
was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer. Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Ghori defeated Prithviraj and established his
dominance in northern India. Battle of Chandawar (1194): Ghori defeated Jaichandra of Kannauj. These battles founded
Turkish / Muslim rule in India. Ghori was assassinated by the Khokhars in 1206 CE in Dhamyak (modern-day Pakistan).
Following his death, his former slave general, Qutb ud-Din Aibak, became the ruler of India. Yalduz succeeded Ghori as the
ruler of Ghazni.
2. Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
Dynasty Rulers

Slave/ Qutb ud-Din Aibak: A former slave and general of Ghurid emperor Muhammad Ghori, Aibak established the
Mamluk/ Slave dynasty in Lahore and became the first Sultan of India. Known as Lakh Baksh (Giver of Lakhs) for his
Ilbari generosity. First introduced Jizya. Built the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Mehrauli (the first mosque in India), Adhai
Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer and initiated the construction of the Qutb Minar in honor of the Sufi saint Qutbuddin
Bakhtiar Kaki. He died in 1210 while playing Chaugan (Polo) and was succeeded by Aram Shah.
Shams ud-Din Iltutmish: Deposed Aram Shah and made Delhi the capital. Introduced the Iqtadari system (land
grant in lieu of salary), tanka (silver coin) and jital (copper coin). Formed Turkan-i-Chahalgani/Chalisha (Corps of
Forty) to centralize power. Added three more storeys in Qutb Minar.
Razia Sultan: The first and only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, she was the daughter of Iltutmish. She
appointed Jamal ud-Din Yaqut, an African-origin noble, as Amir-al-Khayal (Master of the Stables). However, the
nobility, led by Malik Altunia (Governor of Bhatinda), rebelled. Yaqut was killed, and Razia was captured. She
later married Altunia, but both were assassinated in Kaithal (Haryana).
Ghiyas ud-Din Balban: Broke the power of the Chahalgani and strengthened the Sultanate. Introduced Nowruz
(Persian New Year), barid (spies) and imposed Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the feet) as royal rituals.
Adopted the policy of "Blood and Iron" to crush rebellions.

Khalji Jalal-ud-Din Khalji: The founder of the Khalji dynasty, he was assassinated by his nephew Alauddin Khalji.
Alauddin Khalji: Ambitioned to be the Second Alexander (Sikander-i-Sani). Expanded into Southern India and
defeated Mongol invaders with the help of slave general Malik Kafur. Established Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (Revenue
Department). Introduced Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) and Dagh (branding of horses) for military
administration. Imposed heavy taxation on cultivation, housing, and cattle grazing. Established market regulation
(Sarai-i-Adl) to control food prices. Built Siri city (New Delhi) and the Alai Darwaza, incomplete Alai Minar.
Patronized Amir Khusrau, and gave him the title of "Tuti-i-Hind" (Parrot of India).

Tughlaq/ Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq: Founded the Tughlaq dynasty and built Tughlaqabad Fort. He died when a pavilion
Turks collapsed on him, allegedly due to a conspiracy by his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Attempted to shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) but later
abandoned the plan. Introduced Token Currency (bronze coins equal to silver tanka), but due to forgery, it failed.
Under his rule, the Delhi Sultanate reached its largest territorial extent. Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveler, visited
India during his reign. First Sultan to celebrate Holi. Built Begumpuri mosque.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq: Made the Iqtadari system hereditary. Imposed Islamic taxes: Kharaj (land tax, 1/10 of
produce); Zakat (wealth tax on Muslims); Jizya (tax on non-Muslims); Khams (1/5 of war booty); Jizya was
extended to Brahmins. Completed Qutb Minar by building fifth and final storey and adding cupola.
Mahmud Shah Tughlaq: A weak ruler; Timur the lame, a Turkish-Mongol chief and descendant of Genghis Khan,
invaded India in 1398, plundering Delhi and leaving behind a nominee to rule.

Sayyid Khizr Khan: Timur’s nominee, he defeated Daulat Khan and founded the Sayyid dynasty. His rule was largely
ceremonial, with power resting in the hands of local chiefs.
Alam Shah: The only Sultan to voluntarily abdicate the throne. His Wazir (Prime Minister), Hamid Khan, invited
Bahlul Lodi to take control of Delhi.

Lodi Bahlul Lodi: The founder of the Lodi dynasty, he restored stability after the chaotic Sayyid rule.
Sikander Lodi: Expanded control over Bihar and Western Bengal. Founded the city of Agra and shifted the capital
 there.
Ibrahim Lodi: A weak ruler; Governor of Punjab, Daulat Khan Lodi, invited Babur to invade India. Babur defeated
Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526), marking the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the
Mughal Empire.

3. Mughal Empire (1526-1857) And Sur Empire (1540-1555)

The Mughal Empire was one of the most significant and enduring empires in Indian history, known for its cultural contributions,
economic prosperity, and territorial expansion.
Ruler Life and Administration Conflicts Architecture Biography
Babur Descendant of Timur (Turco-Mongol) and First Battle of Panipat Kabuli Bagh Mosque Tuzuk-i-Baburi
(1526– Genghis Khan (Mongol). Emir of Fergana, (1526): Defeated Ibrahim (Panipat). Introduced / Baburnama by
1530) Samarkand and Kabul. Introduced Lodi. Battle of Khanwa Charbagh (Persian self in Chagatai
gunpowder and modern artillery to India. (1527): Defeated Rana style gardens) layout. Turkish
Established Mughal rule in North India. Sanga of Mewar.
Huma Struggled with revolts by Afghan nobles and Battle of Chausa (1539) Dinpanah (earlier Humayun-nama
yun his brothers. Lost empire to Sher Shah Suri. and Kannauj (1540): Lost Purana Qila, Delhi) as by Gulbadan
(1530– Regained throne with Persian help. Died to Sher Shah Suri second capital. Begum (his
40, from a fall at his library Dinpanah in Delhi. Regained power in 1555 half-sister)
1555–
56)
Former commander under Lodi and governor of Bihar under Mughals, Farid Khan defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa
(1539) and took the title Sher Shah. Again defeated Humayun in the Battle of Kannauj (1540), took control of Delhi and Agra,
founding the Sur Empire or Second Afghan Empire.
Sher Introduced Rupiya (silver coin), Patta (land Conquered Malwa, Purana Qila (Delhi),
Shah deed) and Qabuliyat (cultivation agreement). Chittor, Marwar, Bhera city, Rohtas
Suri Standardized weights and measures. Divided Ranthambore Fort (Punjab), Shahi
(1540- empire into Sarkars, Parganas, and Villages. Died during Kalinjar (later Grand Trunk)
1545) Set up sarais (rest houses) and milestones at siege (1545) Road (Kolkata to
regular intervals. Improved road and postal Peshawar)
networks. Kept a directly recruited standing
army.
Sher Shah was succeeded by son Islam Shah (1545-1554). After his death, the Sur Empire declined due to weak successors
and internal conflicts. Seizing this opportunity, Humayun, with Persian support, defeated Sur rulers in 1555, recapturing Delhi
and restoring Mughal rule. Though he ruled for a short time, his son Akbar consolidated the Mughal Empire.
Akbar Ascended at age 14 under regent Bairam Second Battle of Panipat Fatehpur Sikri, Akbarnama (3
(1556– Khan. Reformed administration with (1556): Defeated Hemu Buland Darwaza, volumes, 3rd
1605) Mansabdari (ranking of officials) and Zabti (who briefly seized Expansions of Agra one being Ain-i-
(land revenue assessment) system. Delhi). Fort Akbari) by Abul
Abolished Jizya. Promoted religious Battle of Haldighati Fazl. Tabaqat-i-
harmony through Din-i-Ilahi and Ibadat (1576): Defeated Rana Akbari by
Khana debates. Encouraged Rajput alliances Pratap of Mewar. Nizam ud-Din
by marriage. Patroned Navaratnas (Nine Conquered Bengal, Ahmad Harami.
Gems) including Abul Fazl, Birbal, Tansen. Gujarat, Rajasthan
Jahang Real name Salim; ruled under influence of Guru Arjan Dev executed Shalimar Bagh Tuzuk-i-
ir wife Nur Jahan. Established the Zanjir-i-Adl for supporting Jahangir’s (Kashmir), Jahangir's Jahangiri by
(1605– (Chain of Justice) for public grievances. rebel son Khusrau Tomb (Lahore) self
1627) Introduced Du-aspah, Sih-aspah (horse Mewar submission: Rana
ranking system). Amar Singh surrendered
Shah Promoted architectural and cultural Deccan campaigns: Golden Age of Padshahnama
Jahan achievements. Encouraged trade with Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Mughal Architecture. by Abdul
(1628– Europeans. Commissioned Peacock Throne. Golconda, Bundelas Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Hamid Lahori.
1658) Deposed by son Aurangzeb (1658); died Fought Portuguese at Jama Masjid, Moti Shahjahan-
under house arrest (1666). Hugli for control over Masjid, Sheesh nama by Inayat
Arabian Sea Mahal, Talkatora Khan.
Bagh (Delhi)
Auran Took title Alamgir. Reimposed Jizya (1679), Continuous wars: Bibi Ka Maqbara Letters and
gzeb banned music and arts in court, enforced Marathas (Shivaji), Sikhs, (Aurangabad, Farmans
(1658– Sharia law, stopped Tuladan (ceremonial Rajputs completed by son compiled later
1707) weighing of the emperor in gold). Expanded Deccan campaigns Azam Shah), as Ruq‘at-i-
the empire to its zenith. drained treasury Badshahi Mosque Alamgiri
(Lahore)
Mughal Administration
Decline of the Mughal Empire: After Aurangzeb’s death, the empire began to weaken due to succession struggles, growing
regional powers, Invasions by Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali, and increasing European influence in the
subcontinent. The British East India Company gradually took control of large parts of India, culminating in the formal end of
the Mughal Empire after the Rebellion of 1857, when the last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British.

4. Regional Powers in Medieval India

After the decline of the Gupta Empire (c. 550) and the fall of Harshavardhana (647), several regional powers rose across India
like the Rajputs in the north and the Cholas in the south. The struggle for supremacy over Kannauj, known as the Tripartite
Struggle (8th–9th centuries), involved the Palas of East, Gurjara-Pratiharas of North India, and Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
After Timur’s invasion in 1398, the Delhi Sultanate weakened, and regional states like Gujarat and Malwa declared
independence. Later, these were annexed into the Mughal Empire. With the Mughal decline in the 18th century, powerful states
such as the Marathas, Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Punjab rose, but later succumbed to British colonial rule
following the Anglo-Indian Wars by the mid-19th century.

