ỦY BAN NHÂN DÂN THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC SÀI GÒN

GIÁO TRÌNH

HÌNH THÁI - CÚ PHÁP

MORPHOLOGY - SYNTAX

Mã số: GT2020-11

Chủ biên: TS Bùi Diễm Hạnh

Thành viên tham gia biên soạn:
ThS Trương Văn Ánh, ThS Phạm Văn Chiến

VNU-HCM PRESS - 2023

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ii
 PREFACE

Morpho-Syntax, as the name suggests, is a combination of

two subjects decided by the Department of Foreign Languages
based on the new teaching cycle design of Saigon University. In
order to meet the socio-economic development in the new
situation, the teaching duration of two separate subjects must be
shortened so that other necessary subjects can be introduced.
This fact is what motivated us to write the textbook.
The course consists of two main parts: Morphology and
Syntax of English. In the book, Morphology includes 4 chapters
and Syntax includes 6 chapters. In the context of shortened time,
we had to streamline the knowledge of the two parts to help
students fully understand the essence of the subject. However,
with many years of experience in teaching at different
universities, we have included new sections to help students
access knowledge more easily, such as 9 simple sentence
patterns in English. In addition, we include exercises, closely
following midterm tests, semester exams and graduate entrance
exams to create a familiar attitude for students with specialized
knowledge. The book also introduces tree drawings of many
different schools to help students not be surprised when
accessing books of other schools.
Our ambitions are huge. However, we know that our
knowledge is limited. We eagerly look forward to the comments
of all teachers and students.
Best regards!

Ho Chi Minh City, June 30, 2022

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iv
 CONTENTS

PREFACE .....................................................................................iii
ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................... xi
PART I: MORPHOLOGY ......................................................... 1
Chapter 1. Morphemes ................................................................ 1
Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
1.1. Definition - characteristics ...................................................... 2
1.2. Distinction between morphemes, phonemes,
syllables, and words................................................................ 2
1.3. Classification of morphemes .................................................. 3
1.3.1. Form: free and bound morphemes ................................. 3
1.3.2. Meaning: roots (bases) and affixes ................................ 3
1.4. Variations of morphemes - allomorphs.................................. 5
1.4.1. Definition.......................................................................... 5
1.4.2. Kinds of allomorphs ........................................................ 5
Exercises.......................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2. Derivation vs. Inflection........................................... 9
2.1. Inflectional affixes ................................................................... 9
2.1.1. Inflectional suffixes .......................................................... 9
2.1.2. Stems. .............................................................................. 10
2.1.3. Characteristics of inflectional suffixes ......................... 10
2.2. Derivational affixes ............................................................... 10
2.2.1. Derivational morphemes ............................................... 10
2.2.2. Characteristics of derivational suffixes ........................ 11
2.2.3. Suffixal homonyms ......................................................... 12
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 2.2.4. The inflectional morpheme {-er} comparative of
adjective has two homonyms ....................................... 12
2.2.5. The verbal inflectional suffix {-ing} (IS, present
participle) has three homonyms. ................................. 12
2.2.6. The verbal inflectional {-ed pp} (IS/ past participle)
has a homonym: the adjectival .................................... 13
2.2.7. The adverbial derivational suffix {-ly av}
(DS/Adverbial) has a homonym: the adjectival
derivational suffix {-ly aj} (DS/ Adjectival) and the
nominal derivational suffix {-ly n} (DS/ nominal)....... 13
2.3. How to distinguish derivation from inflection .................... 13
Exercises........................................................................................ 13
Chapter 3. Immediate Constituents in Morphology ............. 15
3.1. Immediate constituents (IC).................................................. 15
3.2. Some recommendations on IC division ............................... 15
3.3. Diagramming ........................................................................ 16
Exercises........................................................................................ 18
Chapter 4. Words ....................................................................... 27
4.1. Simple words ......................................................................... 27
4.2. Complex (or derived) words ................................................ 27
4.3. Compound words .................................................................. 27
4.3.1. Structural integrity......................................................... 28
4.3.2. Semantic criterion.......................................................... 28
4.3.3. Phonetic criterion .......................................................... 28
4.4. Processes of word formation ............................................... 29
4.4.1. Compounding ................................................................. 29
4.4.2. Derivation, conversion or functional shift .................. 29
4.4.3. Clipping or contraction ................................................. 30

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 4.4.4. Acronymy or abbreviation ............................................ 30
4.4.5. Blending or mixture ....................................................... 31
4.4.6. Back-formation or reversion ......................................... 31
4.4.7. Adoption of brand names as common words
(coinage/invention/neologism) ..................................... 31
4.4.8. Onomatopoeia or sound imitation or
reduplication/echo ......................................................... 32
4.4.9. Borrowing ..................................................................... 32
4.4.10. Antonomasia or words from names............................ 32
4.4.11. Isolation on word formation ....................................... 32
4.5. Parts of speech ....................................................................... 33
4.5.1. Changeable parts of speech .......................................... 33
4.5.2. Unchangeable parts of speech ...................................... 34
Exercises........................................................................................ 34
PART II: SYNTAX .................................................................... 38
Chapter 5. Sentence Structure ................................................ 38
5.1. Constituents ....................................................................... 38
5.1.1. Structure ........................................................................ 38
5.1.2.Establishing constituents and immediate constituents . 39
5.2. Functions ................................................................................ 39
5.2.1. Subject and predicate .................................................... 39
5.2.2. Dependency and function .............................................. 40
5.2.3. Modifier and head ......................................................... 41
5.2.4. Head and complement ................................................... 42
5.3. Categories............................................................................... 43
5.3.1. Noun and noun phrase .................................................. 44
5.3.2. Adjective phrase and adverb phrase ............................ 52
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 5.3.3. Prepositions and prepositional phrases ....................... 54
5.3.4. Co-ordinate phrases ...................................................... 55
Exercises........................................................................................ 56
Chapter 6. The Verb Phrase ..................................................... 58
6.1. Monotransitive verb groups .................................................. 58
6.2. Intransitive verb groups......................................................... 59
6.3. Ditransitive verb groups ........................................................ 59
6.4. Intensive verb groups ............................................................ 60
6.5. Complex transitive verb groups............................................ 61
6.6. Prepositional verb groups...................................................... 62
6.7. Ditransitive prepositional verb group .................................. 63
Exercises........................................................................................ 70
Chapter 7. Adverbials and other Matters .............................. 71
7.1. Adjunct adverbials in the verb phrase .................................. 71
7.2. Levels of verb phrase ............................................................ 72
7.3. The mobility of adverbials .................................................... 73
7.4. Phrasal verbs .......................................................................... 74
7.5. Ellipsis .................................................................................... 75
7.6. Sentence adverbials .............................................................. 76
Exercises........................................................................................ 77
Chapter 8. Verb Group ............................................................. 78
8.1. The simple finite verb group ................................................. 78
8.2. Auxilary verbs in the complex verb group
(complex finite verb group) ................................................. 79
8.3. The structure of auxiliary ...................................................... 80
Exercises........................................................................................ 86
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Chapter 9. More on noun phrase ............................................. 87
9.1. Determiner ............................................................................. 87
9.2. Pre-determiner ....................................................................... 89
9.3. Pre-modifiers in NOM quantifying adjectives .................... 89
9.4. Post-modifiers ........................................................................ 92
Exercises........................................................................................ 94
Chapter 10. Sentences within Sentences ................................. 95
10.1. Complementisers that and whether .................................... 96
10.2. The functions of that- and whether- clauses ...................... 96
10.2.1. Subject and extraposed subject................................... 96
10.2.2. Complement of vgrp within vp .................................... 98
10.2.3. Complement of a within AP ........................................ 99
10.2.4. Complement pf n within np ....................................... 100
10.2.5. Complement of p within PP ...................................... 101
10.2.6. Adverbial clauses....................................................... 101
10.3. Subordinate Wh-clause ..................................................... 105
10.3.1. Subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses ..................... 105
10.3.2. Relative clauses (Adjective clauses) ......................... 106
10.4. The form of non-finite verb groups .................................. 110
10.4.1. Bare infinitive verb groups ....................................... 111
10.4.2. To-infinitive verb groups ........................................... 112
10.4.3. Passive participle verb groups ................................. 112
10.4.4. –Ing participle verb groups ..................................... 112
10.5. Complementisers and non-finite clauses ......................... 113
10.5.1. Comp-1: for and whether .......................................... 113
10.5.2. Comp-2: fronted Wh-phrases .................................. 114
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10.6. The functions of non-finite clauses .................................. 115
10.6.1. Subject and extra-posed ............................................ 115
10.6.2. Complement of A in AP ............................................. 115
10.6.3. Complement of P in PP ............................................. 115
10.6.4. Adverbial .................................................................... 116
10.6.5. Modifier of NOM in NP ........................................... 116
10.6.6. Complement of N in NP ............................................ 116
10.6.7. Complement of verb group (Direct Object) ............ 117
Exercises...................................................................................... 118
APPENDIX 1: Ambiguity ....................................................... 119
APPENDIX 2: Other types of tree diagrams ....................... 123
REFERENCES ......................................................................... 125
KEY ............................................................................................ 127
GLOSSARY .............................................................................. 139

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 ABBREVIATIONS

A Adjective
Adv Adverb
Aff Affix
AdvP Adverb Phrase
AP Adjective Phrase
Aux Auxiliary
B Base/Bound
C Complement
Cd Compound word
Car Cardinal number
Comp Complementiser
Cx Complex word
Ditrans Ditransitive
Det Determiner
E Ellipsis
F Free
Grp Group
Gs Grammatical structure
H Head
Intens Intensive
Intrans Intransitive
M Modal/Modifier
Monotrans Monotransitive
N Noun

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Nom Nominal
NP Noun phrase
O Object
Od Direct Object
Oi Indirect Object
Or Ordinal number
P Preposition
Part Participle
Poss Possessive
Pref Prefix
Pres Present
Pro Pronoun
PP Prepositional Phrase
PPP Present Participle Prepositional Phrase
Q Quantitative
S Simple word/Sentence
Suf Suffix
Trans Transitive
V Verb
VP Verb phrase
----------------

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 PART I
MORPHOLOGY
Chapter 1
MORPHEMES

Introduction
Morphology is the study of Morpheme and their different
forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word
formation (Yule, G.).
Ex: The English word dishonesty is formed from honest, the
adjective – forming suffix y and the negative prefix dis.
Morphology (Greek: morphe  form and logy  study) is
the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which
words are formed.
Morphology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the
structure and form of words.
+ Two levels of Morphology
1. Paradigmatic morphology: the study of parts of speech
(noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, pronoun, preposition,
interjection) and the formation of them. There are two kinds of
paradigms: derivational and inflectional.
2. Syntagmatic morphology: the study of the use of parts of
speech (an adjective is used to modify a noun, an adverb is used
to modify an adjective, etc.) and the study of phrases: noun+noun,
noun+adverb, verb+noun, verb+adverb, etc.
Branches of Morphology: Inflectional & Derivational
Morphology
- Inflectional Morphology: the same part of speech, but
different forms
Ex: do (v): does, doing, did, done
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 - Derivational Morphology: different forms and different
parts of speech.
Ex: use (v): user (n), useful (adj), usefully (adv)

1.1. Definition – characteristics

A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three
criteria:
+ It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning.
+ It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without
violation of its meaning or without meaningless remainders.
+ It recurs in differing verbal environments with a relatively
stable meaning.
A morpheme is the smallest unit of language which has an
independent function.

1.2. Distinction between morphemes, phonemes, syllables and

words
• A word has at least one morpheme: use, America
• A word may have one morpheme or several morphemes:
Person > personal > impersonal > impersonalize >
impersonalization > impersonalizations
• A phoneme is a sound that has meaning: a (indefinite
article), ed (past simple and past participle)
• A syllable may be a morpheme. Sometimes two syllables
may be a morpheme. Sometimes more syllables may be a
morpheme: pen, pencil, Argentina
• A letter may be a morpheme. Sometimes two letters may
be a morpheme. Sometimes more letters may be a
morpheme: a (indefinite article), America + n + s
A letter is sometimes a morpheme (rarely). Usually, many
letters are in one morpheme.
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1.3. Classification of morphemes

1.3.1. Form: free and bound morphemes

According to forms, morphemes can be classified as free and
bound morphemes.
+ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with
meaning.
Free morphemes are mono-morphemic words and they can
operate freely in the language.
Ex: pen, table, study, girl, danger
+ A bound morpheme cannot be uttered alone with meaning.
It is always added to one or more morphemes to form a word.
Bound morphemes must combine with other morphemes.
Ex: irregular = ir (BM) + regular (FM)

1.3.2. Meaning: roots (bases) and affixes

Morphemes are classified into two classes: roots (bases) and
affixes.
+ Roots (bases): A base morpheme is the part of a word that
has the principal meaning. Most of bases in English are free
morphemes, but some are bound. A word may contain one base
and several affixes.
Ex: personal reader re-write
FB FB FB
televise sentiment intervene
BB BB BB
+ Affixes: An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before
or within or over or after or both before and after a base. Affixes
differ from roots (bases) in three ways:
- They do not form words by themselves – they have to be
added to a stem.
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 Ex: er must be attached to a stem “speak” speaker
- Their meaning, in many instances, is not as clear and
specific as the meaning of bases, and many of them are almost
completely meaningless.
- Compared with the total number of bases, which is very
large, the number of affixes is relatively small.
By position, affixes are of five kinds: prefixes, infixes,
suffixes, superfixes and circumfixes.
- Prefixes are those bound morphemes that occur before a
base. (about 75).
Ex: Correct – Incorrect; Symmetric – Asymmetric
- Infixes are bound morphemes that occur within a word.
Infixes in English are most commonly replacements, not
additions.
Ex: ee in feet replaces the oo in foot.
o in chosen replaces oo in choose.
- Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base.
Suffixes may pile up to the number of three or four, whereas
prefixes are commonly single, except for the negative un- before
another prefix.
Ex: Job – Jobless; Active – Actively
- Superfixes are suprasegmental morphemes consisting of
stress morphemes.
Ex: protést (verb), prótèst (noun)
Circumfixes are bound morphemes that occur both before
and after a base.
Ex: In Indonesian:
Root prefix – root – suffix
patut mem - patut – kan (to correct)
Hantu meng – hantu – i (to haunt)
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1.4. Variations of morphemes – allomorphs

1.4.1. Definition
An allomorph is “any of the different forms of a morpheme”
(Austin, J. L.)
In other words, allomorphs have different phonemic forms,
but they have the same meaning, and are in CD.
A morpheme may have more than one phonemic form.
Ex: The morpheme {-ed pt.} has three phonemic forms:
- After /t/ or /d/, the sound is /id/.
- After a voiced consonant other than /d/, it is pronounced
as /d/.
- After a voiceless consonant other than /t/, it is
pronounced like /t/.
These three phonemic forms of {-ed pt.} are not
interchangeable  They are in complementary distribution,
abbreviated CD.

