Index

Sr. Parameters Page no.

No.
1. Introduction 3

3. Overview of the functional block of 8086 4

Microprocessor
4. Block diagram 5

4. Types 6

5. Project Description 8

6. Advantages 9

7. Disadvantages 10

8. Conclusion 11

9. Reference 12
 Abstract

The Intel 8086 microprocessor, a cornerstone in the development of modern

computing, was a groundbreaking design in 1978 that introduced the concept of 16-
bit processing and memory segmentation. This report aims to analyze the internal
functional blocks of the 8086 microprocessor and explain how these components
work in coordination to execute instructions and manage data. The analysis focuses
on the architecture’s main divisions—Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and Execution Unit
(EU)—along with register organization, the memory segmentation scheme, and the
instruction execution process. This report also includes diagrams, code illustrations,
and performance evaluation through findings. The 8086 processor’s relevance to
both past and present embedded systems makes this a valuable study for any budding
engineer in computer architecture or microcontroller-based applications. The aim is
to provide a solid theoretical and visual understanding of how the processor works
internally, what benefits it offered during its era, and why it’s still a subject of study
in educational platforms. This project bridges the knowledge gap between legacy
architecture and modern-day computational logic.
 Introduction
Microprocessors serve as the brain of all computing systems, and the Intel 8086
marked a major milestone in processor evolution. Introduced by Intel in 1978,
the 8086 was one of the first 16-bit microprocessors capable of addressing up to
1MB of memory. It was designed for performance, efficiency, and compatibility,
with applications ranging from early personal computers to industrial systems.

Importance:

Paved the way for the x86 architecture that dominates computing today.
Introduced memory segmentation, a unique addressing method.
Helped students and engineers understand core processing functions.

Objective of the Project:

To analyze each functional block of the 8086 microprocessor.

To study the communication between the Bus Interface Unit and the Execution
Unit.
To understand the register set and the segmentation of memory.
To demonstrate how basic instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed.
To evaluate its relevance in today’s microcontroller and embedded applications.
 Overview of the functional block of 8086 Microprocessor

The 8086 microprocessor, developed by Intel in 1978, represents a pivotal

advancement in microprocessor technology. As a 16-bit processor, it marked a
transition from earlier 8-bit architectures and laid the foundation for the modern x86
family of processors. It integrates an enhanced set of features including a robust
instruction set, memory segmentation, instruction pipelining, and support for
multiprogramming — all of which contributed to its widespread use in early personal
computers and embedded systems.

This project provides a systematic and in-depth analysis of the 8086

microprocessor’s functional blocks. The processor is broadly divided into two main
units: the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and the Execution Unit (EU). The BIU handles
all bus operations like fetching, reading, and writing to memory, while the EU
executes instructions and processes data. This separation allows a rudimentary form
of pipelining, improving performance over previous generation microprocessors.

The objective of this report Is to help understand the working, internal architecture,
and design philosophy behind the 8086 processor. Special emphasis is placed on the
role and function of each component in the block diagram, from segment registers
and the instruction pointer to the arithmetic logic unit and control circuitry.
Supporting elements such as addressing modes, instruction queue, and stack
operations are also examined.

By analyzing the functional block diagram and internal working of the 8086, this
project aims to bridge the gap between theoretical microprocessor concepts and
practical understanding. This foundational knowledge is essential for students.
 Types

Microprocessors are categorized based on architecture, application, instruction set,

and processing power. The Intel 8086 belongs to the general-purpose
microprocessor category, but to understand its place, here are the major types of
microprocessors:
1. General-Purpose Microprocessors (GPP):
1. - Designed to handle a wide range of computing tasks.
2. - Used in desktops, laptops, and embedded systems.
3. - Example: Intel 8086, Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen series.
4. - The 8086 is one of the earliest and most influential GPPs.

2. Microcontrollers (MCU):
1. - Integrate processor, memory, and I/O peripherals on a single chip.
2. - Ideal for embedded systems and control-based applications.
3. - Example: Intel 8051, PIC microcontrollers, ARM Cortex-M series.

3. Digital Signal Processors (DSP):

1. - Specialized for high-speed numeric processing like audio, video, and
image processing.
2. - Example: Texas Instruments TMS320 series.

4. Embedded Processors:
1. - Designed for specific applications and integrated into products.
2. - Found in cars, washing machines, TVs, etc.
3. - Example: ARM Cortex-A, MIPS processors.
5. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Processors:
1. - Use a simplified set of instructions for faster processing.
2. - Example: ARM processors, PowerPC.

6. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Processors:

1. - Have complex instruction sets with multi-clock cycle instructions.
2. - Example: Intel 8086, x86 family.
3. - 8086 is a CISC-based processor.

7. Multicore Processors:
1. - Contain multiple processing cores on a single chip.
2. - Offer parallel execution and high performance.
3. - Example: Intel i5/i7/i9, AMD Ryzen 5/7/9.

8. Application-Specific Integrated Processors (ASIP):

1. - Designed for specific applications or functions.
2. - Used in AI, automotive systems, IoT devices.

9.The Intel 8086 specifically falls under:

1. General-Purpose Microprocessor
2. CISC Architecture
3. 16-bit, Single-core Processor
 Project Description
1.Bus Interface Unit (BIU)
1. Responsible for physical address generation.
2. Holds a 6-byte instruction queue to support instruction prefetching.
3. Manages communication between memory and the processor.
4. Reduces idle time by fetching instructions while EU is executing
previous ones.

