UNIT-II ECOSYSTEM, BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

Ecosystem - concept - structure and function - producers, consumers and

decomposers - Food chain - Food web - Ecological pyramids - Energy flow - Forest,
Grassland, desert and aquatic ecosystem. Biodiversity - Definition - genetic, species
and ecosystem diversity - Values and uses of biodiversity - biodiversity at global,
national (India) and local levels - Hotspots, threats to biodiversity - conservation of
biodiversity –Insitu&Exsitu.

ECOSYSTEM, BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

Ecosystem: Definition and Components

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and

microorganisms) interacting with each other and their non-living environment (air,
water, soil, sunlight) in a specific area. Ecosystems can be as small as a pond or as
large as a rainforest or ocean.

Components of an Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components: The living organisms, including:

o Producers: Autotrophs like plants and algae that produce energy
through photosynthesis.
o Consumers: Heterotrophs that consume other organisms for energy
(e.g., herbivores, carnivores, omnivores).
o Decomposers: Organisms like fungi and bacteria that break down
dead matter, recycling nutrients.
2. Abiotic Components: The non-living factors like sunlight, temperature,
water, air, and minerals.

Types of Ecosystems

 Natural Ecosystems: Such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and aquatic

ecosystems (marine and freshwater).
 Artificial Ecosystems: Man-made systems like gardens, aquariums, and
agricultural lands.

Biodiversity: Definition and Importance

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. It includes diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems.

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Levels of Biodiversity

1. Genetic Diversity: Variation within a species, allowing adaptation to changing

environments.
2. Species Diversity: The variety of species within a particular region or
ecosystem.
3. Ecosystem Diversity: The range of different ecosystems in a geographic
location.

Importance of Biodiversity

 Ecological Balance: Maintains ecosystem functions like nutrient cycling and

pollination.
 Economic Value: Provides resources like food, medicine, and raw materials.
 Cultural Significance: Contributes to recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual
experiences.
 Scientific Value: Offers opportunities for research and innovation.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity faces threats from habitat destruction, climate change, pollution,

overexploitation, and invasive species. Conservation aims to protect and sustain
biodiversity for future generations.

Types of Conservation

1. In-situ Conservation: Protecting species in their natural habitats.

o Examples: National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves.
2. Ex-situ Conservation: Protecting species outside their natural habitats.
o Examples: Zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, captive breeding
programs.

Role of Individuals in Conservation

 Reduce waste and practice recycling.

 Use sustainable products and reduce resource consumption.
 Support and participate in local conservation programs.
 Advocate for policies protecting the environment.
 Educate others about the importance of biodiversity.

ECOSYSTEM:

Ecosystem: Definition and Components

 An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and

microorganisms) interacting with each other and their non-living environment
(air, water, soil, sunlight) in a specific area. Ecosystems can be as small as a
pond or as large as a rainforest or ocean.

Types of Ecosystem
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 Based on the kind of habitat, there are essentially two types of ecosystems:
Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystem (Fig 1.4). Any other sub-ecosystem falls under
one of these two types.

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem

The ecosystems on land are called as terrestrial ecosystems. They are broadly
classed into:

a) Forest Ecosystem:

They are the ecosystems with an abundance of flora, or plants in relatively small
space. A wide diversity of fauna can also be seen. A small change in this ecosystem
could affect the whole balance and effectively bring down the whole ecosystem.
They are further divided into:
Tropical rainforest: These contain more diverse biodiversity than ecosystems in
any other region on earth. They receive a mean rainfall of 80 cm for every 400
inches annually. In these, warm, moisture-laden environments, dense evergreen
vegetation comprising tall trees at different heights are present, with fauna species
inhabiting the forest floor all the way up to canopy.
Tropical deciduous forest: In these ecosystems, shrubs and dense bushes are
found along with a broad selection of trees. The trees are mainly which shed their
leaves during dry season. The type of forest is found in quite a few parts of the world
while a large variety of fauna and flora are found there.
Temperate evergreen forest: Those have a few numbers of trees as mosses and
ferns make up for them. Trees have developed needle shaped leaves in order to
minimize transpiration.
Temperate deciduous forest: The forest is located in the moist temperate places
that have sufficient rainfall. Summers and winters are clearly defined and the trees
shed the leaves during the winter.
Taiga: found just before the arctic regions, the taiga is defined by evergreen
conifers. As the temperature is below zero for almost half a year, the remainder of
the months, it buzzes with migratory birds and insects.