A. Rajputs in North India (7th–12th centuries)

After Harshavardhana’s death, the Rajputs emerged as a formidable force in North India, ruling for nearly 500 years.
Region Kingdom Rulers

Delhi Chauhan Ajayraja II founded Ajmer (Ajaymeru). Prithviraj Chauhan (1178–1192) defeated Muhammad
and (Chahaman) Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain (1191) but was defeated and killed in the Second Battle of
Ajmer Tarain (1192), marking the onset of Muslim rule in North India.

Avanti Gurjara- Founded by Nagabhatta I in Malwa with initial capital at Ujjain in Avanti region. Later won the
Pratihara Tripartite Struggle and ruled Kannauj. Mihir Bhoja I (836–885) took the title Adivaraha
(Vishnu’s boar incarnation), resisted Arab invasions in western India.

Malwa Pawar Initially ruled from Dhar, later Mandapa-Durga (Mandu). Bhoja (1010–1055), also called
(Parmar) Kaviraja, authored Samarangana Sutradhara (treatise on architecture).

Kathiaw Solanki Mularaja I founded this dynasty and built Mulavasathika and Mulanthajinadeva temples at
ar (Chaulukya, capital Anahilapataka. Vastupal and Tejpal constructed the Luna Vasahi temple (mount Abu).
not Chalukya) Architecture blended Jain and Hindu elements.

Malkhed Rashtrakuta Dantidurga founded the dynasty with Malkhed or Manyakheta (Gulbarga in Karnataka) as its
capital. Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest Kannada text on poetics. Krishna I
built the rock-cut marvel Kailasa Temple at Ellora.

Jejakabh Chandela Founded by Nannuka with capital at Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand in Madhya Pradesh).
ukti Renowned for building Khajuraho temples (950–1050).

Chedi Kalchuri Ruled from Tripuri (Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh). Also known as Later Kalchuris. Known for
(Haihaya) temple building and regional patronage of art.

Kannauj Rathod Govindachandra made Kannauj the first capital and Banaras the second. Jaichandra was
(Gadhawal) killed by Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1194).

Haryana Tomar Anangpal I founded Dhillika (Delhi). Anangpal II built the Lal Kot fort, the earliest known
fortification of Delhi.

Mewar Sisodiya Rana Kumbha (1433–1468) fought Mahmud Khalji of Malwa and built the Vijay Stambha at
(Guhila) Chittorgarh. Rana Sanga (1508–1528) was defeated by Ibrahim Lodi (1518) and later by Babur
at Khanwa (1527). Maharana Pratap (1572–1597) resisted Akbar at the Battle of Haldighati
(1576); though defeated, continued guerrilla resistance from the Aravalli hills.
Decline of Rajputs: Internal weaknesses like political disunity among different clans, outdated military practices and feudal
structure as well as external pressure such as rise of Mughals, Maratha and eventually British influence contributed to the decline
of Rajput kingdoms.

B. Vijaynagar Empire in South India (1336–1646)

Also known as Karnataka Kingdom, this Hindu kingdom was named after its second capital, Vijayanagara (modern Hampi, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site), on the Tungabhadra River. It resisted Muslim invasions and fostered Hindu culture.
Dynasty Rulers
 Sangama Founded by Harihara I and Bukka I (sons of Sangama). They were initially feudatories of the Kakatiyas
(1336–1485) (Warangal) and later ministers of Kampili Kingdom and claimed Yadava (Chandravamsha) lineage. Harihara
I initially made Anegundi the capital, but later shifted to Vidyanagara which Bukka I renamed Vijayanagara
(City of Victory). Bukka I expanded the empire to Rameswaram, earning the title "Master of the Eastern,
Western, and Southern Oceans". Travelers: Niccolò de' Conti from Italy (under Deva Raya I), Abd-al-
Razzaq from Persia (under Deva Raya II), Nikitin from Russia (under Virupaksha Raya II).

Saluva Saluva Narasimha overthrew Virupaksha II and founded the Saluva dynasty. After his death, his minor sons
(1486–1505) Tirumala and Immadi Narasimha ruled under regent general Narsa Nayaka.

Tuluva Vira Narasimha, son of Narsa Nayaka, assassinated Immadi Narasimha and seized the throne. His brother,
(1505–70) Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529), also known as Andhra Pitamaha and Abhinava Bhoja, allied with
Portuguese governor Afonso de Albuquerque. Authored Amuktamalyada (Telugu treatise on governance)
and Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit drama). His court included the Ashtadiggajas (eight scholars) including
Allasani Peddana, Timmaya. Built Vitthala, Hazara Rama, and Tirupati temples; founded the city of
Nagalapuram, named after his mother. Portuguese travelers Duarte Barbosa and Domingo Paes documented
the empire’s prosperity. During the reign of Sadasiva Raya (1542–1567), real authority was held by Prime
Minister Rama Raya, who was killed in the Battle of Talikota (1565) against a coalition of Deccan
Sultanates led by Hussain Nizam Shah I of Bijapur, marking the empire’s decline.

Aravidu Tirumala Raya, brother of Rama Raya, founded the Aravidu dynasty and moved the capital to Penukonda,
(1570–1650) later to Chandragiri and Vellore. He reorganized the kingdom into linguistic provinces (Telugu, Kannada).
Administration: Inspired by the Delhi Sultanate they had Iqta-like land grants called Manyam. Nayankars (military governors)
administered provinces, while Ayangars oversaw village-level governance. Issued gold coins called Varaha or Pagoda. Women
occasionally participated in administration and even in warfare. The empire frequently clashed with the Bahmani Sultanate over
strategic regions like Tungabhadra Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta and Marathwada.
Architecture: Vijayanagara architecture is known for the Provida style (also called Vijayanagara style), which synthesized
Dravidian and Indo-Islamic elements, featuring towering Gopurams, intricate sculptures and large Mandapas (pillared halls).
Notable monuments: Ramaswamy Temple, Lotus Mahal, The stone chariot at Hampi. In 1800, Colin Mackenzie, a British
engineer and surveyor, rediscovered the ruins of Hampi, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Decline: Although the empire lasted until 1646, its power greatly declined after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota.

C. Bhonsle Dynasty and Maratha Confederacy (1674-1818)

The Maratha Empire was a powerful state in India that emerged in the 17th century under Shivaji Bhonsle. It challenged Mughal
rule, expanded across much of India, and eventually declined due to internal divisions and British conquest.
Shahaji Bhonsle: Father of Shivaji and a key Maratha leader. After the death of Malik Amber (an Abyssinian minister of the
Ahmadnagar Sultanate) in 1626 CE, Shahaji became a jagirdar (feudal lord), laying the foundation for Maratha influence.
Venkoji Bhonsle: Half-brother of Shivaji and a Maratha general. In 1674 CE, he led an army to Tanjore (Thanjavur) and
established Maratha rule in the Tamil region.
Shivaji Bhonsle (1674–1680 CE)
Rise to Power Captured forts like Torna, Raigarh, and Javli, gaining control over the Western Ghats and Konkan coast
(1646-55). Raided Portuguese settlements at Daman.

Key Battles Battle of Kolhapur (1659): Defeated Rustemjaman, a Bijapur commander.

Battle of Pratapgarh (1659): Killed Afzal Khan, a Bijapur general.
Battle of Pavan Khind (1660): Faced Siddi Johar of Bijapur; Baji Prabhu Deshpande’s last stand allowed
Shivaji to escape.
Attack on Lal Mahal (1663): Launched night attack on Shaista Khan, mughal governor, who escaped.
Attack on Surat (1664): Plundered the wealthy Mughal port city.
Battle of Purandar (1665): Defeated by Mughal general Jai Singh I, leading to the Treaty of Purandar,
where Shivaji agreed to send his son Sambhaji as a Mughal mansabdar (military officer).
Battle of Salher (1672): Defeated Mughal forces, reclaiming lost territories.

Coronation and Crowned as Chhatrapati (sovereign ruler) at Raigarh in 1674. Took the title Haindava-Dharmoddharak
Titles (protector of Hinduism)

Administration Divided the empire into prants (provinces), parganas (districts), and tarafs (sub-districts). Imposed taxes
Chauth (1/4th of total revenue from neighboring territories as protection money) and Sardeshmukhi
(1/10th of total revenue as overlordship). Appointed Ashtapradhan, Council of eight ministers, including
the Peshwa (prime minister). Revenue officials were called Karkuns.

Death Died in 1680 at age 53 due to a fever

Successors of Shivaji
Sambhaji: Shivaji’s son; resisted Mughal attacks fiercely. Captured and executed by Aurangzeb in 1689 after a brutal campaign.
Rajaram: Sambhaji’s brother; ruled during intense Mughal pressure. Shifted the capital to Gingee (Tamil Nadu); died in 1700.
Tarabai and Shivaji II: Tarabai, Rajaram’s widow, ruled as regent for her young son, Shivaji II. Controlled the southern
Maratha territory from Kolhapur.
Shahu: Sambhaji’s son; released by the Mughals in 1707 after Aurangzeb’s death. Ruled the northern part from Satara, while
Tarabai held the south. Appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 171, marking the rise of Peshwa power.
Rise of the Peshwas: The Peshwas gradually became the real rulers of the Maratha Empire, expanding its reach.
Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720): Appointed Peshwa in 1713. Made the Peshwa post powerful and hereditary. In 1719, Mughal
Emperor Farrukhsiyar recognized Shahu as the ruler of Swarajya (Maratha homeland).
Baji Rao I (1720–1740): Son of Balaji Vishwanath; a brilliant military leader. Used guerrilla tactics to expand Maratha influence
into northern India. Won Battle of Palkhed (1728) against the Nizam of Hyderabad.
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740–1761): Son of Baji Rao I; supported the Mughals against foreign threats like Ahmad Shah
Abdali. Lost the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) to Abdali, severely weakening Maratha dominance.
Madhav Rao (1761–1772): Restored some Maratha power after Panipat but died young at 27.
Narayan Rao (1772–1773): Ruled briefly; assassinated in a palace conspiracy by his uncle Raghunath Rao.
Sawai Madhav Rao (1774–1795): Ruled under the regency of Nana Phadnavis; maintained stability until his death.
Baji Rao II (1796–1818): Last Peshwa; faced internal rivalries and British expansion. Defeated in the Third Anglo-Maratha
War (1817–1818 CE), ending Maratha rule.

Decline of the Maratha Empire:

Internal conflicts among Maratha chiefs (e.g., Holkars, Scindias).
Loss at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
British victories in the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818).
The empire ended in 1818 when the British abolished the Peshwa position.

D. Other Regional Kingdoms

Region Dynasty Rulers

Gujarat Muzaffarid Zafar Khan (son of Sadharan, a Rajput who converted to Islam) declared independence after
Timur’s invasion (1398) and took the title Muzaffar Shah I. His grandson, Ahmad Shah I
(1411–1442), founded Ahmedabad and built Teen Darwaza (1415) and Jama Masjid (1424).