2.Execution Unit (EU)

1. Decodes instructions from the queue.
2. Performs arithmetic and logic operations through the ALU.
3. Controls data movement, loop executions, and conditional jumps.
4. Works independently of the BIU to ensure efficiency.

3.Registers in 8086:
1. General Purpose Registers: AX, BX, CX, DX
2. Segment Registers: CS, DS, ES, SS
3. Pointer & Index Registers: SP, BP, SI, DI
4. Flag Register: Contains status flags (Zero, Carry, Sign, Overflow, etc.)

4.Memory Segmentation:
1. 1MB memory divided using 4 segment registers (each of 64KB).
2. Logical address = Segment * 10h + Offset
3. Enables modular programming and memory protection.
 Advantages

1. 16-bit Architecture:
The 8086 is a 16-bit processor, which means it can process 16 bits of data at a time.
This allows for faster data handling compared to 8-bit processors like the 8085,
improving overall performance and speed.

2. Memory Segmentation:
The use of four segment registers (CS, DS, SS, ES) allows access to a full 1MB of
memory, even though addresses are only 20-bit long. This segmentation technique
supports better modular programming and memory management.

3. Pipelined Architecture:
The 8086 features a rudimentary pipeline using the BIU (Bus Interface Unit) and
EU (Execution Unit). While one instruction is being executed by the EU, the next
instruction is fetched by the BIU. This improves instruction throughput and
processor efficiency.

4. Rich Instruction Set:

It supports a wide range of instructions including data transfer, arithmetic, logical,
control transfer, string manipulation, and bit manipulation instructions, making it
versatile and flexible for multiple programming tasks.
 Disadvantages

1. Complex Memory Segmentation:

Although memory segmentation allows access to 1MB memory, it also makes
memory management and address calculation more complex. The programmer
must manually manage segment:offset pairs, which can lead to confusion and bugs.

2. No In-Built Multiplication/Division Instructions (Initially):

Unlike modern microprocessors, early versions of the 8086 had limited support for
complex arithmetic operations. Floating-point and advanced math operations
required external co-processors like the 8087.

3. Lacks On-Chip Memory:

The 8086 has no internal RAM or ROM. All memory needs to be externally
connected, increasing board size and design complexity.

4. No Built-In I/O Ports:

Unlike microcontrollers, the 8086 doesn’t have any built-in general-purpose I/O
ports. Interfacing with external devices requires additional programmable
peripheral chips (like 8255, 8251, etc.).

5. Requires Multiple Support ICs:

To build a complete system using 8086, one needs various support chips (like 8284
for clock generation, 8288 for bus control, 8259 for interrupts), which increases
hardware cost and complexity.
 Conclusion

The 8086 microprocessor stands as a landmark innovation in the history of

computing. Through this project, we have deeply explored its functional block
diagram, internal architecture, working principles, and various associated
components. The architecture’s separation of the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and
Execution Unit (EU) reflects the microprocessor’s foundational approach to
pipelining — a concept that has been refined in modern processors. Features such as
memory segmentation, versatile instruction set, and multiprocessor support enabled
the 8086 to power a wide range of early computing systems and industrial
applications.

While the microprocessor exhibits several advantages such as fast instruction

fetching, a strong register set, and expandability through peripheral interfacing, it
also presents notable limitations like complexity in memory segmentation, lack of
on-chip memory, and absence of modern low-power or debugging features.
However, these drawbacks are understandable, given the technological constraints
of its time.

This analysis reinforces the 8086 microprocessor’s role as a vital stepping stone in
the evolution of modern microprocessor design. It laid the groundwork for the Intel
x86 family, which continues to dominate the computing industry today.
Understanding the architecture and design of the 8086 equips engineering students
and enthusiasts with core knowledge essential for comprehending the more
sophisticated microprocessors and embedded systems of the present era.

In conclusion, the 8086 microprocessor, with its balanced combination of simplicity

and capability, remains a cornerstone in both academic studies and the technological
timeline of digital electronics. This project has not only provided insights into its
internal workings but has also highlighted the significance of architectural
innovations in shaping modern computing paradigms.
 Reference

1. Ramesh S. Gaonkar, “Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and

Applications with the 8085/8086,” Penram International Publishing, 6th Edition.

2. A.K. Ray & K.M. Bhurchandi, “Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals,”

McGraw-Hill Education, 3rd Edition.

3. Douglas V. Hall, “Microprocessors and Interfacing: Programming and

Hardware,” Tata McGraw-Hill, Revised Second Edition.

4. Muhammad Ali Mazidi, “The 80x86 IBM PC and Compatible Computers,”

Volume I, Pearson Education.

5. Intel Corporation, “Intel 8086/8088 Microprocessor Family: User’s Manual,”

Intel Technical Documentation.

6. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/microprocessor/microprocessor_overview.htm –
Tutorialspoint online reference for microprocessor fundamentals.

7. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/microprocessor-8086-architecture/ –
GeeksforGeeks article on 8086 architecture and functional units.

8. https://www.electronicsforu.com/ – Electronics For You articles and circuit

references on Intel processors.

9. https://www.engineersgarage.com/microprocessor-8086-architecture-and-
working/ – EngineersGarage technical write-up and illustrations.