PERIOD 1 (1200-1450 CE)

Unit 1- The Global Tapestry

Brief Summary
Empires and states in Asia demonstrated continuity and change, innovation, and diversity in
the 13th century. This included the Song Dynasty of China, which utilized traditional methods
of confucianism and empirical bureaucracy to maintain and justify its rule.

(CHINA WAS THE BIGGEST DEAL DURING THIS TIME!)

1.1 STATE BUILDING IN SONG CHINA

● 1000 CE~ China is world’s preeminent (the best) power

● 960~ China splits into regional kingdoms as Tang Dynasty power decreased
● Zhoa Kuangin~ruler of one of these kingdoms and unified the rest into one big
empire, known as the Song Dynasty ( 960~1279)
● 960-1279~ Song Dynasty built on innovations of the Tang Dynasty
( State structured lasted over 1000 years)
DYNASTIES
YUAN DYNASTY
- Time period (1279-1368)- Mongol rule
- Practiced religious tolerance and promoted traditional Chinese arts and literature.
- Extended the Mongol Empire’s Influence over China and other regions.
MING DYNASTY
- Time period (1368-1644)
- Restoration of Chinese rule & customs after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty.
- Conducted maritime explorations under Zheng He, expanding Chinese influence.
QING (MANCHU) EMPIRE
- Time period (1644-1911/12)
- Established by the Manchus, a non-Han ethnic group
- Implemented a strict social hierarchy

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 - Expanded into other East & Central Asian countries
- Faced challenges such as Western imperialism and internal rebellions
Song state structure focused on 6 departments
Personnel (Emperors, rulers, etc)
Finance (Economic, trade, taxing through tributes)
Rites (Focused on the belief systems, imperial examination, foreign relations)
Army (Mostly focused on innovations such as gunpowder, but was somewhat weak)
Justice
Public work
MANDATE OF HEAVEN- Used by rulers to legitimize their power.
-Was lost if a ruler was not virtuous, not con

SONG DYNASTY-

(Highly centralized)
POWERS IN SONG DYNASTY ( how did the song dynasty maintain their power?)
(Founded by Confucis, 400 BCE in China)

CONFUCIANISM; A philosophy that teaches that human society is hierarchical by nature, which
is saying that harmony is achieved when everyone understands their proper role in society.
~ Helped organize the government (chief continues it over hundreds of years)
● FIVE RELATIONSHIPS
- Rulers > people, | Men> women| Father>Children
● Inferior must be obedient and loyal
● Superior must be a set example for the inferior
● Confucius should focus on education, patriarchy, and non-violent mindset.
IMPACT
● Its ideas spread to Japan and Korea, they were highly influenced by Confucianism.
Korea adopted many of its principles and organized their state with this hierarchy.
● Stayed within Chinese culture
FILIAL PIETY ; The practice of honoring one's parents and ancestors.
(Neo evolved in China 770-840, started with confucianism in the Tang Dynasty > then revival in the
Song Dynasty with Neo- Confucianism)
NEO-CONFUCIANISM; Ideals were Daoism and Buddhism combined

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 - This revival demonstrates continuity between China and the Song as they changed aspects of
the belief system to fit with modern beliefs.
PATRIARCHY ;
- Women did not have any legal rights in Song, they were seen as lower than men.
Examples; Womens properties would be her husbands, she was not allowed to remarry.
FOOT BINDING!; In Chinese and Song culture, from a young age girls would wrap their
feet so tightly that bones would end up crushing. (Banned in 1912)
~Main reason this occurred was because it was seen as a status symbol for the elites, women
can't walk = they can't do anything so servants would be hired.
SUMMARY!; Chinese cultural traditions continued, and they influenced neighboring regions.
(Filial piety in East Asia, influence of Neo-Confucianism & Buddhism in East Asia, Chinese traditions of
respect and the treatment of women traveled to Meian Japan & Korea. So did scholarly traditions like
writing.)

IMPERIAL BUREAUCRACY ; A governmental structure that was made up of laws and rules
needed to organize and administer neighboring places.
-Officials would make sure that rulers or emperor laws were being spread.
- This strengthened the Song dynasty, as bureaucracy grew and helped them maintain their rule.
● To maintain this governmental structure, officials decided that men had to pass and take the
civil service exam.
CIVIL SERVICE EXAM; Exam used to identify and appoint skilled bureaucrats (scholars)
to positions of officials in the government.
- Jobs were firmly awarded by those who were educated on Confucian texts, and scored
well. People were not given jobs based on connections (people they knew).
II. INCREASED COMPETITION AND EFFICIENCY OF THESE TASKS
- Although the Song Dynasty was starting to maintain a strong government, due to the amount
of men that were given official jobs they had to get paid which lightened China's wealth.
( Bureaucracy also had an influence on China’s neighbors)
CHINA'S IMPACT ON KOREA
- Korea and China kept a tribute system; Korean officials would often visit the Song Dynasty
and acknowledge them either by giving them materials or paying money.
- Korean officials also followed a civil service exam which was influenced by China, but they did
not let peasants or the lower class take the exam.
CHINA'S IMPACT ON JAPAN
- Due to the fact that Japan was separated by sea, they were able to control themselves
more from China.

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 - During the Helam period (794-1185) Japan adopted Chinese traditions in politics, art,
and literature.
- Japan did adopt confucianism, and bureaucracy from China.
VIETNAM
- Influence from China within Confucianism, Chinese literary techniques, and Civil
service exams.
- Women were not as treated badly as they were in China, and never adapted foot
binding.
BUDDHISM IN SONG CHINA (traveled from india to china)
I. FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
● Life is suffering
● We suffer because we crave
● We cease suffering when we cease craving
● The Eightfold path leads to the cessation (ending) of suffering and crave
II. EIGHTFOLD PATH
- Outlines the principles and practices that a buddhist must follow (usually
peace)
- A moral lifestyle and practice of meditation
TYPES OF BUDDHISM
THERAVADA BUDDHISM (originated in Sri Lanka)
- Similar to Buddhism, emphasize on escaping the cycle of birth and death
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
-Emphasized that Buddhist teachings were available to all, and not just a select few.
II. Emphasized compassion
III. Made the Budha into an object of devotion (A God).
TIBETAN BUDDHISM
-Similar beliefs like the others
-Emphasized more mystical practices
-Lying prostrate (Some sort of mediation where they would lay on the ground to earn merit)
(although song dynasty emphasized in confucianism, buddhsim
continued to play a significant role in their society)
ECONOMY IN SONG DYNASTY

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 ● China produced more goods than needed, which resulted in a surplus. (meaning they
would end up trading the left over and making money.)
● They relied on paper money
● Used Iron and Steels for armor, coins for taxation, and tools for agriculture.
III. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
Champa Rice (what truly impacted china's economy)
I. Drought Resistant ( meaning it could be grown in places where other rice
couldn’t)
II. Harvestable twice a year (meaning the double amount of production)
● Population growth because of champa rice
IIII. INNOVATION
● Magnetic compass
-Improved navigation in water
-Further facilitated Sea Based trade among regions
● JUNK SHIPS
- Were bigger ships which allowed more storage, and made trading easier and faster.

1.2 DAr-al-ISlam
DAR-AL-ISLAM; House of islaM

I. THREE MAJOR RELIGIONS

JUDIASIM; Ethnic religion of jews, originated in the Middle East. Was a monotheistic ( Worshiped
one God)
CHRISTIANITY; Established by Jewish prophet Jesus Christ ( Messiah). The Roman empire
adopted it which was the biggest influence upon society.
ISLAM;Founded by Muhammed on the Arabian Peninsula. Taught followers that salvation is found
in prayer, fasting, & also focusing on trading as Muhammed was a merchant.
DEATH OF MUHAMMED; Islam started to spread rapidly throughout the Middle East, North
and Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and all the way to Asia. Islamic states became more wealthy due to
trading beliefs.
NEW ISLAMIC STATES ARISE
ABBASID CALIPHATE ( replaced the Umayyad Caliphate)

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 ● Founded in the 8th century
● Ethnically Arab
● In power during Golden Age of Islam (Time of innovation; science, math, literature)
● A lot of battles against the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)
● Found the Umayyad (Islamic Empires were run by Arabs > turkic Muslic came and started
new rival empires.
● Fragmented into many states
● Used to be much greater and more powerful
TURKIC MUSLIM EMPIRES my
SELJUK EMPIRE (Central Asia, 11th century, brought by Abbasid to expand their military)
● Had more political power so they gained control. (Also killed people to gain power)
MAMLUK SULTANATE
● Ayyubid Sultanate ruled Egypt under the leadership of Saladin
● Saladin enslaved turkish warriors named mukluks
● Saladin died, enslaved mamluks and seized power giving rise to another muslim state.
DELHI SUlTNATE (rise of Turkish Empires)
● Ruled over the Indian Population
CONTINUITY IN MUSLIM EMPIRES
- Military in charge of administration.
- Implemented Sharia Law ( A code laws established in the Quran)
HOW ISLAM SPREAD
I. MILITARY EXPANSION = Delhi Sultanate
II. MERCHANT ACTIVITY= Trade ( North Africa ruled by Muslims = trade and wealth)
III. MUSLIM MISSIONARIES= Sufis ( Sufism- A form of Islam that emphasized spiritual
experiences open to anyone no matter gender or social class).
INTELLECTUAL INNOVATIONS AND TRANSFERS
I. MATHEMATICS
● NASIR-AL-DIN-Al-TUSI; invented trigonometry to better understand planets and
stars.
II. HOUSE OF WISDOM;
-Established in Baghdad during the Golden age of Islam
- World famous library for scholars to study religion, science, etc.
- Scholars were responsible for reserving Greek moral & natural philosophy from
people like Aristotle and Plato.
-They translated them, made comments on them, without those works would have
been lost forever)
-Muslims spread a lot of messages under the Umayyad (661-750) and Abbasid
(750-1258)

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1.3 SOUTHEAST AND SOUTH ASIA

BELIEF SYSTEM- Hinduism, Island, Buddhism

HINDUISM- sea based
● Polytheistic belief system
● Ultimate goal is to reunite their individual souls to the world- soul known as Braham.
● Involves cycling through death & rebirth (reincarnation) to achieve
● Provided the conditions for a unified culture in India
-Achieved this by structuring Indian society according to caste system
BUDDHISM & HINDUISM
BUDDHISM
● Cycle of birth and death, reincarnation, equality for all.
● Ultimate goal dissolve into oneness of the universe
HINDUISM
● Caste system & Ethnic religion,
● Encouraged belief to one God

ISLAM
● In 1206 Turkic Muslim invaders came to South Asia
to set up a Muslim Empire known as the Delhi Sultanate.
-Meaning that while in India focused on buddhism, Island became the second
prominent religion.
- Because large parts of India Muslims were in charge so Islam became the religion of
the elite > then through SouthEast Asia.
BHAKTI AND SUFIS
● Similarities were mystical experiences
● Rejected elaborate doctrines and religious requirements of the elite
● Emphasized access of spiritual for all
LANDBASed EmPires
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

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 ● Muslim sultans wanted to expand the Island down to the South; they ended up
converting to Hindu, and starting a rival.
● Muslims were secretly
● Refuge for Hindus from Muslim invaders
SEA-BASED states in southeast america
SRIVIJAYA: A buddhist state. Had hindu beliefs, gained power.
Main Source of power; Control of Waterway called Strait of Malacca.
This was the best way for merchants to get through the Indian ocean.
MAJAPAHIT EMPIRE: Used a tribute system for other states in region
LAND BASED STATES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
SINHALA DYNASTIES-
- Used Buddhism to legitimize rule
- Sponsoring Buddhist architecture, employing Buddhist monks
KHMER EMPIRE- built Angkor Wat
Entire Hindu universe, in a building
Syncretism occurred when Buddhist elements were added without destroying anything hindu.
(Combining religions)

1.4 STATE BUILDING IN THE AMERICAS (1200-1450)

MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
MAYA CIVILIZATIONS
● Most sophisticated writing system
● Many buildings
● Concept of zero (invented zero)
MAYA STATE BUILDING
● State structure was a decentralized collection of city-states that were frequency at war
with one another
● Fought to create a vast network of tributary system among neighboring regions (which
meant that other states were still independent, but still had to send textiles and building
materials)
● Emphasized on human sacrifice (They believed that the sun God was losing energy so
they needed people's blood.)
MEXICA PEOPLE- semi nomadic people, building political systems, marrying into wealthy families
● The Mexica ethnic group were the folks that established the Aztec Empire
AZTEC EMPIRE & MAYA CIVILIZATION
- Decentralized Power ( Continuity For Maya)

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 - Tributary System (People Had To Give Up Food And Animal)
- Religious Motivation For Expansion (To Expand Their Power Over More People)
- In Order For The Mexica Group To Secure Power They Claimed Heritage Over Older
MesoAmerican People
TENOCHTITLAN
● The capital city had the most magnificent buildings, and a population of 200,000.
● Commercialized economy; They used marketplaces which meant that their economy
was very good.
● Contained of Palaces and Pyramids
INCAS
- Outsiders who rose to power with military expansion
- Expanded their empire rapidly
INCAS; -centralized power and massive bureaucracy
AZTECS; -decentralized power and relied on tributary relationships
MITA SYSTEM
- Bureaucracy system that was used
- The Inca state required labor for all people for a period of time each year to work on state
products like Mining or Military service.
NORTH AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
Missipian culture- represented the first large- scale civilization in america
-Their society was developed around agriculture
-Political structure was dominated by powerfuel chiefs known as the great sun which ruled each town
& extended political power over small satellite settlements
-Many mountains
1.5 STATE BUILDING IN AFRICA (1200-1450)
STATE BUILDING IN SUB- SAHARAN AFRICA (below sahara desert)
SWAHILI CIVILIZATION- east coast
(conversion of swahili elite took place voluntarily & that was good because it connected them to the
economic world of Dar-Al-islam)
● Collection of independent city states
● Focused on trade
● Merchants were interested in; Gold, Ivory, Timber, and Enslaved laborers
II. Islam became a dominant belief system
● Islam influences the swahili language
● Hybrid between arabic and bantu family languages

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 ● Organized their social class by putting merchants first
GREAT ZIMBABWE
-Got rich by participating in the Indian Ocean trade
- Their economy focused on cattle and farming
STATE BUILDING IN WEST AND EAST AFRICA
HAUSA KINGDOMS- Collections of city states that were politically independent & gained power
and wealth through trade across the Trans-Saharan trade routes.
-Each state ruled by a king who imposed social hierarchies on their society.
- African states adopted Islam to organize their societies.
SWAHILI & HAUSA
● States urbanized & commercialized, acted as middlemen for goods grown in the interior
which they integrated into trade patterns with other states across West & North Africa.
KINGDOM OF ETHIOPIA
-Focused on Christianity
-Grew wealthy through trade
-Traded salt in both the Mediterranean and Indian ocean (Salt was one of their most valuable
commodities)
CENTRALIZED POWER- King sat at top, Class hierarchy below king.