1.4.2. Kinds of allomorphs

Allomorphs are of two kinds: phonologically conditioned and
morphologically conditioned allomorphs.

1.4.2.1. Phonologically conditioned allomorphs

- When the distribution was determined by the preceding
sounds, we say that the selection of allomorphs is phonologically
conditioned.
- When the related forms of a set, like the three forms of {-ed
pt.}, have the same meaning and are in complementary
distribution, they are called allomorphs and belong to the same
morpheme. So, the morpheme {-ed pt.} has three allomorphs /id/,
/t/ and /d/. This can be expressed in the formula:
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 {-d pt.} = /-id/ ~ /-t/ ~ /-d/
Tilde ~ means “in alternation with”
{-s pl} = /-iz/ ~ /-z/ ~ /-s/

1.4.2.2. Morphologically conditioned allomorphs

- This distribution was determined by the morphological
environment. We say that the selection of allomorphs is
morphologically conditioned.
{-s pl.} has other allomorphs such as /en/ in ox – oxen of /Ø/
(zero) in sheep –sheep.
{-s pl.} = /-iz/ ~ /-z/ ~ /-s/ ∞ /-en/ ∞ /Ø/ ∞ /a/ ∞ /i/, etc.
The symbol is ∞ (the infinity).

1.4.2.3. Classification of morphologically conditioned allomorphs

The zero allomorph
There is no change in the shape of a word though some
difference in meaning is identified.
The symbol is {Ø} (NIL)
Ex: The allomorph {Ø} of {-s pl.} in sheep – sheep
fish – fish
The allomorph {Ø} of {-ed pt.} in put – put
cut – cut
Ex: There is a sheep. >< We see ten sheep.
Singular Plural
He cut the tree down yesterday. >< He has cut the tree down
lately.
Past simple Past participle
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Exercises

1. Write true (T) or false (F) for each of the sentences below,
according to the information given.
_____ 1. Free morphemes can stand alone as words.
_____ 2. Bound morphemes always attach to other
morphemes, never existing as words themselves. They always
carry a grammatical function.
_____ 3. Bases can stand alone.
_____ 4. Prefixes can stand alone.
_____ 5. Suffixes can stand alone.
_____ 6. Affixes can stand alone.
_____ 7. Stems can be added with affixes.
_____8. A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has
meaning or grammatical function.
_____9. A prefix attaches to the end of a stem.
_____10. Suffixes don’t change the meaning or syntactic
function of the words to which they attach.

2. Identify the number of morphemes in these words.

Words Number of morphemes Free Bound
1 Formation
2 Difference
3 Industrialization
4 Singers
5 Booklets
6 Computer
7 Activity
8 Philippines
9 Asians
10 Confirmation

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3. Write the meaning of the underlined morphemes.
Words Meaning
1 abiotic
2 scholarship
3 hyperacid
4 childish
5 minimize
6 demicircular
7 handsome
8 government
9 subtropical
10 outlook

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 Chapter 2
DERIVATION vs. INFLECTION

By function, affixes are of two kinds: derivational and

inflectional.
- Derivational affixes are added to stems to form new words.
Ex: listen (V) + -er  listener (N)
- Inflectional affixes are added to stems to form new grammatical
forms.
Ex: help (V) + -ing  helping (present participle) (helps, helped)
The following figure summarizes all the types of morphemes.
Morphemes
Roots Affixes
Free Bound Derivational Inflectional
dollar hemi- prefix suffix -s
honor scrib- an ity -ed
nose tele- mis less -ing

2.1. Inflectional affixes

2.1.1. Inflectional suffixes

Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes which are part
of the grammatical system.
The inflectional affixes are all suffixes as follows:
Stem Inflectional suffix Examples Name
cat, ox 1. {-s pl.} cats, oxen N plural
girl 2. {-s sg ps.} girl’s N singular
possession
girl, men 3. {-s pl ps.} girls’, men’s N plural possession
learn 4. {-s 3d.} Jack learns French Present 3d singular

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work 5. {-ing vb} He is working. Present Participle
play, ride 6. {-d pt} She played, rode Past simple
play, eat 7. {-d pp} He has played, Past Participle
eaten
tall, soon 8. {er cp} Jim is taller Comparative
tall, soon 9. {est sp} Jim is the tallest Superlative

2.1.2. Stems

Stems are the words to which these affixes are attached. The
stems include the base and all the derivational or inflectional
affixes.
Ex: boys dishonest
boy: stem honest: stem
{-s}: inflectional affix {-dis}: derivational affix

2.1.3. Characteristics of inflectional suffixes

- They do not change the part of speech.
Ex: book (N) books (N)
want (V) wants (V)
- They come last in a word.
Ex: wanted, working, smaller
- They go with all stems of a given part of speech.
Ex: He eats, drinks, writes.
- They do not pile up. Only one ends a word.

2.2. Derivational affixes

2.2.1. Derivational morphemes

Derivational morphemes are either prefixes or suffixes that

are not inflectional. They participate in the formation of new
words.
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 Prefixes are considered derivational.
Ex: asymmetric, irregular, unimportant

2.2.2. Characteristics of derivational suffixes

- The words with which derivational suffixes combine are an
arbitrary matter.
Ex: ce for important, patient, convenient, etc.
- In many cases, but not all, a derivational suffix changes the
part of speech of the word to which it is added.
Ex: nation (N) + -ive  native (Adj)
- Derivational suffixes usually do not close off a word; that is,
after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another
derivational suffix and can frequently add an inflectional suffix.
Ex: person + -al  personal + -ity  personality + -s 
personalities
- Homonymy is of two different words which have the same
spelling or sound or both but different meanings.
HOMONYMY
Sound Spelling Meaning
Homonym + + -
Homophone + - -
Homograph - + -
Notes: + (same) >< - (different)
homonyms:
Ex 1: row (line) >< row (move a boat)
homophones:
Ex 2: flower >< flour

11
homographs:
Ex 3: read (bare infinitive) >< read (past simple)
lead (v) lead (n)
In Vietnamese, there is only one kind of homonym.
Ex: đường (sugar) >< đường (way/road)

2.2.3. Suffixal homonyms

Homonyms are the words (parts of the words) that have the
same sound and spelling, but different meanings.
Some suffixes, both inflectional and derivational, have
homonymous forms.

2.2.4. The inflectional morpheme {-er} comparative of adjective

has two homonyms
a) -er: Derivational suffix can be attached to verbs to form
nouns. This suffix conveys the meaning of “that which performs
the action of the verb stem”. (Ex: learner, lover)
b) –er: Derivational suffix. This conveys the meaning of
repetition.
Ex: chatter, mutter, glitter
c) –er: Inflectional suffix. It is added to an adjective to make
it comparative degree.
Ex: old - older

2.2.5. The verbal inflectional suffix {-ing} (IS, present

participle) has three homonyms
a) The nominal derivational suffix –ing {-ing nm) as in
meeting, wedding, reading.
b) The adjectival morpheme {-ing aj} as in charming, burning
c) The gerund morpheme {-ing gr} as in “Swimming is good
for health”.
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2.2.6. The verbal inflectional {-ed pp} (IS/ past participle) has a
homonym: the adjectival
derivational {-ed aj} (DS/Adjectival)
Ex: He was interested in the film.
He was a devoted teacher.
Past simple: learn – learned – learned
Past simple Past participle
She worked hard. >< She has worked hard.

2.2.7. The adverbial derivational suffix {-ly av} (DS/adverbial)

has a homonym: the adjectival derivational suffix {-ly aj} (DS/
adjectival) and the nominal derivational suffix {-ly n} (DS/
nominal)
Ex: daily (adj), daily (n), daily (adv)

2.3. How to distinguish Derivation from Inflection

+ Prefixes are always derivational.
Ex: unhappy, dishonest, irregular
+ A suffix that is a grammatical form is inflectional.
Ex: books, does, learning, learned, went, sheep (zero suffix)
+ A suffix that changes a part of speech is derivational.
Ex: her, national, socialize, government

Exercises

1. Write true (T) or false (F) for each of the sentences below,
according to the information given.
_____ 1. Inflectional morphemes can serve a purely
grammatical function, never creating a new word but only a
different form of the same word.
13
 _____ 2. Derivational morphemes can change the meaning or
lexical category of the words to which they attach.
_____ 3. “th” in “ I could feel the warmth of the fire.” is an
inflectional affix.
_____4. Function morphemes provide information about the
grammatical relationships of words.
_____5. A derivational suffix changes the part of speech of
the word to which it is added.
_____6. Inflectional morphemes can serve a lexical function.
_____7. Allomorphs are the same words which have different
meanings and functions.
_____ 8. “s” in “ There are two books.” is a derivational affix.
_____ 9. “er” in “taller” and the one in “worker” are suffixal
homonyms.
_____ 10. “im” in “impossible” is inflectional.

2. Classify the following words as derivational / inflectional

morphemes.
his, books, Beth’s, walks, hoped, violated, does, bigger,
desserts, media, speaker, toughest, midnight, having, social,
eaten, forms, insulted, government, furiously, exercising.

14
 Chapter 3
IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS IN MORPHOLOGY

3.1. Immediate constituents (IC)

Immediate constituents are any of the two meaningful parts
forming a larger meaningful unit. (Immediate constituents are any
of the two morphemes standing next to each other.)
Four sorts of morphemes – bases, prefixes, infixes, and
suffixes are put together to build words. When we analyze a word,
we usually divide a word into two parts of which it seems to have
been composed.
Ex: un- gentle- man -ly un- gentle- man -ly

Right Wrong
The ultimate constituents are the morphemes of which the
word is composed.

3.2. Some recommendations on IC division

+ If a word ends in an inflectional/derivational suffix, the first
cut is between this suffix and the rest of the word.
Ex: works worker
+ One of the ICs should be, if possible, a free morpheme. A
free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.
Ex: enlarge -ment NOT en- largement
In- dependent NOT independ -ent
The meanings of the ICs should be replaced with the meaning
of the word.
Ex: teach -er NOT tea -cher
15
3.3. Diagramming
How to count immediate constituents:
+ The number of IC = The number of morpheme - 1
One morpheme = No IC; Two morphemes = 1 IC
+ Use = one morpheme = no IC
+ Useful = two morphemes = one IC
Use -ful
+ Usefully = three M = two ICs
Use -ful -ly
symbolizes an IC.
Vertical line: cut two morphemes
Horizontal line: cover two morphemes
Notes: A hyphen must stick to an affix.
Types of morphemes:
1. According to the internal composition:
Morphemes may be composed of:
- Segmental morpheme: re-, un-, -ish, -less
- Suprasegmental morphemes: stress morphemes, intonation
morphemes.
2. According to the shapes and sizes of morphemes:
- Morpheme C (consonant): s
- Morpheme VC (vowel-consonant): un-
- Morpheme CVC (consonant - vowel - consonant): man
3. According to the structural relationships of morphemes to
each other:
- Additive morphemes (roots + affixes)
16
 We form new grammatical forms by adding something, for
example, en or ren which are the plural markers.
Ex: ox – oxen child – children
- Replacive morphemes:
To signify some difference in meaning, a sound is used to
replace another sound in a word. For example, the /I/ in drink is
replaced by the /æ/ in drank to signal the simple past. This is
symbolized as follows:
{dræƞk} = {drIƞk} + {I  æ}.
- Subtractive morphemes: Some morpheme is deleted.
Ex: {fiancé} {fiancée}
- Suppletive morphemes:
To signify some difference in meaning, there is a complete
change in the shape of a word.
Ex: go + the suppletive allomorph of {-ed pl.} = went;
be + the suppletive allomorph of {-s 3rd p} = is;
bad + the suppletive allomorph of {-er cp} = worse;
good + the suppletive allomorph of {-est} = best.
4. According to the distribution:
- Free morphemes and bound morphemes.
- Roots and affixes
- Segmental morphemes
- Suprasegmental morphemes
Ex: The morpheme {book} consists of the segmental /b/ /u/
/k/, suprasegmental /’/
5. According to the function:
- Lexical morphemes:
prefixes prefixes + root: lex. mor.
17
 Affixes roots + der. suf.: lex. mor.
suffixes roots + infl. suf.: gram. mor.
- Grammatical morphemes:
{-s}, {-ed}, {-ing}