Malwa Ghauri Dilawar Khan Ghauri (1401–1406) shifted the capital from Dhar to Mandu. Mandu
Architecture: Lofty plinths and colored glazed tiles. Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal.

Jaunpur Sharqi Appointed by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, governor Malik Sarwar received the title Malik-us-Sharq
(Lord of the East) from Nasiruddin Mohammad Shah Tughlaq. After Timur’s invasion
(1398), he declared independence, founding the Sharqi Dynasty. Malik Muhammad Jaisi,
author of Padmavat, lived during this time.
Sharqi Architecture: Atala Masjid, Jama Masjid and Lal Darwaja Masjid.

Kashmir Shah Mir Kashmir, once a center of Shaivism, faced Mongol invasions (e.g., by Dulucha in 1320).
Shah Mir, a Muslim noble, established rule in 1339 after Mongol invasions.
Sikandar Shah (1389–1413): Known as Butshikan (idol-breaker). On minister Suha Bhatt’s
advice, he forced Brahmins to convert to Islam or leave the valley.
Zain-ul-Abidin (1420–1470): Known as the “Budshah” (Great King). Reversed Sikandar’s
policies: abolished jizya, lifted the ban on sati, and appointed Hindus to state posts. Promoted
religious tolerance and cultural synthesis.

Bengal and Pala (8th– Gopala founded Pala Empire in 750 with capital at Mudgagiri (Munger). His successor
Bihar 12th Dharmapala revived Nalanda University and founded Vikramshila University, which was
centuries) later destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji. Fought against Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas (Tripartite
Struggle) for control over North India. Promoted Buddhism.

Sena Succeeded the Pala; emphasized Hindu revivalism. Jayadeva, author of Gita Govinda, was
(11th–13th court poet of Lakshmana Sena. Declined after Bakhtiyar Khalji’s invasion. Bengal later
centuries) came under Mughal control during Akbar’s reign.

Gulbarga Bahmani Founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (a.k.a. Hasan Gangu) with capital at Gulbarga.
Tajuddin Firoz Shah promoted trade via ports like Chaul and Dabhol, and included Hindus
in administration. Ahmad Shah Wali later shifted the capital to Bidar.
 Berar Imad Shahi Founded by Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk, a Bahmani governor. Later absorbed by Nizam Shahi
rulers of Ahmadnagar.

Bijapur Adil Shahi Yusuf Adil Shah founded the dynasty. His successor Ibrahim Adil Shah II promoted Dakhni
(vernacular language) as court language instead of Persian. Muhammad Adil Shah built the
famous Gol Gumbaz, featuring a whispering gallery, designed by Yaqut of Dabul.

Ahmadnagar Nizam Founded by Malik Ahmad, a Bahmani governor. Ahmadnagar was known for strong forts
Shahi like Daulatabad.

Golkonda Qutb Shahi Founded by Quli Qutb Shah, who built Golkonda Fort, and renamed Bhagyanagar to
Hyderabad. He built the iconic Charminar.

Bidar Barid Amir Ali Barid founded the dynasty after the Bahmani breakup. Bidar was known for Persian
Shahi cultural influence and architecture.

Tanjore Chola Originally feudatories of the Pallavas, Vijayalaya Chola captured Tanjore in 850 CE,
(Tamil Nadu) founding the dynasty. Rajaraja I (985–1014) built the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Tanjore.
Rajendra I (1014–1044) expanded the empire to Orissa, Bengal, Burma, Andaman; took the
title Gangaikonda, and founded Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Sengol, a golden scepter, was
used in coronations. The empire was divided into Mandalam, Valanadu, Nadu, and Kurram.
Architecture: Dravidian style; Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram.

Karnataka Western Tailapa II founded the dynasty with its capital at Kalyani (Basavakalyan). Known for
Chalukyas architecture, especially temples at Pattadakal.

Warangal Kakatiya Prola Raja (or Prolaraja I) founded the dynasty. Prominent ruler Rudrama Devi (female
ruler). Warangal Fort and Thousand Pillar Temple are architectural landmarks.

Devagiri Yadavas Bhillama V established the dynasty with capital at Devagiri. Conquered by Alauddin Khilji
(Maharashtra) in the early 14th century.

Dwarasamudr Hoysalas Founded by Vishnuvardhana (originally named Bittiga). Famous for Hoysaleswara Temple
a (Karnataka) at Halebidu, and Chennakeshava Temple at Belur (both UNESCO World Heritage Sites),
Keshava Temple at Somanathapura.

Religious Movements:
 Part III: Modern India
1. Arrival of Europeans
India was renowned for exporting silk and cotton textiles, spices, pearls, salt, indigo dye, saltpetre and opium. Arabian merchants
used to export these to Europeans through the Red Sea and Mediterranean ports, long before the construction of the Suez Canal
in 1869. To find an alternative route to India, Christopher Columbus landed in America in 1492 and mistook it to be India.
Portuguese
Prince Henry of Portugal encouraged voyages to discover sea routes to India. In 1488, Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of
Good Hope, the southern tip of Africa. In 1498, Vasco da Gama, aided by Gujarati navigator Ibn Majid, reached Calicut
(Kozhikode) on the Malabar Coast of Kerala, marking the first European arrival in India via sea. The local Hindu ruler, Zamorin,
welcomed da Gama. Governor Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur Yusuf Adil Shah, in the Battle
of Diu (3 February 1509) with the help of Krishnadevaraya. He established the Cartaz system. Francisco de Almeida was
appointed first governor and viceroy of the Portuguese state of India (1605). He implemented the Blue Water Policy. Bombay
(Mumbai) was captured by them in 1534 from the Sultan of Gujarat Bahadur Shah, and gifted to the British in 1661 as part of
the marriage settlement between King Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza of Portugal. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
remained under Portuguese control until 1954. Goa remained under Portuguese control until its liberation on 19th December
1961, when it became UT of India.
Dutch
The Dutch East India Company, established in 1602, built their first factory at Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam in Andhra Pradesh)
in 1605 and another at Devanampatnam (near Puducherry). They constructed Fort Gustavus at Chinsurah (Bengal) and set up
additional factories at Kasim Bazar (near Murshidabad) and Patna (Bihar). They were defeated in the Battle of Bedara (1759)
which was part of the larger Seven Years' War, marking their decline in India.
British
The first British to visit India was John Mildenhall (1599). The British East India Company (EIC) was founded in 1600 after
receiving a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I. Their first ship, led by William Hawkins, arrived in Surat on 24th August
1608. Hawkins sought permission from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir to establish trade relations, but it was ambassador Sir
Thomas Roe, who secured formal trading rights (Farmans) in 1615. The EIC established its first temporary factory at
Masulipatnam in 1611 and a permanent one in Surat in 1613. Over time the company expanded to a political power. The EIC's
rule in India ended in 1858 after the Revolt of 1857, and control was transferred to the British Crown. In 1877, Queen Victoria
was declared Empress of India by Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli of the UK.
Danes
The Danish East India Company arrived in India in 1616, and established their first settlement at Tranquebar (Tharangambadi
in Tamil Nadu) in 1620. Later, in 1676, they established another settlement at Serampore (Bengal), which became their
headquarters. In 1845, they sold Tranquebar and Serampore to the British.
French
The French East India Company was founded in 1664 by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, and established their first settlement in Surat
(1668–73). Over time, they expanded their presence to other strategic locations, including Puducherry (Pondicherry),
Masulipatnam, Chandannagar (near Kolkata), and Mahe (Malabar Coast). Their defeat in the Carnatic Wars (1746–1763) and
the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) limited them to Puducherry, which became the center of French power in India and remained
under their control until 1954.
The First Carnatic War (1746-48) was an extension of the Anglo-French war in Europe which was caused by the Austrian war
of succession. This war was finally ended with the treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle. Under the Leadership of Captain Barnett the
English Army caught some French ships that was the immediate reason. As a result of this, Mauritius French Governor La
Bourdonnais had seized Madras. A small French army under captain Paradise defeated the Army of Nawab Mahfuz Khan on
the banks of river Adyar. This war ended in 1748 when the Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle was signed. By this treaty, Madras was
handed back to the British and the French got their territories in North America.
The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a global conflict involving Austria, France, Russia, and Sweden against Prussia and
Great Britain, stemming from disputes over Silesia and colonial rivalries in America and India. It concluded with the Treaty of
Paris and the Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763, establishing British dominance.

2. Expansion of British Power

a. Bengal (1757)
Murshid Quli Khan, appointed Diwan of Bengal in 1700 by Aurangzeb, shifted the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad. He later
became the Nawab Nazim of Bengal (1717) and Orissa (1719) under Emperor Farrukhsiyar. His successor, son-in-law Shuja-
ud-Din (1727-1739), was granted the governorship of Bihar by Emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela. Alivardi Khan rose to
power by killing Shuja-ud-Din's son, Sarfaraz Khan, in 1740. Siraj-ud-Daulah, Alivardi's grandson and successor, seized the
English factory at Kasimbazar, which triggered the Black Hole Tragedy (1756), where approximately 146 British prisoners
died due to overcrowding in a small prison cell. Siraj later signed the Treaty of Alinagar (1757), which restored British control
of Calcutta. Alinagar was the brief name given to Calcutta by Siraj.
The Battle of Plassey (1757): Occurred on June 23, 1757, at Plassey (Palashi) on the banks of the Bhagirathi River, it was
fought between the British East India Company, led by Robert Clive, and Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of
Bengal, supported by his French allies. Siraj-ud-Daulah's army, which included 50,000 soldiers, 40 cannons, and ten war
elephants, was betrayed by his generals, Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh, leading to a decisive British victory with only 3,000 troops.
After Siraj-ud-Daulah's assassination, Mir Jafar became Bengal's first puppet Nawab, and the British became the de facto rulers.
The French influence in Bengal weakened, and the British took control of Calcutta.
Post-Plassey: Mir Jafar granted the British free trade rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, along with the zamindari of the 24
Parganas. His successor, Mir Qasim, ceded Burdwan, Midnapore, and Chittagong to the British and moved the capital to Munger.
Qasim's subsequent revolt against the Company, including the failed resistance at Patna, led to the British reinstallation of Mir
Jafar in 1763 and the declaration of war.
The Battle of Buxar (1764): The British, led by Hector Munro, defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of
Awadh Shuja-ud-Daulah, and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. The resulting Treaty of Allahabad (1765) granted the British
Diwani rights (revenue collection) for Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, while restoring their tax-exempt status. The Company
controlled financial and revenue aspects, while the Nawab maintained administrative authority. The Nawab transferred Nizamat
rights (administration) to the Company, leading to the creation of the Dual Government of Bengal (1765-1772), which was
introduced by Robert Clive and later abolished by Warren Hastings.