1.6 DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE (1200-1450)

CHRISTIANITY DOMINATES EUROPE
-Emperor constantine made Christianity its main religion in Roman Empire
-United romans until split of West & East
- Byzantine empire kept Christianity alive
CHRISTIANITY IN EUROPE
- Eastern Orthodox Christianity & Roman Catholic Christianity
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
-Took over byzantine capital constantinople and renamed Istanbul
(Kievan Ros kept Eastern orthodox alive)
CRUSADES
- A way to spread Roman Catholicism ( military expeditions goal was to stop Muslim states, to
reclaim for christianity in the Holy Land of the Middle East, and to recapture territories that
were formerly christian.
- Catholic hierarchy ex; (pope, bishops, priest, etc)
POLITICAL DECENTRALIZATION IN THE WEST (no large empires in this time period in
europe)

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-In Western Europe the social, political, and economic empire was organized around Feudalism.
FEUDALISM- A system between powerful lords, monarchs, and knights.
-Greater lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords
-Land was exchanged in order to keep everyone loyal
MANORIALISM- peasants were bound to land and worked in it for exchange of protection from
lord or the military.
SERFS- were not owned by the land, bound to the land.
-Monarchs in various states began to gain power & centralize their states by introducing large
militaries & bureaucracies. (Monarchs was a big thing)

Unit 2- Networks of Exchange (1200-1450)

Overview - Between 1200 and 1450, economic activity along existing trade routes
increased in volume and scope. Technological and commercial innovations, imperial
expansion, and demand for luxury goods were key factors in the ongoing expansion of trade.
Growing trade networks accelerated cultural, biological, and technological diffusion across
Afro-Eurasia
The Silk Roads
A vast network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture and ideas
across Eurasia in and before the period 1200-1450
The Silk Roads expand: causes
Innovations in commercial practices
1. Development of many economies
-paper money become worth something
-with the introduction of paper money to facilitate trade, a merchant could deposit bills in
one location and withdraw the same amount in another location, thus increasing the ease of
travel and the security of transactions
2. Increasing use of credit
-”Flying money”
3. Rise of banks
-kept the flow of money
-Bin of exchange: Merchants could deposit money there and receive a document they used to
withdraw funds
Transportation

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 1. Caravanserai
-provided safety from plunders
-became centers of cultural exchange and diffusion
2. Saddles
-put on horses to carry more goods
Effect #1 - New trading cities
-With the increasing demand for interregional trade, the city of Kashgar became a destination
in itself hosting highly profitable markets and eventually became a thriving center for Islamic
scholarship
Kashgar and Samarkand
-Both strategically located on silk roads
-cultural exchange
Effect #2 - increased demand
-As demand grew for luxury items, Chinese, Indian, and Persial artisans increased their
production of these goods.
Proto-industrialization
-A process by which China began producing more goods than their own population could
consume, which were then sold in distant markets
-Boosted economy
-All the excess money went to their iron and steel production
Unit 2.2 The Mongol Empire
Largest land based empire!
Rise of the Mongol Empire
Temujin/ Chinggis Khan
-A Mongol living around the Gobi Desert
-A pastoral Nomad (traveled depending on the season)
-United the Mongols in 1206
-Ghengis = western -Chinggis = eastern
-expanded through torture, his son eventually carried on
MILITARY WAYS
-weapons were bows, and excellent skill of horse riding
-great timing
Pax Mongolia - peace of the Mongols after expansion

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The 4 Khanates
-The Golden Horde: Located in modern-day Russia and Central China
-The Chagatai Khanate covered parts of Central Asia
-The Ilkhanate was centered in Persia (modern-day Persia)
-The Yuan Dynasty ruled over China
Kublai Khan (grandson of Chinggis Khan) was the one to separate their land into
these 4 khanates.
- As part of confusion belief that because he united Mongolia, he was the rightful ruler
of the Yuan Dynasty
- Mongols adopted Chinese rule
Mongols and Economics
The silk roads were never more organized and prosperous than they were under Mongol rule
Mongol economics
1. Improved infrastructure
-built bridges and repaired roads
2. Increased communication
-Yam system: stations were set up at regular intervals across the empire, allowing for the the
rapid transport of goods, people, and information
Technological and cultural transfers
Intellectual and skilled artisans
-Because it was the Mongol policy to send skilled people to all different parts of the empire,
that movement encouraged the transfer of technology, ideas, and culture
Mongol Transfers
1. Medical knowledge
-Greek/ Islamic scholars to western Europe
2. Adoption of Uyghur Script from Central Asia
-was a widely adopted language
Despite their brutal rise, the Mongol EMpire facilitated many cultural transfers across many
parts of Eurasia
-unified culture → the rise of the modern world

Unit 2.3 Indian Ocean Exchange

The Indian Ocean Networks expands
Indian Ocean trade

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-A network of sea routes that connected the various states throughout Afro-Eurasia through
trade
Causes of expansion
1. Collapse of the Mongol Empire
-When the Mongol empire started falling apart, so did the eas and safely to travel along the Silk
Roads and this led to greater emphasis in maritime trade in the Indian Ocean
2. Commercialized practices
-Money economies and the ability to buy goods on credit made trade easier and therefore
increased the use of these routes
3. Transportation technologies Goods
● Magnetic compass Common items:
● Astrolabe -cotton textiles
● Lateen sail - wind in any direction -grains
● knowledge of monsoon winds -luxury goods
● improvements in shipbuilding
-ex. Dhows

Growth of trade-cities and states

-Swahili city-states
-Malacca (controlled the strait of Malacca)
-Gujarat increased wealth through taxes

Diasporic communities
-Persian, Arab, and Chinese communities
-A group of people from one place who established a home in another place while still
retaining their cultural customs
Cultural and technological transfers
-The cultural and technological exchanges that occurred over trade routes and are just as
significant as the goods exchanged over those trade routes
-Zheng He: Ming Dynasty, Tribute system
-First Voyage was an impressive 27,000 people on hundreds of ships
-Gunpowder

Unit 2.4 Trans-Saharan trade networks

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Trans-saharan routes explained
A series of trade routes that connected North Africa and the Mediterranean world with
interior of West africa and the rest of sub-saharan Africa
-Sahara Desert
Causes of Expansion
1. Transportation technologies
-Arabian camels
2. Saddles
3. Caravanserai
-With merchants now able to travel more comfortably and carry bigger loads and find shelter
along the way, by 1200 the Trans-Saharan network expanded larger than it had ever been
Trans-Saharan goods
1. Gold
2. Kola nuts
3. Horses
4. Salt - high demand
-Each region specialized in creating and growing various goods and that difference created the
demand to trade with each other, and created the occasion for the expansion of those
networks

THE GROWTH OF EMPIRE

Empire of Mali
-conversion to Islam
-grew filthy rich from trade along the Trans-Saharan
-that religious and economic connection meant that Mali, once it was established, grew
exceedingly wealthy because it participated in the Trans-Saharan trade networks
Sultan of Malacca AND Mali
-Both controlled strategic points along high-traffic trade routes
-grew in power and wealth
Mansa Musa
Maji - pilgrimage to Mecca
-during this journey, he dropped so much gold into the Egyptian Economy

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-He did this to demonstrate the immense wealth and power of the Mali Empire, which was a
strategic way to impress the world

Unit 2.5 Cultural Effects of Connectivity

Cultural diffusion, connections
Trade networks and diffusion
1. Cultural transfers
-spread belief systems
● Japan Buddhism → Zen Buddhism
2. Syncretism
● Buddhism + Taoism → Chan Buddhism
3. Scientific and technological innovations
-Chinese papermaking technologies spread to Europe
-Moveable type: modified and adopted by Europeans → Increase in literacy
-Mongols spread gunpowder
Effects on trade on cities
Networks of exchange led to the increasing wealth and power of trading cities
Expansion of cities
1. Hangzhou
-Near Grand Canal = good locations for ports and trade
-More urbanization and growth in population
2. Samarkand and Kashgar
-Located on strategic routes on the Silk Routes
-Grew in power and influence
For all of these cities, the expansion of trading networks only increased their influence which
resulted in an increase in productivity in those places
Cities in decline
1. Baghdad
-the capital of Islamic culture and artistic achievement
-Mongols arrived →decline, end of Abbasid Empire
2. Constantinople
-Political and religious capital of the Byzantine Empire
Increased Regional Trade

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- safer travel
- Ibn Battuta was a Muslim Scholar from Morocco
● Traveled all over Dar-Al-Islam
● Took detailed notes about places, people, rulers, and cultures
● Readers had an understanding of other places

Unit 2.6 Environmental Effects of Connectivity

Agriculture, disease
Diffusion of Crops
1. Bananas
-domesticated in Southeast Asia
-spread to Africa, had prime conditions to flourish them
-the diets of the people were expanded which led to population growth
2. Champa Rice
-East Asia
-Led to terrace farming that made unfarmable land farmable by cutting steps into hills
3. Citrus fruits
-From Muslim traders to Europe through the Mediterranean
-In Europe and North America
-Better diets and better health
Diffusion of diseases
Mongols increased the pace and volume of the geographical extent of trade by keeping various
routes safe - Pax Mongolia
-Bubonic Plague in Northern China traveled rapidly through silk roads and the Indian Ocean
routes
-A third of the population of the Middle East died
-With the intro of the Banana, the Bantu had something other than yams into their diet

PERIOD 2 (1450-1750)
Unit 3- Land-based empires (1200-1450)

Unit 3.1 - how land-based empires expanded

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Overview - Great Land-based empires existed before 1450 and after 1750. However between
these years, several of history’s greatest land-based empires reached their peak of wealth and
influence. Among these were the Songhai in West Africa; the Safaids based in Persia; the
Mughals in northern India; the Ottomans in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Northern
Africa; and the Manchus in eastern Asia. They were multiethnic states that had direct political
control over large regions and overland routes.

Gunpowder Empire
1. These empires were land-based
-Power came from their territorial holdings
2. Each Empire was expanding geographically
3. Main cause of that expansion was the adoption of gunpowder weapons
-The empires that adopted Gunpowder weapons came out on top
Gunpowder Empires
Ottoman Empire
- Controlled Dardanelles (piece of water)
Ottoman Expansion
-Sunni
1. Strategic control of Dardanelles
2. Adoption and development of gunpowder weapons
Mehmed II sacked Constantinople with a gunpowder weapon
Safavid Empire
-Shi’a
Under the rule of Ismail
-declared as a Shi’a Muslim state
Sunni believed Muhhamids true successor could be elected
Shia believed Muhhamids, the true successor must be a blood relative
Mughal Empire
-Sunni
-Muslims, replaced the Delhi Sultanate under the rule of Babur
-Military, gunpowder weapons to expand
-Under his grandson's rule, Akbur

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 ● Akbar was a masterful administrator of the empire and under his leadership, the
Mughals became the most prosperous empire of the 16th
Qing Dynasty
After the decline of Mongol Rule →the Ming →Qing
-Established by the Manchu people
-Invaded Ming to establish Qing
-Their goal was to acclaim as much Ming and Mongol territory as possible, including Vietnam
-The Manchu were not Ethnically Han like the majority of China’s population
Rivalries between states
-all empires had goals to expand as much as possible so they had altercations
-Their clashes were mainly due to religious beliefs and politics
Safavid-Mughal conflict
-had many wars in the past
-both wanted to expand into the Persin Golf
-Safavids were Shi’a and Mughals were Sunni = big conflict
-decades of wars, no clear victories
Songhai-Moroccan conflict
-Songhai was powerful due to its control of trade routes
-They had internal problems and the Moroccan Kingdom strikes
-Morocco wanted the control over trade routes
-Invaded Songhai with gunpowder weapons and won (Songhai had none)

Unit 3.2 Administration of Power

Legitimizing and consolidating power
Legitimize power - refers to the methods the ruler uses to communicate to all their subjects
who is in charge
Consolidate power - measures a ruler uses to take power from other groups and claim it for
themselves
Bureaucracies and Militaries
1. Large imperial bureaucracies
-Bureaucracies: a body of government officials responsible for administering the empire and
ensuring the laws are being kept
-Bureaucracies grew due to expanding empires, ex: gunpowder empires

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Devshirme system
-A system by which the Ottomans staffed their imperial bureaucracy with highly trained
individuals, most of whom were enslaved
-Ottomans enslaved Christian boys to be raised by Turkish families and then sent to Istanbul
for an Islamic Education
2. Military Expansion
-elite military professionals
-Janissaries: the core of the Ottoman army
Religion, Art, and Architecture
Religion and power
1. Rule by divine right of Kings (Europe)
2. Human Sacrifice (Aztecs)
Art
-In the Qing Dynasty, portraits of the ruler were all over their city, emperor Kangxi
-Art was displayed to show who their legitimate ruler was
Architecture
-Palace of Versailles by Louis XIV
-Showed his wealth using this and the “right to rule”
-He consolidated power by forcing the French Nobility to live there part-time
-By doing this he took the power from them
● Inca Sun Temple
● In Cuzco
● Full of gold statues, walls made/ covered in gold
● Made to worship Gods in them
Financing Imperial Expansion
Financing Empire
1. Zamindar System (Mughal Empire)
-They collected taxes on behalf of the emperor
2. Tax farming in the Ottoman Empire

Unit 3.3 Belief Systems

Christianity, Islam, Syncretism
Christianity in Europe

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-two different branches of Christianity
● Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic
Catholic church yielded a lot of power
-Wealthy, built architecture like St. Peter's Basilica
Put wealth on display
-Martin Luther: a Catholic Monk, saw nothing in the Bible about selling indulgences, he
created the 95 thesis and nailed it to the front of the Church
-He got excommunicated
Protestant Reformation
-Others before Luther had noticed things, but he was effective because of the Printing press
which spread everything
Catholic Reformation - realized indulgences were wrong, and the Council of Trent told
everyone to quit these practices
Islam in the Middle East
Changes in South Asia
-Bhakti movement →Hindu,
Islam →Sufism
Hindu and Sufism

Unit 4- Transoceanic Connections (1450-1700)

Unit 4 Transoceanic technologies
Adopted technologies
Europe became powerful
1. Magnetic Compass
-Developed in China
-For reckoning direction
2. Astrolabe
-Determines latitude and longitude
3. Lateen Sail
-Triangular shaped sail
-takes wind on both sides
4. Astronomical charts
-Diagram of stars and constellations

21
All of these spread through merchant activities
European Innovations
Shipbuilding innovations
1. Caravel (portugal)
-its smaller size made them more nimble on water, more navigable, and fit through small rivers
and shallow waters
-Equipped with cannons
2. Carack (Portugal)
-Larger than a caravel, holds more cargo
-Full of guns to dominate maritime trade
3. Fluyt (Dutch)
-Helped overthrow Portugal in the Indian Ocean trade
-Designed for trade, massive cargo hold, small crews
-Cheap to build
-Responsible for about half of European shipping in mid 17th century
Effects: Animals
Europe brought domesticated animals like sheep, pics and cattle
4.2 Causes of European Exploration
State Sponsored exploration
Result of distribution of power
-European monarchs built up of their militaries, learned how to use gunpowder weapons and
implemented more efficient ways to tax their people
-A huge motivator for states sponsoring maritime exploration was the increasing desire for
Asian and South Asian
Portugal's trading Post Empire
-had no other choice than to expand through water due to location
Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored the first European tempts to find an all water route
through Indian Ocean trade networks
Portugal's Motivation
1. Technology
-Caravel
-Crack
2. Economics

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-Trans-Saharan Gold
-Spices
3. Religion
Trading post Empires were established to facilitate trade, Vasco De Gama traveled the coasts of
Africa, also traveled to Callicut and discovered that Indian Ocean trade was better than their
ports in Africa
Spain’s Sea-Based Empire
Christopher Columbus in 1942
-Funded by Ferdinand
-Opened trans-Atlantic trade
Other States Empires
Causes for exploration
1. Political rivalry
2. Envy
3. Desire for wealth
4. Need for Alternative routes to Asia
France
-Sponsored expeditions seeking a westward route to the Indian Ocean (didn’t exist)
-Established themselves in North America, colony of Quebec
-Died in mass numbers due to diseases and battles with the Indigenous people
England
-Initially not interested because of their success in textiles (had enough money)
-Queen Elizebeth I defeated Spain, Spain became weaker
-Established the colony Virginia in the Americas
Dutch Republic
-Gained Independence from Spain and became one of the wealthiest states
-Dethroned the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean Trade
-Founded colony of New Amsterdam in the New World
Unit 4.3 The Columbian Exchange
Definition and Causes
The transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western
hemispheres
Causes

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-Due to contact between the New world and the Old World
Effects
-Transfer of diseases
● Afro-Eurasian people had immunities to their diseases but the New World didn’t
● Brought Disease vectors (rats, mosquitos, bugs)
Transfer of Diseases
1. Malaria
-transferred by mosquitoes, introduced to Americas by enslaved Africans who were
transported there for plantation work
2. Measles
-rapidly spread and killed millions
3. Smallpox
-introduced in 1518
-spread to Central America and South Africa
-90% of people died
-referred to as “the great dying”
Made European takeover of the Americas much easier
➢ Theory that Europeans purposely spread these diseases for easier conquering
Effects: Plants and Food
Europe brought wheat, grapes, olives, bananas, sugar. Bananas and sugar from Africa
-diversified diets, led ot healthier population, significant population growth because of longer
lifespans
Cash Crops - A method of agriculture in which food is grown primarily for export to other
countries
-Europeans became rich by planting large areas of one single crop with coerced labor
Ex: sugar cane into the Caribbean, Africans worked there
-Africa brought okra and rice
Unit 4.4 Sea-Based Empires established
European Trade Ascendancy
The three G’s, God, Gold, and Glory
Motives for imperialism
1. To enrich themselves
2. To spread Christianity

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 3. 3. To be the greatest state in the world
Portugal
-had trading posts all across Africa
-Once the Portuguese inserted themselves into this trading network, they weren’t as interested
in participating peacefully as they were in owning and controlling it by force
Spain
-Set up colonies in the Americas through tribute systems, taxation, and coerced labor
-used these tactics in their colonies in the Indian Ocean
Dutch
-soon dominated Indian Ocean trade, Dutch Fluyt, the Portuguese went down
-used the same methods as the Portuguese to dominate
British
-largest seabased empire in the world
-set up trading posts in the Mughal Empire
-later towards the 1700s, these turned into full on colonial rule in India
-Initially wanted India, but lacked the military to take it from the Mughal Empire
The Dutch did the same in Indonesia
Continuity in Trade
-the middle eastern, South Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian merchants who had been
using the trade networks for centuries before the arrival of the Europeans continued to use it
-European entrance increased profits
-Merchants like the Gujaratis in the Mughal Empire continued to make use of the Indian
Ocean trade even while Europeans sought to dominate it, and in doing so they increased their
power and wealth
Asian Resistance
-Tokugawu Japan - Kicked out all Christians from Japan
-Ming China wanted most of maritime trade in the Indian Ocean to be processed through the
Chinese state
Expansion of African States
Asante Empire - key trading partner with the Portuguese, and later the British
-Gold, Ivory, Enslaved laborers
-Became so rich from this, used this to expand their militaries, empire and consolidate power
-Eventually let go of the British to not be ruled by them