Exercises

1. Diagram these words to show the layers of structure.

Anticlerical itemized
Unlawful midafternoon
Preprofessional supernatural
Newspaperdom uncomfortable
Counterdeclaration engaging

2. Analyze the following words as indicated.

Number of
No. Words Base (Root) Stem
morphemes
1 Interpersonalized
2 Newly-weds
3 Certifications
4 Sub-standardizations
5 Widowed
6 Relationships
7 Baby-sitters
8 Assassinated
9 Attachments
10 Semimechanized

3. Choose the correct answer.

1. The study of the construction of words out of morphemes...
A. morphology
18
 B. morphemes
2. Smallest linguistic unit that has meaning or grammatical
function.
A. free morpheme
B. morphemes
C. bound morpheme
D. derivational morphemes
3. Free morphemes can stand alone as words.
A. False
B. True
4. Bound morphemes always attach to other morphemes,
never existing as words themselves. They always carry a
grammatical function.
A. False
B. True
5. Morphemes that carry a semantic content as opposed to
performing a grammatical function...
A. Content morphemes
B. Function morphemes
6. An affix that attaches to the end of a stem; in English,
suffixes may be inflectional or derivational.
A. Prefix
B. Suffix
C. Affix
D. Infix
7. Bound morphemes that change the meaning or syntactic
function of the words to which they attach...
A. Prefix
19
 B. Suffix
C. Affix
D. Infix
8. An affix that attaches to the beginning of a stem...
A. Prefix
B. Suffix
C. Affix
D. Infix
9. Morphemes that provide information about the grammatical
relationships of words...
A. Content morphemes
B. Function morphemes
10. Morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category
of the words to which they attach...
A. Derivational morphemes
B. Inflectional morphemes
11. Morphemes that serve a purely grammatical
function, never creating a new word but only a different form
of the same word...
A. Derivational morphemes
B. Inflectional morphemes
12. Nondistinctive realizations of a particular morpheme that
have the same function and are phonetically similar...
A. phoneme
B. allophone
C. allomorph
D. alternate morpheme
13. -ed- He washed the car.
20
 A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes
14. -s- He walks to school.
A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes
15. -tion- Radiation leaked out of the plant.
A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes
16. -ing- She is studying every day.
A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes
17. -ly- Slowly, he ambled down the street.
A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes
18. -al- They occur at the margin of a word, after any
derivational morphemes.
A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes
19. -est- That is the biggest fish I have ever seen.
A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes
20. -th- I could feel the warmth of the fire.
A. Inflectional morphemes
B. Derivational morphemes

21
4. Choose the correct answer.
1. -ize -: finalºfinalize is derivational because it changes the
word...
A. nounºadjective
B. adjectiveºnoun
C. nounºverb
D. verbºadjective
E. verb ºnoun
F. adjectiveºverb
2. -ness - sadºsadness is derivational because it changes the
word...
A. nounºadjective
B. verb ºnoun
C. nounºverb
D. verbºadjective
E. adjectiveºnoun
F. adjectiveºverb
3. -re- fundºrefund is derivational because it changes the
word...
A. verb ºnoun
B. nounºadjective
C. verbºadjective
D. nounºverb
E. adjectiveºnoun
F. adjectiveºverb
4. -ive - describeºdescriptive is derivational because it
changes the word...
22
 A. verb ºnoun
B. nounºadjective
C. verbºadjective
D. nounºverb
E. adjectiveºnoun
F. adjectiveºverb
5. -en - gold is expensiveºthe golden years is derivational
because it changes the word...
A. verb ºnoun
B. nounºadjective
C. verbºadjective
D. nounºverb
E. adjectiveºnoun
F. adjectiveºverb
6. -al- rationºrational is derivational because it changes the
word...
A. verb ºnoun
B. nounºadjective
C. verbºadjective
D. nounºverb
E. adjectiveºnoun
F. adjectiveºverb
7. If you divide "Americanize" into its component
morphemes, the root would be...
A. America
B. American
23
 C. ameri
D. merit
8. If you divide "Computers" into its component morphemes,
the root would be...
A. computer
B. –s
C. computers
D. compute
9. If you divide "component" into its component morphemes,
the root would be...
A. compone
B. comp
C. -nent
D. component
10. If you divide "isolated" into its component morphemes,
the root would be...
A. isolation
B. isolate
C. isolated
D. isola-
11. Which morpheme in "the experiment's" has an
inflectional function?
A. -'s
B. -ment
C. -ex
D. -peri
24
 12. Which morpheme in "is dehumidifying" has an
inflectional function?
A. -de
B. -ify
C. -id
D. -ing
13. Which morpheme in "has rationalized" has an
inflectional function?
A. ration
B. -al
C. -ize
D. -ed
14. Which morpheme in "is swimming" has an inflectional
function?
A. swim
B. -ming
C. –ing
D. -mming
15. Which morpheme in "is being spiritualized" has an
inflectional function?
A. spirit
B. -al
C. -ize
D. -ed
16. Indonesian: rumah [rumah] house [rumahrumah]
houses [ibu] mother [ibuibu] mothers [lalat] fly [lalatlalat] flies
-rumah, -ibu, lalat is...
A. derivational
25
 B. inflectional
17. English -er rideºrider readºreader jogºjogger -er is...
A. derivational
B. inflectional
18. English -er bigºbigger tallºtaller smallºsmaller -er is ...
A. derivational
B. inflectional
19. Spanish amos-- hablarºhablamos to speakºwe speak
estarºestamos to beºwe are comprarºcompramos to buyºwe buy
mirarºmiramos to lookºwe look -amos is...
A. derivational
B. inflectional
20. Russian -scik [mebel] furniture [mebelscik] furniture
maker [beton] concrete [betonscik] concrete worker -scik is...
A. derivational
B. inflectional
----------------------------

26
 Chapter 4
WORDS

A word is the smallest segment of speech that can be used

alone, and at which pausing is possible (Austin, J. L.).
Ex: He called up his classmates.
(He, called up, his, classmates are four words, and no pauses
are possible between the two elements of each word).
There are three main classes of words: simple words,
complex (or derived) words, and compound words.
Notes: derived = derivational

4.1. Simple words

Simple words are composed of a single free morpheme.
Ex: pen, table, Argentina

4.2. Complex (or derived) words

Complex (or derived) words include either two bound
morphemes, or a bound and a free form.
Ex: Two bound forms: intervene, sentiment, televise
A bound and a free form: telephone, telekiss, happiness,
dishonest, nonsense

4.3. Compound words

Compound words have two or more free morphemes.
Ex: Sweetheart, swimming-pool, forget-me-not.
Notes: Compound words must have figurative meaning (><
literal meaning).
Sometimes, it is difficult to decide if the word is a compound
word or a group of words (grammatical structure).
There are three ways to see the difference.
27
4.3.1. Structural integrity
We cannot add any word to the middle of two morphemes of
compound words.
Ex: It is a greenhouse. (compound word)
It is a green wooden house. (a group of words = grammatical
structure)

4.3.2. Semantic criterion

The meaning of a compound word is idiomatic, not the sum
of the meaning of the words (grammatical structure).
Ex: He has an iron heart. (He is not kind.)
He has a heavy iron heart. (He has a heart-shaped thing which
is heavy.)

4.3.3. Phonetic criterion

Most compound words have the main stress over the first
word. A group of words (grammatical structure) has the main
stress over the second word.
Ex: A swímming teàcher (a compound word)
A swìmming teácher (a group of words)
Notes: ' main stress.
` secondary stress.
Abbreviation:
S simple word
Cx Complex word
Cd Compound word
Gs Grammatical structure

28
4.4. Processes of word formation

4.4.1. Compounding
Compounding is the joining of two or more words into a
single word. Compounds may be written as one word (without a
hyphen or a space), as a hyphenated word (with a hyphen), or as
two words (with a space).
Ex: sunflower, school-girl, high school, skateboard,
whitewash, cat lover, self-help, red-hot, etc.

4.4.2. Derivation, conversion or functional shift

Derivation is the forming of new words by combining
derivational affixes or bound bases with existing words.
Ex: teacher, re-ask, abuser, refusal, untie, inspection, pre-
cook, etc.
Zero derivation (also called conversion or functional shift):
Adding no affixes; simply using a word of one category as a word
of another category.
Ex: Noun-verb: comb, sand, knife, butter, referee,
proposition.
Stress shift: No affix is added to the base, but the stress is
shifted from one syllable to the other. The stress shift comes a
change in category.
Noun Verb Noun Adjective
cómbine combíne cóncrete concrete
ímplant implánt ábstract abstract
réwrite rewríte
tránsport transpórt
Prógress progréss
29
 Affixation: Adding a derivational affix to a word.
Ex: abuser, refusal, untie, inspection, pre-cook.
feet (foot), geese (goose) [inflection].

4.4.3. Clipping or contraction

Clipping is the forming of new words by cutting off the
beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a part to stand for
the whole. (3 ways)
Ex:
laboratory  lab dormitory  dorm
brother  bro professional  pro
Caravan  van parachute  chute
Influenza  flu refridgerator  fridge

4.4.4. Acronymy or abbreviation

Acronymy is the forming of new words from the initials or
beginning segments of a succession of words.
Ex:
MP: military police/member of parliament
TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language
radar: radio detection and ranging
NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Scuba: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations

30
4.4.5. Blending or mixture
Blending is the forming of new words by joining the first part
of one word with the last part of another word.
breakfast + lunch  brunch
smoke + fog  smog
motor + hotel  motel
television + marathon  telethon
modulator + demodulator  modem
Spanish + English  Spanglish
Simgapore + English → Singlish

4.4.6. Back-formation or reversion

Back formation is the forming of new words from the one that
looks like its derivative.
Ex:
beggar  to beg
editor  to edit
resurrection  to resurrect
enthusiasm  to enthuse
burglar  to burgle
hamburger  burger
untie  tie
pre-cook  cook

4.4.7. Adoption of brand names as common words

(coinage/invention/neologism)

A proper name becomes the name for the item or process

associated with the name. The word ceases to be capitalized and
31
acts as a normal verb/noun (i.e. takes inflections such as plural or
past tense). The companies using the names usually have
copyrighted them and object to their use in public documents, so
they should be avoided in formal writing (or a lawsuit could
follow!)

Ex: xerox, kleenex, cola, 7 up.

4.4.8. Onomatopoeia or sound imitation or reduplication/echo

Words are invented which (to native speakers at least) sound

like the sound they name or the entity which produces the sound.
Ex: hiss, sizzle, cuckoo, cock-a-doodle-doo, buzz, beep,
ding-dong.

4.4.9. Borrowing

A word is taken from another language. It may be adapted to

the borrowing language's phonological system to varying degrees.
Ex: tomato (from indigenous languages of the Americas),
sushi, taboo (from Pacific Rim languages), macho, spaghetti,
psychology, telephone, physician, education (from European
languages), yam, banana (from African languages), ao dai
(Vietnamese).

4.4.10. Antonomasia or words from names

The formation of a common word from the name of a person

or place.
Ex: sandwich, champagne

4.4.11. Isolation on word formation

A new word is obtained by isolating the plural form which is

then with its own particular meaning.
Ex: colours (flags), glasses (spectacles)
32
 Conclusion: English speakers coin new words every day. We
can find them in newspapers, magazines or daily speech, but to
use them, we should be more careful because not all these are
accepted in standard English.

4.5. Parts of speech

There are eight parts of speech in English.

4.5.1. Changeable parts of speech

4.5.1.1. Nouns
A noun is a word used to identify any of a class of people,
animals, places, things, ideas.
Nouns are separated into common nouns and proper nouns
(Austin, J. L.).
Ex: teacher, deer, sea, pen, idea, etc.

4.5.1.2. Verbs
A word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and
forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence (Austin, J.L.).
Ex: hear, become, happen, run, eat, etc.

4.5.1.3. Adjectives
An adjective is a describing word. An adjective describes a
noun or a pronoun (Austin, J. L.).
Ex: red, beautiful, fine, generous, etc.

4.5.1.4. Adverbs
A word that describes a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or
a sentence. It tells you about an action, or the way something is
done (Austin, J. L.).
Ex: carefully, hard, generally, fast, etc.

33
4.5.2. Unchangeable parts of speech

4.5.2.1. Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun in a sentence
(Austin, J. L.).
There are many kinds of pronouns.
Personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him,
her, etc.
Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, etc.
Indefinite pronouns: some, any, etc.

4.5.2.2. Prepositions
A preposition is a word that connects one thing with another,
showing how they are related (Austin, J. L.).
Ex: on, in, at, about, within, etc.

4.5.2.3. Conjunctions
A conjunction is a linking word used to connect clauses or
sentences (Austin, J. L.).
Ex: and, but, because, which, when, etc.

4.5.2.4. Interjections
An interjection is a word that expresses an emotion, sudden,
strong feeling such as surprise, pain, or pleasure (Austin, J. L.).
Ex: wow, cheers, ouch, oh dear, etc.