b. Maratha Confederacy (1770s - 1818)

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782): The Maratha court (Baarbhai), led by Nana Phadnavis, installed the infant 'Sawai'
Madhavrao II as Peshwa, sidelining Raghunathrao (Raghoba). In the Treaty of Surat (1775), Raghunathrao ceded Salsette and
Bassein to the British in exchange for military support. The Calcutta Council of the British East India Company, opposing the
Bombay Council, annulled the Treaty of Surat. In the Treaty of Purandar (1776) between Warren Hastings and Nana Fadnavis,
the British returned most occupied territory but retained Salsette. The Marathas defeated the British in Wadgaon and compelled
them to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon (1779), relinquishing their territorial gains. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Salbai
(1782), which restored the status quo ante bellum, recognized Madhavrao II as Peshwa, and established a 20-year truce between
the British and the Marathas.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805): The Treaty of Bassein (1802), signed between Baji Rao II (the Peshwa) and the
British, increased British influence in Maratha affairs, angering other Maratha chiefs. The British, led by Arthur Wellesley (later
Duke of Wellington), defeated the Marathas in the Battle of Assaye (1803). The Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (1803), signed with
Daulat Rao Scindia, resulted in substantial territorial losses for the Marathas, including parts of Gujarat and the Ganges-Yamuna
Doab. In the Treaty of Rajghat (1805), Yashwantrao Holkar ceded territories like Tonk, Rampura, and Bundi.
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818): To eliminate the remaining Maratha resistance, the British defeated the Peshwa’s
forces near Pune in the Battle of Khadki (Kirkee) (1817). A small British force, primarily composed of Mahar soldiers, defended
Koregaon against a larger Maratha army. This Battle of Koregaon (1818) became a symbol of British resilience and Maratha
decline. The Peshwaship was abolished, Baji Rao II was pensioned off, and the British annexed large parts of Maratha territory.

c. Mysore (1761-1799)
Following the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Mysore became independent under the Hindu Wodeyar dynasty. Initially the
Faujdar (commander-in-chief) of Dindigul, Hyder Ali defended Srirangapatna (Seringapatam, Mysore's capital) against the
Marathas in 1759. Mysore's de jure ruler was Krishnaraja II (Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar), while the de facto rulers (Dalvoys)
were Nanjaraja and Devarajaiya, succeeded by Hyder (1761–1782).
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769): Hyder Ali allied with the French and the Nizam of Hyderabad and defeated the British.
In the Treaty of Madras (1769), both sides agreed to assist against their common enemy, the Marathas.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784): Despite an initial win, Hyder was defeated by British forces led by General Eyre
Coote at the Battle of Porto Novo on July 1, 1781. Hyder died on December 7, 1782, during the war. His son, Tipu Sultan,
assumed power and continued the war until 1784. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), which restored pre-
war boundaries and ensured mutual restitution. Tipu Sultan took the title of "Badshah" in 1787, deposed the Wodeyar king, and
issued coins in his name. He also introduced a modern calendar, new coinage techniques, and an advanced measurement system.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792): Tipu's attack on Travancore, a British ally, provoked the war. The British, together
with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad, defeated Tipu. The Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) was signed, forcing Tipu to
relinquish major regions to the British, including Malabar, Dindigul, Coorg, and Baramahal, pay a war indemnity of Rs. 3 crore,
and hand over two of his sons as hostages until the indemnity was paid.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Tipu Sultan was defeated and slain in the Battle of Seringapatam (1799). The British
annexed Mysore and the Wodeyar dynasty was reinstated as a puppet ruler under British suzerainty.

d. Punjab (1845-1849)
The Sikh religion, founded by Guru Nanak and followed by nine other gurus, evolved into an empire under Maharaja Ranjit
Singh (1801–1839). He signed the Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with EIC (Lord Metcalfe), which defined the Sutlej River as the
boundary between Sikh and British territories. The Tripartite Treaty (1838), signed between Ranjit Singh, the deposed Afghan
ruler Shah Shuja, and the EIC (Lord Auckland), allowed British troops to pass through Punjab to restore Shah Shuja to the
Afghan throne.
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846): During the reign of Dalip Singh, a minor, under the regency of his mother, Rani Jind
Kaur, the British defeated the Sikh forces in the battles of Mudki, Ferozeshah, and Sobraon. In the Treaty of Lahore (1846), the
Sikh Empire ceded Kashmir and paid a large war indemnity. A British resident, Henry Lawrence, was appointed to oversee the
Sikh administration. In the Treaty of Amritsar (1846, different from 1809), Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu purchased Kashmir
from the EIC for Rs. 75 lakh, establishing the Jammu and Kashmir state.
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849): The revolt of Mulraj, the governor of Multan, in April 1848, sparked the war. The
British, led by Charles Napier, defeated the Sikh forces at the Battle of Gujarat (February 21, 1849). The Sikh Empire was
formally annexed by the EIC under Lord Dalhousie (April 2, 1849), Punjab was incorporated into British India, and a Board of
Administration was established, with Henry Lawrence as its first President. The last Sikh ruler, Dalip Singh, and his mother,
Rani Jind Kaur, were exiled to London on fixed pensions.

e. Awadh (1856)
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk established the autonomous state of Awadh in 1722. Safdar Jung (Abdul Mansur), his nephew
and son-in-law, earned the title of Nawab Wazir after fighting Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Battle of Manpur (1748). His son
Shuja-ud-Daula signed the Treaty of Benaras (1773) with the East India Company (EIC). Asaf-ud-Daula, Shuja's son, signed
the Treaty of Faizabad (1775) with the British. He is best known for building the Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza in Lucknow.
The last Nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah, also known as Jaan-e-Alam and Akhtarpiya, was a patron of art and culture. In 1856,
the British East India Company annexed Awadh, citing misgovernance and the alleged incompetence of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
He was exiled to Calcutta.

f. Hyderabad
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (Mir Chin Qilich Qamar-ud-din Khan Siddiqi) founded the autonomous state of Hyderabad,
establishing the Asaf Jahi dynasty in 1724 after the decline of the Mughal Empire. Hyderabad was the largest and richest princely
state in India. Mir Osman Ali Khan, the last Nizam of Hyderabad (1911-1948), initially refused to join the Indian Union
following independence. The Indian Army, led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, annexed Hyderabad and incorporated it into the
Indian Union during Operation Polo (1948).

3. Movements & Reforms

British Reforms:
Economic Reforms: New Land revenue system
Permanent settlement: also called istamarari (sthayi) bandobast, introduced in bengal bihar orissa banaras and north madras by
lord cornwallis, planned by John Shore.
Ryotwari system: Introduced by thomas munro in madras and bombay on recommendations of charles reed.
Mahalwari system: modified version of zamindari system in ganges valley, NWFP, parts of central india and punjab.
Tribal Revolts
Movement / Tribe Leader / Key Figure Place Significance

In 1846 AD Odisha's Khonds people started a movement under the leadership of Chakra Bisoi. The main issue was the attempt
by the government to end human sacrifice (mariah) and introduction of new taxes by the British. After that British signed the
peace agreement with Odisha's Khond in 1848. This movement was ended in 1857.

The Santhal Revolt in India in 1855– 56 was led by four Murmu brothers – Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand and Bhairav. It was a rebellion
in Jharkhand, Eastern India against both the East India Company (EIC) and Zamindari System by the Santhal.

Peasant Movements
Movement Leader / Key Figure Place Significance

In 1859, peasants of Bengal refused to grow indigo for European planters. It came to be called the 'Neel Bidroha' or 'the Indigo
revolt'. European planters enjoyed a monopoly over indigo & they forced Indian farmers to grow Indigo by signing fraudulent
deals with them. Indigo farmers revolted in the Nadia district of Bengal. They were led by the Digambar Biswas and Vishnu
Vishwas. The play "Nil Darpan" by Dinbandu Mitra was written during 1858-59 portrays the indigo farmers situation accurately.
On public demand for probing the system of indigo cultivation, the government finally appointed the Indigo Commission on 31
March, 1860 with WS Seton-Kar as the Chairman. On the recommendation of Indigo Commission in 1860 government had
stopped the Indigo cultivation.
Caste Movements
Movement / Organization Leader / Founder Place Significance

Self respect movement was founded in 1925 by Ramanathan who invited E.V. Ramaswami who was also known as Periyar by
his followers. He had started Self respect movement, Dravidian movement. The movement demanded equal rights for the
backward caste.
Harijan Sevak Sangh was a non-profit organisation founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 to eradicate untouchability in India.
Ghansyam Das Birla, the Industrialist was its founding President and Amritlal Takkar was its Secretary.

Civil Movements

Velu Thampi was the Dalawa of Travancore.

He led revolt in Kerala against the Britishers in 1808 AD. He is best known for being one of the earliest individuals to rebel
against the British East India Company supermacy in India. This revolt is also known as Velu Thampi Revolt.

Socio-Religious Movements
Movement / Organization Leader / Key Figure Place Significance

Atmiya Sabha

Brahmo Samaj

Dharma Sabha

Asiatic Society of Bengal, a scholarly society, founded on January 15, 1784 by Sir William Jones, a British lawyer. The objective
of the society was to promote oriental culture and education. It's headquarters is in Kolkata. The society was included in the list
of Heritage Sites of national importance, since 1984.
'Prarthana Samaj', established by Atamaram Pandurang in Bombay (Mumbai) in 1867, was a movement for religious and social
reform was established by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang. It was a reform movement with in Hinduism and M.G. Ranade and R.G.
Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it.
Serampore mission (1800-1845) India's first Christian Missionary organisation was founded by William Carey and his two
associates on 10 January 1800.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy is known as 'Father of Modern India', 'Father of Indian Renaissance' and bridge between past and future'.
In 1815 Raja Ram Mohan Roy established the Atmiya Sabha, a precursor in the socio-religious reforms in Bengal. The
foundation of Atmiya Sabha in 1815 is considered as the beginning of the modern age in Kolkata.eradication of child marriage
purdah system and he advocated for the promotion of education among women and opposed the practice of Sati (Sati pratha)
and social division in the society. first Pradhanacharya of the Brahmo Samaj was he.
Savitribai Phule started the Mahila Seva Mandal to promote women's rights in 1852. Savitribai Phule is considered as the 1st
female teacher in India.
Satyashodhak Samaj – Jyotiba Phule. The rest are correctly matched as follows:
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha – M.G. Ranade.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association – Chandra Shekhar Azad.
Theosophical Society → Annie Besant.
Vivekananda played a major role in the revival of Hinduism and the spread of his interpretation of Advaita Vedanta known as
'Neo-Vedanta' in the West.
Servants of the People Society was founded by Lala Lajpat Rai in 1921 at Lahore, which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi.
The objective of the society is to enlist and train national missionaries for the service of the motherland.
 4. Revolt 1857
The Indian Mutiny of 1857, also known as the First War of Independence, was the first major expression of organized resistance
against the British East India Company.
Key Causes of the Revolt of 1857

Political Doctrine of Lapse: Introduced by Lord Dalhousie, this policy allowed the British to annex states whose rulers
died without a natural heir. It led to the annexation of Satara, Jhansi, and Nagpur, causing resentment among
Indian rulers and their subjects. Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, was denied his pension.
Subsidiary Alliance: This system forced Indian rulers to maintain British troops and bear their expenses,
reducing them to puppets of the British, which caused widespread discontent.
Annexation of Awadh (1856): The British annexed Awadh citing misgovernance, angering the Nawab and his
people.