1. b) Desert Ecosystems:

Desert ecosystems are located in regions that receive low precipitation, generally
less than 25 cm per year. They occupy about 17 percent of land on earth. Some
deserts contain sand dunes, while others feature mostly rock. Due to the extremely
high temperature, low water availability and intense sunlight, vegetation is scarce or
poorly developed, and any animal species, such as insects, reptiles and birds, must
be highly adapted to the dry conditions. The vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes,
few grasses and rare trees. The stems and leaves of the plants are modified in order
to conserve water as much as possible, for example, succulents such as the spiny
leaved cacti.

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1. c) Grassland Ecosystems:

Grassland Ecosystems are typically found in both tropical and temperate regions of
the world. They share the common climactic characteristic of semi-aridity. The area
mainly comprises grasses with a little number of trees and shrubs. A lot of grazing
animals, insectivores and herbivores inhabit the grasslands. The two main types of
grasslands ecosystems are
Savanna: The tropical grasslands are dry seasonally and have few individual
trees. They support a large number of predators and grazers.
Prairies: It is temperate grassland, completely devoid of large shrubs and trees.
Prairies could be categorized as mixed grass, tall grass and short grass prairies.

1. d) Mountain Ecosystem:

Mountain land provides a scattered and diverse array of habitats where a large
number of animals and plants are found. At the higher altitudes, under harsh
environment, only the treeless alpine vegetatio can survive. The animals have thick
fur coats for prevention from cold and hibernation in the winter months. Lower slopes
are commonly covered with coniferous forests.

2. Aquatic Ecosystems:

Aquatic ecosystem is the ecosystem found in a body of water. It encompasses

aquatic flora, fauna and water properties, as well. There are two main types of
aquatic ecosystem – Marine and Freshwater Ecosystem.

1. a) Marine Ecosystem

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 Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems, which cover around 71% of earth’s
surface and contain 97% of out planet’s water. Water in marine ecosystems contains
high amounts of dissolved minerals and salts. Various marine ecosystems include
oceanic (a relatively shallow part of oceans which lies on the continental shelf),
profundal (deep or bottom water), benthic bottom substrates, inter-tidal (the place
between low and high tides), estuaries, coral reefs, salt marshes, hydrothermal vents
where chemosynthetic bacteria make up the food base. Many kinds of organisms
live in marine ecosystems: the brown algae, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms,
dinoflagellates, sharks, etc.

1. b) Freshwater Ecosystem

Contrary to the Marine ecosystems, the freshwater ecosystem covers only 0.8% of
Earth’s surface and contains 0.009% of the total water. Three basic kinds of
freshwater ecosystems exist. i) Lentic – slow-moving or still water like pools, lakes
or ponds ii) Lotic – fast-moving water such as streams and rivers iii) Wetlands –
places in which the soil is inundated or saturated for some lengthy period of time.

Natural and Artificial Ecosystems

All above ecosystems are Natural ecosystems as these operate themselves
under natural conditions without any major interference by man.Some ecosystems
are maintained artificially by human beings where, by addition of energy and planned
manipulations, natural balance is disturbed regularly. For example, croplands like
maize,
wheat, rice-fields etc. where man tries to control the biotic community as well as
the physico-chemical environment. These are called as Artificial or Man-
engineered ecosystems.

Ecosystem Structure and Function:

An ecosystem is a dynamic system comprising living organisms (biotic components)

and their physical environment (abiotic components) interacting and exchanging
energy and nutrients. The structure of an ecosystem refers to its physical
organization, while its function describes the processes and interactions that sustain
life.

Ecosystem Structure

The structure of an ecosystem consists of two main components:

1. Biotic Components (Living Organisms)

 Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that create their own energy-rich food

using sunlight (photosynthesis) or chemical processes (chemosynthesis).
Examples: Plants, algae, and some bacteria.
 Consumers (Heterotrophs): Organisms that depend on others for food.
o Primary Consumers: Herbivores feeding on producers.
Examples: Deer, rabbits.
o Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that eat herbivores.
Examples: Frogs, spiders.