Exercises

1. Indicate whether each italicized expression is a compound

word (Cd) or a grammatical structure (Gs). Pay no attention to
hyphens or spaces, for these are deceptive:
1. Jim’s new car is a hardtop. ______
2. This jar has a rather hard top. ______
34
 3. It was a jack-in-the-box. ______
4. There was a plant in the box. ______
5. A hót dòg is not a hòt dóg. ______
6. He has a dog in the manger attitude. ____
7. She has a strong hold on him. ______
8. She has a stronghold in the Women’s Club. ______
9. George found his father-in-law. ______
10. George found his father in trouble. ______
11. They bought it on the black market. ______
12. The electricity went off, and we were caught in a black
completely lightless, market. ______
13. Agatha is a desígning teàcher. ______
14. Agatha is a desìgning teácher. ______

2. For a view of the three classes of words, identify the following

items with these symbols:
S simple word
Cx Complex word
Cd Compound word
Gs Grammatical structure
1. Shárpshòoter _________
2. Shàrp shóoter _________
3. act __________
4. react __________
5. rattlesnake __________
6. passbook __________
7. apparatus __________
35
 8. glowworm __________
9. import __________
10. ripcord __________
11. unearth __________
12. stick-in-the-mud __________

3. State whether the following groups of words are compounds

or free word-groups, making use of different criteria:
1. Sweet voice
2. Sweet potato
3. White coffee
4. white-wash
5. White house
6. Hígh-prèssure
7. Hìgh tíde
8. Rèd méat
9. Red eyes
10. Red tap
11. Réd Cròss
12. Gold fish
13. Góld rìng
14. Gólden Àges
15. Golden wedding (50th)

4. Analyze English words: For a view of the three classes of

words, identify the following items with these symbols:
S Simple word
Cx Complex word
Cd Compound word
36
 Gs Grammatical structure
_____ 1. Door bell
_____ 2. Airplane
_____ 3. Material
_____ 4. Pink flower
_____ 5. blackmail
_____ 6. Gentleman
_____ 7. Production
_____ 8. Orchestra

5. Give the original word(s) and identify the processes of word

formation of the following. Provide one example to illustrate
each type of processes.
Word Original words Processes Your examples
1 RAM
2 Telex
3 flu
4 brunch
5 disagree
6 Ice-cream
7 write
8 gasohol
9 Mew
10 sandwich

37
 PART II. SYNTAX
Chapter 5
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

5.1. Constituents

5.1.1. Structure
Every word in a sentence is called a constituent.
Two words standing next to each other in a sentence make up
an immediate constituent.
Ex:
(1) There is a man on the pavement.
(2) Kathy borrowed Jack’s disc and copied some nice music.
In sentence (1) there are seven constituents while there are ten
constituents in sentence (2).
In sentence (1) there are six immediate constituents while
there are nine immediate constituents in sentence (2).
Using the diagram marked (3) as an illustration, one may say
“yes” to the question “Are words the immediate constituents of
the sentence that contains them?”
(3) My Mum sat on a bench.
(3) is compared with the diagrams marked (4) and (5):
*(4) Bench my Mum sat on a.
*(5) Sat my on bench a Mum.
The sentence (3) does not provide any explanation of why the
words that occur in (3) form a well-formed English sentence, and
why those that occur in (4) and (5) do not. “The arrangement of
words in a sentence is mainly determined by the fact that the words
are not immediate constituents of the sentences, but belong with
other words to make up groups which have their own specifiable
38
position in the structure of the sentence. In brief, while sentences
CONTAIN words, they don’t CONSIST (just of) words.”

5.1.2. Establishing constituents and immediate constituents

Sentence (3) may be written in the followings:
(6) * My Mum sat on.
(7) My Mum sat.
(8) * My Mum.
(9) *My.
Only (7) is well-formed. (8) may stand alone; however, it is
not a complete sentence. In a complete and well-formed sentence,
one can establish constituents and immediate constituents.
In a sentence, each word is considered a constituent.
Ex:
She likes music. (3 constituents)
We consider Mary’s dog the most intelligent. (8 constituents)
Every two constituents will make an immediate constituent.
Ex:
Henry buys a book for Martha. (5 immediate constituents)
Janet will elect Thomas their monitor in the class. (8
immediate constituents)

5.2. Functions

5.2.1. Subject and predicate

In the beginning, a sentence can be divided into two
constituents, the former of which is said to function as subject,
and the latter as predicate.
Ex: [The hare] [ran away].

Subject Predicate
39
 The subject of the sentence is a noun phrase (NP)
immediately dominated by a sentence. Then a predicate is a verb
phrase (VP) immediately dominated by a sentence. Both the NP
and the VP make up a sentence (S).
Ex: [The hunter] [has trapped the hare].
This sentence can be shown in a tree diagram or a phrase
marker as follows:

5.2.2. Dependency and function

If two constituent nodes are immediately dominated by the
same single node, they are said to be sisters. It is said that the
40
sisters have the functions in respect of each other. The single node
is called the mother of the two constituents.
Ex: [The hunter] [has trapped the hare].

5.2.3. Modifier and head

In a phrase if any word or group of words can be deleted
leaving other well-form phrase, the word or the group of words
play the functions of a modifier.
Ex: The NP her rather strange characters is shown in its
following tree diagram:

In this tree diagram, there are three sister relations of

modification.
· her and PHRASE-b (rather strange characters)
· PHRASE-c (rather strange) and characters
· rather and strange
41
 In PHRASE-c rather is dependent on strange because if
strange was omitted, we have an ill-formed string *her rather
characters. In contrast, rather can be omitted and the
omission still leave a perfectly good phrase her strange
characters.
This is a one-way function or dependency. In this case rather
has a function of modifier in respect of its sister strange. The
same thing happens to PHRASE-b in which PHRASE-c has a
function of modifier in respect of its sister. Characters, and
PHRASE-a in which her has a function of modifier in respect
of its sister PHRASE-b rather strange characters.
When a phrase contains a modifier, the element that is
modified forms the essential center of the phrase and is said to be
the head of the phrase.
Therefore in the Ex above, strange functions as a head of
rather, characters as a head of rather strange, and rather strange
characters as a head of her. These are the relation between
modifiers and heads.

5.2.4. Head and complement

In a structure when the presence of one element determines
the presence of another and vice versa, there is a two-way
dependence in this structure.
Ex: My Mum sat on a bench.
42
 In this sentence, the prepositional phrase on a bench includes
the preposition on and the noun phrase a bench.
If we delete on or a bench, we are left ill-formed sentences:
* My Mum sat a bench and * My Mum sat on. So the relation
between on and a bench is two-way dependence. In this relation,
on functions as head in respect of a bench, and a bench functions
as complement in respect of on. So in the two-way dependences
complements typically follow their heads in English.

The relation between a subject and a predicate is also a two-

way dependence.
Ex: She smiled.

5.3. Categories
In language, words are assigned to several distinct categories
to indicate that each word has a restricted range of possible
functions and that one sees restrictions on how the words can
combine to form phrases.
When words contain the same distribution, or they have the
same range of functions, can combine with the same other
elements, and can occupy the same positions, they belong to the
same category.
Ex: Her rather strange characters.
Her very funny story.

43
 In the two phrases, rather and very have the same function of
modifying the adjective strange/funny, can combine with the
same adjective strange/funny, and can occupy the same position
before the adjective strange/funny, so they belong to the same
category.
Each single word has its lexical category and each phrase also
has its phrasal category. As whole phrases, they have the same
distribution - they will be able to occupy the same position in
sentence structure and have the same range of function.
Ex:
Her rather strange characters.
Her very strange characters.
Rather strange and very strange belong to the same phrasal
category because they have the same distribution - they can
modify, combine with and occur before the noun characters.

5.3.1. Noun and noun phrase

5.3.1.1. Definition of the noun

In terms of traditional definition, a noun is the name of a
person, place, or thing. For Ex, actor, university and character are
nouns. Furthermore, actor, university and character are nouns
because they have the same distribution: they occupy the same
range of positions such as after adjectives and have the same range
of functions such as subject of verb. (object, complement)

5.3.1.2. Noun phrase

A modifier-head relation has the category of the head word
that determines the category of the phrase a whole. Hence a noun
phrase is a phrase that contains, and is centered on a noun as the
head of the phrase. Only one noun in a noun phrase can function
as its head. The head noun does determine the number (singular

44
or plural) and the gender (masculine, feminine, or neutral) of the
noun phrase as a whole.
Ex: The extremely handsome boy is my son.
In this sentence, The extremely handsome boy is a noun
phrase because it takes the noun boy as its head.
The tree diagram or phrase marker of The extremely
handsome boy is as follows.

A noun phrase can consist of only a head noun.

Ex: Jack helped them.
Max confused me.

Nouns and noun phrases can be replaced by pronouns. So in

substituting a pronoun, we test more specifically whether the
phrase is a noun phrase or not.
45
 Ex: Mary and Daisy were chatting.
They were chatting.
Some common pronouns are:
· Definite pronouns: she/her, it, I/me, we/us, you,
they/them.
· Indefinite pronouns: some, something, someone, anything
· Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
· Interrogative pronouns: who, which, what, whose
· Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, her, ours, yours,
theirs, whose
Because a pronoun can replace a noun phrase, it assumes the
position and function of a full noun phrase. In terms of a phrase
marker, it could be expressed as in the following Ex.
Ex: It ran away.

5.3.1.3. Enlarged noun phrase

In ordinary sentences, the sentence (S) is always subdivided
into NP VP.
S= NP + VP
NP= Det+N’
N’= N+Modifier
Modifiers a word
a phrase
a clause
46
5.3.1.4. Premodifiers
Premodifiers may be:
+ Adjectives

+ Nouns

47
 + Participles

+ Adverbials

48
5.3.1.5. Post-modifiers
Post-modifiers may be:
+ Prepositional phrase

49
 + Participle phrase

+ Past participle (Post modifier)

50
 + Relative clauses

+ Adverbs

+ Adjectives

51
 + Special adjectives:

5.3.2. Adjective phrase and adverb phrase

An adjective phrase (AP) is centered on an adjective (A).
Other constituents are called modifiers. And, again like noun
phrases, an adjective phrase can consist of an unmodified head, a
simple adjective.
Ex: My very colourful book.
Very colourful is an adjective phrase modifying the noun
book, and colourful is a simple adjective modifying the noun
book.

52
 + An adverb phrase is centered on an adverb. Other
constituents are called modifiers.
By contrast with adjectives and nouns, degree adverbs such
as very, rather, too, so, quite, etc. which occupy only the position
before adjectives or adverbs cannot themselves be modified. So
there is no distinction between a degree adverb and a degree
adverb phrase. In a tree diagram, we employ the label “DEGREE”
(shortened to “DEG”).
Ex: They work so hard every day.

Degree adverb

Another kind of adverb is general adverbs which can

themselves be modified by degree adverbs to form adverb phrases
- for Ex, very oddly, quite frankly. Since modification of a
general adverb by a degree adverb is optional, an adverb phrase
(like a noun phrase and an adjective phrase) can consist of just a
simple general adverb.

+ Adverb phrase

53
5.3.3. Prepositions and prepositional phrases
Prepositions are generally short words that express relations,
often locational relations in space or time. Prepositions take
complements and their complements are always noun phrases.
The tree diagram of a preposition is in the following Ex. A
prepositional phrase is centered on a preposition. Other
constituents are called complements.
Ex: In the garden

+ Prepositional phrase

54
5.3.4. Co-ordinate phrases
In coordinate phrases, all constituents are equal to each other.
Noun phrases can have more than one head. For Ex, the pen
and the pencil has two noun heads: pen and pencil. Such phrases
are called co-ordinate phrases. The words linking two heads are
called co-ordinators including and, but, so and or.
The whole co-ordinate phrase and the elements that are co-
ordinated in them have the same distribution and so are of the
same category. So the tree diagram of a co-ordinate noun phrase
is the below.

To sum up, any constituent, of any category, can consist of a

co-ordination of constituents of the same category. It follows from
this that only constituents of the same category can be co-
ordinated. The mother and the sisters of the co-ordinator all have
the same category label.
Below are the Exs of the tree diagrams of co-ordinate
adjective phrase and co-ordinate prepositional phrase.

55
Exercises
1. Which sentence is well-formed?
a/ Jack smiled.
b/ Jack smiled with Jane.
c/ Mary throws.
d/ Mary throws a ball.
e/ Mary throws a ball to Kathy.
f/ Mary throws a ball at Kathy.
g/ Henry stood.
h/ Henry stood on the platform.
2. How many constituents and immediate constituents are
there in the above sentences?

3. Using tree diagrams, analyse the following phrases:

a/ in the class b/ from the top
c/ under the table d/ my new telephone
e/ The great man f/ her nice daughter
g/ An interesting film h/ Some new goods

4. Using circles, analyse the following phrases or

sentences:
a/ He is snoring b/ The man lives in a hut.
c/ By the river d/ Above a city
e/ Among the trees f/ Near the building
g/ Jack ran to the park.
h/ Kathy has worked for a big company.
56
 5. Draw tree diagrams for the following noun phrases with
premodifiers.
a/ A very intelligent boy
b/ Some extremely expensive cars
c/ The quite long fish
d/ Many fairly beautiful pictures
e/ A strongly swimming girl
f/ Ten little small chairs
g/ Their rather stupid dog
h/ Hoa’s unusually big pumpkin

6. Draw tree diagrams for the following noun phrases with

post-modifiers.
a/ The man living next door
b/ The house behind the theatre
c/ The girl with glasses
d/ Some cars at full speed
e/ The crab tied in the sink
f/ The woman in black
g/ A farmer on horse
h/ Seven dwarfs in the house

57
 Chapter 6
THE VERB PHRASE

The one constituent that a verb phrase (VP) must contain is

the verb group (Vgrp). The verb group consists of a lexical verb
which optionally follows other auxiliary verbs.
Ex:
I will be here tomorrow.

Verb group
Verb phrase

Verb groups are sub-categorized according to what other

elements must appear with them in the verb phrase. In other
words, they are sub-categorized in terms of their
complementation types.