Econom Heavy Taxation: The British land revenue policies, especially the Zamindari system, imposed heavy taxes on
ic peasants, leading to widespread poverty and indebtedness.
Decline of Handicrafts: The British flooded the market with cheap, factory-made goods, leading to the collapse
of local handicrafts and industries, causing unemployment and hardship for artisans and craftsmen.
Drain of Wealth: British economic policies led to the drain of wealth from India to Britain, with raw materials
exported at low prices while finished goods were sold at high prices, impoverishing India.

Social Interference in Social Customs: British attempts to reform Indian society by abolishing practices like Sati and
promoting widow remarriage were perceived as an attack on Indian culture and religious practices.
Racial Discrimination: The British treated Indians as inferior and subjected them to racial discrimination,
causing humiliation and resentment.
Spread of Western Education: Some viewed the introduction of Western education as a threat to traditional
Indian values and culture.

Military Discrimination in the Army: Indian sepoys faced discrimination in pay, promotions, and opportunities
compared to their British counterparts.
General Service Enlistment Act (1856): This act forced sepoys to serve overseas, which violated the religious
beliefs of many sepoys who were reluctant to cross the sea.

Immedi Introduction of the Enfield Rifle: Henry Hardinge, Governor General of India from 1844 to 1848, attempted to
ate modernize the army's equipment. The Enfield rifle's cartridges were rumored to be greased with animal fat (cow
fat for Hindus and pig fat for Muslims). The practice of biting the cartridge before loading offended both religious
groups, leading to widespread protests and the eventual mutiny.

Battles and Key Events:

Mangal Pandey (March 1857): On March 29, 1857, sepoy in 34th regiment of Bengal Native Infantry 29-year-old Pandey
attacked his British officers James Hewson and Henry Baugh after refusing to use the new cartridges. He was hanged on April
8, 1857, sparking further unrest among the sepoys.
Uprising in Meerut (May 1857): The revolt officially began in Meerut (Uttar Pradesh) on May 10, 1857, when 85 sepoys of
Bengal Native Infantry were punished for refusing the cartridges. Freed and joined by comrades, the sepoys attacked British
officers and marched toward Delhi. Led by the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry, the next day they proclaimed Bahadur Shah II (Zafar)
as Shahenshah-e-Hindustan (Emperor of India). The following day, 81-year-old Bahadur Shah II conducted court with the
sepoys and became the symbolic figurehead of the uprising. The sepoys took Haryana, Bihar, Central Province (Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Chattisgarh), and United Province (Agra and Awadh). 41st Infantry, stationed at Sitapur, looted the treasury
and killed every European on June 3.
Siege of Delhi (May–September 1857): The British laid siege to Delhi and recaptured the city in September. Bahadur Shah II
‘Zafar’ was captured from Humayun's Tomb and exiled to Rangoon (Burma now Myanmar) with his family, where he died in
1862.
Siege of Lucknow (May–September 1857): Begum Hazrat Mahal, widow of exiled Nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah, led the
resistance against British forces in declaring her son as the ruler. She worked closely with Nana Sahib. Reinforcements led by
Sir Henry Havelock helped the British recapture Lucknow in September.
Battle of Kanpur (Cawnpore) (June 1857): Led by Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II, rebels
besieged British forces and massacred British women and children during their retreat. The British eventually retook Kanpur,
but Nana Sahib escaped.
Battle of Chinhat (June 30, 1857): During the Siege of Lucknow, Ahmadullah Shah led forces against the British at Chinhat.
They were eventually defeated by the British forces under Sir Henry Lawrence, who was mortally wounded and died two days
later.
Battle of Jhansi (March 1858): After Maharaja Gangadhar Rao died in 1853, the British, under Lord Dalhousie, refused to
recognize his adopted son’s claim to the throne and annexed Jhansi using the Doctrine of Lapse. Unwilling to surrender, his wife
Rani Lakshmi Bai, born Manikarnika Tambe, fiercely resisted British rule. When Jhansi fell to the British forces led by Sir Hugh
Rose in early 1858, she escaped on horseback and joined rebel forces in Gwalior.
Battle of Gwalior (June 1858): Lakshmi Bai joined forces with other rebels, including Tatya Tope, to capture Gwalior. Rebels
were eventually defeated and Rani Lakshmi Bai was killed in the battle on June 18, 1858 by 8th Hussars regiment of British at
Kotah ki Serai near Phul Bagh in Gwalior.
Place Leaders

Delhi Bahadur Shah II ‘Zafar’

Lucknow (Awadh), Uttar Pradesh Begum Hazrat Mahal

Kanpur Nana Sahib

Allahabad Maulvi Liaqat Ali

Chinhat, Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah

Bhojpur, Bihar Babu Kunwar Singh and his brothers Amar and Hare Krishna Singh

Bareilly (Bareli) Khan Bahadur Khan

Jhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai

Gwalior Tatya Tope

Baraut, Uttar Pradesh Jat leader Shah Mal

Symbol of the Revolution: The lotus and chapati became symbolic of the revolt, with chapatis being distributed secretly to
spread the message of rebellion.
Consequences:
End of the East India Company: The British government took direct control over India, transferring power from the British East
India Company to the Crown through the Government of India Act of 1858. The title of Governor-General was changed to
Viceroy.

5. Freedom Struggle
Early Suppression by the British: Viceroy Lytton introduced the Vernacular Press Act (1878) (modeled after the repressive
Irish Press Laws) which compelled indigenous-language newspapers to acquire government approval before publishing criticism
of British policies, enforced during the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–80) to stifle anti-British sentiments. Similarly, the
Arms Act (1878) disarmed Indians by mandating firearm licenses, while Europeans remained exempt. The Ilbert Bill (1883),
proposed by Viceroy Ripon, sought to empower Indian judges to try European subjects, was met with fierce opposition from the
British community—who argued that Indians were unfit to judge Europeans—forced the government to dilute the bill. These
series of repression and discrimination galvanized Indian intellectuals to demand political rights.
A. Pre-Congress (Before 1885) and Moderate Phase (1885–1905): Emergence of Nationalism
The early phase of Indian nationalism emerged from a socio-political awakening among Western-educated elites who began
questioning colonial exploitation. Regional associations laid the groundwork for organized political agitation.

Landholders society (1838)

British India Society (1839)

British India Association (1851)

Madras Native Association (1852)

Bombay Association (1852)

East India Association

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

Indian Society

Indian League

Indian Association
Foundation of Indian National Congress (1885): Organized by Surendranath Banerjee with Anandamohan Bose as president,
the Indian National Conference (1883) aimed to create a "National Parliament" for unified Indian representation.
Allan Octavian Hume, a retired ICS officer, founded the Indian National Union (1884) with support from various Indian leaders,
who called for a conference in Pune in December 1885. Finally the first session of the Indian National Congress (INC) was held
at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay (shifted from Pune due to a cholera outbreak) in December 1885, presided over
by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee and attended by 72 delegates. The INC merged with the Indian National Conference in 1886,
consolidating nationalist efforts. Key objectives included promoting national unity, discussing Indian grievances, and training
Indians in political leadership. In the Drain of Wealth Theory (detailed in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, 1901) Dadabhai
Naoroji exposed how colonial policies drained ₹34 billion from India between 1835–1901.
Moderate Demands & Achievements: The early Congress was dominated by moderates like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai
Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, and Pherozeshah Mehta, who believed in constitutional agitation. They demanded recruitment of
Indians into high government posts via Indian Civil Service (ICS) exams, amendment of the Arms Act to reduce discrimination,
greater legislative representation for Indians, reduction of military expenditure and freedom of speech. A small achievement of
the moderates was Indian Councils Act (1892)- A minor reform that allowed limited Indian participation in legislative councils
but retained British control.