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 o Tertiary Consumers: Top predators feeding on secondary consumers.
Examples: Lions, hawks.
o Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals.
Examples: Humans, bears.
 Decomposers (Detritivores): Break down dead organic matter into simpler
compounds, recycling nutrients.
Examples: Fungi, bacteria, earthworms.

2. Abiotic Components (Non-Living Factors)

 Physical Factors: Sunlight, temperature, water, and soil.

 Chemical Factors: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and other essential
elements.
 Nutrients: Elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and trace
elements critical for life.

Ecosystem Function

Ecosystem functions refer to the processes that occur within the ecosystem to
maintain its structure and support life. These include energy flow, nutrient cycling,
and the maintenance of ecological balance.

1. Energy Flow

Energy flow is the transfer of energy from the sun to producers and then through the
trophic levels (food chain). It is unidirectional and governed by the laws of
thermodynamics:

 First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

 Second Law: Energy transfer is inefficient, with some lost as heat at each
trophic level.

2. Nutrient Cycling

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  Ecosystems recycle essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus
through biogeochemical cycles.
o Carbon Cycle: Movement of carbon through photosynthesis,
respiration, and decomposition.
o Nitrogen Cycle: Involves processes like nitrogen fixation, nitrification,
and denitrification.
o Water Cycle: Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration.

3. Food Chains and Food Webs

 Food Chain: A linear sequence of organisms through which energy flows

(e.g., grass → grasshopper → frog → snake → hawk).
 Food Web: A complex network of interconnected food chains that enhances
ecosystem stability.

4. Productivity

 Primary Productivity: The rate at which producers convert solar energy into
chemical energy.
o Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): Total energy captured by
producers.
o Net Primary Productivity (NPP): Energy available to herbivores after
producers use some for respiration. NPP=GPP−Respiration\text{NPP}
= \text{GPP} - \text{Respiration}NPP=GPP−Respiration
 Secondary Productivity: Energy conversion by consumers into biomass.

5. Homeostasis

Ecosystems have self-regulating mechanisms that maintain equilibrium through

feedback systems, ensuring resilience to changes or disturbances.

6. Ecological Interactions

 Mutualism: Both species benefit.

Example: Bees and flowers.
 Competition: Organisms compete for limited resources.
Example: Trees competing for sunlight.
 Predation: One organism preys on another.
Example: Lion hunting deer.

PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS:

1. Producers (Autotrophs)

Producers are organisms that can create their own food using energy from the sun
or chemicals. They form the base of the food chain by converting abiotic resources
into energy-rich organic compounds.

Characteristics:

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  Use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to produce energy.
 Store energy in the form of carbohydrates and other organic molecules.
 Provide energy and nutrients for all other organisms in the ecosystem.

Examples:

 Terrestrial Ecosystems: Trees, grasses, shrubs, mosses.

 Aquatic Ecosystems: Phytoplankton, algae, seaweed.
 Chemosynthetic Producers: Certain bacteria near hydrothermal vents.

Role in the Ecosystem:

 Supply energy to consumers.

 Produce oxygen (through photosynthesis).
 Help in carbon fixation by absorbing CO₂.

2. Consumers (Heterotrophs)

Consumers depend on other organisms (producers or other consumers) for energy.

They are categorized based on their diet and their position in the food chain.

Types of Consumers:

1. Primary Consumers (Herbivores):

o Feed directly on producers (plants or algae).
o Examples: Deer, cows, rabbits, grasshoppers.
2. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores):
o Feed on primary consumers (herbivores).
o Examples: Frogs, snakes, small birds.
3. Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores):
o Feed on secondary consumers and are often at the top of the food
chain.
o Examples: Tigers, eagles, sharks.
4. Omnivores:
o Consume both plants and animals.
o Examples: Humans, bears, pigs.

Role in the Ecosystem:

 Transfer energy from producers to higher trophic levels.

 Help regulate population sizes within the food web.
 Contribute to nutrient cycling when they decompose.

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3. Decomposers (Detritivores)

Decomposers are organisms that break down dead plants, animals, and waste
materials into simpler substances, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.

Types of Decomposers:

1. Saprotrophs:
o Absorb nutrients directly from decomposing organic matter.
o Examples: Fungi, bacteria.
2. Detritivores:
o Physically consume and break down detritus (organic debris).
o Examples: Earthworms, millipedes, dung beetles.

