Chapter 1: Computer Programming

Key Concepts:

 History and Purpose:

Initially, programs were written in low-level code hardwired to the
computer’s processor instructions. High-level languages like Java make
programs easier to write, read, and maintain. Java’s “write once, run
anywhere” philosophy is achieved through the JVM (Java Virtual
Machine).

 Hello World & Compilation Process:

public class Hello {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Hello, World!");

How It Works:

1. Save in Hello.java.

2. javac Hello.java compiles source code into Hello.class bytecode.

3. java Hello runs the bytecode on the JVM, printing "Hello, World!".

 Basic Syntax:
Every Java program has at least one class, and to run it, that class
must have a main method. Each statement ends with ;. Curly braces
define blocks of code (classes, methods, loops, etc.).

 Escape Sequences:
\n for newline, \t for tab, etc. If you do:

System.out.println("Line 1\nLine 2\tIndented");

This prints:

mathematica

Line 1

Line 2 Indented
  Debugging Techniques: If you see a compile error like ; expected,
you forgot a semicolon. If you see cannot find symbol, maybe you
spelled a variable name incorrectly.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: What is the entry point of a Java program? A: The main method:

public static void main(String[] args).

 Q: If System.out.println("Hello") is missing a semicolon, what happens?

A: The compiler gives a syntax error. You must add the missing
semicolon.

Example Explanation:

 If we write:

System.out.println("Hello\tWorld\nNew line here");

It prints "Hello World" (with a tab space) on one line, then "New line here" on
the next line. The \t adds a horizontal tab space, \n moves to the next line.

Chapter 2: Variables and Operators

Key Concepts:

 Variables and Data Types:

int age = 20; // integer

double price = 19.99; // floating-point number

boolean isActive = true; // boolean true/false

String name = "Alice"; // string of characters

 Arithmetic Operators:
+ addition, - subtraction, * multiplication, / division, % remainder.
Integer division truncates decimals. For example, 5/2 is 2, not 2.5. To
get a decimal, cast one operand to double: (double)5/2 = 2.5.

 Floating-Point Precision: Double variables can have tiny rounding

errors:

double x = 0.1 + 0.2;

System.out.println(x); // might print 0.30000000000000004 instead of 0.3

This is normal for floating-point arithmetic. Just be aware.

 String Operations:

String greeting = "Hello, " + name; // concatenation

If name = "Alice", greeting = "Hello, Alice".

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: int followers=1000; followers+=500; followers now? A: 1500.

 Q: int a=5,b=2; System.out.println(a/b); prints what? A: 2 (integer

division).

 Q: How to force floating division? A: (double)a/b; → (double)5/2 = 2.5.

Example Explanation:

 Consider:

int x=5,y=2;

System.out.println(x/y); // prints 2

System.out.println((double)x/y); // prints 2.5 because we cast x to double

Casting changes the type of one operand, thus performing floating-point

division.

More on Arithmetic, Type Casting, and I/O (Ch.1-3, Intro to Ch.4)

Type Casting:

int n=7;

double result=(double)n/2; // without casting, 7/2=3, with casting=3.5

Scanner and I/O (Chapter 3): Use Scanner to read user input:

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter your age: ");

int age = sc.nextInt(); // reads an integer

sc.nextLine(); // consume leftover newline before reading a line

System.out.print("Enter your name: ");

String name = sc.nextLine(); // reads a full line, including spaces

Literals & Constants:

final int MAX_SCORE=100; // cannot change MAX_SCORE later

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: After reading an int with nextInt(), what to do before nextLine()? A:

Call sc.nextLine() to clear the leftover newline.

 Q: How do you ensure a decimal result if dividing two ints? A: Cast one
to double, e.g. (double)5/2.

Example Explanation:

 Suppose:

System.out.print("Enter count: ");

int count=sc.nextInt();

sc.nextLine(); // now sc is ready for next line reading.

System.out.print("Enter a sentence: ");

String sentence=sc.nextLine();

Here, count is read as an int. nextLine() afterwards ensures the next full line
read is cleanly captured, not just the leftover newline.

Conditionals and Loops (Ch.5 & Ch.6)

if (score >= 90) System.out.println("A");

else if (score >= 80) System.out.println("B");

else System.out.println("C or below");

This checks score ranges in order. The first true condition executes.

switch:

switch(day) {

case 1: System.out.println("Monday"); break;

 case 2: System.out.println("Tuesday"); break;

default: System.out.println("Other day");

switch is cleaner than multiple if-else for known discrete values.

Boolean Logic & De Morgan’s:

 !(A && B) = (!A || !B). This can simplify conditions.