25
Kingdom of Kongo
-Diplomacy ties to the Portugues
-Traded gold, copper,enslaved laborers
-King and nobles inverted to Christianity to further facilitate an economic relationship with
Portugal
-Relationship letter deteriorated, economics stayed strong, and became wealthy
Economic and labor systems
British colonies in Americas focused on Agriculture
Existing labor systems
-Spanish made use of the old Inca Mit’a system
● Inca developed this system in which subjects of the empire were required to provide
labor for state projects for a certain number of days per year
-The Spanish implemented the Mit’a system largely for their massive silver mining operations
New Labor systems
1. Chattel slavery (slaves were property)
-race based
-slavery became hereditary
2. Indentured servitude (a contract)
-usually 7 years
3. Encomienda system - indigenous people were forced to work by the Spanish colonists
4. Hacienda system
-Large agricultural estates that were developed by the Spanish, they were worked by
indentured laborers
Developments of Slavery
Continuity
1. African Slave trade
2. Cultural Assimilation
3. Domestic work
-African states became domestic servants with a high demand for enslaved women
4. Slaved held power
-in the Islamic World
-Enslaved people could hold significant military or political positions
Change

26
 1. Agriculture work
-Males were purchased 2:1 which impacted demographics of African States
2. Trans-Atlantic trade became larger
3. Racial prejudice
-In the Amerias, slavery became identified with blackness which justified the brutality of
slavery
Unit 4.5 The economics of Empire Building
ECONOMIC STRATEGIES
I. MERCANTILISM
● A state driven economic system that emphasizes the buildup of mineral wealth by
maintaining a favorable balance of trade, the more I have, the less for you.
FAVORABLE BALANCE OF TRADE
Merchants wanted more exports than imports
- Get as much gold and silver as possible
- Mercantilism was a powerful motivation for establishing & growing empires b/c many
other reasons, once a colony was established, it created a closed market to purchase
exports from the imperial parent country.
- More colonies -> more people buying -> more wealth
JOINT STOCK COMPANIES
A limited liability business, often charted by the state, which was funded by a group of
investors.
- Investors could only lose the money they invested in the business
- A government approved this business & in doing so often granted it trade monopolies
in various reasons,
- This was a big innovation in how businesses were funded, as they were privately
funded, not state funded.
DUTCH EAST INDIAN
Chartered in 1608 by the Dutch state who subsequently granted the company a
monopoly on trade in the Indian Ocean.
I. The companies investors became so rich
II. The Dutch imperial government was able to expand its power and influence
across many places throughout the Indian Ocean.
TRADE NETWORKS; CONTINUITY AND CHANGE
CHANGE

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ATLANTIC SYSTEM
- The movement of goods, wealth
& laborers between the eastern &
Western hemisphere
- Christopher Columbus
IMPORTANCE OF SUGAR
- Growth in caribbean
- Prices grew -> high demand in Europe
SILVER WAS KING
EFFECTS OF SILVER
I. Satisfied Chinese demand for silver
- Further developed the commercialization of their economy
II. Increased profits
- The good silber purchased in Asian markets like silk, porcelain & steel, were traded
across the Atlantic System resulting in more profits.
IIII. COERCED LABOR
- Forced indigenous labor
- Indentured servitude
- Enslaved Africans
CONTINUITY
I. Afro-Eurasian markets thrived
- Regional markets across Afro-Eurasia continued to flourish & increase their reach.
II. Asian land routes
- Overland routes like the silk roads almost entirely controlled by Asian land-based
powers, notably Ming China & then the Qing Dynasty
III. PEASANT & Artisan Labor
- Artisans were skilled laborers who made everything by hand.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
I. Gender imbalance
II. Changed Family Structures
- Most African men were shipped -> which led to Polyging ( marrying more than
1 woman)
III. Cultural synthesis- blending; such as creating language
CHANGING BELIEF SYSTEMS

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CATHOLIC CHRISTIANITY
- Portugal & Spain wanted everyone to worship Jesus & sent missionaries (to spread
christianity to the indigenous people)
- Printing press helped to spread as well
- In some cases, Indigenous groups outwardly adopted Christianity, but privately
continued to practice their own religious beliefs.
- Bartaleme De Las Casas (Priest) made great efforts to respect the Indigenous peoples
from colonial authorities.
4.6 CHALLENGE TO STATE POWER
LOCAL RESISTANCE
I. Fronde
- In France
- Louis xiv -> Absolutism
- Several new edicts were passed that increased taxation among french subjects, and so
the French nobility whose power had been under threat from the growing power of
monarchy, led peasants in spontaneous rebellions, known as the Fronde.
II. QUEEN AND NZINGA'S RESISTANCE
- In Africa
- Concerned about portuguese control -> allied with the duth
III. PUEBLO REVOLT
- In North America
- Pueblo suffered terrible abuse from Spanish missionaries (Spreading Christianity)
- Disease decreased population
- In 1680, they revolted against the Spanish under the leadership of the people,
temporarily won over them, and the Spanish came back a decade later and rejoined
control.
RESISTANCE FROM THE ENSLAVED
I. MAROON SOCIETIES
- Caribbean and Brazil
- Runaway slaves came here and were free
- People were not okay with this because their workers could just leave
- 1738 a treaty was signed that recognized the freedom of this
- Malita failed to wipe them out

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II. BRITISH COLONIES
- North America
- Stono Rebellion of 1739
- In South Carolina, a major agricultural operation, specialized in exporting rice and
indigo
- Sent many black people there, almost entirely made up of black people
- 100 slaves stormed the countryside killing their enslaves and local militia crushed the
rebellion
- Struck fear into slaves holding colonies
4.7 CHANGING SOCIAL HIERARCHY
RESPONSES TO ETHNIC DIVERSITY (Explosion -> Tolerance)
- Jews in Spain & Portugal- explosion
- Spain thought Jews served as a threat to Christianity & their Kingdom
- Jews fled to Portugal, but got expelled because of alliance between Spain & Portugal
JEWS IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Relative tolerance
- Because they were not Muslims they were required to pay the Jizya, a tax that
non-Muslims had to pay.
QING DYNASTY- The Machu People
- Although the Manchu rulers took some pains to adopt certain trappings or traditional
chinese culture, most notably some confusion principles of leadership, they made a
sharp division between ethnic Manchu & Han people in their empire
- Manchu were always above the Han
- Han had to wear Manchu hairstyles, was a constant reminder of their domination
MUGHAL EMPIRE- Very tolerant
- Built churches for catholics/christians, hindu, etc
RISE OF NEW ELITES
- In terms of social hierarchies, the new economic opportunities of increasing global trade &
the increased political power of imperial ventures led to the rise of new political cities.
- Spanish casta system- organized colonial society as a rank, social hierarchy based on
race and hereditary
I. Peninsulares- Born on Iberian peninsula
II. Creoles- European descent. Born in new world

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III. Mestizas- European descent, born in a new world
IV. Mulattoes- European & African Ancestry
V. Native Americans, African slaves- Enslaved
Prior to the imposing of the Casta system, native people weren’t part of a wide variety of
linguistic and cultural groups.
STRUGGLES OF EXISTING ELITES
I. Russian Boyars
- This group made up the aristocratic land-owning class in Russia & they exeterted great
power in the administration for centuries.
- Peter the great came to power -> took power away from Boyars to have it for himself.
- Anyone who wanted employment in the Russian bureaucracy had to serve the state
directly.
II. OTTOMAN TIMARS
- Land grants made by the Ottoman State to an aristocratic class in payment for service
to the government, usually military service.
- By the 16th century Ottoman Sultans took over these Timars and converted them to
tax farms which directed revenue directly to the state.
- Tumors aristocrats grew very rich & powerful from taxation of the people living on
those lands
- Existing elites in the Ottoman empire found themselves powerless, landless, and sad.

PERIOD 3 (1750-1900)
Unit 5- Revolutions (1750-1900)

5.1

The Enlightenment (Began in Europe)

● Started the ideology onto all the revolutionary ideas that occurred during this time period.
● An Intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding such as rationalism, and
empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships.
I. RATIONALISM
-Reason, rather than emotion or any external authority, is the most reliable source of true
knowledge. (Use your brain instead of feelings, common sense.)

31
 II. Empiricism
-The idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses, mainly through rigorous
experimentation
● Revolved around the questioning and re-examination of the role of religion
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
● Where most of the thinking occurred before the Enlightenment
● Scientists tossed biblical and religious authority out the window and used the rigorous process
of reason to discover how the world really worked.
● The Enlightenment extended to these ideals but just with human society.

- CHRISTIANITY
- According to Enlightenment thinkers Christianity was a revealed religion, which meant that
the words in the bible were revealed by God so the commands cannot be questioned.
- Scientific Revolution carried this from outside a person to inside a person
NEW BELIEF SYSTEMS
I. Deism
-Exceedingly popular among Enlightenment thinkers (believed that there was a God who
created the universe, but then no longer intervened with anything.)
II. Atheism
- Complete rejection of religious belief and any notion of divine beings
NEW ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS
POLITICAL IDEALS
I. Individualism
-The most basic element of society was the individual human and not collective groups. (The
way to process in society was individually)
II. Natural Rights
-Individual humans are born with certain rights that cannot be infringed upon by
governments or any other entity
JOHN LOCKE!- he argued that each human being was born with the natural rights of life,
liberty, and property.
III. Social contract- Human societies, endowed with natural rights, must construct governments
of their own will to protect their natural rights.
EFFECTS OF ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS
I. MAJOR REVOLUTIONS
- Including the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions.
(The enlightenment's emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how
political power ought to work played a significant role in each of the great upheavals)

32
EXPANSION OF SUFFRAGE (Right to vote)
● In 1776 America, only whites with lands only could vote, but then in the 1800s all white
males could. Then 1870 Black males could vote.
III.Abolition of Slavery
-Enlightenment believed that justice and liberty was important to abolish slavery.
IIII. END OF SERFDOM
-From Agricultural to Industrial Economy, many peasants did not need to work anymore and many
revolts occurred.
IV. CALLS FOR WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE
-Women in Europe and the US did not have rights, soon came the Feminist movement where women
demanded equality in life. (NOT JUST IN VOTING), OLYMPE DE GOUGES; feminist.

5.2
REVOLUTIONS
CAUSES OF REVOLUTION
I. Nationalism
● A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social
customs, and often linked with a desire for territory. (People who tend to stick with
those who were also revolving around their culture, tend to have more power)
● Some states attempted to use Nationalism to foster a sense of unity among their
people. (Nationalist themes in schools, public rituals, and military service)
Ex; Russian leaders would try to spread the Russian language to unite their people.
II. POLITICAL DISSENT
-Widespread discontent with monarchist and imperial rule ( nobody liked being under harsh
government rule)
III. NEW WAYS OF THINKING
-The development of new ideologies and systems of government
NEW IDEOLOGIES
I. POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY
-The power to govern was in the hands of the people
II. DEMOCRACY
-People have the right to vote and influence the policies of the government
III. LIBERALISM
-An economic and political ideology that emphasizes the protection of civil rights,
representative government, the protection of private property, and economic freedom.
THE ATLANTIC REVOLUTIONS
I. AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1776)

33
 ● Due to the wars Great Britain was previously in, they tend to stay in a lot of debt, which led
them to turn to the thirteen colonies and tax the U.S.
● The U.S did not like this, Began to use France's help to stop Great Britain.
● This victory was important because it inspired others to overthrow oppressive power.
● The American Declaration of Independence
II. FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789)
● As many soldiers who fought in the American revolution were inspired by the ideals of
democracy.
● Monarchy, people wanting to get rid of it and Feudalism.
● When Louis 16th attempted to tighten his control over France in order to pay his own
enormous war debts, the people of France rebelled and overthrew the government. They
established a republic, the Enlightenment inspired the main document of this revolution
which was “The Declaration of the rights of man and citizen”. (Natural rights and popular
sovereignty).
III. HAITIAN REVOLUTION (1791)
● Haiti was under the rule of France, when many enslaved black people heard about French
Revolutionaries calling for liberty and equality they agreed.
● Under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture, The enslaved haitians revolted and defeated
the French establishing the second republic of the Western Hemisphere.
III. LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS
● Spanish and Portuguese were inspired by enlightenment ideals and started to hate rulers'
control that they had on them.
● Usually seen in the Creole class (Made up of those who had European heritage but born in
the Americas)
● They were not happy that the peninsular were getting all the political power
● In 1808, Napoleon's invasion of Spain and deposition of the Portuguese Monarchy created
an unstable political situation in the American colonies which caused the revolution.
● Simon Bolivar (Creole military leader)- appealed colonial subjects across racial lines with
Enlightenment ideas.
● Letter From Jamaica (right to self rule)
OTHER NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS
*While nationalism was an important factor of the revolutions, other movements called for
higher degrees in unjustifiable cases. (meaning they wanted better treatment)
PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT
-Spanish colonies implied similar racial hierarchy in the Philippines as they did in the
Americas.

34
 -Spanish controlled education (which meant that many of the wealthy Creole’s traveled to
Europe for better education)
-FIlipino students absorbed those Enlightenment ideals and published their ideas in anger.
-The Spanish knew where it would lead so they got strict, leading to the Philippines
Revolution.

5.3
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
- The process by which states transitioned from primarily agrarian economies to
industrial economies. ( By hand to machine)
- The Industrial Revolution fundamentally changed the world’s balance of political
power, reordered societies, and made industrial nations rich.
WHY IT STARTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
- Proximity to waterways (Great Britain had a bundle of rivers and canals which enabled the
rapid transportation of manufactured goods to various markets)
- Geographical distribution of Coal and Iron (The first phase of the revolution would be
powered by coal and Britain had a bunch of coal.) (Coal also increased the efficiency in the
production of iron- used to construct bridges, railroads)
- Abundant access to foreign resources (Since Britain spent the last period building a massive
Maritime Empire across the world, they had access to a bunch of materials that were not on
their island.)- Went to India for cotton, and the American colonies for timber.
- Improved agricultural productivity- Many places in Europe, especially britain experienced an
agricultural revolution which increased the food grown on farms significantly.
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
I. Crop Rotation
-Kept part of the land unplanted, so the fertility of the soil would be maintained.
II. Seed drill
-Ensured seeds could be planted more efficiently and accurately which led to less waste and
greater harvests.
COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE- contributed with the potato which was introduced to Europe from
the Americas and this food diversified their diets, especially in rural areas which made them healthier
and increased their life expectancy.
RAPID URBANIZATION-
- As agricultural methods were now turning into manufacturing, many migrants ended up
going to Great Britain as a bunch of cities were now starving for human labor which led to
urbanization.
LEGAL PROTECTION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY

35
 - Britain passed laws protecting entrepreneurs who took risks to start and build new businesses
in the manufacturing sector, which contributed to Britain's head start in Industrialization.
ACCUMULATION OF CAPITAL
- Most of the wealth that was gained through the Atlantic Slave Trade, but Capitalists started to
gain money as they invested in buisinesses.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM
- Factory; A place where goods for sale were mass-produced by machines
-The first factory innovations were powered by moving water which were connected to a
machine called Spinning Jenny, which operated in looms that created textiles way faster than
they could be by hand.
SPECIALIZATION OF LABOR
- Goods were produced by Artisans who had performed every step of their craft with
hard-learned skills. (Now with machines making the material, the workers were now
to produce the goods they were good at)
5.4 THE SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
THE EFFECT OF STEAM POWER
Steam engine
-A machine that converted fossil fuel into mechanical energy.
-With the introduction of the steam engine could make industrial machines work and that means that
a factory could be built anywhere.
- The pace of the Industrial Revolution increased rapidly because of the Steam Engine. (They also put
steam engines in ships, which meant that goods could be transported further and faster). - connected
the world with the global economy.
SHIFTING WORLD ECONOMICS
- It all depended on how the regions adopted industrialization factors, and if they were able to
be adjusted to those factors they were able to be quick factors. (Ex; places in Eastern areas
lacked coal, so they weren't able to adopt some factors as quickly)
- The world was being divided by industrialized nations and non-industrialized nations.
*Countries in the Middle East and Asia who had previously been manufacturing powerhouses if the
world states to see their share of production for the world decline.(Decline of textile in India and Asia)
INDUSTRIALIZED NATIONS COMPARED
WESTERN EUROPE
-After 1815 when Napoleon invaded, France began to adopt industrial technologies but their
industrialization was slower than Britain. ( France lacked Coal and Iron)- Napoleon construction
Quentin Canal helped.
- Construction of railroads by the 1830s, and textile industry which increased the cotton and
economic industry.