B. Extremist Phase (1905–1919): Rise of Radical Nationalism

Influenced by modern education which exposed Indians to democracy and nationalism, and global events like Ethiopia’s
resistance against Italy (1896), Japan’s victory over Russia (1905) shattered the myth of "White supremacy". The early 20th
century witnessed the rise of extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal),
Aurobindo Ghosh who rejected moderate petitions and advocated radical tactics like Swadeshi (self-reliance), boycott, and
Hartals (strikes).
Partition of Bengal (October 16, 1905): Under the pretext of “administrative efficiency,” Viceroy Curzon announced the
division of the Bengal Presidency into two provinces: East Bengal and Assam, West Bengal. Nationalists viewed this as a “divide
and rule” tactic. It ignited widespread protests led by Surendranath Banerjee, Krishna Kumar Mitra, and Prithwishchandra Ray.
Rabindranath Tagore composed Amar Sonar Bangla (My Golden Bengal) and introduced Rakhi Bandhan as a gesture of Hindu-
Muslim solidarity. Mass rallies featuring Vande Mataram chant and the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905–08) surged,
encouraging the use of Indian-made goods and public bonfires of foreign products (especially textiles). This era also saw the
rise of indigenous industries (e.g., Bengal Chemicals by Prafulla Chandra Ray and TISCO by Jamshedji Tata) and revolutionary
organizations like the Anushilan Samiti (Calcutta) and Jugantar (Dhaka). At the 1905 Banaras Session, the Congress endorsed
the Bengal protests, with some leaders advocating for a nationwide movement. The Painters’ Union, formed in Calcutta on
October 21, 1905, marked India’s first labor union.
Foundation of Muslim League (1906): The All-India Muslim League, founded in Dhaka by Aga Khan III and Nawab
Salimullah, initially endorsed the partition, opposed the Swadeshi Movement, and demanded separate electorates for Muslims,
laying the foundation for future communal politics.
Calcutta Session (1906) of INC: Presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, the Congress adopted Swaraj (self-rule) as its goal,
drawing inspiration from self-governing British dominions like the United Kingdom.
Surat Split (1907): Tensions between Moderates and Extremists erupted over disagreements on the session’s venue, presidency,
and strategy. The venue was controversially shifted from Nagpur (an Extremist stronghold) to Surat (a Moderate bastion).
Extremists pushed for Tilak or Lajpat as president, but Moderates secured the election of Rash Behari Ghosh. When Moderates
weakened resolutions on protest methods, clashes ensued, leading to a formal split. Government seized this opportunity to
suppress the Extremists: Tilak was imprisoned in Mandalay (Burma) for six years, Aurobindo abandoned politics, Lajpat exiled
himself to Britain, and Bipin Pal temporarily withdrew, crippling the movement.
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Enacted by Secretary of State for India John Morley and Viceroy Minto, the Indian Councils
Act (1909) introduced separate Muslim electorates (allowing only Muslim voters to elect Muslim representatives in designated
constituencies) and expanded Indian representation in provincial and imperial legislatures—though these bodies remained
advisory, with real power retained by the British administration.
Delhi Durbar (1911): During a grand ceremony marking King George V and Queen Mary’s coronation as Emperor and Empress
of India, the King announced the relocation of India’s capital from Calcutta to Delhi and the annulment of the Bengal Partition,
reunifying the province under a new Governor.
Home Rule Movement (1916): After his release in 1914, Tilak rejoined Congress in 1915. Inspired by Ireland’s Home Rule
Movement, he founded the Indian Home Rule League in Belgaum (April 28, 1916), operating in Maharashtra (excluding
Bombay city), Karnataka, Berar, and the Central Provinces. Concurrently, Irish activist Annie Besant established the All-India
Home Rule League in Madras (September 1916), which had a broader national reach. Though independent, both leagues
collaborated to demand self-governance within the British Empire. In 1920, Tilak’s league was renamed the Swarajya Sabha.
Lucknow Pact (1916): A historic Congress-Muslim League agreement symbolizing Hindu-Muslim unity in opposition to
British rule. Congress accepted separate Muslim electorates, the League backed Congress’s call for Swaraj, and together they
demanded dominion status (self-governance within the British Empire) to India. Prompted by this pact and the Home Rule
Movement, Secretary of State Edwin Montagu pledged “gradual development of self-governing institutions” in British
Parliament in August 1917, known as the Montagu Declaration or the August Declaration.

C. Gandhian Phase (1919–1942): Mass Movement

Mahatma Gandhi's emphasis on truth (Satya), justice, and nonviolence (Ahimsa) fueled the Indian nationalist movement. While
early satyagrahas in Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad tested his methods locally, from the 1919 Rowlatt Satyagraha to the
1942 Quit India Movement, his strategies evolved into a nationwide mass movement. He unified India's freedom struggle by
mobilizing farmers, laborers, artisans, and diverse social groups, extending its scope and momentum until its culmination in
1947.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Gandhi’s first satyagraha in India was launched in Champaran district, Bihar, to challenge
British indigo planters who forced tenant farmers into the exploitative Tinkathia system (compulsory indigo cultivation on a
portion of their land at meager prices). With support from local leaders like Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kripalani, Gandhi
conducted a detailed inquiry into peasant grievances, ultimately securing limited concessions from colonial authorities.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Facing extreme hardship due to crop failure, famine, cholera, a plague (approximately 17,000
deaths) and 23% land tax hike in Gujarat's Kheda district, peasants petitioned for relief but were ignored and threatened with
property seizures. Led initially by Mohanlal Pandya and Sankarlal Parikh, the movement gained momentum with Gujarat Sabha
and Congress support. Under Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Gandhi, and Indulal Yagnik, peasants launched a non-violent tax revolt.
After months of resistance, the British relented, granting two-year tax exemptions and rolling back the hike.
Rowlatt Act (1919): Enacted on March 18, 1919, the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act (based on Justice Sydney
Rowlatt’s recommendations under Viceroy Chelmsford) granted colonial police unchecked authority to detain suspects without
trial for up to two years. Gandhi condemned it as the “Black Act” and initiated nationwide satyagraha and hartal. His arrest in
Delhi intensified protests, particularly in Punjab, Delhi, and Ahmedabad. The Act was repealed in March 1922.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): Amid rising tensions after the arrest of nationalist leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr.
Satyapal (April 10), a peaceful crowd gathered at Amritsar’s Jallianwala Bagh on April 13 to protest and celebrate Baisakhi.
Without warning, General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on the trapped, unarmed crowd for ten minutes. British records
cited 379 deaths, but Indian estimates surpassed 1,000 fatalities and 1,200 injured. The brutality fueled nationwide outrage:
Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood, and Sir Sankaran Nair quit the Viceroy’s Council. A British inquiry (Hunter
Committee, 1919–20) condemned Dyer but imposed no penalties, which Gandhi denounced as a “whitewash.” In 1940, Udham
Singh assassinated Michael O’Dwyer (Punjab’s former Lieutenant Governor) in London, avenging his endorsement of the
massacre.
Khilafat Movement (1919–1924): Post-World War I, the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) dismantled the Ottoman Empire, undermining
the authority of Caliph (Khalifa, spiritual leader of Muslims). Indian Muslims, led by the Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammad
Ali and Shaukat Ali), initiated the Khilafat Movement to restore the Caliphate. Gandhi allied with the cause to foster Hindu-
Muslim unity, integrating it into the broader anti-colonial struggle, Patel and Tilak also supported it.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922): Gandhi’s campaign urged Indians to boycott British institutions, titles, courts,
foreign goods, and taxes while promoting local handicrafts and opposing untouchability. Protesters picketed liquor shops.
National schools emerged in Bengal and Punjab. Lawyers like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and Sardar Patel abandoned their
practices to join the movement. On February 4, 1922, in Chauri Chaura (Uttar Pradesh), a clash between police and protesters
escalated into a mob setting fire to a police station, killing 22 officers. Prioritizing nonviolence, Gandhi suspended the movement
on February 12, 1922.
Swaraj Party (1923): Formed on January 1, 1923, by Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and Narasimha Chintaman Kelkar, the Congress-
Khilafat Swaraj Party emerged due to discontent with Gandhi’s withdrawal from the Non-Cooperation Movement. It aimed to
contest legislative councils, winning 45 of 145 seats in the 1923 Central Assembly elections. Key demands included provincial
autonomy, political prisoner releases, and repeal of repressive laws. After Das’s death (1925), the party fragmented, with factions
cooperating with the British and eventually merging with the Congress.
Simon Commission (1927): An all-British, 7-member committee led by Sir John Simon was formed to propose constitutional
reforms but excluded Indian representation, sparking nationwide protests under the slogan “Simon Go Back.” During a Lahore
demonstration (October 30, 1928), police violently lathi-charged protesters, fatally injuring Lala Lajpat Rai, who succumbed to
his injuries weeks later.
Nehru Committee Report (1928): Prompted by viceroy Birkenhead’s challenge that Indians could not draft a universally
acceptable constitution, Congress convened an All-Party Conference (Madras Session) to create a constitutional framework.
The resulting Nehru Committee, led by Motilal Nehru, proposed Dominion Status, a federal structure, and fundamental rights.
However, the Muslim League rejected it for insufficient safeguards for Muslims, leading to Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1929),
which demanded separate electorates, provincial autonomy, federal governance, and Muslim-majority representation.
Lahore Session (1929) of INC: Under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency, the Congress declared Poorna Swaraj (complete
independence) and resolved to observe January 26 annually as Independence Day. On December 31, 1929, the tricolor was
unfurled in Lahore on the banks of the Ravi River, symbolizing Congress’s shift from demanding dominion status to full
independence.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930): The 1882 Salt Act granted Britain a monopoly over salt production and taxation. After
Viceroy Irwin ignored Gandhi’s 11 demands (including tax reform, salt tax repeal), Gandhi launched the Salt March (March
12–April 6, 1930). Along with 78 followers from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, Gujarat, he covered 240 miles in 24 days, defied
the law by harvesting salt from seawater, and ignited mass civil disobedience. Nationwide boycotts and protests ensued, leading
to over 60,000 arrests, including Gandhi’s on May 5. In Peshawar, Garhwal Regiment soldiers refused to fire on protesters. Civil
disobedience was introduced by Henry David Thoreau and popularized as a global symbol of nonviolent resistance by Gandhi.
Round Table Conferences (1930-32): Convened by the British in London on November 12, 1930, and inaugurated by King
George V, the First Round Table Conference aimed to discuss constitutional reforms and the Simon Commission Report.
While representatives from the Muslim League and princely states attended, Congress boycotted it due to the imprisonment of
most of its leaders rendering it inconclusive. Following the release of Congress leaders on January 26, 1931, six meetings
between Gandhi and Viceroy Irwin led to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Gandhi suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement
and agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference in London. Jawaharlal Nehru criticized, quoting T.S. Eliot: “This is
the way the world ends, not with a bang but a whimper.” Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London
(September 7–December 1, 1931), but it collapsed over disputes on minority representation. Muslims, depressed classes, Indian
Christians, and Anglo-Indians demanded separate electorates. British PM Ramsay MacDonald proposed the Communal Award,
which Gandhi opposed as it institutionalized communal divisions. With no consensus, the Congress Working Committee
resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement, reigniting mass protests against British rule. Announced by PM Ramsay MacDonald
on August 16, 1932, the Communal Award granted separate electorates for Dalits (“Depressed Classes”), a demand led by
B.R. Ambedkar. Gandhi, opposing this as divisive to Hindu society, began a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail (Pune). This forced
negotiations, culminating in the Poona Pact (September 24, 1932), signed by Gandhi, Ambedkar, and Hindu leaders like Madan
Mohan Malaviya. The pact abolished separate electorates, replacing them with 148 reserved seats for Dalits within Hindu
electorates (up from 71 in the Award). The Third Round Table Conference held on November 17, 1932, this third and final
session assembled with only 46 delegates. Congress boycotted the talks due to its leaders’ imprisonment, rendering the
conference fruitless.
Government of India Act (1935): Based on the Simon Commission Report (1930) and Round Table Conferences, the Act
introduced provincial autonomy and proposed a federal structure for India. It abolished the dyarchy system in provinces but
controversially introduced it at the central level, concentrating power with the British Governor-General and provincial
governors. Despite granting limited self-governance, the Act retained British control over defense, foreign affairs, and finances.
Indian leaders widely rejected it, with Jawaharlal Nehru condemning it as “a new charter of bondage.”
Congress Ministries Resign (1939): In September 1939, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow unilaterally declared India a belligerent in
World War II without consulting Indian leaders. Protesting this imposition, the Indian National Congress resigned all provincial
ministries in October and November 1939. In response, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League called for December 22,
1939, to be observed as a “Day of Deliverance” from Congress rule.
Lahore Resolution (1940): In 1930 Poet-philosopher Allama Iqbal proposed the union of the Frontier Province, Balochistan,
Sindh and Kashmir as a Muslim-majority federation within India. In 1933, Chaudhary Rahmat Ali coined "Pakstan" (acronym
for Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan) and advocated for a distinct Muslim state. Later, Jinnah transformed this
idea into a political movement. The Muslim League formally demanded a separate Muslim homeland ("Pakistan") during its
Lahore session (March 24), rejecting the federal structure of the Government of India Act (1935).
August Offer (1940): Amid escalating Second World War, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow proposed the August Offer to secure Indian
support, promising post-war constitutional reforms, including a constituent assembly, expanded Indian representation in the
Viceroy’s Executive Council, and eventual power transfer. However, it denied immediate self-rule and upheld minority veto
rights over future constitutional changes. The Indian National Congress, led by president Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, rejected
it as insufficient and failing to address Indian aspirations for independence.
Individual Satyagraha (1940–41): Following the rejection of the August Offer, Gandhi launched Individual Satyagraha to
protest India’s forced participation in WWII. Vinoba Bhave became the first Satyagrahi arrested in October 1940, followed by
Jawaharlal Nehru and other leaders. The nonviolent campaign, marked by symbolic acts of defiance and arrests, continued until
December 1941.
Cripps Mission (1942): Amid Japan’s rapid advance toward India (including the fall of Rangoon, March 7, 1942), Britain sent
Sir Stafford Cripps in March 1942 to secure Indian cooperation. Cripps proposed a new Indian Union with Dominion Status
after the war, with an opt-out option for provinces. However, Congress rejected the plan for not providing immediate
independence, with Gandhi dismissing it as “a post-dated cheque on a failing bank.” The Muslim League also refused, as it
lacked explicit acceptance of Pakistan.
Quit India Movement (1942): Triggered by Allied reverses in WWII, Japan's threat to India, and the failed Cripps Mission,
Congress initiated the movement on August 8, 1942, passing the Quit India Resolution in Bombay, demanding immediate British
withdrawal. Gandhi's "Do or Die" call at Gowalia Tank Maidan sparked widespread arrests. All prominent leaders, including
Gandhi, Nehru, and Patel, were jailed the next day, and Congress was banned, upsurging spontaneous nationwide civil
disobedience that frequently turned violent in the absence of leadership. Textile mill workers in Ahmedabad went on three-
months-strike. Usha Mehta ran clandestine Congress Radio, broadcasting nationalist propaganda. During this time, parallel
governments were established in Ballia (UP), Tamluk (Bengal), and Satara (Maharashtra). However, certain leaders, like C.
Rajagopalachari and the Communist Party, opposed the Quit India movement. The term "Quit India" was coined by socialist
Yusuf Meherally.
Gandhi's Fast (1943): During imprisonment in 1943 at Aga Khan Palace in Pune, Gandhi began a 21-day fast (February 1943)
as answer to the British demanding him to condemn violence during the Quit India Movement. He held the government’s
repressive policies responsible for public unrest, refusing to denounce protesters until colonial authorities addressed their
grievances.