6.1. Monotransitive verb groups

A monotransitive verb group is one which requires a single
noun phrase to complement it. This noun phrase is said to function
as its direct object.
Ex: Students did their test.
Mono-transitive verb Direct object
Because the verb group and the noun phrase are in a
functional relationship, the noun phrase needs to be represented
58
as a sister of the verb group (and therefore as a daughter of the
verb phrase.
When a noun phrase is the sister of a verb group bearing a
[monotrans] feature, we know that the function of the noun phrase
is that of direct object.

6.2. Intransitive verb groups

An intransitive verb group is one that does not require any
further constituent as a sister in the verb phrase.
Because an intransitive verb group does not require any
further element to form a complete predicate, a single-word verb
can count not only as a complete verb group but also as a complete
verb phrase. So, a very simple sentence like the boy smiled is
represented as follows.

6.3. Ditransitive verb groups

A ditransitive verb group is one that requires two noun
phrases as its complementation. The first complement noun
phrase functions as the indirect object, and the other complement
noun phrase functions as the direct object.
59
 Ex: He bought his father a shirt.

Ditransitive verb Indirect object Direct object

The indirect object noun phrase can be replaced by the

prepositional phrase shown by the preposition to or for.
Ex : He bought a shirt for his father.
prepositional phrase

6.4. Intensive verb groups

An intensive verb group needs a single complement, which
can take the form of an adjective, or a noun phrase, or a
prepositional phrase. The intensive verbs are called linking
verbs including: be, seem, and become. All verbs such as get,
look, remain, appear, taste, feel, smell, sound, etc. that can be
replaced by the above three verbs are also called intensive
(linking/copula) verbs. The complement of an intensive verb
group functions as a subject predicate or subjective complement.
60
 Ex:
• Lan looks beautiful. (adjective)
• Diep becomes a pilot. (noun phrase)
• We are on holidays. (prepositional phrase)
Intensive verbs Subject predicates

SP (Subject Predicate/Complement)

6.5. Complex transitive verb groups

A complex transitive verb precedes two complements: a
direct object and an object predicate or object complement. The
predicate can take the form of an adjective phrase, or a noun
phrase, or a prepositional phrase, or a participle or an infinitive,
or an adverb phrase.
Jack found the film extremely interesting. (AP)
They are electing John their monitor. (NP)
Mary is putting her lipstick on the table. (PP)
Complex verb groups Direct object Object predicate
61
6.6. Prepositional verb group
A prepositional verb group must be complemented by a
prepositional phrase which plays the role of a prepositional
complement. Decide, glance, refer, reply (explain), etc. are the
samples of the prepositional monotransitive verb groups.
Ex:
The professor referred to the problem.
Prepositional verb group prepositional complement
62
6.7. Ditransitive prepositional verb group
+ Monotransitive prepositional verbs:
Ex: They talked about her story.
+ Ditransitive prepositional verbs:
Ex: She told me about her pity story.
She reminded me of my country.

63
 As mentioned above, verb groups are sub-categorized
according to what other elements must appear with them in the
verb phrase. They are sub-categorized in terms of their
complementation types which are of nine sentence patterns.
SENTENCE PATTERNS
Nine sentence patterns
• Main elements: Subject, Verb, Complement (subject
complement and object complement), Object (Direct Object,
Indirect Object)
• Subordinate (minor) elements: Attribute, Adverb
Pattern 1: S + Be + C (Adj /PP)
Pattern 2: S + Be + C (Adv)
Pattern 3: S + Be + C (N)
Pattern 4: S + Vl + C (Adj)
Pattern 5: S + Vl + C (N)
Pattern 6: S + Vi [intransitive]
Pattern 7: S + Vt + DO [monotransitive]
Pattern 8: S + Vt + IO + DO [ditransitive]
Pattern 9: S + Vt + DO + a. C (N)
b. C (Adj)
c. C (Pro)
d. C (Adv)
e. C (Pre. Part.)
f. C (Past Part.)
g. C (PP)
h. C (InfP)
i. C (bare InfP)
64
 TREE DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING NINE
SENTENCE PATTERNS
+ Pattern 1:

+ Pattern 2:

65
 + Pattern 3:

+ Pattern 4:

+ Pattern 5:

66
 + Pattern 6:

+ Pattern 7:

67
 + Pattern 8:

68
 + Pattern 9:

69
Exercises

1. Identify the verb in the following sentences.

a/ The tree gets old.
b/ Martha gets some food in the grocerystore.
c/ Harry gets to school early.
d/ They call him a fool.
e/ He bought a car.
f/ He bought a car for his son.
g/ He works very hard.
h/ The man was in the cave.
i/ He refers to his essay.
j/ Jack becomes happy.

2. Draw tree diagrams for the above sentences.

70
 Chapter 7
ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS

7.1. Adjunct adverbials in the verb phrase

When a constituent is optional and can occur with almost any
verb in sentences, it is said to function as an adjunct adverbial. It
does not play the role of a complement; but a modifier to give
additional, though not essential, information.
Ex:
My mum sat on a bench.
Adjunct adverbial
Adjuncts express a wide range of ideas, including manner,
frequency, means, purpose, reason, place, direction, and time.
They tend to answer questions like where?, why?, when?, how?,
what for?, how long?, how often?, how many times?
Ex:
I will come there to meet everybody.
Adjunct of purpose
The students study English very hard.
Adjunct of manner
Prepositional phrases, adverb phrases, infinitive phrases,
participle phrases and certain noun phrases can function as
adjunct adverbials.
Ex:
The students study English very hard. (adverb phrase)
They are having a party at home. (prepositional phrase)
They will be there next week. (noun phrase)
You are here to study syntax. (infinitive phrase)
71
 She reads a book lying in a hammock. (present participle
phrase)
Tied to a tree, the girl called “Help!” (past participle phrase)

7.2. Levels of verb phrase

Adjunct adverbials are modifiers of verb phrases, not only of
verb groups. So the difference in function between obligatory
complements of the verb and optional modifying adjunct
adverbials is to be represented in phrase-markers as follows.
· Complements of the verb are sisters of verb group (Vgrp)
· Adjunct adverbials are sisters of verb phrase. (VP2)

This analysis has the effect of creating two levels of VP and

thus allowing us to represent the difference in function between
the complement and the modifier.
NOTE:
A pro-form is one which is used to replace a constituent in the
sentence. For example, a pronoun is used to replace a noun phrase.
72
Do so is used to replace a verb phrase in the sentence, so it is a
pro-form.
Ex: I read a book in the living-room and she read a book in
the bed-room.
I read a book in the living-room and she did so in the bed-room.

7.3. The mobility of adverbials

When a constituent can move around a sentence, it is said to
function as an adjunct adverbial. This characteristic is called the
mobility of adverbials.
Ex: He put the photo on the altar respectfully.
He respectfully put the photo on the altar.
Respectfully he put the photo on the altar.

73
7.4. Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a particle such as up, off,
down, over. The particle of a phrasal verb can move over the noun
phrase. This particle movement provides a very reliable test for
distinguishing between [phrasal verb + direct object] and [verb +
prepositional phrase]
Example: She called up the tree.
She called up the ambulance.
The first sentence consists of a verb plus prepositional phrase
because the preposition up cannot be moved over the noun phrase
the tree; if not, we have an ill-formed sentence *She called the
tree up. Meanwhile, the second sentence consists of a phrasal verb
because the particle up can be moved over the noun phrase the
ambulance: She called the ambulance up.
74
7.5. Ellipsis
The deletion from sentences of required elements capable of
being understood in the context of their use is called ELLIPSIS.
Ellipsis creates acceptable, but nonetheless grammatically
incomplete sentences.
Ex: Chi Pheo gave Thi No a rose.
Chi Pheo gave a rose.
In the second sentence there is an omission of the noun phrase
Thi No from the preceding sentence.

75
7.6. Sentence adverbials
A sentence adverbial (S-adverbial) provides some comment
by the speaker or writer about the fact she is reporting or about
how she feels she herself is expressing what she has to say. If the
S-adverbial appears at the beginning, it should be represented as
a preceding sister of the sentence it modifies.
Ex: Generally, everyone got food.

76
Exercises

1. Underline the following adverb phrases.

a. He has become happy recently.
b. Jack ran towards the church.
c. Generally, we are fine.
d. Mary gets a book from the shelf.
e. At university, he works very well.
f. Dorothy comes from Kent.
g. She ran two kilometers.
h. They learn French very hard.
i. Henry went downstairs.
j. They stopped at the station.

2. Draw the tree diagrams for the above sentences.

77
 Chapter 8
VERB GROUP

A verb group has a lexical verb as its head and auxiliary verbs
as modifiers. A simple verb group contains only a lexical verb and
a complex verb group consists of auxiliaries and a lexical verb.
Simple Vgrp (Present and past simple)
Verb group:
Complex Vgrp (the other tenses)
Ex:
She was sewing her clothes when the phone rang.
Complex Vgrp Simple Vgrp

AUX V V

8.1. The simple finite verb group

If a verb group contains a tensed verb, it is a finite verb group;
if not, it is a non-finite verb group. Every sentence must contain
one finite verb group.
Ex: She often advises me to work hard.
Finite verb group non-finite verb group
It is conventionally to recognize just present and past as
tenses of English.
Vgrp Vgrp
[ditrans] [ditrans]
V V
[pres] [past]
Do Did
78
8.2. Auxilary verbs in the complex verb group (complex finite
verb group)
There are two kinds of auxiliary verbs:
a. Primary auxiliary which can also be lexical verb: be, have,
and do
b. Modal auxiliary: can, may, must, shall, will, and should
Ex: He is a doctor. (lexical verb)
He is reading a book. (main auxiliary)
He does an exercise. (lexical verb)
He does love her. (main auxiliary)
Modal and lexical verbs have some differences.
· In questions: An auxiliary verb can stand before the subject
NP. A lexical verb cannot.
· The negative particle (not) can attach to an auxiliary verb,
not to a lexical verb.
· A lexical verb can take a direct object NP. An auxiliary
verb cannot.
· The verb after a lexical verb can be introduced by the
infinitive particle to, but after an auxiliary verb it cannot.
So need is both auxiliary and lexical verb.
Ex:
• He need go.
Auxiliary
• He needs to go.
Lexical
• We have a car.
Lexical
79
 • We have studied English for two years.
Auxiliary
• I do an exercise. I do like music.
Lexical Auxiliary

8.3. The structure of auxiliary

A verb group can contain up to four auxiliaries as its
immediate constituents.
Ex: He could have been being supported then.
· MODAL (M)
· PERFECT ASPECT (PERF)
· PROGRESSIVE ASPECT (PROG)
· PASSIVE VOICE (PASS)
These auxiliaries have some common characteristics as
follows:
· All are optional.
· Any combination of them is possible.
· They appear in the order given.
· Each may only appear once.
· Only the first verb is tensed.
· All four auxiliaries determine the form of the next verb in
the verb group.
Ex: He would have been being supported then.
would have been being  helped
(Modal perfect continuous in the passive voice)
It is important that he be our friend.
(Present subjunctive)
80
 It is important that he do his homework.
He was a student in 2019.
(past simple)
If he were a student now, he could live in HCMC.
(past subjunctive)
a. MODAL (M)
This auxiliary always carries tense. Some modals have a
present or past tense form: can, will, shall, may (could, would,
should, might), but must and need have only present tense.
Modal auxiliaries do not exhibit subject-verb agreement, and
the verb following them appears in its basic stem form.

b. PERFECT ASPECT (PERF)

The perfect auxiliary is the primary auxiliary have. The verb
that follows have always appears in its (non-finite) perfect
particle form.
+ Complete or incomplete action ([im]perfective)
When you come home from school,
- Mother has cooked lunch (You can eat lunch)
- Mother has been cooking lunch (You have to wait)

81
 c. PROGRESSIVE ASPECT (PROG)
The primary be is the progressive auxiliary and the following
verb adopts V-ing form called progressive particle.

d. PASSIVE VOICE (PASS)

The primary be is also the passive auxiliary, but unlike the
progressive auxiliary be the following verb adopts V-ed form
called the passive particle.
Since the object in the active becomes the subject of the
passive, the object position of the verb group won’t be filled. The
gap is denoted “o”. Furthermore, the subject of the active
becomes a prepositional phrase introduced with by. This
preposition functions as VP-adjunct so it is optional.
Example: A frog was hunted by a snake.
82
 e. NEGATIVE AND AUXILARY DO
The negative particle not is placed immediately after the
auxiliary carrying the tense. In the negative sentence the auxiliary
do, empty of meaning, is used to carry the tense when other
auxiliaries are absent. It is dominated immediately by tense.
Note: INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE
AUXILARY DO, DOES, DID.
83
 f. FRONTING THE AUXILIARY IN QUESTIONS
In forming questions the auxiliary verb that carries the tense
moves in front of the subject. And again, do is required to carry
the tense in the absence of any other auxiliary. It is do that moves
in front of the subject to form questions. As with passive, the
fronting of the auxiliary has left a gap “o” under the AUX node.
The new node “S” called “S-bar” is used to represent an
interrogative sentence. A fronted auxiliary is represented as a
sister of the original sentence “S”. Both the fronted auxiliary and
“S” are dominated immediately by “S-bar”.

g. MORE ON HAVE AND BE

Have and be can be lexical verbs or primary auxiliaries.
When they are lexical verbs, they can also be moved in front of
84
the subject to form a question. In this case they leave a gap in the
verb group.

85
Exercises

1. Underline the verb groups in the following sentences and give

them the names.
a. Lana learns French.
b. Mr. Smith is a doctor.
c. Martha has bought a car.
d. Jack can lift a horse.
e. He will have painted the door.
f. The roof has been flown away.
g. The floor is cleaned every day.
h. She has given the beggar some food.
i. Henry was elected their monitor.
j. The eagle flew high.