36
UNITED STATES
-19th century, the US industrialized real fast and it possessed many resources. (Had massive territory
which gave them more access to natural resources, they had political stability, rapid population
growth which expanded the markets and high economy)
RUSSIA
-End of 19th century, Zar adopted mant industrial technologies like Railroads and Steam Engine
(Trans Siberian railroad, this increased within China and economy.)
- Although Russia industrialization brought them on par with other industrial powers, a down side
was the brutal conditions for workers.’
JAPAN
- Many Asian States were declining power as Western Powers forced submission, but Japan decided to
become more of an industrial power.
5.5 TECHNOLOGY of INDUSTRIAL AGE
FUELS AND ENGINES
INDUSTRIAL POWER (first revolution)
I. Coal
● The main engine for the first Industrial Revolution was the steam engine
● The steam engine was developed by British scientist James Watt
● This engine used the hotness coming from burning coal to boil water, create steam.
● With the adoption of steam engines, it means that factories could be built anywhere.
● Also used to power locomotive which ran along railroads and transported mass production
and goods
● Steam Engines in ships also increased the efficiency and speed of these ships and how fast their
goods traveled to ports.
SUEZ CANAL- with the opening in 1869 the distance from Europe to Asia shortened
significantly which in turn led to the multiplication of steam ships and rapid expansion of
trade.
II. OIl
● The internal combustion engine was developed to harness the energy of gasoline
Internal combustion engine- more efficient and smaller than the steam engine, and would
eventually power a new development of transportation the automobile
*Both of these sources of fuel dramatically increased the amount of energy to humans even if
it came with side effects like air pollution.
SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ECONOMY
-Majored in the development of other new technologies
I. STEEL

37
 ● The bessemer process combined iron with carbon and blasted hot air into it (far stronger than
iron alone)
● Steel became cheaper to produce so it was used for railroads and bridges.
II. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
● Synthetic dyes were developed for textiles (far cheaper than the organic dyes used in the first
revolution)
● Vulcanization was a process developed to making rubber harder and more durable( rubber was used in
factories to make belts for machines and later for tires for cars)
III. ELECTRICITY
● Had the most significant impact of all the new technologies on Industrialized nations
● Thomas Edison- Electricity was harnessed to power light bulbs which lit factories and people’s homes.
● Electric streetcars and subways were developed to provide mass transit in major cities that were
becoming increasingly large and complex.
TELEGRAPH
● Developed by Samuel Morris in 1840s
● Was able to send communications across wires to distant places with the use of short and long electrical
signals which became known as morse code.
● Was laid across the Atlantic Ocean connecting Britain and U.S
EFFECTS OF NEW TECHNOLOGY
I. DEVELOPMENT OF INTERIOR REGIONS
- For most of history regions were located in coastal areas, but with railroads new settlements were made.
- Telegraph also helped with the communication and sharing of information of manufactures and
market conditions. (More stuff made and more wealth)
II. INCREASE IN TRADE AND MIGRATION
- Global trade multiplied by a factor of ten between 1850-1913
- States across the world were becoming more closely connected to the global economy.
(New transportation spiked migration, especially throughout the world)
5.6
GOVERNMENT SPONSORED INDUSTRIALIZATION
EGYPTIAN (OTTOMAN) INDUSTRIALIZATION
-Operated largely independent of Ottoman rule thanks to his powerful military government.
-The Ottoman Empire was struggling and declining due to internal conflicts, therefore had no energy
or wealth to invest in industrialization.
-Under the leadership of Muhhamed Ali, Egypt took some steps toward Industrialization on its own.
TANZIMAT REFORMS
I. INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS
- Textile and weapons factories built
II. AGRICULTURE

38
 - Government purchased crops to be sold on world market (peasants were directed to grow
wheat and cotton)
III. TARIFFS
- Taxes on imported goods
- Protected development of Egyptian economy
GREAT BRITAIN- Not happy to see the growing power and wealth of industrialized Egypt,
because crossing Egypt was the quickest way to access trade networks in Asia.
- When Egypt went to war with Ottoman, 1839 Britain intervened and they forced Egypt to
remove tariffs and anything else trade that protected Egyptian industry.
- British goods flooded into Egypt, their industries could not compete with Britain which
ended this industrial project for Egypt.
JAPAN INDUSTRIALIZED
- Japan during the Tokugawa Shogunate had isolated itself from Western influence.
FACTORS IN JAPAN
I. WESTERN POWERS
- Western powers dominated other Asian states like China (overwhelmed China with
their industrialized military through submission factors and treaties)
II. MATTHEW PERRY
- U.S commodore Matthew Perry came to Japan with a fleet of steam powered ships stack with
guns (he sent a shogun sending Japan a warning to open their ports)
*Japan decided to initiate an aggressive program of Industrialization as a defensive measure against
western domination.
MEIJI RESTORATION
- Japan sought to escape foreign domination by adopting industrial practices that made the
west powerful.
I. CULTURE
- Japan sent emissaries to major industrial powers to learn about their technology, culture,
education systems, and political arrangements and implemented it in their own state.
II. GOVERNMENT
- Japan established a constitution that provided for an elected parliament, which they borrowed
from Germany
III. INFRASTRUCTURE
- The state funded buildings of railroads, the establishment of a national banking system, and
development of industrial factories for textiles and munitions.
5.7 THE ECONOMICS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
THE SLOW DEATH OF MERCANTILISM

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-Mercantilism- state-driven system, played a massive role in European exploration and imperialism
FREE MARKET ECONOMICS
- Took over because it better fit Industrialization
- Market driven
SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS TRANSITION
-Publication of The Wealth of Nations- Adam Smith, who criticized mercantilism and said it is
coercive and only benefits the elite.
LAISSEZ FAIRE- Get the government out of the economy and let people make their own economic
decisions.
-Suppliers and Consumers would react to each other based on the laws of supply and demand, the
invisible hand. (Wealth would be spread more easier)
After 1815, Western governments abandoned their state regulations which resulted in increased trade
and greater wealth.
Free Market Capitalism- had its cons like the labor of children
-created a working class who were very poor and labored under great duress
FREE MARKET CRITICS
I. JEREMY BENTHAM
- Arguing the cure for the suffering of the working class and society was not free market
economics but government legislation.
II. FRIEDRICH LIST
-Rejected global free market principles as a trick (British were trying to bring other countries under
their domination)
-His work led to the development of the Zollverein, a customs union that reduced trade barriers
between German states but put tariffs on imported goods.
TRANS-NATIONAL CORPORATIONS
TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS
- A company that is established and controlled in one country but also establishes a large
operations in many other countries
I. Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
-Opened in 1865 in British controlled Hong Kong to organize and control British imperial
ventures.
II. Unilever Corporation
- A joint company established by the British and the Dutch that manufactured household
goods, most known for soap. (Opened factories across the world.)
NEW FINANCIAL PRACTICES
I. Stock market

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 - To fund these factories they raised funds by selling stocks (small portions of ownership in the
corporation, people could buy these stocks and the stock owners would earn)
II. Limited Liability
- A way of organizing a business that protected the financial investment of its owners
5.8 CALLS FOR REFORM
EFFECTS ON THE WORKING CLASS
I. POLITICAL REFORM
● Conservatives and liberalism in Britain and France incorporated social reforms into their
platforms because people who wanted reforms were voting
● Many Western nations have allowed the right to vote for many people, so now the working
class were able to vote for people who understood them.
II. SOCIAL REFORM
● Working class people organized themselves into social societies providing insurance for
sickness and social events
III. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
● 1870-1914 majority of European governments passed compulsory education laws to get boys
and girls in ages 6-12 back into school
● High paying jobs became more technical and specialized, and compulsory education prepares
children for these kinds of jobs.
IV. URBAN REFORMS
● Due to the intense crowding of industrial cities whose infrastructure was not able to keep up
with the growth, urban areas were dangerously crowded and unsanitary.
● Governments passed laws and invested in sanitation infrastructure like sewers
RISE OF LABOR UNIONS
LABOR UNION- A collective of workers who join together in order to protect their own interests
-Labor unions negotiated with employers to improve their lives.
GERMAN SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY
- Formed by German workers and advocated for Maxrist reforms, so they wanted capitalism to
social ownership
IDEOLOGICAL REACTIONS; MARXISM
- Karl Marx; A german but lived in Great Britain and witnessed the injustices that the working
class had to deal with, so he believed in Capitalism unstable by nature.
- Also believed that it created sharp class division, he believed that the working class were
working extremely hard just for the upper class to have it easy.
- Communist Manifesto- History obeys laws just as the physical world obeys laws of physics,
so history moves through patterns and stages.

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 - The societal changes brought by the Industrial revolution had violently divided the division
between his two classes.
BOURGEOISIE
● Owned means of production, like factories and land so therefore they exploited the Proletariat
for their own benefit.
● Once the proletariat would realize this and overthrow the Bourgeoisie, and cause a revolution
which would end class struggle and no classes.
CHINA ATTEMPTS INDUSTRIALIZATION
QING CHINA
- Late 18th century they snubbed british traders and the result was a trade deficit that Britain sought
to create luxury goods that would attract Chinese.
-Britain started to import illegal opium which was a highly addictive drug and as the drug began to
have serious negative consequences like the decrease of the Qing population.
-Qing decided to back out the illegal trade which led to two conflicts (Opium wars).
-Britain forced China to sign unfair treaties that opened several trading ports against their will.
-Self strengthening movement- China did not let the fact that all these countries were taking
advantage of it so they started reforms to take some steps towards Industrialization while als
revitalizing culture. (Sino-Japanese war, but China lost as Japan was too Industrialized.)
OTTOMAN MODERNIZATION
- By the middle of the 19th century Ottomans had been known as the sick man of Europe
because they would not industrialize.
- Like China, Ottoman authorities decided that a defensive industrialization was necessary.
TANZIMAT REFORMS
I. Built Textile factories
II. Implemented Western -style law codes and courts.
III. Expansive education system
YOUNG OTTOMANS- They desired the European style parliament and a constitutional government
that would limit the power of Sultans.
5.9 SOCIETY AND INDUSTRIAL AGE CHANGES
NEW SOCIAL CLASSES
I. Industrial working class
● Made up of factory workers and miners
● Prior to the industrial revolution most workers had a skill they used (ex; farmers would deal
with livestock, Artisans developing the carving of woods)
● But now these workers were working unskilled with the machines that meant that the worker
class would be replaced by other workers.
BENEFITS;

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 -Their wages were higher than in many of the rural places they came from.
COSTS
- Danger of factory work and mining
- Crowded living conditions in tenements
- Spread of disease
- Repetitive work which drained them.
II. MIDDLE CLASS
● Benefited the most from industrialization, including white collar workers such as wealthy
factory owners and managers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers.
● Could afford manufactured products that improved their quality of life and some in the
upper middle class could buy their way into aristocracy.
III. INDUSTRIALISTS
● At the top of the social hierarchy, the wealth they gained by owning industrial corporations
allowed them to become more powerful than the traditional landed aristocracy.
WOMEN AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
I. WORKING CLASS WOMEN
● Working wage-earning jobs in factories sinc either husbands wages were not sufficient to
sustain a family (if they were married)
● Five year olds were also allowed to work, until the government started child labor laws.
II. MIDDLE CLASS WOMEN
● Husbands earned enough money to support the family
● In general, they did not work
● Remained in their homes, and their task was to create a safe haven for working men and an
environment to raise children,
CHALLENGE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS
I. POLLUTION
- Coal smoke from factories and steamships covered towns which often caused health problems
for those who lived there.
- Many human waste were dumped into rivers which polluted the water.
II. HOUSING SHORTAGES
- As more people moved into cities than there were tenements which were built for multiple
families to live in.
- Sanitation and poor ventilation was a major issue for these housings, which created the spread
of diseases like Thyroid and Chloride.
III. INCREASED CRIME

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 - WIth so many poor and working class people would steal in order to survive, and even alcohol
consumption.

Unit 6- Consequences of Industrialization (1750-1900)

6.1 IMPERIALIST IDEAS
NEW IMPERIALISM; CONTEXT
- Several Western European states set their sights on building Maritime Empires, they focused
on dominating the Indian Ocean trade and then colonizing the Americas.
- Europeans ignored old enlightenment ideas like being born with liberty, but they dominated
those who did not want to be dominated and took away their ability to govern themselves.
(The U.S and Philippines)
- Imperial powers embarked on a new wave of Imperialism, God, Gold, Glory were still very
motivating them but also other motivations also.
NATIONALISM-
A sense of commonality between people, typically based on shared language, religion, social
curiosities, and self-rule.
-Before everyone saw themselves as under sovereign, after the Enlightenment their loyalties are more
linked to their people.
- The unification of Italy and Germany was due to the nationalistic desires of the people.
NATIONALISTIC: Impulses led imperial states to claim more land for more power.
SCIENTIFIC RACISM
- The idea that humans are ranked highly in biological classes based on race.
- Europeans had divided it between Christians and non- Christians before, but now it's based
on race, whites and non whites.
- Scientific racists tried showing how the white race is above all others, like in phrenology,
which studied the shape and size of skulls; they said since white people’s skulls were bigger,
they were more superior. This justified the white imperialism of “child races''
SOCIAL DARWINISM-
- Originally biological Darwinsim by Charles Darwinsm argued that species in existence evolved
over long periods of time through natural selection. (he argued that species survive because
they adapted, he tried to see if this is how human societies evolved).
- He believed that if only the fittest survive that meant that the Western Industrial Societies are
best suited since they have adapted, which makes them “better”
CIVILIZING MISSIONS;
- A sense of Western industrial society to bring the lore of their civilizations to lower societies.
- Believed they had a duty to all the “child races” under their care-paternalism.
- Sending christian missionaries; To colonize land and convert people to Christianity

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 I. They reopened the colonial government to Western ideals.
- Imposed Western style education. (Goal; suppress indigenous languages and culture)

6.2 GROWTH OF IMPERIALISM

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS
I. SHIFTING GEOGRAPHICAL FOCUS
1450-1750
- Focused on the Americas, Asia, Southeast Asia
1750-1950
- Africa, Asia, and Southeast Asia
II. CHANGE IN IMPERIAL STATES
1450-1750
- Spain and Portugal who rose to power in maritime trade
1750-1900
- Spain and Portugal losing power and declining
- Great Britain, France, and the Dutch, continued to be powerful.
- Germany, Italy, Belgium, United States, Japan (new)
METHODS THESE COUNTRIES USED
I. PRIVATE TO STATE CONTROL AND TAKEOVERS
- Some countries were controlled by individuals or businesses
- Belgium Congo; private colony held by King Leopold II (Congo wanted to wait and let their
country grow before taking over colonies, but King Leopold took control over them instead).
- King Leopold wanted to do this because he wanted to convert the Indigenous people to
Christianity and bring them glories to Western education.
- That was a lie he told the public, it was cover up for the genocide and explotion that took
place in the Colony for rubber.
- Public outrage and the Belgian government took over in 1908.
DIPLOMACY & WARFARE IN AFRICA
- States expanded their power in Africa through diplomacy (The act of political agreements by
means of dialogue and negotiation, not warfare.)
Berlin Conference (ran 1884 to 1886)
- Many European states were focused on the colonization and imperialism of Africa because
they were competing to be better than each other. (Usually land)
- Europeans had medical technologies that they used to enter Africa, but Otto Von Bismarck
believed that this would lead to warfare so he held the Berlin conference which European

45
 countries negotiated until Africa was separated in parts of colonization and imperial holdings.
(They did not invite African leaders)
- African leaders realized this and built borders in Africa, which divided united ethnic groups
and brought together rival groups.
WARFARE
- Some states used warfare to enter Africa
- France and Algeria, French had a lot of debt from Algeria wheat so they wanted to negotiate,
Algeria did not want to and got upset with the French diplomat.
- The French then responded by sending 35,000 troops to Algeria and invaded the city and
took other places of North Africa.

SETTLER COLONIES
- A colony in which an imperial power clams an already inhabited territory and sends its own
people to set up an outpost of their own society.
- The British established colonies in Australia and New Zealand, they went in and sent settlers
who introduced diseases that killed indigenous population and also created a neo-european
society. (Aborigines Australia, Maori in New Zealand).
CONQUERING NEIGHBORING TERRITORIES
I. United States
- With Louisiana Purchase in 1803, and wars with Spain, the desire to push Westward into
neighboring areas increased (Manifest Destiny; calling from God to possess all the territory
from the Atlantic to Pacific)
- In order to complete the conquest, the U.S government forcibly moved indigenous people
onto reservations, also took their children and sent them to American schools to get rid of
their culture).
II. Russia
- Militant Political Doctrine spread, Pan-Slavism; Unite all Slavic people under Russian
authority, including all who currently lived under Ottoman and Austrian rule.
- Ideology of that and achieving great power status in the world, led them in 1860 to create
trading ports in Vladivostok, and with that they were able to expand into lands of Kazakh
nomads and other areas.
III. Japan
- Non- western power who joined imperialism by laying thousands of railroads which led to
stronger military, then starting a strong empire that would expand the sphere of influence over
to Korea, Manchuria, and China.
6.3 INDIGENOUS RESIST TO IMPERIAL EXPANSION
CAUSES OF RESISTANCE

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 I. Increasing questions about political authority
- Many imperial powers introduced western style education to some folks under their imperial
thumb. (Enlightenment ideas; popular sovereignty)
- In some colonies it made the educated question imperial powers.
II. Growing sense of nationalism
- When imperial powers imposed their will and language and culture on colonized people, that
also introduced a sense of nationalism in conquered peoples.
- That led to many of the colonized people to fight for a state of their own and resist
imperialism.
DIRECT RESISTANCE
- People fought back with weapons and violence towards imperial states, (Indian Rebellion of
1857, which sought to throw off British domination)
YAA ASANTEWAA WAR
- Great Britain wanted to get more Gold from South Africa (Asante) in the Gold Coast, there
was a golden stool in the culture which meant that if you sat on it you'll be the leader, and
Great Britain believed that they could just sit on it and everyone would accept it.
- Yaa Asantewaa said absolutely not, and sent her people to fight British troops with violence
and weapons. (Unfortunately the British were too powerful with their weapons from the
industrial revolution so the Asante ended up losing).
II. CREATION OF NEW STATES
- Cherokee Nation; Assimilation of United States and Western cultures.
- Indian Removal act of 1985 which forcibly removed cherokee and indigenous to the
Oklahoma Territory on Trail of Tears.
- Cherokee there established a self-autonomous government and judicial system. (United States
ended up pushing there western desires towards the Oklahoma state, which marginalized the
Cherokee)
III. RELIGIOUS REBELLIONS
- Ghost dance movement; Native Americans would use their cultural beliefs, such as dancing to
reconnect and unite with their ancestors and bring them back to fight on their behalf, and end
American Westward expansion. (Was banned by military force)
- Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement; In Southern Africa, Great Britain wanted to take over Xhosa
territory until there wasn't any land for the people to survive.
- Cattles were dying because of diseases that Europeans brought, Xhosha people believed that
this was a sign to kill all Cattles as they would re-rise as healthy, but the ancestral cattles would
also rise up and drive out the colonizers.
- Did not work because the Xhosha people ended up starving instead without cattles, which
made Britain's attempt to expand easier.