D. Revolutionary Movements (Parallel Struggle)

Alongside Congress’ nonviolent struggle, radical revolutionaries pursued militant resistance against British rule. These
extremists formed secret societies, trained in weaponry, and executed assassinations and dacoities to destabilize colonial
authority and strike fear into the British administration.
Alipore Bomb Case (1908): On April 30, 1908, revolutionaries Khudiram Bose (18) and Prafulla Chaki attempted to assassinate
Douglas Kingsford, a British magistrate notorious for harsh sentences against nationalists. They targeted his carriage in
Muzaffarpur (Bihar) but mistakenly killed two British women. In response, police raided revolutionary hubs like the Manicktolla
Secret Society (a branch of Anushilan Samiti) in Calcutta, arresting 20 suspects including Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother
Barindra Kumar Ghosh (May 2). In the subsequent trial known as Alipore Conspiracy Case, Aurobindo was acquitted after
Chittaranjan Das successfully argued his writings were philosophical, not seditious. Barindra and Ullaskar Dutt received death
sentences (later commuted to life in Cellular Jail, Andaman). Khudiram was hanged on August 11, 1908, becoming a nationalist
martyr. Prafulla shot himself to avoid capture.
Delhi Conspiracy (1912): On December 23, 1912, a bomb was thrown at Viceroy Hardinge’s ceremonial procession in Chandni
Chowk, Delhi, wounding him and killing his mahout (elephant keeper). The attack, orchestrated by revolutionaries, was
allegedly masterminded by Ras Bihari Bose, who evaded arrest and fled to Japan. Sachindra Nath Sanyal and Basant Kumar
Biswas were implicated in planning the attack. Biswas was later arrested, tried in the Lahore Conspiracy Case, and executed.
Ghadar Party (1913): Formed by Indian revolutionaries and expatriates in North America, including Lala Hardayal, Taraknath
Das, Sohan Singh Bhakna (first president), and Bhagwan Singh Gyanee, the party aimed to overthrow British rule through armed
revolt. Headquartered at Yugantar Ashram, San Francisco, it mobilized the Indian diaspora—particularly Sikh immigrants—via
its radical newspaper "Ghadar" (Rebellion).
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA, 1924): Formed in October 1924 in Kanpur by Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Jogesh
Chandra Chatterjee, Ram Prasad Bismil, and Chandrashekhar Azad, the HRA emerged as a militant response to Gandhi’s
withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement after Chauri Chaura (1922). Its goal was armed revolution to establish a
Federated Republic of India. The group adopted socialist ideals under Bhagat Singh’s leadership and was renamed as the
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928.
Kakori Conspiracy (1925): On August 9, 1925, HRA members, including Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra
Lahiri, and Thakur Roshan Singh, looted a British train near Kakori (Uttar Pradesh) to fund revolutionary activities. No
passengers were harmed. The British cracked down, executing Bismil, Khan, Lahiri, and Singh in 1927; others received life
imprisonment.
Lahore Conspiracy Case (1928–1931): This case encompasses two major events. To avenge Lala Lajpat Rai’s death from
police brutality during anti-Simon Commission protests, Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Chandrashekhar Azad
mistakenly killed J.P. Saunders (a British officer) in Lahore on December 17, 1928. Another case was, on April 8, 1929, Bhagat
Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw non-lethal bombs in Delhi’s Central Legislative Assembly, protesting repressive bills. They
courted arrest, declaring the act aimed “to make the deaf hear.” The Lahore Conspiracy Case amalgamated these events. Bhagat
Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar were sentenced to death and secretly hanged on March 23, 1931. Jatin Das, an HSRA
member, died on September 13, 1929, after a 63-day hunger strike protesting inhumane jail conditions for Indian political
prisoners. On February 27, 1931, Azad was surrounded by police in Allahabad’s Alfred Park. After a fierce shootout, he shot
himself to avoid capture.
Chittagong Armory Raid (1930): "Masterda" Surya Sen organized the Indian Republican Army Chittagong Branch, and led a
bold raid on British armories in Chittagong (now Bangladesh) on April 18, 1930. To seize weapons, cut telegraph/telephone
lines, and retreat to hills to establish a guerrilla base, the revolutionaries, including young men and women like Pritilata
Waddedar and Kalpana Datta successfully raided police and auxiliary armories but failed to locate ammunition. Sen hoisted the
Indian flag and proclaimed a provisional revolutionary government. Surrounded by British forces, the group dispersed after brief
resistance. Surya Sen evaded arrest until 1933, but was eventually captured, tried, and hanged on January 12, 1934. Pritilata
Waddedar led a separate attack on a European club in 1932 and died fighting after consuming cyanide to avoid capture. Kalpana
Datta was also arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Subhas Chandra Bose & Indian National Army (1943–1945): Bose, a radical nationalist, resigned as Congress president and
formed the All India Forward Bloc (1939). Escaping British house arrest in Calcutta on January 17, 1941 (Great Escape), he
undertook a covert journey through Peshawar (Afghanistan), Central Asia, Soviet Union to reach Nazi Germany, seeking support
from Adolf Hitler and the Axis powers for India's liberation. He then traveled to Southeast Asia, arriving in Singapore in July
1943.
The Indian National Army (INA) or Azad Hind Fauj, initially formed in 1942 by Captain Mohan Singh with Japanese support,
utilized Indian prisoners of war captured during Japan’s conquests in Malaya, Singapore, and Burma. After initial setbacks, Bose
assumed leadership from Ras Behari Bose (a veteran revolutionary in Japan) in July 1943, revitalizing the INA, extending it to
incorporate thousands of POWs and civilian exiles. Bose established the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) in
Singapore (October 21, 1943), recognized by Axis powers. INA was structured into brigades named after Gandhi, Azad, Nehru,
Rani of Jhansi (a women’s combat regiment led by Captain Lakshmi Sehgal) etc. Bose mobilized support with slogans like
"Delhi Chalo" (March to Delhi) and "You give me blood, I will give you freedom." Allied with Japan, the INA advanced into
Northeast India in 1944, confronting British forces at Imphal-Kohima. They raised the Indian tricolor in Moirang, Manipur
(April 14, 1944) reclaiming Indian soil. However, logistical shortages, inadequate air support, and Japan’s declining war fortunes
led to defeat and retreat. Reports claim Bose died in a plane crash in Taiwan (August 18, 1945) which remains debated. Post-
war INA trials (1945–46) sparked widespread Indian solidarity.

5. Final Struggle (1940–1947)

CR Formula (1944): Rajaji’s attempt to negotiate with Jinnah. Proposed to demarcate the districts of north west and east where
muslims were majority.a plebiscite held on the basis of adult suffrage to decide partition. Jinnah objected as he wanted congress
to accept two nation theory.

Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference (1945): due to famines and poor economy situation of india was worsening. Failed talks,
Wavell proposed balanced representation to main communities in executive council, including equal representation to Muslims
& Hindus. 22 leaders were called at shimla. Failed due to Jinnah’s stand was only muslim approved by muslim league should
be included in executive council.

INA Trials (1945): INA prisoners were held in red fort. P.K. Seghal, Shah Nawaz & Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were made accused.
Public support turned tide against British. Even though the Court Martial held the INA prisoners guilty, the Government felt it
expedient to set them free. Chief defense advocate was Bhulabhai desai, tej bahadur sapru md. Ali jinnah etc.