Loops (Ch.6):

 while loop: Repeat until condition fails.

int i=0;

while(i<5){

System.out.println(i);

i++;

 for loop: For known iteration counts.

for(int j=0;j<5;j++){

System.out.println(j);

 do-while loop: Executes body once before checking condition.

int input;

do {

input=sc.nextInt();

} while(input<=0);

String Methods:

 s.charAt(i) returns character at index i.

 s.substring(start,end) returns portion of string from start to end-1.

 s.indexOf('a') gives first occurrence of 'a'.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

  Q: Validate input until >0. Which loop? A: do-while or while:

int num;

do {

num=sc.nextInt();

} while(num<=0);

 Q: How to print odd numbers from 10 down to 1? A: Use a for loop:

for(int k=10;k>0;k--){

if(k%2!=0) System.out.println(k+" is odd.");

Example Explanation:

 Suppose you want to read a positive number:

int num;

do {

System.out.print("Enter a positive integer: ");

num=sc.nextInt();

} while(num<=0);

If user enters -5 first, loop repeats. Once a positive number is given, the loop
exits.

Arrays (Ch.7)
Key Concepts:

 Array Creation:

int[] arr=new int[5];

arr[0]=10; arr[1]=20; ...

 Traversing Arrays:

for(int val:arr) System.out.println(val);

Prints each element.

  Common Tasks: Summation:

int sum=0; for(int val:arr) sum+=val;

double avg=(double)sum/arr.length;

 Arrays are Reference Types: If you do int[] x={1,2}; int[] y=x;

changes via y reflect in x.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: How to find max in an array? A:

int max=arr[0];

for(int val:arr) if(val>max) max=val;

 Q: Avoiding IndexOutOfBounds? A: Use conditions i<array.length.

Example Explanation:

 Counting how many numbers >50:

int count=0;

for (int val: arr) {

if(val>50) count++;

This loop checks each element and increments count if it’s greater than 50.

Javadoc & Java API (Appendix B)

Key Concepts:

 Reading JavaDocs:
The Java standard library documentation shows you what methods are
available, their parameters, and return types.

 Writing Javadoc:

/**

* Computes area of circle.

* @param r radius
* @return area as double

*/

public static double area(double r){return Math.PI*r*r;}

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: Why Javadoc? A: To produce easy-to-read documentation for users

of your code.

Example Explanation:

 Using Arrays.toString():

int[] arr={3,1,4};

System.out.println(Arrays.toString(arr));

// Outputs: [3, 1, 4]

This is useful for debugging array contents.

Methods and Recursion (Ch.4 & Ch.8)

Methods with Returns:

 Example:

public static int add(int a,int b){

return a+b;

Calling int sum=add(3,4); sum becomes 7.

Testing Methods: Test add() with known values: add(2,2)=4, add(-1,1)=0. If

results match expectations, the method works.

Recursion (Ch.8):

 Factorial example:

public static int factorial(int n){

if(n<=1)return 1;

return n*factorial(n-1);
}

How it works: factorial(3) → checks 3<=1? no → returns 3*factorial(2) →

factorial(2) returns 2*factorial(1) which returns 1 → so total 3*2*1=6.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: Difference between void and return methods? A: void methods

don't return values, return methods must provide a result.

 Q: Identify base case in recursion? A: The simplest case that returns

without recursion. For factorial, if(n<=1)return 1;

Example Explanation:

 Summation via recursion:

public static int sumArray(int[] arr,int idx){

if(idx==arr.length) return 0; // base case: no more elements

return arr[idx] + sumArray(arr,idx+1); // add current element + recurse

If arr=[1,2,3], sumArray(arr,0) → 1+sumArray(arr,1) →

1+(2+sumArray(arr,2)) → 1+(2+(3+sumArray(arr,3))) → 1+2+(3+0)=6.

Programmer-Defined Classes (Ch.10)

Key Concepts:

 Class Design:
A class groups variables (fields) and methods that logically belong
together.

 Constructors:

public class Astronaut {

private String name;

private int health;

public Astronaut(String name){

this.name=name;
 this.health=100;

public String getName(){return name;}

public int getHealth(){return health;}

public void setHealth(int h){

if(h>=0&&h<=100)this.health=h;

Encapsulation: Keeping fields private and using getters/setters ensures no

invalid data is set.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: If you define a constructor with parameters, do you get a no-arg

constructor? A: No, you must define it yourself if needed.

 Q: Why private fields? A: To control changes through setters,

maintaining class invariants.

Example Explanation:

 If you try to do astronaut.health=200; directly, you can't since health is

private. Instead use astronaut.setHealth(200); which won't set it
because it fails the condition, preserving valid state.

More Methods & Classes (Ch. 8 & 10

revisited)
Key Concepts:

 Method Overloading:

public int add(int a,int b){return a+b;}

public double add(double a,double b){return a+b;}

Same method name, different parameter types for flexibility.

  Refining Classes: Add utility methods as needed. If a class does
multiple unrelated tasks, split it into separate classes.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: Overloading vs. Overriding? A: Overloading: same class, different

params. Overriding: subclass changes inherited method from
superclass.

Example Explanation:

 Overloaded print method:

public void print(int x){System.out.println("int: "+x);}

public void print(String s){System.out.println("String: "+s);}

If you call print(5), it calls the int version. If you call print("Hi"), it calls the
string version.

OOP & Immutable Objects (Ch.9) + Big O

Notation
Immutable Objects:

 String is Immutable:

String s="cat";

s.replace('c','b'); // returns "bat" but s still "cat"

s=s.replace('c','b'); // now s="bat"

 Advantages of Immutability: Less complex reasoning, no accidental

changes, safer with concurrency.