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6.4 Global economic changes from 1750-1900
Reason for imperialism was the need for raw materials;
- Copper, Cotton, Rubber, Gold
EXPORT ECONOMIES
- Economies primarily focused on the export of raw materials or goods for distant markets.
- Imperial countries would go into areas like Africa and the Americas and would enforce them
to grow cash crops; ( European brought plants from these areas and either sold them or used
them for textile factories)
- Imperial powers transformed colonial economies to serve their own interests, to the extraction
of natural resources or the production of industrial crops.
CAUSES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
I. Imperial powers needed raw materials for industrial factories (Egypt and India sent
cotton to Britain, so they could continue their industrialized factories and continue their
power.)
- Extraction of Palm Oil from South Africa which was used for soap and factory machines.
Enslaved labor plantations were placed through West Africa, and the colonial economy was
dominated by European countries.
II. The need to supply food to growing urban centers
- Major factor of Industrialization was urbanization; As these cities grew more populous, there
were more and more people to feed, therefore they had to import food from elsewhere.
- Some imperial countries focused on this through cash crops, and getting food from other
countries. (Sugar, Meat from Argentina and Brazil to please the middle class.)
EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
I. Profits from exports were used to purchase finished manufactured goods
- In 19th century, Britain colonial doubled in result of integrating into a network of trade, (B/c
industrialized states produced more goods than they needed they had to make markets that
would export them)
- Whatever profits they gained from the export of natural resources went to purchasing the
finished manufactured goods exported by imperial states.
II. A growing economic dependence of colonial people on their imperial parents (As
industrialized and imperial countries produced more manufactured goods, colonial regions
depended on them more for themselves, NOT INDIGENOUS PEOPLE!)
6.5, Economic Imperialism
ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM
- The act of one state extending control over another state by economic means
THE OPIUM WARS

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 - For most time periods in history, China was on top of power, until the Industrial Revolution
which pushed them to the edge and not the center of the world.
- The Chinese restricted British traders to a single trading port and that caused problems for
Britain b/c Silk porcelain and tea were all exported and in high demand in Britain.
- The trade was imbalanced b/c Britain was getting all of these goods from China, but China
was not getting much in return so they exported “opium” as goods.
- Due to how addictive the opium drug was, more silver was being sent from China to Britain
because the Chinese wanted more of the opium not knowing what it was.
- Qing officials were not okay with this, they banned the exportation of Opium to China
(seized and destroyed opium shipments in British trading ports)
- The British were angry over the fact that the ports were closing, so they went ahead and went
to fight China, and showed them that the industrialized military wins every time. (Chinese
forced to sign Treaty of Nanjing which opened trading ports for Britain)
In the 19th century, the Qing Dynasty began to weaken for many reasons, the main
reason being the Taiping rebellion.
- A religious movement among ethnic Hans that sought to get rid of the foreign Manchu rulers
of the Qing Dynasty.
SECOND OPIUM WAR
- The French joined Britain in dominating China which was not industrialized, other
European states also took advantage of this and cut China into spheres of influence which
dominated China economically.
PORTS OF BUENO AIRES
- British banks invested in Argentina to improve infrastructure so they built railroads but it was
for Britains good so they were able to export raw materials.
- Railroads funded by british -> located close to factories -> increase in exports to britain ->
dependence on British investment.
TRADE IN COMMODITIES
Commodity- Any good that can be bought and sold on the market
COMMODITY TRADE
I. Cotton
- India and Egypt
- Exported to Britain, etc.
- Dependent on external demands
II. Palm oil
- Sub-Saharan Africa
The main goal of all of this was to shape the world's economy to benefit Europe and The
United States.

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6.6 CAUSES OF MIGRATION
ECONOMIC CAUSE
I. Demographic Change
- The global population exploded (New medicine, new diets)
- Rural areas people had to move to cities to find industrial jobs as the population grew.
II. Famine
- Some places that did not industrialized suffered famine (Irish potato famine; strike hit the
crops -> many died -> many fled the country)
TECHNOLOGICAL CAUSES
I. New modes of cheap transportation like the railroad and steamship facilitate this wave of
migration both for those who migrated within their own country and those who migrated
internationally.
- Massive growth of urbanization in cities, Many migrants left home and never came back, some
took advantage of cheap transportation and returned home.
II. Lebanese Diaspora; thousands of Lebanese merchants traveled to industrialized places b/c
economic opportunities and the religious persecution of Ottoman Empire,
ECONOMIC CAUSES
MIGRATION FOR WORK
I. Voluntary Migration
- Millions of Irish, Italians, and German immigrants left home to relocate to urban centers of
the east coast of America.
- Millions of Chinese immigrants relocated to Western coast, found work in the railroad
industry.
II. COERCED & SEMI- COERCED LABOR (kinda forced to leave for their sake)
- The Atlantic slave trade was still booming at the beginning of this period
- Convict labor; British colonies sent prisons from Australia across the work to do hard work.
- Indentured Servitude- Describes an arrangement in which a laborer would sign a contact to
work for a certain number of years, usually between three and seven, in exchange for free
passage to their destination.
- B/c poverty in India, the British government facilitated the migration of Indians to parts of
their empire including the Caribbean, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
- The British also operated tin mines in Malaysia where they used Chinese servants who
suffered from poverty at home.
6.7 THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION
GENDER IMBALANCE
I. Due to men migrating, the population of men decreased, which meant women had to take masculine
roles in society like working in agriculture.

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 II. Family structure in those places began to change
- Women in some places were now the leader of the house, able to gain financial stability by selling
things on markets.
ETHNIC ENCLAVES
Ethnic Enclave- A geographic area with a high concentration of people of the same ethnicity and
culture within a foreign culture.
- (Many migrants would move together to same areas)
I. Outpost
- Provided a small outpost of migrant’s culture in the receiving society where they spoke their
native language, practiced their religion, and ate ethnically food from home.
II. Cultural Diffusion
- The presence of these communities also contributed to cultural diffusion of their home
cultures into their receiving societies,
NATIVISM
Nativism; A policy of protecting the interests of native born people over the interests of immigrants.
- Irish in the USA were deemed a lower race and marginalized in cities.
- Some governments restricted migration to their states.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES
I. Chinese Exclusion Act
- Passied in the United States
- Native borns Americans were anti-chinese, led to many Chinese people being lynched and
brutalized even if they worked hard on American railroads.
- Banned almost all Chinese Immigration to U.S
II. White Australia Policy
- Passed by the British Government
- Banned the immigration of Asians to Australia.
- Again people were angry that Australia was just “British”.

PERIOD 4 (1900-present)

Unit 7- Global Conflict (1900-present)

7.1 The Shifting of State powers

By the end of the century, many maritime and land-based empires would fall apart and give rise to new
states.
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

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 - The Ottoman Empire was already known as the “Sick man” of Europe due to its lack of
Industrialization. So a group of young Turks called the Young Ottomans, went to Western
Europe to educate themselves more on enlightenment ideals and Industrialization ideas too.
- The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire understood these calls for reforms and agreed to change
some aspects of the societal and governmental systems. The industrialized ideals did work in
the Ottoman Empire for a small amount of time until Russia wanted to go to war with the
Ottoman Empire. The Sultan said absolutely not and went back to ruling in its traditional
dictatorship.
- Due to the change back to traditional governing, a new group called the Young Turks wanted
to modernize the Ottoman Empire. In 1908, Young Turks took over the sultan, used
nationalist ideals to go from Ottoman -> Turks, and made their reforms.
OTTOMAN REFORMS
I. Secularization of schools & law codes
II. Establishment of political elections
III. Imposition of Turkish language
● By implementing these nationalistic policies, they alienated many of the other minorities
within the empire, not least the Arabs.
● As a result, those groups experienced waves of nationalism which further fractured the
empire.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
- Russia improved within Industrialization with the help of Tsar Alexander II. Soon after Czar
Nicolas II took over, he continued traditional running from Alexander but soon the middle
class became angry as they wanted their voices to be heard for more government decisions.
Soon, there was the working class who dealt with brutality issues from industrialization and
factories.
- Russian Revolution of 1905, which Tsar Nicholas comandante to some demands like labor
unions, constitution, and political parties. Nicholas still ignored the reforms and continued
with his original ruling.
- All those tensions that occurred during the 1905 revolution boiled again, and even World War
1 I had an impact on Russia to the revolt of 1917 which was led by Vladimir Lenin who was
the leader of the Bolsheviks. This time revolution worked, Bolsheviks created a communist
state and created The Soviet Union.
QING CHINA
QING PROBLEMS
I. Taping Rebellion
- Put down by Qing Authorities

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 - Cost millions of lives
II. Loss of Opium Wars
III. Loss of Sino-Japanese War
- China was no match for industrialized Japan (Too weak)
QING CHINA
- End of the 19th century a group called the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists led the
Boxer Rebellion against the Qing authorities whom they viewed as foreigners. The British,
France, Japan, Germany, and America sent troops to put down the rebellion to” help China”.
- Many rebellions against the Qing occurred due to poverty, and a bunch of trade and treaties
from Industrial countries that impacted China.
- The main reason they restored order in China is because these foreign powers imposed further
demands on a weakened China to their benefit. A revolutionary movement occurred, led by
Sun Yat-Sen which resulted in the end of the Chinese emperor.
- After the struggle of many civil wars, China was a communist state under Mao Zedong.
THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION
- In the last bit of the 19th century and the 20th century Mexico was ruled by a dictator named
Porfirio Diaz, whose reforms had mostly left a huge gap between the rich and the landless
peasants, and was taken down in a revolt by Madero. Madero was subsequently assassinated,
which led to further socialist reforms.
- By 1917 Mexico emerged as a republic with a newly drafted constitution, which addressed
reforms such as universal male suffrage, minimum wages for workers, and decoupling the
Catholic church from political and economic power.
7.2 The Causes of World War 1
MILITARISM- The belief that states ought to build up strong militaries and employ them
aggressively to protect their interests. ( States were able to build deadly weapons from the Industrial
Revolution, many were concerned about Germany which had the most powerful military force in
Europe.)
THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM- The alliance between Europe contained two alliances, the Triple
Alliance (Germany, Italy, and Hungarian Empire), then the Triple Entente (British, France, and
Russia). Time Tales of Railroads had an impact on the War, many of these countries had schedules for
railroads which would help with the mobilization of troops, The bad thing was that once the train
started you couldn't back out.
IMPERIALISM & ITS EFFECTS- One of the most potent causes of imperialism was the desire to
project power on the world stage. (Germany, which had such a strong country, also led to many
political conflicts. European powers were angry over existing colonies that Germany was expanding to,
which started the alliance system.)

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NATIONALISM- Many nation-states emphasized their people while showing that other countries
were enemies. Ex; Many countries would enforce educating students and portraying bad sides of
countries which would add the effect to many people getting angry over countries who did them bad
in the past. (They want to start war due to this)
A MINOR ASSASSINATION
- A Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip went ahead and shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand
(Hungarian empire) over a little regional argument.
- Nationalism caused the Serbian assassination and Nationalism ensured that the Austrians
would view it as an unconscionable act that demanded retaliation.
- Alliance; Serbia was allied with Russia and Austria-Hungary with Germany, but then Russia
was allied with Britain and France while Germany was allied with Italy. Therefore when the
Serbian Austria-Hungarian conflict erupted the entire Alliance System lit up as did the
inflexible process of mobilization and the result was WWI.
7.3 HOW WW1 WAS FOUGHT
TOTAL WAR (World's first total war)
- A war that required the mobilization of a country’s entire population, both military and
civilian, to fight.
PROPAGANDA (Government used this to motivate their people)
- These propaganda campaigns demonized enemies and often exaggerated the atrocities those
enemies were committing. (The goal was to remind everyone that their cause amounted to a
righteous struggle against an evil force, so any demand from the government was worth it.)
- They used an intensified form of Nationalism in order to get their message across (People in
various states began to view the world as kind of like a collection of enemy rivals, and their
national identities were the most important thing about them.)
- So many states ended up using nationalism as a form of propaganda to raise fear in their
people and to cause patriotism in their senses.
TOTAL WAR STRATEGIES
- New military technologies made World War I one of the deadliest wars in human history
- Machine Guns, Chemical Gas, Tanks
TRENCH WARFARE
- Context; In the beginning of the war generals consulted the past for winning strategies and
found that victory always went to the first mover and those who leveraged the most spirited
attacks. (British and France wars attacked Germany with rounds of machine guns, but that
would lead to deadly and bloody attacks.)

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 - Generals on both sides changed tactics to avoid such bloody attacks, the tactic is what we call
Trench Warfare- in which each side dug miles of trenches opposite each other and hunkered
down for protection.
- Fighting through trenches caused so many casualties in WW!, when the opposite side came
out of their trenches they would automatically be hit by machine guns and caught in barbed
wires.
● This situation led to years of stalemates where casualties mounted but neither side made
much progress.
- Many men of Great Britain and Germany were dying due to this long war, so they sent troops
from Africa, India, China, and many more colonial men whose job was to carry military
equipment to various places.
THE END OF THE WAR
- The war lasted four years and an awful lot of destruction, but the turning point was the entry
of the United States into the Allied powers namely Britain and France in 1917.
- The US wanted to stay neutral, but Germany had a habit of sinking ships with Americans on
them, and even wanted Mexico to start a war with the US to keep them occupied.
- Germany also had pretty strong troops, and the Central War officially in 1918, with the
signing of the Treaty of Versailles. (Allied won, Axis lost LLLLl AMERICA ON TOP)
- Woodrow Wilson attempted to forge peace without a victory among the belligerents of the
war, France and Britain used the treaty to punish Germany.
7.4 THE GLOBAL ECONOMY BETWEEN THE WORLD WARS
GERMAN HYPERINFLATION
- With their industrial capacity diminished and billions of dollars in reparations to pay, their
economy spiraled into hyperinflation (this means that their money, the German Mark, was
severely devalued). This led to a lot of suffering for average Germans.
- Germany owed money to Britain and France in the form of reparations, but when Germany
couldn’t pay them, France and Britain struggled to pay their own War debts to the United
States
- The Soviets weren’t paying their debts either
Colonial governments suffered too because they had come to depend on the economics of their parent
countries
- By 1924 the economic situation was stabilized and Germany borrowed money from the US banks in
order to make their reparations payments to Britain and France, this led to the rapid recovery of all
involved
SOVIET ECONOMICS

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Russia had exited WWI during the Russian Revolution of 1917 but not before their involvement in
the war which devastated their economy
-Vladimir Lenin got the new communist government involved
New Economic policy
-Instituted in 1923
-Introduced some limited free market principles into the economy
-The biggest institutions remained under state control
-When Lenin died in 1924, these ideas kind of died with him
Joseph Stalin - assumed power
-Wanted the Soviet Union economy to industrialize quickly
Five Year Plans
-Aimed to Multiply Soviet Industrial capacity by five in five years
-The only way this large goal could be achieved in such little time was with a strong State bent on
brutality which was Stalin’s specialty
Collectivization of Agriculture
Made to supply the newly created and rapidly growing industrial center with food
-Merging small privately owned farms into large, sprawling collective farms owned by the state
-Nearly all the produce of the land would be shipped and feed industrial workers in the city
-Wealthy landowning class known as the Kulaks, resisted this collectivization, but Stalin would arrest
or kill them if they did not cooperate
-Peasant Farmers did not possess the managerial skills of the Kulacs and were unable to match
production quotas set by the state
The 1922-23 harvest was only about half of what it had been in the years before, but Stalin’s obsession
with feeding industrial centers meant that what Ukrainian farmers did produce was exported to feed
Urban workers
This left them with no food for themselves
-Millions starved to death and became known as the Holodomor or Death by Hunger
The Great Depression
In 1929 the US stock company Market crashed
-Since several European economies were relying on investment from America in order to rebuild after
WWI, the U.S.’s inability to continue that funding meant that the Great Depression would become a
worldwide phenomenon
-Franklin D. Roosevelt
New Deal
-The government put people to work on Infrastructure projects
-Introduced a government-sponsored Retirement program