2. Draw the tree diagrams for the above sentences.

86
 Chapter 9
MORE ON NOUN PHRASE

A NP has just two immediate constituents: determiner (DET)

and nominal (NOM). NOM represents a level of NP-structure
immediate between the NP level and the lexical N level. NOM is
the immediate head of NP, and N is the head of NOM.
Ex: The famous writer

9.1. Determiner
Definition
Determiners are a fixed set of “grammatical” words which
give information relating to both indefiniteness and definiteness
as well as inform about quantity and proportion.
Classification
The basic determiners are:
· Articles (Art): definite (the) and indefinite (a/an). There are
small set of words with the same function as the articles and
they cannot appear in sequence with them within a NP.
· Demonstratives (DEM): this, that, these, those, such
· Quantifiers (Q): some, any, no, each, every, either, neither,
nor, a few, a little.
· Possessives (POSS): my, your, its, her, his, their, Jack’s
Possessive adjective – Possessive case = genitive
87
 For indefinite plural countable nouns and non-countable
nouns, the determiner position is not filled. An unfilled determiner
gives the NP an indefinite and more general interpretation.

The NP consisting of a pronoun or a proper noun is not

analysed as having an unfilled determiner position because proper
nouns do not normally accept determiners.

88
 It appears that a possessive determiner can consist of a
possessive pronouns (my, your, etc.) or a full NP + genitive –S.

9.2. Pre-determiner
Some words consisting of both, half, all and double can
occur in front of determiner and pronoun. They are called pre-
determiner.

9.3. Pre-modifiers in NOM quantifying adjectives

Much, many, few and little are considered as quantifying
adjectives (QA) because like adjectives they co-occur with and
follow determiners; and they are gradable. Cardinal and numeral
numbers are also treated as quantifying adjectives because they
follow determiners. Quantifying adjectives are heads of APs and
precede other APs in NOM.
89
 Participle phrases
The non-finite forms of verbs consisting of progressive and
perfect participles (V-part, for short) may appear as pre-modifiers
within NOM. Since these forms are verbal rather than adjectival,
they are not gradable.

Nouns
Nouns themselves may act as pre-modifiers of head nouns. It
is the modifying noun that must appear last – it cannot be
separated from the head noun.
90
 A modifying noun itself can be pre-modified. However, it
cannot be plural as well as cannot take determiners or pre-
determiners and post-modifying. So a modifying noun is
categorized as N even when it is itself pre-modified.
The NP is ambiguous and has two interpretations by the tree
diagrams below:

More on the structure of NOM

When a number of pre-modifiers occur at the same time, each
modifier must be dominated by a NOM, so a NOM can have
NOM as one of its constituents.

91
9.4. Post-modifiers
Prepositional phrases
Within NOM, we have a post-modifying prepositional phrase
as sister to the noun. As usual, the PP itself consists of P and NP.

Like pre-modifier adjectives, a lot of PPs can occur after a

noun. However, in this case there are two possibilities: the two
PPs modify the same noun head or the second PP modifies the
noun head in the NP of the first PP.

92
 Adjective phrases
When a modifying AP includes a complement, it always post-
modifies the head noun with NOM.

Modification of pronoun
Indefinite pronouns such as something, someone, somebody,
anyone, anything, anybody, no one, nothing, nobody, everyone,
everything, anybody, can take a post-modifying PP or AP.

Notes: Compound pronouns with 4 prefixes: SOME, NO,

ANY and EVERY.
We must put adjectives after them.
Ex: Something new
Nobody bad

93
Exercises
Draw the trees diagrams for the following noun phrases:
a. The woman in blue
b. A very nice yellow car
c. A man with long arms
d. The beggar in the market
e. Something in her eye
f. Ten good tall players
g. The room upstairs
h. The man who has helped me
i. The first two elegant guests
j. The girl from New York

94
 Chapter 10
SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

Some clausal structures are called subordinate or embedded

clauses. The structures that contain them are called superordinate
or main clause. Every clause has a verb and is identified by its
verb. The verb of the main clause is the main verb.
Ex: The room has no projector.
The room which is in the corner has no projector.

95
10.1. Complementisers THAT and WHETHER
That is used to introduce an embedded clause. It is a
complementiser (comp). It fills the position occupied by fronted
auxiliaries in questions.

Auxiliaries cannot be fronted to a position filled by a

complementiser. Another complementiser “whether” is used to
introduce an embedded interrogative clause.
Ex: Jane asked whether these guavas were ripe yet.

10.2. The functions of THAT- and WHETHER-clauses

10.2.1. Subject and extraposed subject

That or whether clauses function as subjects, and they are
called clausal subjects. These subjects are dominated by NP.
96
 Clausal subject can be extraposed from under the subject NP
node to the end of the sentence, leaving behind the empty pronoun
it. This is called expletive or anticipatory it, to distinguish it from
uses of prop it that do refer to things. The clausal subject at the
end of the sentence is called an extraposed subject.
Ex: It excited them that the daughter was in the contest.
expletive or anticipatory it extra-posed subject
It is snowing now.
Prop it

Some verbs including seem, appear, transpire, and happen

cannot have clauses in the normal subjective position. They are
considered as intransitive verb groups in this use and extra-
position of a clausal subject is obligatory.
97
 Ex: It happened that the man found a purse.
* That she found a purse happened.

It is interesting that you have come.

That you have come is interesting.
It + Be + Adj + THAT CLAUSE = THAT CLAUSE +
Be + Adj

10.2.2. Complement of vgrp within vp

That clauses can function as direct objects in the
monotransitive or ditransitive verb groups and subject
complement only with the copular verb “be”, not with other
intensive verbs. Some verbs such as know, tell and worry can take
whether clauses as their direct objects. That– and whether clauses
cannot function as indirect objects of ditransitive verbs because
indirect objects must refer to animate entities, whereas clauses
cannot. They don’t refer to concrete entities.

98
10.2.3. Complement of a within AP
Adjectives can also be complemented by a that-clause or a
whether-clause. Therefore, an AP can consist of the head A plus
a clausal complement.

99
10.2.4. Complement pf n within np
A feauture of noun-complement clauses is that they can only
complement abstract nouns like fact, rumor, idea, news, question,
claim, suggestion, etc. to denote the content of these nouns. So the
noun-complement clauses are a sister of the head N.

+ Notes: How to differentiate the kinds of clauses.

I have known the rumour that they love each other.
S V O
> noun clause
I have known the rumour that they have read.
S V ?
> adjective clause
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 I have known the rumour that has been on the radio.
? V Adv
> adjective clause

10.2.5. Complement of p within PP

An interrogative clause can function as the complement of a
preposition within prepositional phrases.

After (etc.) is itself functioning as a kind of complementiser

introducing the clause. On the assumption that Compp cannot be
filled twice over, this approach offers an explanation for the
ungrammaticality of e.g. * After that she left.

10.2.6. Adverbial clauses

What distinguishes adverbial clauses from that- and whether-
clauses is that they take subordinating conjunctions as
101
complementisers. Some subordinating conjunctions are before,
after, until, since, although, unless, if, etc.

+ Notes: Ten kinds of adverbial clauses.

1. Condition
2. Time
3. Place
4. Comparison
5. Concession
6. Manner
7. Result
8. Purpose
9. Cause (now that)
10. Reservation: except that

102
 Conclusion: A complex sentence includes two clauses: a
main clause and a subordinate clause (a noun clause/an adjective
clause/an adverb clause). A subordinate clause begins with a
conjunction (complementizer).
A compound sentence is composed of two independent
clauses (coordinating clauses) which are combined with a
coordinating conjunction.

WH-CLAUSES
Wh-clauses include a Wh-word. They can appear in main
clauses or subordinate clauses. A main clause with a Wh- word
makes a kind of question called a Wh-question. Wh- questions
question some particular constituent. Meanwhile, yes/no
questions question whether something is the case or not.
Ex: Who is carrying the picture to the living-room?
A Wh-clause or A Wh-question
+ WH-QUESTIONS
In Wh-questions, there is always a Wh-fronting (the fronting
of the Wh-phrase) and an auxiliary-fronting (the fronting of the
tensed auxiliary).
Ex:
What is Mary carrying to the living-room?

Wh-fronting auxiliary-fronting
Wh-fronting leaves a gap (0) of the appropriate category, and
auxiliary-fronting leaves a gap (0) in the auxiliary structure.
103
 What is Mary  carrying  to the living-room?
In tree markers, Wh-questions are presented by a “S double
bar” abbreviated “S”. The “S double bar” dominates the “S bar”,
which presents a yes/no question, and the Comp position, which
site for fronted Wh-phrases. So the Comp position can be defined
as daughter of S-double-bar, sister of S-bar.
S’’
Comp-2 S’
Comp-1 S
We have two Comp positions as follows:
- Comp-1 (lower): Daughter of S’ and sister of S
Filled, in subordinate clause, by that, whether, and
subordinate conjunctions.
Filled, in main clause, by fronted tensed and auxiliaries.
- Comp-2 (higher): Daughter of S’’ and sister of S’.
Filled, in both main and subordinate clauses, by fronted-Wh-
expressions.

104
10.3. Subordinate Wh-clause
The one structural difference between a main and subordinate
Wh-clause is that only main Wh-clauses display auxiliary fronting
as well as Wh-fronting.

10.3.1. Subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses

The distinction between main Wh-interrogatives (Wh-
questions) and subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses is exactly
the same as that between main yes/no interrogatives (yes/no
questions) and subordinate yes/no interrogatives. Subordinate
Wh-interrogative clauses have the same functions as that-
whether clauses as in the following sentences.
• Mary was wondering if he signed it in the meeting.
Direct object
• How he would fare on the trapeze preoccupied.
Subject of verb
• It is my affair what I wear at night.
Extraposed subject/Appositive of C
• Marcel was not certain who he had sent the flowers to.
Complement of adjective
• The immediate problem is where they can hide those
fritters.
Subject complement
• The matter of who has to pay for all this has yet to be
resolved.
Object of preposition
• He gave the book to whom he met.
Indirect object
105
 • It is funny that he tells jokes.
Real subject
These subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses have exactly
the same structure as the Wh-questions. Since these interrogative
clauses are subordinate and therefore do not display auxiliary
fronting, the lower Comp-1 position will be empty.

10.3.2. Relative clauses (Adjective clauses)

Relative clauses are Wh-clauses, but they are not
interrogative. In contrast to interrogative clauses, they can only be
subordinate. This is because relative clauses only function as
modifiers of nouns in noun phrases. Relative clauses have the
same structure as the subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses
with Wh-fronting into the higher Comp-2 position.
106
 It is necessary to distinguish relative clauses from noun
complement clauses. Noun complement clauses give us central
information about the head noun, telling us the actual content of
the noun head, while relative clauses tell something more
peripheral. Moreover, connectors in noun complement clauses
have no function in subordinate clauses after them, but connectors
in relative clauses do.
Ex:
The conclusion that Mars was inhabited is wrong.
A noun complement clause
The conclusion that you gave us is wrong.
A relative clause
Difference between a noun clause and an adjective clause.
+ In a noun clause, the meaning is full/complete. We cannot
add the preceding noun to the clause.
Ex: The conclusion that Mars was inhabited is wrong.
+ In an adjective clause, the meaning is not full/complete. We
can add the preceding noun to the clause.
Ex: The conclusion that you gave us is wrong.
you gave us the conclusion
The story that Romeo and Juliet killed themselves was sad.
The story that our grandmother told was sad.
The story that was told by our grandmother was sad.
The students that don’t study in the class will copy their
friends’ papers in the final test.
The news that was broadcast on the internet is convinced.
The news that they will create a new website on the
internet is convinced.
107
 Noun complement clauses are introduced by the Comp-1
complementiser that (dominated by S bar). Since nothing has
been fronted from within it, the clause itself is complete. By
contrast, the relative clause is a kind of Wh-clause: the Wh- phrase
is in the Comp-2 position (dominated by S-double bar) and has
been fronted, leaving a gap.
In the structure of NPs, noun-complement clauses are N-
modifiers (sisters-of-noun), relative clauses are NOM modifiers
(sisters-of-NOM).

108
10.3.2.1. Omission of the Wh-phrase
The fronted Wh-form cannot be ellipted when it functions as
subject and when other material goes with it. Generally,
ellipsis is possible only when it does not interfere with the
interpretation or with ease of comprehension.
Ex:
The food that lent you a fiver is here.
A friend whose car we borrowed wants sit back.
The man to whom you talked yesterday is my brother.

10.3.2.2. That again

In subordinate clause introduced by that, relative clauses
always include a gap, but that-clauses themselves are complete
because that in that-clauses has not been fronted.
Ex:
This is an idea that they will support .
This is an idea that they will support the project.

10.3.2.3. Restrictive vs. non-restrictive clauses

The difference between restrictives and non-restrictives lies
in the way they relate to the head noun within the overall NP. In
writing, non-restrictives are distinguished from restrictives by
using marked off by commas.
As for the structure of information, restrictive relative clauses
specify more exactly which of the things picked out by head noun
are being mentioned. Meanwhile, non-restrictive relative clauses
serve to add extra information, without restricting the set of things
being mentioned.
Ex: The dogs which have rabies are mine.
A restrictive clause
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 The dogs, which have rabies, are mine.
A non-restrictive clause
As the modifier of a complete NP, the non-restrictive clause
must be presented as the sister of that NP within a higher NP.

