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CB1 LITT 323:THEATRE ARTS

EVOLUTION OF THEATRE IN EAST AFRICA

FEBRUARY 6, 2025
CHUKA UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS
P.O BOX 109-60400
 EVOLUTION OF THEATRE IN EAST AFRICA
EAST AFRRICAN THEATRE BEFORE COLONIALISM

Before the onset of colonialism in East Africa, the region’s theatre was deeply rooted in oral traditions,
communal performances, and cultural practices that were integral to social and spiritual life. These
Page | 1 precolonial performances did not follow the formal structures associated with Western theatre but were
rich in symbolic and cultural meanings, with the intention of educating, entertaining, and connecting
individuals to their history, ancestors, and deities.

1. Oral Traditions and Storytelling

Theatre in pre-colonial East Africa was largely an extension of oral traditions. Storytelling, performed by
griots or professional storytellers, was a central part of the cultural fabric. Stories were passed down
from generation to generation through spoken word, dance, song, and music. These narratives often
carried moral lessons, history, and explanations of natural phenomena or societal values. For example:

• The Kikuyu people of Kenya used storytelling to explain their origins and values, and these tales
were often accompanied by drumming and dance.

• The Swahili coast, which had strong Arab influences, had a rich tradition of tuwali (traditional
plays) and poetry that were enacted in the courtyards of homes or on public squares.

• The Ganda of Uganda also had rich oral theatre traditions, where elders would perform
abalungi, ritualistic performances that taught important community values.

2. Rituals, Dance, and Music

In pre-colonial East Africa, theatre was often part of religious and ritualistic performances. Many of these
performances had spiritual significance, as they were believed to be a way of communicating with
ancestors or deities.

• The Maasai and Nandi people performed ritual dances, often as part of ceremonies that marked
transitions in life, such as initiation into adulthood. These performances included dance, music,
and songs that conveyed the life cycle, social roles, and cultural values.

• The Luhya and Bakiga people of Uganda performed ebiruga, a form of music and dance that was
not only an entertainment medium but also part of rites such as initiation and marriage
ceremonies.

Performances were often accompanied by music (using instruments such as drums, rattles, and flutes),
which was considered as essential to the performance as the story itself. Drumming was especially
important as it set the rhythm for the performance and was integral in conveying emotion and meaning.

3. Masking and Symbolism

Masks were used in many East African cultures for theatrical and ritual performances. These masks were
symbolic representations of spirits, ancestors, or natural forces.

• The Mijikenda and Chaga peoples used masks in their traditional rituals, with actors wearing
masks to represent spirits and to communicate the presence of these forces in the community's
life.

4. Theatrical Forms Among Specific Groups

 EVOLUTION OF THEATRE IN EAST AFRICA

EAST AFRRICAN THEATRE BEFORE COLONIALISM

• Swahili Theatre: The Swahili coast, due to its mix of African, Arab, and later Portuguese
Page | 2 influences, had a complex theatrical tradition. Plays and storytelling involved elaborate
performances, with “taarabu” music and poetry being central to entertainment.

• The Luo of Kenya and Uganda had a dramatic form known as jambula, which was a mix of
dialogue, movement, and song, often performed during festivals or important life events like
weddings and funerals.

5. Performance Spaces

Pre-colonial East African theatre did not take place in a formalized theatre building, but in communal
spaces such as:

• Village squares and open spaces, where audiences gathered to witness performances during
cultural festivals.

• Courtyards of households or public meeting places, where people would come together for
social events, celebrations, or religious observances.

Key References

1. Horton, R. (2000). "The Role of Drama in Traditional African Society". This work discusses the
role of performance in the transmission of cultural norms in African societies.

2. Okpewho, I. (1992). "African Oral Literature: Backgrounds, Character, and Continuity." This
book covers African oral traditions, including theatre, as an important part of culture and the
transmission of knowledge.

3. Gikandi, S. (2000). "The Colonial Experience and African Literature." This discusses the
influence of colonization on African culture, including the theatrical traditions in East Africa.