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-Created government medical insurance for the elderly and children
Whether it worked or not is up for debate because, by 1939, WWII would break out and solve all the
U.S.’s economic hardships
Unit 7.5 Unresolved Tensions after WWI
The Mandate System
European powers and the Japanese maintained their colonial holdings in the interwar period, and in
some cases, states gained colonial territory as a result of the war
New states did emerge at the end of the war, most notably the Republic of Turkey under the
leadership of Mustafa Kamal, known as Ataturk
- At the Paris Peace Conference that ended WWI, victorious powers aimed to dismantle the
Ottoman and German empires and divided those colonial territories among themselves
- Woodrow Wilson kept insisting during the peace negotiations that self-determination out to
be the guiding principle of a post-war world, by this he meant that states should have the right
to govern themselves
- The French and British disagreed with Wilson’s idea and refused them
The Mandate System
Middle Eastern territories would biome mandates administered by the League of Nations
-Three-tiered structure to classify these territorial holdings
1. Class C Mandates
-Smallest populations and least developed
-Treated as colonies
-Several islands in the Pacific
2. Class B Mandates
-Larger populations but still underdeveloped
-Weren’t ready for self-determination
-Most of Germany’s colonies in Africa
3. Class A Mandates
-Large populations and sufficiently developed
-Suitable for independence and self-rule

Nationalistic Resistance
• India
- Indian National Congress was formed in the late 1800s, which formally registered complaints
against the British government.
- After decolonization did not occur, the INC voiced Indian national independence.
→ Massacre of Amritsar

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- Two Indian freedom fighters were arrested in 1919, and Indians protested when mira soldiers shot
peaceful protestors and surrounding Sikh worshipers.
→ Mohandas Gandhi
- Led India in a campaign of nonviolent resistance through acts of civil disobedience,
> Homespun Movement
- Making your own clothes to protest injustices of the British textile industry, where cotton was resold
to India at inflated prices.
- Muslims feared their voice would be lost to Hindu majority.
→ Two state solution
India would be separated, India for Hindus and Pakistan for Muslims.
• Korea
Japan courted European support for more colonial expansion in Asia.
The Korean emperor died in 1919, speculated that Japanese infiltrators poisoned him.
→ March 1st Movement
- Protestors protested against Japanese rule and were brutally squashed by Japanese occupying troops.
• China
→ May 4th Movement
Sided with Allies for German territory, but the US gave this territory to Japan.
Anti-Japanese protests which resulted in a rejection of western democracy and a
turn to communism.
• Chinese Communist Party (Mao Zedong)
Mao was inspired by communist revolution in Russia
- Incited peasantry to revolution
Chinese Nationalist Party (Sun Yat Sen)
- Make China independent and industrialized
- After the death of Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek took over and attacked Mao's forces, leading to the
Chinese Civil War.
• West Africa
- France and Britain began educating people in Africa about natural rights and social contract.
- 1947 railroad workers went on strike, 1946 industrial workers were on strike.
- Workers demanded fair wages and an end to discriminatory practices.
7.6 Causes of World War I
Causes of World War II
• Unsustainable peace treaty in the Treaty of Versailles
- Demanded that Germany pay billions of dollars in reparations, leading to hyperinflation
- German treaty mandated the Allied forces occupy Rhineland

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- War Guilt Clause placed Germany in full responsibility for the War
• Rise of Nazi party in Germany
German kaiser was replaced with the Weimar Republic
- Nazi Party took power in 1932 and appealed to the people by advocating for the nullification of the
Treaty of Versailles, purification of the German population, and a stronger central authority who
could fix German issues.
- 1933 Hitler was elected, and 1943 Hitler enacted policies for powerful and militaristic German
nationalism.
Scientific racism claimed that certain races were genetically superior to others.
Hitler had deep anti-semitism and claimed that Jews were responsible for Germany's issues, and
Germany could be fixed if they purged the Jew population.
→ Nuremberg Laws
- A set of discriminatory laws against the Jews.
a 1938 German diplomat was assassinated by Jewish teenager.
→ Kristallnacht
Anti Jewish riots that killed tons of Jews and sent them to concentration camps.
→ Lebensraum (living space)
→ Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) allied Germany and Italy.
→ Anti-Comintern Pact allied Germany and Japan
- Germany, Italy, and Japan were the Axis Powers in the War.
• Germany's aggressive militarism.
- March 1935, Hitler broke the Treaty of Versailles and began to build up the German military,
sending troops into the Rhineland in 1936 for lebensraum.
- Hitler threatened to invade Austria, and the chancellor gave more power to the Nazi party in
Austria. Hitler was easily able to take over in 1938.
- Sudetenland consisted mainly of German people, so Hitler demanded it be German territory.
- Britain and France decided appeasing Hitler was the best way to maintain peace.
→ Munich Agreement
Hitler can have Sudetenland, but no more.
- Hitler realized that Britain and France were powerless, and additionally invaded Czechoslovakia in
1939.
- Hitler began to invade Danzig, Poland, and Britain agreed to defend Poland and allied with Russia
and France.
- Hitler invaded Poland, and the Allied Powers declared war on Germany, starting WW2.
Japan
- Japan had been encroaching on China and Korea.

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- 1937 Japanese and Chinese troops fought, marking the beginning of WW2 in the Pacific.
7.7 Conducting World War II
- Total War
- New technologies, mainly atomic weaponry
- Colonies fought for their mother country.
Japan
- Continued imperial expansion in the Siberian region in Russia.
The Us imposed economic sanctions on Japan, and Japan began plotting to attack
America.
Germany
→ Blitzkrieg (lightning war)
- Relied on shock and awe campaigns, with tanks and airstrikes that dealt massive blows to the enemy
in short periods of time.
- Poland fell to Germany, which was split with Russia because of the Non Aggression Pact.
- Germans conquered Denmark, Norway, and the Netherlands.
- Britain seeked assistance from the US.
→ Lend-Lease Act
- Sent war materials to Britain and erased US neutrality.
- 1941, Germany launched an invasion into Russia, which violated the Non Aggression Pact, and were
able to successfully advance into huge amounts of territory.
Japan
- Attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
- Franklin Roosevelt declared war on Japan, and Germany declared war with the US.
Domestic Environment
• United States
- Powerful industrial sector to produce ships, tranks, aircraft, guns, ammunition, aircraft carriers
- Women contributed to war effort
• Japan
- Refused to employ women
World War II
: 1943 lin sues. deal lal, ending to the allo Muslin
→ Invasion of Normandy Beach 1944
Allies defeated Germans and pushed Nazis out of Paris
Allied air raids destroyed German infrastructure, and marched from Rhine to Berlin.
Hitler commit suicide 1945.
- Germany officially surrendered 1945

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• Japan
Emperor refused surrender
-1945 President Truman dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Japan officially surrendered.
7.8 Mass Atrocities
Famine
• Ukrainian Famine
- Farmers in the Soviet Union resented Stalin's collectivization of agriculture, and began burning
crops and killing livestock.
- Created massive famine
Disease
• Influenza Pandemic 1918-1919
- Soldiers returned home, but carried influenza strain.
- Influenza spread and killed 20-50 million people.
Firebombing
- Introduced in World War II
- Bombs largely cased in wood, meant to blast and start fires
- Caused more destruction than conventional bombs.
- Allies firebombed Hamburg and Dresden in Germany, and Tokyo in Japan Genocide
• Armenian Genocide
- In Turkey, 600,000-1.5 million Armenian Christians were killed in ethnic cleansing
- 1915 Ottoman government accused Armenians of colluding with the Russians, and gathered them
into concentration camps.
• Holocaust
- Hitler began to acquire lebensraum, and began systematic removal of Slavic people into
concentration camps
→ Nuremberg Laws
- Banned Jews from certain professions and forced them to live in Ghettos.
• Final Solution 1942
The Soviet Union fell along with Yugoslavia, and people wanted to create new states according to
ethnic boundaries.
• Soda Minorite began die cleaning or Bosi to puse Mustins.
Colony in Belgium consisting of Tutsis (minority) and Hutus (majority)
- Belgium gave power to Tutsis and caused resentment in Hutus
- 1962 Hutus won control of the government and enacted policies against the Tutsis.
- 1994 Hutus created mass slaughter of Tutsis

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Unit 8- Cold War and Decolonization (1900-present)
Unit 8 Cold War and Decolonization
1900-present
Overview: the aftermath of the world wars provided the context for two developments in the late 2oth century:
the decline of colonial empires and the rise of a tense conflict between Capitalist and Communist states known
as the Cold War. These conflicts became intertwined, resulting in numerous wars
Unit 1 Setting the stage for the cold war and decolonization
Two superpowers Arise
Cold War - A state of hostility that exists between two states chiefly characterized by an ideological
struggle rather than open warfare
- The Cold War was a standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union that
transformed global politics for about 4 decades after WW2
- Allied powers won WW2, but the enormous cost and destruction of that war meant they were
not as victorious as they thought they were
Economic advantages
What led the two superpowers to rise
-despite suffering from the Great Depression in the 1930’s mobilization for WW2 created the
occasion for a complete economic turnaround as much as their industrial sector ramped up to meet
wartime production demand
● Many women took up jobs during WWII
-After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the US experienced almost none of the destructive consequences
-Unlike European countries whose cities lay in ruins and now had to face the monumental and
expensive task of rebuilding
-One of the most momentous results of the US’s post-war prosperity was its ability to help pay for the
rebuilding of Western European nations through programs like the Marshall Plan
Through the Marshall Plan, the U.S. sent over $13 billion in aid for economic recovery in war-torn
nations, and on the whole, the nations that received those funds experienced their economic revivals
-This meant that the global balance of power shifted toward the U.S.
Soviet Union
-since the 1920’s the state heavily directed the Soviet economy
-Although that kind of command economy drew sp=kepticism from free market-minded people, in
the years leading up to WWII, the Soviet economy did grow rapidly, even if that growth led to the
suffering and death of millions of Soviet citizens
-The Soviet Union was hit hard by WWII, not only by Hitler’s attempted invasion
Soviet Economy
1. Natural resources

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-enormous territory
2. Large population
-more people to work towards economic recovery
3. Investment before WWII
-government's large-scale investment in heavy industry
-Infrastructure was already in place
Soon became economically powerful
-Later in the century their emphasis on coal extraction and steel production at the expense of the
production of consumer goods would contribute to a weakening economy
Technological advantages
The United States developed the most advanced and devastating technology of war, namely the
atomic bomb
-Their deployment of two of those bombs on Japan effectively ended the war
-This showed that the USA was the technology “King” of the globe
Arms race
-Both powers spent large amounts of money to develop bigger and more destructive bombs
-This showed who was in charge, these bombs could easily wipe out the entire population
Decolonization: context
Reverse of colonization
-it was the two world wars that created the conditions for decolonization
-during the wars, colonies would fight with their colonial ruler hoping for self-rule in return, even
though they had no choice but to participate
Woodrow Wilson
Mandate system
Colonial troops fought for their imperial parents’ cause, but this time, after the war was over and there
appeared to be no clear intention of the imperial countries like Britain and France to grant
independence to their colonies, massive anti-imperial movements broke out across the world
-After WWII their economies and militaries were severely weakened, therefore after 1945, these
developments led to a worldwide process of decolonization

Unit 8.2 The Cold War

Causes of the Cold War
1. Conflicting ideologies
-Democratic Capitalism of the United States
-Authoritarian Communism of the Soviet Union
Democratic Capitalism

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-Emphasized free-market economic and political participation from citizens
Authoritarian Communism
-Emphasizes strict government control of the economy and redistribution of wealth equality to all
citizens who have no voice in the government
Both ideologies are universalizing ideas, meaning that those who hold them want everyone to hold
them as well
-Each wanted their ideology to be practiced throughout the globe
2. Mutual Mistrust
-Started even before WWII had ended
--The three big powers, The United States, Soviet Union, and Great Britain met together in a series of
conferences like the Tehran, Bretton Woods, and Potsdam conferences to discuss post-war
--All of them agreed that central and eastern European countries would be able to hold free elections
after the world was over, which presented a problem to the Soviet Union. Especially since Europe was
bordered by them
-Joseph Stalin decided to keep those countries under Soviet control to act as a buffer zone between
Russia and Russia = Eastern Bloc
-The United States saw this as a violation of their agreement
Germany was divided into four occupation zones, one was of the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France,
and the United States
-this was meant to be temporary, but Stalin refused to set East Germany free
This led to British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill to proclaim an Iron Curtain had fallen across
Europe
-This was the start of the Cold war that would last 4 decades
Effects of the Cold War
As the process of decolonization was creating dozens of brand new states across the world, the U.S
and the Soviet Union raced to influence each of these new states and win them to their perspective
sides
-Growing pressure for these newly independent nations to join one side or the other of this
superpower conflict
Some groups and individuals in these newly forming states refused to be pawns in this global conflict
which in many ways would make them dependent on more powerful nations
Non-Aligned Movement - led by Indonesian President, Achmed Sukarno who hosted its first
meeting in 1955 and there were 29 African and Asian heads of state
-Most significant being
● India
● Ghana

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 ● Indonesia
● Egypt
All members represented new states that were formerly colonies or those resisting colonial rule in
search of independence
-They refused to be controlled by the conflict between these two superpowers
By feigning support for one side or the other, some non-aligned states were able to gain weapons and
resources that they needed for their own defense and development

Unit 8.3 The Effects of The Cold War

New Military Alliances
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 194-This was an alliance of nations against the
Soviets that included the United States
-In 1955 the Soviets made their military alliance called the Warsaw Pact
The agreement in both of these alliances was that if any one member state was attacked that
constituted an attack on all of them and therefore all member nations would respond
These alliances increased tension
Nuclear Proliferation
Buildup of nuclear weapons
United States
-Atomic Bomb (1945)
-Hydrogen Bomb (1951)
Soviet Union
-Atomic Bomb (1949)
-Hydrogen Bomb (1953
Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962
After a failed attempt by the US to oust communist leader Fidel Castro in Cuba, the Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev shifted a buttload of nuclear missiles to Cuba, which was basically in America’s
backyard
-In 1962 US spy planes discovered these missile sites and were outraged
-But they were not so innocent because they had done the same thing by placing nuclear missiles in
Turkey which shared a border with the Soviet Union
-After discovering these missiles in Cuba, President John F Kennedy ordered a naval blockade around
Cuba so that no other weapons could arrive
No missiles were launched, and everyone was afraid of being killed, but this just shows that nuclear
weapons were a real problem
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968

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-called on nuclear powers to prevent non-nuclear countries from developing such disastrous weapons
Proxy wars
-small local wars in Africa and Asia and Latin America that took on global scope as the United States
and the Soviets took sides and supported the fighting
Proxy Wars
1. Korean War
-After WWII the Allies divided Korea into North and South Korea, the North was occupied by the
Soviets, and the South was occupied by the US and its allies
-In 1950 after both occupying forces had withdrawn Communist North Korea invaded
anti-communist South Korea to create a single state under its leadership
-Because they opposed each other, there was conflict and the US and Soviet Union got involved
quickly. The United Nations came to the aid of South Korea, and the Soviets didn’t send any troops
to aid North Korea but sent a metric buttload of guns and military technology
-In 1953 the conflict ended, and everything remained the same except that 3 million people were now
dead!
2. Angolan Civil War
-Began in 1975, was a colony in Portugal
-Angola ethnic groups with rivalries all put together under one government. Despite these rivalries,
they united and fought the Portuguese and won their independence
-After gaining independence they had to decide which group would rule
-The Soviets backed one of these groups, the United States another, and South Africa yet another
3. Contra War in Nicaragua - 1977
-The Sandinista National Liberation Front were self-proclaimed socialists who seized power in
Nicaragua
-Two years later the US backed a group of Contras who tried to overthrow the Sandanistas who in
turn were backed by the Soviet Union, and this attempt to overthrow the Contra committed many
human rights violations
Unit 8.4 The Spread of Communism After 1900
Communism in China
The revolution of 1911 under the leadership of Sun Yat-Sen ended Dynastic rule and established
China as a republic.
By the 1920s internal tension was brewing against the Chinese Nationalist Party because of their
perceived dependence on filthy Western powers and institutions
-Their main antagonist was the newly formed Chinese Communist Party under the leadership of Mao
Zedong

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Starting in 1927 there was a conflict between the Chinese communists and the Chinese nationalists
over who would control China
-In 1931, Japan invaded Northern China, so by 1935 the Communists and the Nationalists put their
conflict aside and United to deal with the Japanese
-After this was over they went back to their civil war, the Communists won with significant help from
the Soviets and had a Communist Revolution in China
-In 1949 Mao Zedong stood in Tenen Square and proclaimed the founding of the People’s Republic
of China
-Under his leadership, China nationalized its industry and redistributed land to peasants utilizing a
massive collectivization of Agriculture
Mao brought the Chinese economy squarely under State control through a program called The Great
Leap Forward
The Great Leap Forward - An economic plan to rapidly industrialize China through the
development of heavy industry
During this time, the relationship between China and the Soviet Union was strained because Mao
believed that the Soviet version of Communism had become corrupted
Other Socialist/ Communist movements
Land reform and the redistribution of resources
Egypt
The British and the French completed work on the Suez Canal in 1869
This made it must easier for Europe to trade instead of going around Africa they could take this
shortcut
This causes a massive conflict in Egypt
In 1952, Gamal Adbal Nasser led a movement to overthrow the British and proclaimed independence
for Egypt
Nasser took control of the Suez canal
-Because of this, Great Britain, France,and Israeli forces invaded than Egypt in retaliation
-Soviet president Nikita Khruschev threatened a nuclear strike against the invaders and U.S. president
Dwight Eisenhower put pressure on Britain and France to withdraw, and they did.
Communism spreading in Asia
Vietnam
During WWII Japan occupied Vietnam which at that point was a French colony, but after the war,
Vietnam declared its independence both from Japan and France
-With this came the establishment of a communist government in the North and a anti-communist
government in the South
PROXY WAR