Wrapper Classes & Immutability: Integer, Double are also immutable. If

you do Integer i=5; i=i+1;, you’re actually creating new Integer objects.

Big O Notation: Just know O(n) means linear growth, O(n^2) means
quadratic growth.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: After String s="hello"; s.toUpperCase(); what's s? A: Still "hello"

because toUpperCase() returns a new String.
  Q: Why immutability helps in multi-threading? A: Because no thread
can alter the object's state, reducing complexity in synchronization.

Example Explanation:

 If you have:

String s="Hello";

String upper=s.toUpperCase();

upper = "HELLO", s still "Hello". Two separate strings now exist.

Inheritance (Ch.11)
Key Concepts:

 Inheritance Basics:

public class Person {

protected String name;

public Person(String name){this.name=name;}

public String getName(){return name;}

public class Student extends Person {

private int grade;

public Student(String name,int grade){

super(name); // calls Person(name)

this.grade=grade;

@Override

public String getName(){

return "Student: "+super.getName();

}
}

Here, Student is a Person plus extra attributes.

 Polymorphism:
Person p=new Student("Bob",90);

System.out.println(p.getName()); // calls Student’s overridden getName

 Method Overriding: Match signature exactly to change behavior in

subclass.

 Null Pointers: If Person p=null; p.getName(); causes

NullPointerException because p references no object.

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: Are private fields accessible in subclass? A: No, you must use

getters/setters or protected fields.

 Q: Can Java have multiple class inheritance? A: No, only single

inheritance. But a class can implement multiple interfaces.

Example Explanation:

 Overriding equals:

@Override

public boolean equals(Object o){

if(!(o instanceof Student)) return false;

Student other=(Student)o;

return this.getName().equals(other.getName()) &&

this.grade==other.grade;

This ensures two Students are equal if they have same name and grade.

Wrapper Classes (Ch.9 revisited)

Key Concepts:

 Autoboxing/Unboxing:
Integer obj=10; // autobox int to Integer

int x=obj; // unbox Integer to int

 Why Wrappers? Needed when working with collections (e.g.,

ArrayList<Integer>).

Quizzes & Kahoot Reinforcement:

 Q: Difference between int x=10; and Integer y=10;? A: x is a primitive,

y is an object. y can be null, x cannot.

Example Explanation:

 Using Integer in an ArrayList:

ArrayList<Integer> list=new ArrayList<>();

list.add(5); // autoboxes 5 to Integer(5)

int num=list.get(0); // unboxes to int

Additional Quizzes & Kahoot Questions Integrated

 Q: If System.out.println("Hello "+5+3); what prints? A: "Hello 53".

String concatenation turns 5+3 into string "5" followed by "3".

 Q: Validate user input:

int value;

do {

System.out.print("Enter positive: ");

value=sc.nextInt();

} while(value<=0);

This ensures one attempt minimum and re-prompts if invalid.

 Q: Overriding vs Overloading:

o Overloading: same name, different parameters.

o Overriding: same signature, different class (subclass overrides

superclass method).
  Q: Encapsulation: Keep fields private, provide getters/setters to control
how fields are changed.

 Q: Abstract classes?

o Can have constructors and concrete methods.

o Cannot instantiate directly.

 Q: equals method must accept Object to properly override equals from

Object class.

Putting It All Together (Integrated Example):

Scenario: You need to:

1. Prompt user for N (positive integer).

2. Read N salaries into an int array.

3. Calculate average using a method calculateAverage(int[] arr).

4. Count how many salaries are above average using countAbove(int[]

arr, float avg).

5. Use a class Rational to represent the fraction of how many salaries are
above average compared to total.

Step-by-Step:

 Input and validation:

int N;

do {

System.out.print("Enter howymany salaries: ");

N=sc.nextInt();

} while(N<=0);

 Read array:

int[] salaries=new int[N];

for(int i=0;i<N;i++){

System.out.print("Salary "+(i+1)+": ");

 salaries[i]=sc.nextInt();

 Calculate average:

float avg=calculateAverage(salaries);

System.out.println("Average: "+avg);

 Count above average:

int above = countAbove(salaries, avg);

System.out.println("Salaries above average: "+above);

 Rational class could store fractions like (above/N). If above=2, N=5,

fraction is 2/5.

Rational ratio=new Rational(above,N);

System.out.println("Ratio of above avg: "+ratio);

This scenario uses input validation (loops, conditionals), arrays, methods

returning values, possibly classes for rational representation, and all learned
concepts.

Final Exam Note

 Trace Execution:
For code snippets, run through them line by line. Keep track of variable
values.

 Check Loop Boundaries:

Off-by-one errors are common. If you have an array of length 5, valid
indices are 0 to 4 only.

 Review Overloading vs Overriding: Overloading: same method

name in same class, different parameters.
Overriding: subclass changes the behavior of a method inherited from
a superclass.

 Understand NullPointerException: If a reference is null, calling

methods on it causes an error. Always initialize objects before use.