4. Nzengou, T. (2008). "Traditional African Theatre: Aesthetic and Performance in African

Communities." This offers a broad look at African theatre before colonialism, with insights int
 EVOLUTION OF THEATRE IN EAST AFRICA
The evolution of theatre in East Africa during colonialism is deeply intertwined with the social, political,
and cultural shifts brought on by European colonial powers, particularly the British, Germans, and
Italians. Colonial rule significantly impacted indigenous traditions, creating both restrictions and
opportunities that shaped theatre in the region. Here’s an overview of this evolution:
1. Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial Period (Pre-1900s to 1920s)
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Before colonialism, East Africa had rich traditions of oral storytelling, rituals, dance, and community-
based performances that played integral roles in education, social cohesion, and spiritual expression.
Theatre in the conventional Western sense, however, was largely absent. However, the early colonial
period witnessed the intrusion of Western forms of theatre, often used as a tool for both control and
cultural assimilation.
 Western Influence and Missionary Theatre: Christian missionaries introduced Western-style
theatre, typically as a means to spread religious messages. They used plays, skits, and
performances to teach Christian values, often presenting the "civilizing" influence of Europeans.
In Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania (then Tanganyika), missionary schools began using theatre in
their educational systems.
 Performance as Resistance: Despite the assimilationist agenda, some Africans began using
theatre as a form of subtle resistance. Performance spaces, often through songs, dance, and
stories, were used to express dissatisfaction with colonial rule, although this was mostly covert
due to censorship and repression.
2. 1920s to 1940s: The Rise of Political Theatre and New Forms
By the 1920s, as colonial rule became more entrenched, theatre in East Africa began to reflect the
growing political awareness and resistance movements. The impact of global events like World War I and
the Great Depression led to heightened tensions in the colonies, and theatre played a key role in both
colonial propaganda and as a medium for African voices.
 African Theatre Groups: Theatre in this period began to reflect a blending of Western styles and
African traditions. The East African Literary and Drama Society, founded in the 1930s, was one
of the first organizations to try and integrate both African and Western elements in its plays.
 Political Consciousness: Theatre during this time also began to take on a more overtly political
role, with plays addressing the colonial experience, inequalities, and the desires for
independence. Works that critiqued colonial rule, like the plays of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (though he
would be more influential post-colonial), began to appear.
3. 1940s to 1960s: Nationalist and Post-War Theatre
After World War II, the atmosphere in East Africa became one of increasing nationalist sentiment, and
the role of theatre shifted accordingly. Theatre became a crucial vehicle for promoting nationalist
movements and rallying the people towards independence. The 1950s and 1960s saw the birth of more
explicitly political theatre.
 Cultural Nationalism and Theatre: As colonial powers began to weaken, theatre in East Africa
was increasingly used as a tool for cultural revival. Playwrights and theatre companies sought to
reclaim African cultural identity and reassert indigenous values that colonial rule had sought to
suppress. Theatre became a space to critique colonial policies and assert African pride.
 Influence of African Theatre Movements: The 1950s saw the formation of theatre companies in
major cities such as Dar es Salaam, Nairobi, and Kampala. In Kenya, the Kenya National Theatre
became a significant cultural institution. Similarly, the Uganda National Theatre and Tanganyika
Theatre emerged as centers of local expression and critique. These theatres increasingly
reflected political movements, with groups like the Kenya African Union (KAU) using theatre to
promote national unity and independence.
 EVOLUTION OF THEATRE IN EAST AFRICA
 Theatre as a Tool for Mobilization: Theatre was used in the liberation struggles, such as the Mau
Mau Rebellion (1952–1960) in Kenya. Performances often focused on decrying the injustices of
land alienation, forced labor, and the segregation of Africans in urban centers. For example, in
Kenya, plays like "The Three Sisters" (a modern adaptation of Chekhov) were used to express
disillusionment with colonial life.
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4. 1960s and Beyond: Post-Independence Theatre
Following independence in the early 1960s, East African theatre saw an explosion of creative expression
as new national identities emerged. Theatre continued to play an important role in nation-building, and
the question of national culture and identity remained central.
 Influence of Pan-Africanism: Pan-Africanism, the idea of solidarity among African nations, had a
profound impact on East African theatre. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (formerly James Ngugi) emerged as
a key playwright in the 1960s, using theatre as a tool to critique the post-colonial conditions in
Kenya. His famous play, "The Trial of Dedan Kimathi" (1976), depicted the struggle for
independence and the subsequent challenges faced by post-colonial societies.
 Theatre and African Identity: Theatre began to challenge the continuing effects of colonialism
and neocolonialism in post-independence East Africa. Theatre groups began to adapt traditional
African storytelling forms and rituals to explore social and political issues, incorporating
indigenous languages, customs, and narratives into modern plays.

Key References for Further Study

1. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o – The Trial of Dedan Kimathi (1976), Petals of Blood (1977)
2. Kenyatta Nyirenda – “The Role of Theatre in East Africa's Independence Struggle,” in African
Theatre in the Age of Independence.
3. Wole Soyinka and Ama Ata Aidoo also influenced theatre movements across the continent,
including East Africa.
4. John S. Mbiti – African Religions and Philosophy (1969), for context on the African worldviews
that influenced theatre.

Conclusion
Colonialism had a profound impact on the development of theatre in East Africa, initially introducing
Western forms but later serving as a medium for resistance and the promotion of nationalist
movements. Over time, theatre in the region evolved into a critical tool for political engagement, cultural
revival, and the assertion of African identity. The legacy of these early movements continues to influence
contemporary theatre in East Africa today.