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-Communist government of the North began a program of land distribution
-A few wealthy landowners held nearly all of Vietnam’s agricultural land
-Under this program ownership was canceled and land was given to the rural peasantry
Communism spread to South America
-Cuba
-In 1956 Fidel Castro led a revolution in Cuba that eventually established it as a communist state
● Attempted to purge Ciba of dependance on and subservience to the United states
● With support from the soviet union, launched a program of land redistribution and raised
wages
● This resulted in the transfer of 15% of Cuba’s wealth from the rich to the poor
The U.S. CIA led a failed attempt to overthrow Castro which only further radicalized him in his
communist beliefs and led him to develop even closer ties with the soviet union

Unit 8.5 Decolonization

Negotiated Independence
1. India
-Britain's most prosperous and valuable colony
-they invested a great deal of money to build up India’s Infrastructure including railroads and sea
ports and urban development
-Produced a growing and educated middle class who became increasingly influenced by nationalism
and the desire for greater degrees of self rule
- Formed the Indian National Congress in 1885 whose goal was to petition the British government for
more of a voice in Indian policy but they were ignored
-Indians fought by the Millions for the British cause in World War I, they thought in return they
would receive a greater degree of self rule, which did not happen
-British troops slaughtered hundreds of peaceful Indian protesters in the Amritsar Massacre
-Leadership of Indian Nationalist Mohandas Gandhi, the imperial resistance movement with
non-violent resistance
-By the 1920’s the British did transfer some limited authority to the Indians themselves
However when WWII began, the British again called up millions of Indian troops to fight for their
cause
-Once the war was over the Indians demanded their independence, the British was broke after the war
and granted them independence
-The Indian Parliament was signed that officially recognized India’s independence in 1947
Even though the official process of India’s independence was negotiated and peaceful, the
establishment of India as a new state was drought with incredible violence

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-The Muslim League: a political party established during the early 20th century in British India. Its
main purpose was to safeguard the political rights if Muslims in India, an eventually led to the
creation of Pakistan
2. Africa
-Gold Coast
A colony of Great Britain and in 1947 an independence movement was led by Kwame Nkrumah
-The new state of Ghana was born in 1957
Armed Conflict
For those colonies in which a large population of European settlers had made their homes, they
resisted decolonization and that resistance caused outbreaks of violence in the name of independence
Armed Conflict
1. Independence movement
-In the French colony of Algeria
In Africa, the French held colonial possessions here in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria
- From Morocco and Tunisia, France recognized their independence through negotiation and
without bloodshed, but not for Algeria because it was full of French migrants, and the french people
living there resisted independence fiercely, so in 1954 Arab and Berber Muslims responded by
forming the National Liberation Front in a stage series of violent attacks against french troops and
civilians in the name of independence, the France responded with a brutality that made the struggle
for independence.
-French soldiers targeted civilians without restraint and committed human rights abuses on a massive
scale and the war continued until 1962 when president Charles De Gualle opened negotiations with
the Algerians and declared the end of the war and Algeria’s independence
2. Africa
-Angolia
Angola was a Portuguese colony and by the 1950’s three angolan political groups had joined together
to oppose their colonial rule
-Inhumane treatment of farmers by the Portugues led to protest and violence
-In 1974 the Angolans took the opportunity to open negotiations for independence which came in
1975
-Once they gained their independence the three political groups who had united immediately fell into
a civil war to determine which one of them would hold power
-Since the three powers were communists or anti-communists the Angolan conflict became a Proxy
War
Problems of Colonial Boundaries

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Many colonial independence movements quickly descended into Civil War after winning their
freedom was because of the problem of Colonial boundaries
-In some cases those boundaries brought rival groups together and in other cases those boundaries
split ethnic and religious groups apart
Nigeria
In 1960 Nigerians negotiated their independence from Britain, a lot of civil war broke out in 1967
over who would gain control over the newly independent Nigeria
- It began when the lgbo people who westernized Christian people in the south tried to secede and
form their own nation called Biafra, because their land was rich in oil, the northern government
resisted that secession violently
-the north won out in 1970 and established a United Nigeria

Unit 8.6 State Building after decolonization

Conflict in New States
Boundary conflicts
1. Partition of India in 1947
Civil war after independence was gained
-Pakistan for the Muslims and India for the Hindu’s
-Some hindus were living in the Muslim areas and vice versa and in the process of going to their
respective places, lots of violence happened
-In Kashmir, for a change, Muslims were not the minority
-Pakistanians assumed that Kashmir would be added to their territory
-However the ruler of the State was Hindu and that region was home to valuable natural resources
-Because of these resources, India declared that Kashmir belonged to them and Pakistan responded by
launching a tax in the region to claim it as their own
The United Nations stepped in to mediate the dispute and insisted that the people of Kashmir
themselves vote on the territorial outcome of their state, which, given their Muslim population,
would have certainly resulting in Pakistan annexing Kashmir
-However the voting never occurred and the region has been a source of conflict between the two states and
China to this day
2. Creation of Israel in 1948
-Before WWI Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire, therefore was home to a Muslim majority
-Palestune was transferred to Great Britain under the Mandate system
-Zionism, a nationalistic ideology gained attraction among jews scattered around Europe
-desires of their own specifically in their ancestral land of israel
-Under the influence of zionism, large migrations of Jews to Palestine occured before and after WWI

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In addition to zionism, this migration was encouraged by the Balfour declaration which was a pledge
by the British to make Palestine a home for the Jews
-The Arab Muslims who lived in Palestine vigorously resisted this migration and this reenvisioning of
their territory as a home for the Jews
-There was a huge spike of Jews migrating to Palestine to escape persecution during WWII of the
holocaust
-This problem was handed to the United Nations who declared that Palestine will be partitioned into
two states, one for the Jews and one for the Arab Muslims

IMAGE
-Jews accepted this plan and declared independence in 1948
-The Palestinians refused to give up their land to what seemed to them another consequence of
European colonial control, therefore almost immediately Palestinians took up arms against the Israelis
with support from neighboring Arab states
In the end the Israelis won that war but several other conflicts between the two groups who had
erupted throughout the 20th century
-Even today the legacy of this partition has the region in conflict
Government Involvement in Economics
-How governments got involved in directing their economies after independence
Government and economics
1. Hamal Abdel Nsser - Egypt
-a key member of the Non-Aligned movement
-Nationalized the Suez Canal (1956) which brought it under Egyptian control
● When western powers invaded, Nasser gained Soviet support to end the conflict
- Oversaw completion of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River (1970)
● Provided electricity and irrigation of much of Egypt
- Initiated social welfare reforms which included free schooling and healthcare
2. Indria Gandhi - India
-The only female prime minister of India in 1966
-She inherited an economic crisis brought on by the ongoing conflict with Pakistan and the droughts
that caused widespread famine
-Implemented a series of five year socialist economic plans
● Aimed to allow the government to assert more control over the economy instead of relying on
foreign aid from powerful western nations
-Adopted the Green Revolution which used science to develop high-yielding grain
● Made india agriculturally self-sufficient

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-oversaw the nationalization of key Indian industries and introduced significant government
regulations on others
● Her nationalization of banks and the increase in taxes on the wealthy, along with her 20-point
economic plan, reduced inflation and increased production throughout india
Migration to Metropoles
Metropoles - Designated the territory of the imperial country in distinction from their colonial
holdings during the age of imperialism
Ex: many Indians migrated to great britain
- Over the long history of colonialism, imperial states and their colonies developed both cultural and
economic connections with one another
- So even if the presence of the imperial power was unwelcome in a colony, the colonial people grew
familiar with the customs and culture of that occupying power
Migrated to find work
South Asians →Great Britain
Algerians → France
Filipinos → The United States
-Created multi-ethnic societies
Unit 8.7 Resistance to Power structures
Nonviolent resistance
1. Mohandas Gandhi
-Promoted nonviolence and civil disobedience
-Member of the Indian National Congress
-Became its leader by 1921
Nonviolence in India
I. Homespun Movement
-In protest of Britain’s economic dominance of India’s cotton industry, Gandhi encouraged his
followers to boycott British made textiles and make their own clothes at home
-Gandhi even did this by not wearing his traditional suits he used to wear
II. Salt March
-A reaction against the British salt Monopoly
-The British government made it illegal to harvest their own salt, they had an abundance along the
seashore
-To protest this injustice, Gandhi led his followers on a march to the sea where they bent down and
harvested their own salt
-Gandhi was arrested many times

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After WWII, Britain no longer had the resources or overwhelming public support to resist Indian
independence
-One of the most momentous political changes in history, namely gaining independence from Britain
2. Martin Luther King Jr
-Black Baptist Minister in the United States
-Took inspiration from Gandhi’s methods
-Fought against America’s racial segregation laws
Nonviolence In the U.S.
I. Civil Rights Movement
- Aimed to secure equal rights for Black Americans
-Affected political change as the United States Supreme court outlawed racial discrimination in
schools in the 1950’s and Congress passed anti-discrimination laws in the 1960’s
II. Montgomery Bus Boycott
- Black Americans boycotted the city’s public transportation system
III. Nelson Mandela
Once South Africa had secured its independence from Great Britain, the minority white population
rose to power and introduced legalized racial segregation under a group of policies known as apartheid
-Nelson, a prominent member of the African National Congress led black south Africans in Acts of
nonviolent resistance that included boycotts and strikes
Sharpeville Massacre
-The apartheid police shot 69 of the protesters at Sharpeville
-Nelson adopted violence and went to jail for 2 decades
-Upon his release in 1994 he ran for president
Intensification of Conflict
1. Augusto Pinochet
-Assumed power and ruled over Chile as a dictator, and with that power, he violently suppressed
opposition to his leadership
-led a military coup to overthrow the democratically elected president Salvador Allende who was a
Marxist and had been implementing socialist policies
-Marxist rulers got the United States upset
2. Idi Amin
-In Uganda
-he demonized the large South Asian population in Uganda who made significant contributions to
the economy for centuries, claiming that they were responsible for taking jobs from Uganda
-Became known as the “Butcher of Uganda” because of the frequent campaigns of violence he carried
out against his own people and rivals]

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-The violence targeted ethnic groups and in others it targeted political enemies and in still others it
targeted seemingly random groups of individuals whom Amin deemed his enemies
3. Military Industrial Complex
-Defend their future by building up their militaries
-This buildup was a self-feeding cycle, as military spending increased so did the number of people who
relied on this industry for their jobs
-This meant that is a policy maker wanted to cut military spending then they also put lots of people
out of work
-It was economically profitable to sell weapons → violence
Violence against civilians
Terrorism
I. Al Qaeda
-founded and led by Saudi Arabian billionaire, Osama Bin Laden
-a militant Islamic group that had deep grievances concerning the involvement of the United States in
Middle Eastern States, most notably Iran, Israel, and Saudi Arabia
-Responded with acts of terrorism against civilians in order to pressure the United States to change
their policies
-9/11 attacks on the twin towers, led to 2,000 Americans dead
-This attack only intensified the United States’ involvement in the Middle East

Unit 8.8 The end of the Cold War

Collapse of the Soviets
Advancements in the United States
The Soviets and United States had made over 12,000 different nuclear weapons, the reason they never
launched them at each other is because if wither did start a nuclear war, it would end in mutually
assured destruction
Détente - a period of time where tensions were more relaxed
- U.S. president Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev signed the Strategic Arms
Limitation Treaty, known as Salt
- Both states agreed to prohibit further manufacturer of nuclear weapons but in 1980, the US elected
Ronald Reagan as president and decided no more Détente
-The Strategic Defense Initiative: a system that rendered any attack on the US by Nuclear weapons
obsolete, wanted to have detectors in space in case of any nuclear attacks
-Although this was never passed it represented a growing divide between the US and the Soviet Union
-The Soviets would attempt to match the U.S spending and weapons development, but since the
1970s the Soviet economy had been stagnant and could not support that kind of spending, therefore

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their attempts to keep up with the US military and technological investment led them into further
economic decline
Troubles in Afghanistan
-failed soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
-They invaded Afghanistan to prop up its Communist Regime against Muslim groups who sought to
overthrow it
-However the Afghan rebels were supported and supplied by the United States, Saudi Arabia, and
Pakistan
-Soviets were able to control some major cities but they could not win the rural Guerilla war waged
against them by the rebels, so the Soviet Union waged this losing battle for 9 years, this depressed the
soviet economy
Gorbachev’s policies
Leader Mikhail Gorbachev who rose to power in 1985
Soviet Economic Crisis
1. Foreign trade was extremely limited
2. Government control of agriculture stifled the Industry
-Farmers lacked freedom to decide what to plant and how to price crops
3. Soviet Bloc countries continued to grow discontent with soviet oppression
-Prague Spring: protests in Czechoslovakia erupted in 1968 as a reaction against oppressive Soviet
policy
-The soviets violently crushed this outcry but the sentiment was spreading and the soviet state was
having to devote more and more resources that they did not have to put those rebellions down
Gorbachev’s Policies
1. Perestroika
-A restructuring of the economy to address economic woes by reducing the level of central planning
from the Government
2. Glasnost
-Means “openness”
-All the dissent and criticism against the government and its policies that had been brutally silenced by
previous leader was not allowed
3. Ceased Military intervention
-Soviet Union would no longer use military intervention in order to prop up communist governments
in its own sphere of influence
Democratic reform movements erupted in one Eastern Europe country after another, and that led to
similar reform movements in the Soviet Union proper as people in Lithuania, Georgia, and other
states began declaring independence and breaking free from Soviet control

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-In 1989 the Berlin Wall was torn down and Germany was reunited
-The soviet legislature voted in 1991 to dissolve the Soviet Union

Unit 9- Globalization (1900-present)

Unit 9: Globalization After 1900

Overview: Unprecedented advancements in science and technology, from airplanes to the internet,
increased globalization in the 20th century. These changes provided the setting for vast political and
social change, including the spread of democracy and increased international trade
9.1 How technology made globalization possible
Globalization - the phenomenon by which trade and technology have created a political, economic,
and socially interconnected world
-This has been seen with trade routes, imperialism, and world wars over time
Each of these new technologies transformed the world in some way, whether by increasing lifespans,
making energy more accessible, or further connecting the world to a globalized economy
Communication technology
What these new technologies were, how they changed the world, and that they were not evenly
distributed throughout the world
Wealthy industrialized countries had them first then they spread
-the main effect of these was to solve the problem of geographical distance
Communication tech
1. Radio
-allowing individuals and families to hear the voices of people who were delivering information, as
opposed to a newspaper which was only in print
-voices directly to listeners
● American president Franklin Roosevelt utilized this and broadcasted his voice to American
homes during the Great Depression, in WWII he would comfort Americans during hard
economic times and update them on all the New Deal policies
2. Television in 1960s
-dominant form of mass communication and entertainment
3. Cellular
-the telephone was invented in 1876 in the United States
-though it was expensive for most people, the social elites took advantage of the ability to talk to other
people across great distances

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-This remained unchanged until the 1980s when cellular technology was introduced with enabled
connectivity through the air
-People could talk to people from across the world
Shrinking geographical distance
4. Internet
-the first iteration of the Internet was developed in the United States in the 1960s as a way to share
both military and scientific data
-By the 1990s the technology had been developed to the point where it was more affordable to the
average citizen
-With personal computers, the 1990s gave us the World Wide Web
-connecting people through email, connecting businesses with their customers
Transportation technology
Automobiles
Changing urban landscapes by creating suburbs
Air travel
-Eliminated geographical distance amazingly in the 20th century, especially in Western Countries
-Due to the massive economic growth Western Nations experienced after WWII, more people could
afford to fly
Shipping containers
-standardized metal boxes that can be stacked uniformly for shipping non-bulk cargo like food,
clothing, raw materials
-today, all consumer goods are transported across the world using this
-This development created the conditions for major businesses to relocate their manufacturing sectors
to developing countries
-They did this because peripheral countries' labor costs are lower and thus businesses save money
Energy technology
1. Petroleum
Not only is petroleum refined into fuel for cars and planes, but it has also been used to generate
electricity which has largely been democratized, at least throughout the developed world
-replaced coal as the main source of industrial manufacturing
● Increased production to meet the demand for consumer goods across the world
2. Nuclear power
-Emits very little pollution from its chemical reactions
● Pitched as the cleaner alternative to fossil fuels like petroleum
Medical technology
1. Antibiotics