Role in the Ecosystem:

 Break down complex organic matter into simple inorganic substances like
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, making these available for producers.
 Maintain soil fertility by recycling nutrients.
 Prevent the accumulation of dead material in the ecosystem.

FOOD CHAIN - FOOD WEB:

Food Chain

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms where each organism is eaten by the
next one in the chain. It represents a single pathway through which energy flows in
an ecosystem.

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Components of a Food Chain:

1. Producers (Autotrophs): The starting point; organisms that produce their

own food using sunlight or chemical energy.
2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Organisms that feed directly on
producers.
3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Feed on primary consumers.
4. Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores): Predators that feed on secondary
consumers.
5. Decomposers: Break down dead organisms and recycle nutrients.

Some common examples of food chains are:

Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)
Plants → Deer → Lion (Forest ecosystem)
Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small fish → Large fish (Pond ecosystem)

Example of a Terrestrial Food Chain:

Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk

Example of an Aquatic Food Chain:

Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Small Fish → Large Fish → Shark

Food Web

A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains that exist within an
ecosystem. It shows multiple feeding relationships among organisms, reflecting the
diversity and stability of the ecosystem.

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Characteristics of a Food Web:

 Interconnected Chains: Organisms may occupy multiple trophic levels.

 More Realistic: Reflects actual feeding relationships.
 Stable Ecosystem: Provides alternative food sources, ensuring ecosystem
resilience.
 Energy Flow Complexity: Demonstrates how energy moves through a
diverse system.

Example of a Food Web:

In a forest ecosystem:

 Grass is eaten by grasshoppers, rabbits, or deer.

 Grasshoppers are eaten by birds or frogs.
 Frogs may be eaten by snakes or hawks.
 Rabbits and deer may be eaten by wolves or tigers.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS - ENERGY FLOW - FOREST, GRASSLAND, DESERT

AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM.

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An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between
different organisms in an ecosystem. Each of the bars that make up the pyramid
represents a different trophic level, and their order, which is based on who eats
whom, represents the flow of energy. Energy moves up the pyramid, starting with
the primary producers, or autotrophs, such as plants and algae at the very bottom,
followed by the primary consumers, which feed on these plants, then secondary
consumers, which feed on the primary consumers, and so on. The height of the bars
should all be the same, but the width of each bar is based on the quantity of the
aspect being measured.

There are three main types of ecological pyramids:

1. Pyramid of Energy
2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid of Numbers

Each pyramid represents a different aspect of ecosystem structure and function.

1. Pyramid of Energy

 Represents the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next.
 Energy decreases as it moves up the trophic levels due to the 10% Rule,
where only about 10% of the energy is passed to the next level, and the rest
is lost as heat or used for metabolic processes.
 The base of the pyramid represents producers (autotrophs), followed by
primary consumers, secondary consumers, and so on.

2. Pyramid of Biomass

 Illustrates the total mass of living organisms at each trophic level.

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  In some ecosystems, such as aquatic environments, this pyramid can be
inverted (e.g., plankton have low biomass but support a large biomass of fish).

3. Pyramid of Numbers

 Depicts the number of individuals at each trophic level.

 This can be inverted in ecosystems where a few large organisms (e.g., trees
or large herbivores) support many smaller organisms (e.g., insects or small
fish).

Energy Flow in Different Ecosystems

Energy flow varies in different ecosystems depending on the primary producers,

consumer dynamics, and environmental conditions. Below, we explore how energy
flows through four major types of ecosystems: forest, grassland, desert, and
aquatic ecosystems.

1. Forest Ecosystem

 Producers: Trees, shrubs, and plants (through photosynthesis).

 Primary Consumers: Herbivores like deer, insects, and birds.
 Secondary Consumers: Carnivores such as foxes, snakes, and hawks.
 Tertiary Consumers: Top predators like wolves, eagles, and large cats.
 Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, and detritivores like earthworms and beetles.

Energy Flow in Forest Ecosystem:

 Forests are highly productive ecosystems. The dense canopy of trees

captures a large amount of sunlight, which is passed down through various
trophic levels.
 Energy Efficiency: A significant amount of energy is stored in the biomass of
plants and trees, supporting a rich food chain.
 Nutrient Cycling: The decomposition of fallen leaves, dead animals, and
other organic matter plays a vital role in nutrient recycling.