10.4. The form of non-finite verb groups

A verb group can form a clause. A finite clause has a finite
verb group, with the first verb of the group tensed (present or
past). In contrast, a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite
(tenseless) verb group. Main clauses are always finite. So non-
finite clauses can only be subordinate.
(4 main kinds: V, To V, V-ING, and V-ED)
Ex:
Main finite clause
They want us to go to the party with them.
Non-finite verb group
Subordinate non-finite clause

Finite clauses must have an overt subject to agree with in

terms of number, but non-finite clauses lack overtly one or more
major constituents and they frequently lack an overt subject.
When a non-finite clause lacks an overt constituent, this indicates
either:
· The reference of that constituent is general (indefinite, non-
specific)
110
 or
· Its reference is identical to constituent in a higher (super-
ordinate)
When a non-overt element is specific and understood as
identical to an overt constituent in a higher clause, the higher overt
element is said to control the non-overt element. When a non-
overt clause does not have any controller in the main clause, a
non-overt constituent that is not controlled is described as free. A
non-overt element is also called covert element.
Ex:
Non-finite clauses with free covert subject
Playing cards is a way of making fun.
Non-finite clause with controlled covert subject
Jack enjoys playing cards.
Non-finite clause with overt subject
Mike doesn’t tolerate Jack playing cards.

Free covert constituents can be indicated by “o”. For

controlled covert constituents, we need to indicate what they are
controlled by. Using the same subscript numbers, so called index,
indicates controlled covert element and the element in the main
clause which controls the controlled covert element.
There are four types of non-finite verb groups. They are
classified according to the unstressed form taken by the first verb
group.

10.4.1. Bare infinitive verb groups

Bare infinitive verb groups are simple. They consist of the
untensed stem of a lexical verb. This stem is distinguished from
simple present tense by the feature [-tense] on the verb node. The
feature appears in all non-finite verb groups.
Ex: They let him tell his story.
111
10.4.2. To-infinitive verb groups
To-infinitive verb groups are complex. The verb after the
infinitive particle to has the basic stem form. It is appropriate to
consider to as replacing the modal option. So to is analyzed as the
sole representative of an un-tensed auxiliary. The AUX node will
carry the [-tense] feature.
Ex:
We declined his invitation to taste the wine.
To infinitive Vgrp
For Mary to have been punished seemed inevitable.
Vgrp Vgrp
AUX V AUX V
[-tense] [-tense]
PERF PASS
to smell to have been punished

10.4.3. Passive participle verb groups

Passive participle verb groups are distinguished from bare
infinitives by the features [pass] on the V node.
Ex:
The palanquin loaded, we took a rest.
Passive participle Vgrp
Vgrp
[trans]
V [-tense] [pass]
loaded

10.4.4. –Ing participle verb groups

-Ing participle verb groups are complex. They have the same
structure as To-infinitive verb groups except that, instead of the
112
first verb being preceded by to, it takes the –ing suffix. They are
analyzed as having an AUX node with the [-tense] feature. In
simple verb groups, this AUX node will be unfilled.
Ex:
He had difficulty (in) getting up in the morning.
–Ing participle verb groups (Gerund phrase)
Late President G.W. Bush buried in Houston, many leaders
will be present there.
– Ing participle verb groups (Absolute phrase)

10.5. Complementisers and non-finite clauses

There are two complementiser positions in non-finite clauses.
These are filled by the (un-fronted) Comp-1 complementisers: for
and whether, and (fronted) Comp-2 Wh-phrases. For simplicity
Comp-2 is only used when it is necessary.

10.5.1. Comp-1: for and whether

Only to-infinitive clauses are introduced by the Comp-1
complementisers for and the yes/no interrogative whether. “For”
only figures overtly in to-infinitive clauses with an overt subject.
Ex: For Angelo to get all the blame seems unfair.
He expected (*for) the bear to disappear.
In the last example the complementiser “for” is not always
possible, so the Comp-1 position is empty.

113
 Yes/no interrogative clauses (whether-clauses) are always to-
infinitive and never have an overt subject. Their subjects are often
controlled by the subject in their main clauses. And when they are
subjects, their subjects are covert and free.
Ex: Jack was doubtful whether to submit an application for
a job.

10.5.2. Comp-2: fronted Wh-phrases

Non-finite Wh-clauses can be interrogative or relative.
· Non-finite interrogative clauses
A Wh-interrogative clause can only be to-infinitive and has a
covert subject which can be free or controlled by an element in its
main clause.
The librarian asked her how many books  to borrow .
01 02 01 02
· Non-finite relative clauses
In non-finite relative clauses, the fronted Wh-phrase is never
overt. All forms of non-finite verb group are permitted in relative
clauses except the bare infinitive.
Ex:
The instructions to use is a camera.
Non-finite relative clause
A magazine for her to read is on the table.
Non-finite relative clause
There is a black German car now going along the street.
Non-finite relative clause
A cow fed on barley and champagne will produce excellent
meat.
Non-finite relative clause

114
10.6. The functions of non-finite clauses

10.6.1. Subject and extraposed

A non-finite clausal subject should be dominated by NP, -ing
participle clauses with overt subject cannot be extraposed.
Ex:
Angling crabs is an interesting business.
It’s an interesting business angling crabs.
Working part-time should support you.
*It should support you working part-time.

10.6.2. Complement of A in AP
There are two main types of adjective complement by
to-infinitive clause, depending on the head adjective itself.
Ex: Max is reluctant to try it.
That piano is impossible (for the dancers) to move.
Adjectives like reluctant are: eager, keen, happy and liable.
The higher subject controls the covert subject of the adjective
complement clause. Adjectives like impossible are: easy, hard,
and delicious. The higher subject controls the object of that clause.
The lower subject is free or overt.
Note: Sentences with adjectives like impossible correspond
to ones in which the object figures overly (in a clause functioning
as extraposed subject).
Ex: It would be easy to play that game.
To play that game would be easy.

10.6.3. Complement of P in PP
Only –ing particle clauses can complement a preposition
within a prepositional phrase. Assuming that PP always consists
115
of P and NP, clauses having this function should be dominated by
NP.
Ex: She was excited about going to Ha Long Bay.

10.6.4. Adverbial
Non-finite clauses can also function as adverbials. The
subject must be overt if not controlled by the superordinate
subject. Non-finite adverbial clauses are introduced by (Comp1)
subordinating conjunctions.
Ex:
Spring coming, the flowers are in bloom.
We were crying bitterly, tied to a tree.

10.6.5. Modifier of NOM in NP

Non-finite clauses also have a function as a modifier of NOM
in NP.
Ex:
He was the first person to come to the party.
This is the book for us to read.
The only man to be chosen was Mr. Smith.
The pre-modifying adjective in the sentences above clearly
belongs within the post-modifying relative clause below.
In these sentences, the non-finite clause functions as
complement of the adjective. The adjective is outside the non-
finite clause. Since the adjective is only there in virtue of its
relation to the non-finite clause, it modifies a NOM composed of
head noun and non-finite clause.

10.6.6. Complement of N in NP
Non-finite clauses also have a function as a complement of N
in NP.

116
 Ex:
We simply ignored his appeals for us to join the folk dance.
His ability to think straight was impaired by the experience. His
proposal to show us the holiday snaps was treated politely.
In the last two sentences, the covert subjects of the infinitive
clauses to think straight and to show us the holiday snaps are
controlled by the determiners of the noun phrases within which
they appear.

10.6.7. Complement of verb group (Direct Object)

Some mono-transitive verb groups take both noun phrases
and non-finite clauses (but not NP) as their complement such as
believe. Others take only non-finite clauses as their complement
such as hope, condescend.
Ex:
They believe her report.
They believe her to report the event.
Direct object
He intended to repair the machine.
* He intended the repair of the machine.
In these sentences, the infinitive clause and its overt subject
(her to report the event) is the direct object.
For verbs complemented by a non-finite clause without overt
subject, it suffices to note that only to-infinitive and –ing
participle clauses are admitted. The covert subject is controlled
by the super-ordinate subject.
Some ditransitive verb groups such as promise, ask take
indirect noun phrases and a direct object that can be noun phrases
or non-finite clauses.
Ex:
My parents promised me a smart phone.
117
 My parents promised me to buy a smart phone.
Direct object Indirect object
Verbs taking non-finite clausal complements can be divided
into two types: those which head verb phrases with analysis I (i.e.
verbs taking just a single clausal complement, with overt subject)
and those which head verb phrases with analysis II (i.e. verbs
taking two complement, a direct object noun phrase and a clausal
complement with covert subject).
· Type I verbs include: assume, believe, consider, desire,
dread, expect, feel, hear, like, observe, prefer, regret,
suppose, watch.
· Type II verbs include advise, ask, coax, compel, dare,
encourage, force, promise, persuade.

Exercises

1. Underline the subordinate clauses.

a. He said that he had passed the exam.
b. She is happy that she has won the scholarship.
c. If he tries hard, he will get the certificate.
d. I met the boy who had helped the old woman.
e. It is nice for him to water the flower beds.
f. Mary, who lives next door, will move away.
g. It is important that she can live on her own.
h. The door which has been painted is of iron.
i. He will be as good as his brother is.
j. You should work hard so that you can get high salary.

2. Draw the tree diagrams for the above sentences.

118
 APPENDIX 1: Ambiguity

A word, phrase, or sentence is ambiguous if it has more than

one meaning.
In speech and writing, there are two basic types of ambiguity:
1. Lexical ambiguity is the presence of two or more possible
meanings within a single word.
2. Syntactic ambiguity is the presence of two or more
possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of words.
A sentence is considered as structurally ambiguous when its
structure permits more than one interpretation.
- Same surface structure.
- But different deep structures.
Example: Small boys and girls.
- Meaning 1: Only boys are small.

- Meaning 2: Both boys and girls are small.

119
 Example: The boy saw the man with the telescope.

Meaning 1: The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope.

Meaning 2: Using a telescope, the boy saw the man.

Example: They can fish over there.
This sentence has two meanings:

- Meaning 1: They are able to fish over there.

120
 - Meaning 2: They put fish into cans over there.
Ex: They are flying planes.
This sentence has two meanings:

- Meaning 1: They are planes that are flying (not staying on

the runways).

- Meaning 2: They (pilots) are flying (operating on) planes.

(The pilots are flying planes).
Notes:
- Ambiguity due to Ellipsis
Ex: He loves the dog more than his wife.
He loves the dog more than his wife loves the dog.
121
 He loves the dog more than he loves his wife.
- Ambiguity due to punctuation
Ex: A woman without her man is savage.
A woman, without her, man is savage.
A woman without her man, is savage.

EXERCISES
Disambiguate the following phrases or sentences:
a. An old car enthusiast
b. A foreign language teacher
c. The basic book service
d. The late summer’s roses
e. Her new doll’s house
f. He loves the dog more than his wife.
g. We like Shakespeare more than Shaw.
h. His son’s loss grieved him.
i. We bought one of Rutherford’s paintings.
j. He was carrying a woman’s coat on his arm.

122
 APPENDIX 2

Other types of diagrams showing immediate constituent

analysis or IC cut.
- Domino box:

- ICs – final cut:

- Fries’ diagram:
These concepts are basic.

- Candelabra’s diagram:
These concepts are basic.

123
 - Reed and Kellogg’s diagram:
concepts are

these basic
- Eugene A. Nida’s diagram:

124
 REFERENCES

Austin, J. L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Oxford:

Claredon Press.
Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. London: Blackwell.
Brown, K. (Ed.) (2005), Encyclopaedia of Language and
Linguistics (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier.
Bucholtz, M. (1999). 'Why be Normal?' Language and Identity
Practices in a Community. Language in Society, 28(2), 203-
223.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge:
MIT Press.
De Saussure, F. (1916). Course in General Linguistics. Geneva.
Fromkin & others (1999). An Introduction to Language. Thanh
Nien Publishing House.
Gleason, H. A. (1961). An Introduction to Descriptive
Linguistics: English Morphology. N.Y. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Jackson, H. (1981). Analyzing English: An Introduction to
Descriptive Linguistics. Pergamon Institute of English.
Jacobs, Roderick A. (1995). English Syntax. A grammar for
English Language Professionals. OUP.
Le Van Su (2000). English Linguistics. Dong Nai Publishing
House.
Norman C. Stageberg (1999). An Introductory English Grammar.
University of Northern Iowa.
Roderick A. Jacobs (1995). English Syntax. University of Hawai.
Tô Minh Thanh (2008). English Syntax. Nhà xuất bản Đại học
Quốc gia TP. Hồ Chí Minh.
125
Tô Minh Thanh (2019). Giáo trình Hình thái học Tiếng Anh. Nhà
xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia TP. Hồ Chí Minh.
Whorf, B. L. (1956). Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected
Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. John Carroll, Ed.
Cambridge: M.I.T Press.
Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language. Cambridge: CUP.