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-In 1928 the first antibiotic was developed, called penicillin
2. Vaccines
-Early forms of this practice were around the 17th century China, but in the 20th century medical
advances produced an astonishing number of vaccines against some of the world’s more persistent
diseases like measles, pneumonia, polio, and influenza
3. Birth Control
-In the 1950s a birth control pill was developed which consisted of a synthetic hormone that
prevented pregnancy
-The widespread use of this pill caused fertility rates across the world to decline
Agricultural technology
1. Commercial farming
Subsistence farming - farmers’ main goal is to grow small-scale crops mainly for their own
consumption
Commercial farming - Farmers’ main goal is to sell agricultural products on the market and maximize
profits
-mostly occurred in wealthy countries because of the use of expensive technologies like motorized
tractors
2. Green Revolution
-In the 1950s and 1960s, scientists applied the science of genetic modification to food and developed
new strains of high-yielding grain crops
-These were introduced to developing countries like Mexico, India, and Indonesia, and enough food
was made to feed their population
Created environmental harm
-Farmers were encouraged to double-crop or plant more than one crop in the same soil per year,
which is how more food was produced
-this intense use of the soil led to exhaustion and erosion

Unit 9.2 The Spread of Diseases in a Globalized World

Diseases associated with poverty
Populations of wealthy nations with well-developed healthcare systems have far greater access to the
various medical interventions that address diseases and less developed nations don’t
1. Malaria
-A disease spread by infected mosquitos and typically occurs in large numbers throughout warmer,
tropical regions
-Experience flu-like symptoms, often resulting in death
-Sub-saharan Africa had it worse

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 2. Tuberculosis
-An airborne disease that severely affects the lungs and can be fatal
-A cure was developed at the end of the 19th century, but access to this is favoring wealthy countries
Epidemics and Pandemics
1. 1918 Influenza Pandemic (Spanish flu)
-Deadliest pandemic of the twentieth century
-Spread rapidly and globally along travel and trade routes because of the increasing global
interconnection
-Claimed nearly 50 million lives over 2 years which had a massive impact on demographics around the
world
2. HIV/AIDS
-Starting in the 1980s, led to the deaths of millions of people worldwide
-associated early with gay men and drug addicts, funding for a cure was mildly difficult to come by
-In the 1990s new medical interventions were developed to treat the disease, which made it more of a
chronic illness
3. Covid-19
-emerged in 2020 and was transmitted through the air
Diseases Associated with Aging
1. Alzheimer’s disease
-A form of dementia that disproportionately affects the aging population
-suffer memory loss, undermine basic bodily functions, can lead to death
2. Heart Disease
Unit 9.3 Effects of Globalization on the Environment
Land Problems
Land Problems
1. Deforestation
-the large-scale clearing of trees in a geographical area
Deforestation effects
I. Urbanization
-The increasing size and populations of cities
-Has created the problem of urban sprawl
● The increasing size of the urban footprint
II. Farmland
-large commercial farms keep the world’s growing population fed
-Largely impacts the world’s forests, especially the rainforests

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 ● Provide a home to an astonishing number of animal species that have since become
endangered or have gone extinct through deforestation
2. Desertification
-The transformation of once fertile land into infertile land
-Land becoming desert-like
Air and Water problems
1. Decline in air quality
-Global spread of industry contributes to significant air pollution
● Largely dependent on fossil fuels for energy
The Great Smog in London of 1952
-industrial coal emissions combined with fog to create a poisonous smog that covered the city for 5
days killing around 10,000 to 12,000 people
2. Increased competition over fresh water supply
-Only 3% of the ocean water is usable for human beings
-Rapidly increasing population has created a rising demand for that 3%
World Health Organization
-estimates half the world’s population today lacks clean drinking water
Climate Change
The warming of the planet due to the release of greenhouse gasses
-The debate centers around the causes of that warming since the potential solutions to the problem
require political action
-One side argues that it is caused by humans
-Others argue that it is a natural cycle of the earth
Climate Change Debate
1. What if climate change is caused by humans and industrialization?
-Then addressing the problem requires societies to slow their capacity for industrial growth which
decreases their ability to grow economically
2. What does this mean for developed versus developing nations?
-If the global community decides to restrict the amount of greenhouse gasses that can be emitted into
the atmosphere, then developing nations who are attempting to improve their own economic
standing will not have access to the very tools that create economic well-being in an industrialized
world
Unit 9.4 Economics in a Global Age
The spread of Free Market economies
The conditions of globalization have created an increasingly interconnected global economy that in
some ways is new and in other ways continues trends seen in other units

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Neoliberalism
An economic emphasis on free market policies that include the lowering of trade barriers like tariffs,
deregulation of industry, and the transfer of public sector industries to private parties
Economic Liberation
1. Ronald Reagan
-Started the liberalization of the U.S. economy
-He was against New Deal policies, against government spending on public services
-He decreased taxes on the wealthy
-Reduced government regulation of business
-Cut spending on social welfare programs
This did not apply to military spending
2. Margaret Thatcher
-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
-Deregulation of businesses, reduction in income taxes, and the privatization of State-owned assets.
3. Both
-Helped reduce inflation, economic growth
-Undermined the power of labor unions
-More power to business leaders
-The gap between the rich and the poor increased
4. Augusto Pinochet
-President of Chile
-Led the economy from state control
-led into the free-market
Chicago Boys
-A group of economists who graduated from the University of Chicago and set out to solve the
economic problems in Chile
-Were able to address Chile’s rampant inflation and privatize state-run businesses
Global and Regional economic situations
The most powerful nations in the world were those who had industrialized
Beginning in the 1970’s the cost of domestic manufacturing began to increase significantly
Globalized Economies
1. Knowledge workers
-Wealthier developed countries became more characterized by knowledge workers whose main capital
for work was not their bodies but rather their minds
Finland
-In the 1990s Finland invested heavily in communication technology and education

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A healthy share of the world’s cellphone and software markets
Japan
-Invested heavily in Education to transition into a knowledge economy
-However, there was some drag because Japan’s economic policies in ways resembled the old
mercantilist economies which emphasized exports above imports
-They did this by subsidizing manufacturing to keep costs low and enacting steep tariffs to stifle
imported goods
-Labor unions began gathering strength
During the 20th century, Japan became a churning engine of manufacturing, but they eventually
diversified their economy and in the later part of the 20th century became a world leader in the
knowledge economy by focusing on banking, finance, and the development of information
technology
2. Manufacturing
-Increasingly located in developing countries where international businesses could save money by
paying lower wages to foreign workers than was legal in their own countries
Global Manufacturing
Global and Regional Economic institutions
The rise of these international institutions was both caused by globalization and has fostered further
globalization through their policies
World Trade Organization
Exists to regulate trade on a global scale, the WTO promotes global trade by assisting in the
negotiation of trade deals, acting as a moderator for various trade disputes, and creating initiatives to
assist developing countries along the scale of development
Regional Trade Agreements
1. European Union
-began as a simple economic agreement in the Post WWII era between 6 European countries
-They agreed to integrate their coal and steel operations by removing barriers to trade between them
-Evolved over time
-In 1993 the European Union was officially formed and today 27 countries are members. These
countries have essentially merged into a kind of singular economic unit, which is far more
economically powerful than any one of their countries could be on their own
2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations
-This agreement facilitates trade among Southeast Asian countries
The Rise of Multinational Corporations
Definition - an entity which is incorporated in one country but manufactures and sells goods in other
countries

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Multinational organizations
1. Multinational Corporations
-Employ knowledge workers in their own countries and manufacture goods for sale in other countries
then sell those goods on a global market
-Similar to joint stock companies like the Dutch East India
2. Nestle
-Example of a multinational corporation
-Headquartered in switzerland then purchase and their manufacture their chocolate with low wage
work in West Africa, and sometimes child and enslaved labor
3. Mahindra and Mahindra
-Another example, an Indian company that makes automobiles, farm equipment, and many other
things
-Based in Mumbai but have corporations in North America, Australia, Europe, Africa, and Latin
America

Unit 9.5 Globalization and calls for Reform

Human rights and liberation
Movements for Human Rights
1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
-Created by the United States in 1949
-Sought to protect the rights of those citizens if the Global Community who has long been trampled
under oppressive structures
-People like Women, Children, and Refugees
UNICEF - United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
-Devoted its resources to feeding children who were still hungry in the aftermath of WWII
2. United Nations first World Conference on Women in 1975
-representatives from all over the world met to plan steps for the advancement of women
-4 years later in 1979: The Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women
● Proposed an international bill of rights for women
● Rights included: provisions for women suffrage, The right to marry a spouse of their own
choosing, Equality in education, The right to birth control, and other family planning
measures
3. Negritude Movement
-Rights-based movement for black equality that emerged in the 1930s and 40s among
French-speaking Caribbean and African artists

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-Primarily a literary and ideological movement
-Elevated blackness and black culture
-Emphasized dignity over the racial legacy of colonialism and racism
● Effect of promoting awareness of Black culture as a positive force
● Provided the language and discourse for future anti-colonial civil rights movements across the
Caribbean and Africa and other marginalized communities
4. Liberation Theology
-Latin American-born religious movement
-Reenvisioning of the Christian theology of the Catholic Church
Liberation theology emphasized Christ’s concern for the poor and marginalized and called for the
transformation of oppressive power structures
Greater access to education and politics
As the global human rights discourse progressed throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, reforms
were implemented in terms of education and politics to be more inclusive of gener, race, class, and
religion
Political and educational reforms
1. Women’s suffrage
-Many governments legally recognized women’s right to vote and hold political office
-When women’s right to vote was legally recognized
● United States: 1920
● Turkey: 1934
● Japan: 1945
2. Civil Rights Act
-Passed as a result of the relentless pressure of the Civil Rights Movement in 1964
-This law prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public
accommodations, and publicly owned facilities and employment and in federally funded education
programs
3. Caste Reservation System
-Introduced in India
-In the caste system, people with the lower casts were treated with shame and socially marginalized but
with the implementation of the caste reservation system, a certain percentage of seats in educational
institutions, government jobs and elected positions were reserved for members of historically
marginalized caste groups
Protests against globalization
Reactions to Globalization
1. Environmentalism

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-began in the 19th century, but it was largely restricted in individual states and regions
-Conservation Movement under President Teddy Roosevelt in the U.S that aimed to protect
America’s forest from the incessant march of industrial progress
-But it wasn’t until the 20th century that protest against the environmental effects of globalization
became a global movement
2. Greenpeace
-Founded in 1971
-Known for its use of nonviolent protest tactics to raise awareness and advocate for environmental
protection
● Protests, blockades, and direct interventions
3. World Fair Trade Organization
-represents one movement that sought to reform such exploitative practices long low wages, long
hours, unsafe working conditions, and lack of job security
-fair trade principles advocated by the WFT aim to ensure that producers receive fair prices for their
goods enabling them to earn a sustainable livelihood and invest in their communities

Unit 9.6 The Effect of Globalization on Culture

Arts, entertainment, and sports
In this period new communication technologies like the internet, new transportation technologies
like air travel meant that people from various cultures around the world were interacting at a far
greater pace than ever before
Global culture, local cultures were influenced by this
Global Culture
1. Arts
-Reggae music originated in Jamaica but thanks to the popularity of Bob Marley this regional form of
music has become known and loved throughout the world
-K-Pop, began as a distinct musical style in South Korea in the early 2000s but a decade later viral
videos of k-pop groups spread across the world through social media
2. Entertainment
-Hollywood
-The global export of American entertainment
-Viewed as a cultural imperialism
-Bollywood: a massive film industry in Mumbai
3. Global sports
-The olympics and the World Cup

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-Both events, while certainly international in nature, are also platforms for the promotion of
nationalism as athletes from various countries compete for the ultimate prize
Consumer Culture
Describes a lifestyle devoted to spending money on mass produced material goods
-At the end of WWII, the United States shifted its tremendous industrial capacity which have
produce enormous amounts of Munitions for the war squarely towards the production of consumer
goods
-These consumer goods included clothing and household appliances and many more
Advertising Industry
-Able to transform America into a consumer culture whose economy largely rose and fell on the
number of mass-produced goods that the population was willing to buy
Because the United States had an oversized influence on the global culture and economy after WWII,
consumer culture became a global phenomenon
-The result was that countries either became consumers of these brands or producers of their own
Global Brands
Global Brands
1. McDonald’s
2. KFC
-mainly in China
3. Coca-Cola
-originated in the United States but in the second half of the 20th century, the brand expanded to a
large number of places throughout the world
4. Toyota
-Japan-based multinational corporation which sells cars in 170 countries throughout the world
Online retailers
-Helped facilitate the global flow of goods
-Alibaba is an online chinese retailer that sells consumer goods to people all across the world
-EBAY is an american online retailer that facilitates online auctions for about 135 million users
throughout the world, only half of which live in the united states

Unit 9.7 Resistance to Globalization

Resistance movements protesting globalization
Globalization: Positive or Negative?
Positive Effects

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 1. Economic globalization was responsible for the largest bout of economic growth in the
history of the world
-Global population: 4x, in the twentieth century. Economic output: 40x
-On the whole, this economic increase led to:
● Better standards of living
● Better healthcare that extends lifespans
● Widespread education and literacy
2. Global movements for human rights have been implemented on a massive scale
Resistance to Economic Globalization
1944, a year before the end of WWII, the United States led a meeting of capitalist nations known as
the Bretton Woods Conference
-Because one of the main causes of the Second World War was that series of global economic crisis, this
conference
Bretton Woods Conference
-A conference that aimed to construct a post-war world that would be more stable and contribute to
economic flourishing
Global economic institutions
1. World Bank
-Created to provide financial assistance for the reconstruction of Europe after WWII
-Later in the century it shifted its focus to providing loans and technical assistance to developing
countries for projects aimed at reducing poverty and promoting economic development and achieving
sustainable growth
2. International Monetary Fund
-Facilitates monetary cooperation among all the member states of the World
3. Both
-Aimed to promote free trade
-Keep Global currency values stable and free flowing
● Evaluated by the value of the American dollar
Critics argue that the Bretton Woods System carried out by the World Bank, the IMF, and other
global institutions like the World Trade Organization marginalized populations in the global south for
the economic benefit of the global north
-The global economic policies created by these institutions made it easy for Multinational
Corporations to exploit laborers in developing countries that lack regulation for their policies
Critics argue that this global approach to economics challenges and undermines more local economies
decisions in the name of global order’
Battle for Seattle in 1999

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The World Trade Organization met in Seattle to establish their financial goals for the new Millenium
-A massive anti-globalization protest formed outside with over 40,000 people from a large diversity of
background
-Marked the beginning of a much larger anti-globalization movement that represented the interest of
those who have been marginalized by global economic policies
Resistance to Cultural Globalization
Because the advent of social media outlets like Facebook and Twitter have been a huge catalyst for the
spread of culture, some states have resisted the intrusion of globalized culture by developing their own
local social media sites
China shut down sites like Facebook and Twitter because by their reckoning those outlets were
responsible for creating unrest in their country
-In 2009 a riot broke out between the majority of Han and the minority populations, the Uighur
Riots
-The Weavers are Muslims who have had a long history of abuse in China, but the Chinese
government blames social media sites for trafficking in ideas that caused this uprising and therefore
shut it down
-To replace the western social media programs, China introduced its own platform called Weibo
which allowed the Chinese people to do the same things they did on Facebook and Twitter but
without the danger of western ideas sneaking in

Unit 9.8 Institutions that developed in a Globalized World

Supranational organizations that have developed in a globalized world
The United Nations
A major effect of globalization has ben the formation of several supranational organizations that have
risen to help facilitate global cooperation
Global Institutions
1. World Bank
2. International Monetary Fund
3. United Nations
United Nations
was created after WWII had ended, its purpose was to create an international body where Nations
could hammer out their problems by talking and negotiating rather than war
-Very similar to the League of Nations
LN was created after WW1, but didn’t have any authority to enforce its resolutions on member
nations, so it largely failed its purpose

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-The United Nations was made to shore io the weaknesses of the League of Nations
Two Purposes
1. To prevent war
2. Facilitate cooperation among the world’s nations
The General Assembly
-Included representatives from all member nations, today included 193 out of 195 states in the world
-Only two independent states in the whole world aren’t members of the UN, and are classified as
“general observers”
Vatican City - official state of the catholic church and the Pope doesn’t want the Vatican tied up in
national politics
Palestine - heartily supported by western powers none more than by the U.S and UK, Israelis and
Palentinians have been fighting for control over territory, so when Palestine applies for permanent
membership they got rejected
-The Body of the UN which is responsible for discussing and making policies for all member nations,
many of which have humanitarian purposes
-The General Assembly became a significant form of negotiating and addressing the difficulties
decolonized states faced in their independence
The Security Council
-Responsible for keeping peace in a globalized world. It’s made up of five permanent members - the
U.S., china, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom - and then ten rotating representatives among
the various member nations
-Each of the five permanent members have veto power over any policies, this was written right into the
charter and has caused some contention
Ex. in the midst of the Cold War, the UN was unable to prevent many wars throughout the world
because the permanent members had no qualms about using their veto power to protect their own
interest at the expense of global interests
- Has authority to send military peacekeepers to help stabilize violent situations and to impose
economic sanctions on states that were creating the conditions for violence and war or otherwise
violating human rights

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