Royal Indian Navy Revolt (1946): Mutiny by Bombay Ratings and HMIS talwar and struck work. Immidiate cause was
discrimination and bad food. B.C. Dutta scrawled quit india on ships. HMS Hindustan also revolted in Karachi.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): the new labour party prime minister lord attlee sent cabinet mission comrising lord pethic lawrence,
stafford cripps and A.V. Alexander. Suggested united India with groupings. Both Congress and Muslim league accepted it.

Direct Action Day (1946): Calcutta killings, Hindu-Muslim riots. Provoked by the success of the Congress (in the voting for
Constituent Assembly), the Muslim League launched a ‘direct action’ campaign on August 16, 1946, which resulted in heavy
communal riots in the country

Interim Government (1946): Formed with Nehru as Vice-President on september 2, 1946. Muslim league withdrew from cabinet
mission and did not join interim Government.

Constituent Assembly (1946): Formed to draft the Constitution. Rajendra Prasad was elected as president. Muslim league did
not join.

Attlee's Announcement (Feb 1947): PM attlee announced Britain to leave by June 30, 1948 and lord mountbaten would replace
wavell.

Mountbatten Plan (June 1947): Put forward his plan stating: India to be divided into India and Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab will
partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of assam would be held. Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join
either india or pakistan or remain independent. The date for handing over power was fixed August 15, 1947. Accepted Partition

Indian Independence Act (July 1947): All political parties accepted this plan

Partition and Independence (August 15, 1947): By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir,
Hyderabad & Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese & Pondicherry with the French

Integration of States: All states except Kashmir, Junagadh and Hyderabad had signed the instrument of ascension with india.
Maharaja of kashmir acceded to india on Oct 1947 when irregular pakistani troops invaded his state. In Feb 1948, through a
referendum the people of Junagadh decided to join india while the nawab left for pakistan. The nizam of hyderabad was forced
to accede to indian union under pressure of internal anarchy and military action against him in sep 1948. By the end of 1954,
french rule in pondicherry, mahe, karikal and yanam came to end and integrated with India. In 1954 dadra and nagar haveli,
portuguese colonies were liberated by freedom fighters. Indian troops liberated Goa Daman and Diu from Portuguese in 1961.

6. Gandhi

Year Event/Work
1869 October 2: Born in Porbandar, Gujarat, India, to Karamchand Gandhi (father) and Putlibai (mother).
1883 Married Kasturba Makhanji at the age of 13, as per the customs of the time.
1888 Traveled to London to study law at University College London. Adopted a Western lifestyle but later embraced
vegetarianism and studied religious texts like the Bhagavad Gita.
1891 Returned to India after completing his law degree. Struggled to establish a successful legal practice in Bombay and
Rajkot.
1893 Moved to South Africa to work as a lawyer for an Indian firm. Faced severe racial discrimination, which sparked his
activism.
1894 Founded the Natal Indian Congress to fight for the rights of Indians in South Africa. Advocated against
discriminatory laws like the Poll Tax.
1899 Founded the Natal Indian Ambulance Corps during the Second Boer War, providing medical support to British
forces.
1906 Initiated the first Satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) campaign in South Africa against the Asiatic Registration Act
(Black Act), which required Indians to carry identification.
1913 Led the Great March in South Africa, protesting against the unfair treatment of Indian workers.
 1914 Awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind medal by the British government for his humanitarian work during the Zulu War.
1915 Returned to India and joined the Indian National Congress. Established the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad to
promote self-reliance and social reform.
1917 Led the Champaran Satyagraha in Bihar to support indigo farmers against exploitative British plantation owners.
This marked his first major success in India.
1918 Organized the Kheda Satyagraha in Gujarat to protest against high taxes imposed by the British during a famine.
Also mediated the Ahmedabad Mill Workers' Strike for better wages.
1919 Launched the Rowlatt Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act, which allowed the British to imprison Indians without
trial. The protest led to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar.
1920 Started the Non-Cooperation Movement, urging Indians to boycott British institutions, goods, and titles. Advocated
for Swadeshi (use of Indian-made goods).
1922 Called off the Non-Cooperation Movement after the Chauri Chaura incident, where protesters turned violent.
1930 Led the Salt March (Dandi March) to protest the British monopoly on salt production. This marked the beginning
of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
1931 Attended the Second Round Table Conference in London to discuss India's constitutional future, but the talks failed
due to British intransigence.
1932 Began the Harijan Movement to uplift marginalized communities, particularly the "untouchables." Conducted the
Poona Pact with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to secure reserved seats for Dalits in legislatures.
1934 Withdrew from active politics to focus on social reforms, including rural development, education, and eradication of
untouchability.
1942 Launched the Quit India Movement, demanding an immediate end to British rule. Gave the famous "Do or Die"
speech, urging Indians to act decisively.
1947 Played a key role in India's independence from British rule on August 15. Worked tirelessly to promote Hindu-
Muslim unity during the partition.
1948 January 30: Assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, in New Delhi on his way to evening prayer at
Birla House.

7. Post-Independence India
Indian Constitution (1950): India became a republic, and its Constitution, drafted by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, came into effect.
Indo-Pakistan Wars:
Indo-Pakistan War (1947–1948): The first war over the Kashmir region after partition.
Indo-Pakistan War (1965): Another conflict over Kashmir.
Indo-Pakistan War (1971): Resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
Emergency Period (1975–1977): Indira Gandhi declared a national emergency, suspending civil liberties and elections, which
led to widespread opposition and her eventual defeat in the 1977 elections.
Economic Liberalization (1991): Under Prime Minister Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, India embarked
on major economic reforms, opening up its economy to global markets.
Nuclear Tests (1998): India conducted a series of nuclear tests in Pokhran, declaring itself a nuclear power.
Part IV: 21st Century India

1. 2001 Indian Parliament Attack: Terrorists attacked the Indian Parliament, resulting in a heightened security climate and
tensions with Pakistan.
2. 2008 Mumbai Attacks: A terrorist attack by Lashkar-e-Taiba in Mumbai, killing over 170 people, brought attention to India's
security vulnerabilities.
3. Right to Information Act (2005): A major step toward transparency and accountability in governance.
4. Digital India Initiative (2015): Launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi to promote digital literacy, e-governance, and
internet connectivity.
5. Citizenship Amendment Act Protests (2019–2020): Protests erupted across India against the controversial Citizenship
Amendment Act, which was seen as discriminatory toward Muslims.
Appendix 5

INC Sessions
Session Place Date President
1st Bombay Dec. 28-30, 1885 Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee
2nd Calcutta Dec. 27-30, 1886 Shri Dadabhai Naoroji
3rd Madras Dec. 27-30, 1887 Badruddin Tyabji
4th Allahabad Dec. 26-29, 1888 George Yule
5th Bombay Dec. 26-28, 1889 Sir William Wedderburn
6th Calcutta Dec. 26-30, 1890 Pherozeshah Mehta
7th Nagpur Dec. 28-30, 1891 P. Ananda Charlu
8th Allahabad Dec. 28-30, 1892 Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee
9th Lahore Dec. 27-30, 1893 Shri Dadabhai Naoroji
10th Madras Dec. 26-29, 1894 Alfred Webb
11th Pune Dec. 27-30, 1895 Surendranath Banerjee
12th Calcutta Dec. 28-31, 1896 Rahimatullah M. Sayani
13th Amravati Dec. 27-29, 1897 C. Sankaran Nair
14th Madras Dec. 29-31, 1898 Ananda Mohan Bose
15th Lucknow Dec. 27-29, 1899 Romesh Chunder Dutt
16th Lahore Dec. 27-29, 1900 N.G. Chandavarkar
17th Calcutta Dec. 26-28, 1901 Dinshaw Eduljee Wacha
18th Ahmedabad Dec. 28-30, 1902 Surendranath Banerjee
19th Madras Dec. 28-30, 1903 Lal Mohan Ghosh
20th Bombay Dec. 26-28, 1904 Sir Henry Cotton
21st Banaras Dec. 27-30, 1905 Gopal Krishna Gokhale
22nd Calcutta Dec. 26-29, 1906 Shri Dadabhai Naoroji
23rd (Suspended) Surat Dec. 26-27, 1907 Rash Behari Ghosh
23rd Madras Dec. 28-30, 1908 Rash Behari Ghosh
24th Lahore Dec. 27-29, 1909 Madan Mohan Malaviya
25th Allahabad Dec. 26-29, 1910 Sir William Wedderburn
26th Calcutta Dec. 26-28, 1911 Bishan Narayan Dar
27th Bankipore Dec. 26-28, 1912 Shri Raghunath Narasinha Mudholkar
28th Karachi Dec. 26-28, 1913 Nawab Syed Mohammed Bahadur
29th Madras Apr. 14-15, 1914 Bhupendra Nath Bose
30th Bombay Dec. 27-29, 1915 Satyendra Prasanna Sinha
31st Lucknow Dec. 26-30, 1916 Ambica Charan Mazumdar
32nd Calcutta Dec. 26-29, 1917 Annie Besant
33rd Delhi Dec. 26-30, 1918 Madan Mohan Malaviya
(Special Session) Bombay Aug. 29-01, 1918 Syed Hasan Imam
34th Amritsar Dec. 26-30, 1919 Motilal Nehru
Special Session Calcutta 1920 Lala Lajpat Rai
35th Nagpur Dec. 26-30, 1920 C. Vijayaraghavachariar
36th Session Ahmedabad Dec. 27-28, 1921 Hakim Ajmal Khan (Acting President for C.R. Das)
37th Session Gaya Dec. 26-31, 1922 Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das
Special Session Delhi Sep. 04-08, 1923 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
39th Session Belgaum Dec. 26-27, 1924 M.K. Gandhi
40th Session Cawnpore Apr. 15-17, 1925 Mrs. Sarojini Naidu
41st Session Guwahati Dec. 26-28, 1926 S. Srinivasa Iyengar
42nd Session Madras Dec. 26-28, 1927 M.A. Ansari
43rd Session Calcutta Dec. 29-01, 1929 Motilal Nehru
44th Session Lahore Apr. 16-18, 1929 Pt Jawaharlal Nehru
45th Session Karachi Mar. 21-31, 1931 Vallabbhai J. Patel
47th Session Calcutta Sep. 12-14, 1933 Mrs. Nellie Sengupta
48th Session Bombay Oct. 24-28, 1934 Dr. Rajendra Prasad
 INC Sessions
49th Session Lucknow Jun. 18-20, 1936 Pt Jawaharlal Nehru
50th Session Faizpur Jul. 12-14, 1937 Pt Jawaharlal Nehru
51st Session Haripura Feb. 19-21, 1938 Subhash Chandra Bose
52nd Session Tripuri Mar. 10-12, 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose
53rd Session Ramgarh Mar. 19-20, 1940 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
54th Session Meerut Nov. 23-24, 1946 J.B. Kripalani