126
 KEY

Chapter 1
1. Writing true (T) or false (F).
1T 2F 3F 4F 5F
6F 7T 8T 9F 10 F
2. Identifying the number of morphemes in these words.
Words Number of morphemes Free Bound
1 Formation 2 1 1
2 Difference 2 1 1
3 Industrialization 4 1 3
4 Singers 3 1 2
5 Booklets 3 1 2
6 Computer 2 1 1
7 Activity 3 1 2
8 Philippines 1 1 0
9 Asians 3 1 2
10 Confirmation 2 1 1

3. Writing the meaning of the underlined morphemes.

Words Meaning
1 abiotic Not
2 scholarship State
3 hyperacid Over, super
4 childish Like
5 minimize Making small
6 demicircular Half
7 handsome Character
8 government State
9 subtropical Near, below
10 outlook Over

127
Chapter 2
1. Writing true (T) or false (F).
1T 2T 3F 4T 5T
6F 7T 8F 9T 10 F
2. Classifying the following words as
derivational/inflectional morphemes.
Derivational Inflectional
speaker, his books, Beth’s
social walks, hoped
midnight violated, does
furiously bigger, desserts
government media, toughest
having, eaten
forms, insulted
exercising

Chapter 3
1. Diagrams

2. Analyzing the following words as indicated.

Number of Base
No. Words Stem
morphemes (Root)
1 Interpersonalized 5 1 4
2 Newly-weds 4 2 2
3 Certifications 3 1 2
4 Sub-standardizations 5 1 4
5 Widowed 2 1 1

128
 6 Relationships 4 1 3
7 Baby-sitters 4 2 2
8 Assassinated 3 1 2
9 Attachments 3 1 2
10 Semimechanized 4 1 3

3. The correct answer:

1. B 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. B
6. B 7. C 8. A 9. B 10. A
11. B 12. C 13. A 14. A 15. B
16. A 17. B 18. B 19. A 20. B
4. The correct answer:
1. F 2. E 3. D 4. C 5. B
6. B 7. A 8. D 9. D 10. B
11. A 12. D 13. D 14. C 15. D
16. B 17. A 18. B 19. B 20. A

Chapter 4
1. Words:
1. Cd 2. Gs 3. Cd 4. Gs 5. Cd, Gs
6. Gs 7. Gs 8. Cd 9. Cd 10. Gs
11. Cd 12. Gs 13. Cd 14. Gs
2. Words:
1. Cd 2. Gs 3. S 4. Cx 5. Cd
6. Cd 7. S 8. Cd 9. Cx 10. Cd
11. Cx 12. Cd
3. Compounds or free word-groups:
1. Sweet voice: free word-groups
129
 2. Sweet potato: compounds
3. White coffee: free word-groups
4. white-wash: compounds
5. White house: free word-groups
6. Hígh-prèssure: compounds
7. Hìgh tíde: free word-groups
8. Rèd méat: free word-groups
9. Red eyes: free word-groups
10. Red tap: compounds
11. Réd Cròss: compounds
12. Gold fish: free word-groups
13. Góld rìng: compounds
14. Gólden Àges: compounds
15. Golden wedding (50th): compounds
4. Analyzing English words:
1. Cd 2. Cd 3. S 4. Gs 5. Cd
6. Cd 7. Cx 8. S
5. The original word(s) and the processes of word
formation of the following. One example to illustrate each
type of processes.
Your
Word Original words Processes
examples
RAM Random access Acronymy TOEFL
1
memory
Telex Teleprinter Blending Brunch
2
exchange
3 flu Influenza Clipping Fridge
brunch Breakfast + Blending Smog
4
lucnh

130
 5 disagree Agree Derivational National
6 Ice-cream Ice + cream Compounding Time-table
7 write writer Backformation Read
gasohol Gasoline + Blending Smog
8
alcohol
9 Mew Voice of a cat Onomatopoeia baa
10 sandwich Name of a cake Antonomasia champagne

Chapter 5
1. Well-formed: a, b, d, e, f, g, h
2. Constituents and immediate constituents:
a/ Jack smiled. (2 constituents and 1 immediate
constituent)
b/ Jack smiled with Jane. (4 constituents and 3 immediate
constituents)
c/ Mary throws. (2 constituents and 1 immediate
constituent)
d/ Mary throws a ball. (4 constituents and 3 immediate
constituents)
e/ Mary throws a ball to Kathy. (6 constituents and 5
immediate constituents)
f/ Mary throws a ball at Kathy. (6 constituents and 5
immediate constituents)
g/ Henry stood. (2 constituents and 1 immediate
constituent)
h/ Henry stood on the platform. (5 constituents and 4
immediate constituents)

131
 3. Tree diagrams:

4. Using circles, analyse the following phrases or

sentences:

132
 5. Tree diagrams for the noun phrases with premodifiers:

6. Tree diagrams for the noun phrases with post-

modifiers:

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Chapter 6
1. The verb in the sentences:
a/ The tree gets old. Vintens
b/ Martha gets some food in the grocerystore. Vt
(monotrans)
c/ Harry gets to school early. Vi
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 d/ They call him a fool. Vt (complex trans)
e/ He bought a car. Vt (monotrans)
f/ He bought a car for his son. Vt (ditrans)
g/ He works very hard. Vi
h/ The man was in the cave. Vintens
i/ He refers to his essay. Vt
j/ Jack becomes happy. Vintens
2. Draw tree diagrams for the above sentences.

Chapter 7
1. The adverb phrases:
a. He has become happy recently.
b. Jack ran towards the church.
c. Generally, we are fine.
d. Mary gets a book from the shelf.
e. At university, he works very well.
f. Dorothy comes from Kent.
g. She ran two kilometers.
h. They learn French very hard.
i. Henry went downstairs.
j. They stopped at the station.
2. Draw the tree diagrams for the above sentences.

Chapter 8
1. The verb groups in the following sentences and their
names:
a. Lana learns French. (Monotrans)
b. Mr. Smith is a doctor. (intens)
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 c. Martha has bought a car. (Monotrans)
d. Jack can lift a horse. (Monotrans)
e. He will have painted the door. (Monotrans)
f. The roof has been flown away. (Monotrans)
g. The floor is cleaned every day. (Monotrans)
h. She has given the beggar some food. (Ditrans)
i. Henry was elected their monitor. (Complex trans)
j. The eagle flew high. (intrans)
2. Draw the tree diagrams for the above sentences.

Chapter 9
The trees diagrams for the noun phrases:

136
Chapter 10
1. The subordinate clauses:
a. He said that he had passed the exam.
b. She is happy that she has won the scholarship.
c. If he tries hard, he will get the certificate.
d. I met the boy who had helped the old woman.
e. It is nice for him to water the flower beds.
f. Mary, who lives next door, will move away.
g. It is important that she can live on her own.
h. The door which has been painted is of iron.
i. He will be as good as his brother is.
j. You should work hard so that you can get high salary.
Ambiguity
Disambiguating the phrases or sentences:
a. An old car enthusiast
A car enthusiast who is old
An enthusiast about old cars
b. A foreign language teacher
A language teacher who is foreign
A teacher of a foreign language
c. The basic book service
The service for basic books
The book service that is basic
d. The late summer’s roses
The roses of the late summer
The late roses of summer
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 e. Her new doll’s house
Her doll’s house is new.
The house belongs to her new doll.
f. He loves the dog more than his wife.
He loves the dog more than his wife loves the dog.
He loves the dog more than he loves his wife.
g. We like Shakespeare more than Shaw.
We like Shakespeare more than Shakespeare likes Shaw.
We like Shakespeare more than we like Shaw.
h. His son’s loss grieved him.
His son lost something, which grieved him.
He lost his son, which grieved him.
i. We bought one of Rutherford’s paintings.
We bought one of the paintings belonging to Rutherford.
We bought one of the paintings painted by Rutherford.
Rutherford painted a painting which we bought.
Someone painted Rutherford a painting which we bought.
j. He was carrying a woman’s coat on his arm.
He was carrying on his arm a coat belonging to a certain
woman.
He was carrying on his arm a coat designed for women’s
wear.

138
 GLOSSARY

Acronym: từ viết tắt

Act: hành động
Adjective: tính từ
Adjective phrase: cụm tính từ
Adverb: trạng từ
Adverb phrase: cụm trạng từ
Adverbial: thuộc về trạng từ
Affirmative: khẳng định
Affix: phụ tố
Affixation: phụ tố hóa
Allomorph: tha hình, biến hình
Ambiguous: mơ hồ / lưỡng nghĩa
Ambiguity: sự mơ hồ / lưỡng nghĩa
Analysis: sự phân tích
Antonomasia: dùng tên riêng làm danh từ chung
Antonym: trái nghĩa
Assimilation: sự đồng hóa
Attribute: định ngữ
Auxiliary (verb): trợ động từ
Back-formation: thành lập ngược
Background: nền
Background knowledge: kiến thức nền
Bar: thanh chắn
Base: gốc từ, từ căn

139
Blending: pha trộn từ
Borrowing: vay mượn từ
Bound: giới hạn
Cardinal number: số đếm
Case: cách
Causal: nguyên nhân
Category: loại, phạm trù
Circumfix: tiền hậu tố
Clause: mệnh đề (ngữ pháp), tiểu cú
Clausal: thuộc mệnh đề
Classification: sự phân loại
Clipping: cắt xén
Coherence: sự mạch lạc
Cohesion: sự liên kết
Collocation: ngữ cố định
Communicative function: chức năng giao tiếp
Community: cộng đồng
Conjunction: liên từ
Comparative: so sánh
Complement: bổ ngữ
Complementiser: tác tử phụ ngữ hóa
Complex word: từ phức
Component: thành tố
Compound word: từ ghép
Coinage: phát minh ra từ mới
Consonant: phụ âm
140
Constituent: thành tố
Content (word): thực từ
Context: ngôn cảnh
Contrast: tương phản
Convention: ước lệ
Conversation: hội thoại
Co-ordinate: đồng đẳng
Co-ordinating: đồng đẳng
Copula verb: động từ liên kết, hệ từ
Criterion: tiêu chí
Culture: văn hóa
Demonstrative: chỉ định
Density: mật độ
Dependency: sự phụ thuộc
Derivation: sự phái sinh
Derivational: phái sinh
Determiner: định tố
Diagram: sơ đồ
Diagram tree: sơ đồ cây
Direct: trực tiếp
Direct object: tân ngữ trực tiếp
Disambiguate: giải thích sự mơ hồ
Dissimilation: sự dị hóa
Ditransitive verb: ngoại động từ đôi
Double bar: thanh chắn đôi
Ellipsis: tỉnh lược
141
Embedded clause: mệnh đề lồng
Environment: môi trường, ngôn cảnh
Finite verb: động từ có ngôi
Free: tự do
Function: chức năng
Functional (word): hư từ
Gender: giống, phái
Gerund: danh động từ
Grammar: ngữ pháp
Grammatical structure: cấu trúc ngữ pháp
Grammatical word: hư từ
Group: nhóm
Head: chính
Homonym: từ đồng âm
Identity: bản sắc
Idiom: thành ngữ
Immediate constituent/component: thành tố trực tiếp
Indirect: gián tiếp
Indirect object: tân ngữ gián tiếp
Infix: trung tố
Inflection: sự biến hình
Inflectional: biến hình
Intensive verb: động từ liên kết, hệ từ
Intransitive verb: nội động từ
Language: ngôn ngữ
Lexical: thuộc từ vựng, thực từ
142
Linguistics: ngôn ngữ học
Linking verb: động từ liên kết, hệ từ
Main: chính
Manner: thể cách
Modal verb: động từ tình thái
Modifier: phụ từ
Monotranstive verb: ngoại động từ đơn
Morpheme: hình vị
Morphological: thuộc về hình thái
Morphology: hình thái học
Mother: trên cấp
Nasalization: sự mũi hóa âm
Negation: phủ định
Nominal: danh từ, định danh
Non-finite verb: động từ không ngôi
Non-restrictive clause: mệnh đề không hạn định
Notion: khái niệm
Noun: danh từ
Noun phrase: cụm danh từ
Object: tân ngữ
Omission: sự bỏ đi
Onomatopoeia: tượng thanh
Ordinal number: số thứ tự
Pair: cặp
Paradigm: hệ hình
Part of speech: từ loại
143
Particle: tiểu từ
Past participle: quá khứ phân từ
Past simple: quá khứ đơn
Pattern: mẫu
Personal: nhân xưng
Phoneme: âm vị
Phonological: thuộc về âm vị
Possessive case: sở hữu cách
Post-determiner: hậu định tố
Post-modifier: hậu bổ từ
Prefix: tiền tố
Pre-determiner: tiền định tố
Pre-modifier: tiền bổ từ
Preposition: giới từ
Prepositional phrase: cụm giới từ
Prepositional monotransitive verb: ngoại động từ đơn có giới từ
Prepositional ditransitive verb: ngoại động từ kép có giới từ
Present participle: hiện tại phân từ
Quality: chất (lượng)
Quantity: (khối) lượng
Quantitative: từ định lượng
Relevance: quan yếu
Restrictive clause: mệnh đề hạn định
Root: gốc từ, từ căn
Rule: quy tắc
Segmental speech: ngữ đoạn
144
Semantics: ngữ nghĩa học
Sentence: câu
Sense: nghĩa
Setting: khung cảnh
Simple word: từ đơn
Sister: đồng cấp
Situation: tình huống
Speech: lời nói
State of affairs: sự tình
Stem: thân từ
Stress: dấu nhấn
Subject: chủ ngữ
Subordinate: phụ
Subordinating: phụ
Substitution: thay thế
Suffix: hậu tố
Suffixal homonym: đồng âm hậu tố
Superfix: siêu tố
Syllable: âm tiết, vần
Synonym: đồng nghĩa
Syntax: cú pháp
Temporal: thời gian
Text: văn bản
Transitive verb: ngoại động từ
Type: loại
Uninflected: không biến hình
145
Utterance: phát ngôn
Variation: sự biến dạng
Verb: động từ
Verbal: thuộc về động từ, ngôn từ
Verbal phrase: cụm động từ
Voiced: hữu thanh
Voiceless: vô thanh
Vowel: nguyên âm
Word: từ
X-bar: thanh chắn X
-------------------------------

146
 COURSEBOOK
MORPHOLOGY - SYNTAX
PhD. Bui Diem Hanh (Chief Editor)
MA. Truong Van Anh, MA. Pham Van Chien
Sai Gon University Department of Foreign Languages
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY PRESS
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