2. Grassland Ecosystem

 Producers: Grasses, herbs, and small plants.

 Primary Consumers: Grazing herbivores like zebras, antelope, bison, and
rabbits.
 Secondary Consumers: Carnivores such as foxes, wild dogs, and hawks.
 Tertiary Consumers: Top predators like lions, cheetahs, and large birds of
prey.
 Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi, and detritivores like insects and scavengers.

Energy Flow in Grassland Ecosystem:

 Grasslands have a high rate of primary productivity during certain

seasons, especially during the rainy periods.

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  The flow of energy is relatively efficient, with herbivores consuming large
amounts of grass, followed by secondary and tertiary consumers.
 Fire is a common natural occurrence in grasslands, playing an important role
in recycling nutrients and regenerating plant growth.

3. Desert Ecosystem

 Producers: Cacti, shrubs, and drought-resistant plants.

 Primary Consumers: Herbivores like insects, rodents, and some reptiles.
 Secondary Consumers: Carnivores such as lizards, small birds, and desert
foxes.
 Tertiary Consumers: Apex predators like hawks, snakes, and some
mammals.
 Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi that break down organic matter.

Energy Flow in Desert Ecosystem:

 Deserts are low productivity ecosystems with limited water and nutrients.
As a result, producers are sparse and adapted to conserve water (e.g., cacti,
succulents).
 Energy transfer is slower because of the lower number of producers and
consumers.
 Despite low primary productivity, deserts support a rich diversity of
organisms adapted to extreme conditions.

4. Aquatic Ecosystem (Freshwater and Marine)

 Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, aquatic plants, and seaweed.

 Primary Consumers: Zooplankton, small fish, and herbivorous invertebrates.
 Secondary Consumers: Larger fish, amphibians, and small marine
mammals.
 Tertiary Consumers: Apex predators such as sharks, orcas, and larger fish
like tuna.
 Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi, and marine detritivores.

Energy Flow in Aquatic Ecosystem:

 Marine ecosystems (like coral reefs and open oceans) have significant
productivity at the lower trophic levels, with phytoplankton being the primary
producers.
 Freshwater ecosystems (like lakes and rivers) also support rich food webs
with a mix of primary producers (e.g., algae) and consumers (e.g., fish and
invertebrates).
 In both environments, energy is transferred efficiently through the food chain,
but marine ecosystems generally have a more complex food web due to
greater biodiversity.

BIODIVERSITY - DEFINITION - GENETIC, SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEM

DIVERSITY:

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Biodiversity, or biological diversity, refers to the variety and variability of life forms on
Earth. It includes the diversity of species, genetic variations within those species,
and the ecosystems they inhabit. Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem stability,
resilience, and the provision of critical services such as food, clean water, and
climate regulation. It exists at three main levels:

1. Genetic Diversity: The variation in genes within a species.

2. Species Diversity: The variety of different species within an ecosystem.
3. Ecosystem Diversity: The range of different ecosystems on Earth.

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life forms on Earth. It encompasses
three main levels:

1. Genetic Diversity: This refers to the variation in genetic material within and
among populations of species. It allows species to adapt to changing
environments, ensuring their survival and resilience. Genetic diversity is
crucial for maintaining healthy populations and for the evolutionary processes
of natural selection.
2. Species Diversity: This refers to the variety of species within a given area or
ecosystem. Species diversity includes both the number of species (species
richness) and the relative abundance of each species (species evenness).
Higher species diversity often correlates with greater ecosystem stability.
3. Ecosystem Diversity: This refers to the variety of ecosystems in a given
region or on Earth as a whole. Ecosystem diversity includes different habitats,
ecological processes, and environmental conditions, ranging from forests and
oceans to grasslands and wetlands. Diverse ecosystems provide essential
services like water purification, climate regulation, and food production.

VALUES AND USES OF BIODIVERSITY:

Biodiversity provides a wide range of values and uses that benefit ecosystems,
societies, and economies. These can be broadly categorized into ecosystem
services, economic values, cultural values, and scientific values.

1. Ecosystem Services:

Biodiversity supports key services that are essential for the health of the planet and
human life, such as:

 Provisioning Services: These are the resources we directly obtain from

nature, such as food, water, medicinal plants, raw materials (timber, fibers,
and minerals), and energy sources (biofuels).
 Regulating Services: These services help regulate essential ecological
processes, including climate regulation, water purification, pollination of crops,
pest control, and disease regulation.
 Supporting Services: These are services that maintain the conditions for life,
such as soil formation, nutrient cycling, and oxygen production through
photosynthesis.

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  Cultural Services: Biodiversity also provides aesthetic, spiritual, recreational,
and educational benefits. These include natural landscapes for tourism,
spiritual values related to nature, and opportunities for scientific research.

2. Economic Values:

Biodiversity is a key driver of economic prosperity in many sectors:

 Agriculture: Biodiversity ensures a variety of crops and livestock, as well as

natural pest control, pollination, and soil fertility.
 Forestry and Fisheries: Diverse ecosystems provide resources like timber,
fuelwood, and fish, which are vital for livelihoods and industries.
 Tourism: Ecotourism relies heavily on biodiversity, as people travel to
experience unique wildlife, plants, and ecosystems.
 Pharmaceuticals: Many modern medicines are derived from plant, animal,
and microbial species, highlighting the importance of biodiversity for health
care.

3. Cultural Values:

Biodiversity holds deep cultural and spiritual significance for many societies:

 Cultural Identity: Many indigenous communities and local cultures derive

their identity from the natural environment, and certain species or ecosystems
hold sacred or symbolic meaning.
 Recreation and Leisure: Biodiversity provides opportunities for outdoor
activities like hiking, birdwatching, fishing, and wildlife observation.
 Traditional Knowledge: Communities have developed traditional ecological
knowledge about species and ecosystems, which can inform sustainable
practices and conservation.

4. Scientific Values:

Biodiversity is essential for scientific discovery and understanding:

 Research and Innovation: The study of biodiversity provides insights into

evolution, ecology, and the interactions between species and ecosystems.
 Medical Research: The vast array of species offers immense potential for
discovering new drugs and treatments for diseases, including cancer,
infections, and autoimmune disorders.

5. Resilience and Adaptation:

Biodiversity increases the resilience of ecosystems to environmental changes, such

as climate change, natural disasters, and human impacts. A diverse range of species
helps ecosystems recover from disturbances, ensuring continued provision of
essential services.

BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL (INDIA), AND LOCAL LEVELS:

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  Global Level: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, including
ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity. Key biodiversity hotspots, like the
Amazon and Southeast Asia, face threats like deforestation and climate
change. Global conservation efforts include international agreements like the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
 National Level (India): India is one of the most biodiverse countries, with
hotspots like the Western Ghats and Himalayas. Biodiversity in India faces
threats from habitat loss, pollution, and poaching. Conservation measures
include the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and the National Biodiversity Action
Plan (NBAP).
 Local Level: Local biodiversity refers to the variety of species within specific
areas, such as cities or villages. Threats include urbanization, agriculture, and
invasive species. Local conservation efforts focus on habitat preservation,
sustainable land use, and community-based initiatives.

HOTSPOTS, THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY:

 Hotspots: Biodiversity hotspots are regions with high species diversity, including
a significant number of endemic species, but are under threat from human activities.
Examples include the Western Ghats, Himalayas, Indo-Burma region, and
Amazon rainforest.

 Threats to Biodiversity:

1. Habitat Destruction: Deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture lead to

habitat loss and fragmentation.
2. Pollution: Air, water, and soil pollution harm ecosystems and species.
3. Over-exploitation: Overhunting, illegal trade, and overfishing threaten
species survival.
4. Climate Change: Altered weather patterns, rising temperatures, and sea
levels affect ecosystems.
5. Invasive Species: Non-native species disrupt local ecosystems and
outcompete native species.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: IN-SITU AND EX-SITU:

 In-situ Conservation: This involves the conservation of species in their

natural habitats. It includes the establishment of protected areas like national
parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves. It aims to preserve
ecosystems and their biodiversity through habitat protection and sustainable
practices.
 Ex-situ Conservation: This refers to the conservation of species outside their
natural habitats. It includes gene banks, zoos, botanical gardens, and seed
banks. This method is used to protect endangered species and maintain
genetic diversity for future reintroduction into the wild.

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