Punjab Group of Colleges

(Manawan Campus)

PHYSICS – XII
(Full Book Short Questions)

Prepared by:
Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood
Head of Physics Department
PUJNAB College, Manawan CAMPUS
Contact: 0303-41510308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

Chapter # 12 (Electrostatics)
IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Define Electrostatics and Electric force
Ans: Electrostatics:
“The branch of physics which deals with the study of charges at rest under the action of electric forces is called
electrostatics.”
Electric Force: -
“The force which holds the negative and positive charges that make up atoms, molecules and particles is
called electric force.”

2. State Coulomb’s law, Express its mathematical form.

Ans: Coulomb’s Law:
“The force of attraction or repulsion between the point charges is directly proportional to the magnitudes of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.”
Mathematical Form:
According to Coulomb’s law,
F ∝ q1q 2 ----- (i)
1
F∝ ----- (ii)
r2
Combining eq. (i) and (ii),
q1q 2
F∝
r2
qq
F = k 12 2
r
3. What is the effect of medium on electric force between the charges?
Ans: Effect of medium on Coulomb’s Force:
If an insulating medium (dielectric) is placed between the charges, it will reduce the force by a factor of εr called
relative permittivity whose value varies with nature of medium.
Derivation:
1 q1q 2
Fvac = ----- (i)
4πε o r 2
1 q1q 2
Fmed = ----- (ii)
4πε o ε r r 2
Now,
1  1 q1q 2 
Fmed =  2 
εr  4πε o r 
1
Fmed = [ Fvac ]
εr
Fvac = Fmed × ε r
Fvac > Fmed

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 1

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
4. What is dielectric constant? Write its mathematical form.
Ans: Dielectric Constant (Relative Permittivity): -
“The ratio of electrostatic force between the charges in vacuum to the force when the medium between the charges
is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant”
F
ε r = vac
Fmed
• It is unitless.
• ε r for vacuum is 1 and for air is 1.0006.
5. How many are the number of electrons in one coulomb’s charge?
Ans:
Total charge = Q = 1C
Charge on one electron = e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
Number of electrons = n = ?
As we know,
Q = ne
Q
n=
e
1
n=
1.6 × 10-19
n = 6.26 × 1018
6. Define electric field and electric field intensity.
Ans: Electric field:
“The space or region around the charge in which it exerts electric force on other charges is called electric field”
Electric field Intensity: -
“The force experienced by unit charge qo placed at that point in the electric field is called electric field intensity”

 F
E=
qo
Unit: Its unit is NC-1.

7. Write down the properties of electric field.

Ans: Properties of electric field:
• Electric field lines start from positive charge and end on the negative charge.
• The tangent to the field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.

• The lines are closer where the field is strong and the lines are father apart where the field is weak.

• No two electric field lines intersect each other.

8. What is photoconductor?
Ans: Photoconductor:
“The material which behaves as conductor in light and behaves as insulator in dark is called photoconductor.”
For Example,
Selenium is an example of photoconductor.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 2

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
9. What is Electric flux? When will it be maximum or minimum?
Ans: Electric Flux:
“The number of field lines passing through a certain area is called electric flux.”
 
φe =E.A
φe =EACosθ
Where θ is the angle between E and A.
Its unit is Nm2C-1.
Dependence of electric flux: -
• Number of electric field lines.
• Area of surface
• Orientation of the surface
Maximum: -
When surface area is held perpendicular to the electric field, then
electric flux will be maximum. In this case angle between E and A is zero.
(θ = 00)
 
φe = E.A
φe = EACosθ
φe = EACos0
φe = EA
Minimum: -
When surface area is held parallel to the electric field, then electric
flux will be minimum. In this case angle between E and A is zero. (θ = 900)
 
φe = E.A
φe = EACosθ
φe = EACos90
φe = 0
10. State and explain Gauss’s law.
Ans: Gauss’s Law: -
1
“The total flux through any closed surface is equal to times total charge enclosed by the surface.”
εo
1
φ=
e ×Q
εo
Explanation: -
Consider an irregular closed surface having ‘n’ point charges q1, q2, q3, ………., qn. Thus, the total electric flux
passing through the closed surface is,
q1 q 2 q 3 q
φe = + + +.............+ n
εo εo εo εo
1
φe = ( q1 + q 2 + q3 +............+ q n )
εo
1
φe = ( Total charge enclosed )
εo

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 3

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
1
φe = (Q)
εo
11. What is Gaussian surface? How can you apply the Gauss’s law to calculate the electric field intensity?
Ans: Gaussian Surface: -
“The imaginary surface of arbitrary shape that passes through the point where we want to calculate electric field
intensity is called gaussian surface.”
Steps to calculate the electric field intensity: -
• Imagine gaussian surface.
• Calculate charge enclosed by the gaussian surface.
• Calculate electric flux passing through surface.
• Apply gauss’s law.

12. Define electric potential difference. Write its formula.

Ans: Electric Potential Difference: -
“The work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to another point while keeping the charge in
electrostatic equilibrium is called electric potential difference.”
WAB
ΔV = VB - VA =
qo
Its unit is volt.

13. Define electric potential (Absolute potential). Write its formula.

Ans: Electric Potential: -
“The work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to another point while keeping the charge in
electrostatic equilibrium is called electric potential difference.”
WAB
ΔV =
qo
WAB
VB - VA =
qo
WAB
VB - 0 =
qo
W
VB = AB
qo
In general,
W
V=
q

14. Define electric potential gradient. Derive the relation between electric field and electric
potential gradient. OR
ΔV
Show that E=−
Δr
Ans: Electric Potential Gradient: -
ΔV
“The quantity gives the maximum value of the rate of electric potential in magnetic and direction with
Δr
respect to distance. It is known as potential gradient.”

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 4

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
Derivation: -
Let E be the uniform electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates A and B, the potential difference
between the plates is,
WAB
VB -=
VA ----- (i)
qo
WAB = Fdcosθ
Since F and d are opposite in direction, so θ = 1800
WAB = FΔrcos180
WAB = -FΔr

 F
WAB = -q o EΔr E = 
 qo 
Put in eq. (i)
q o EΔr
∆V = -
qo
ΔV= − EΔr
ΔV
E=−
Δr
volt newton
15. Show that =
meter coulomb
Ans:
volt
L.H.S =
meter
Joule/coulomb
=
meter
Joule
=
coulomb meter
newton meter
=
coulomb meter
newton
=
coulomb
16. Define electron volt. Prove that 1eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J
Ans: Electron Volt: -
“The amount of energy acquired or lost by an electron when it traversed through the potential difference of one
volt is called one electron volt.”
Proof: -
When a particle of charge q moves from point A to B. Then, change in potential energy ΔU is
ΔU = qΔV
When charge particle moves, then P.E is converted into K.E.
ΔK.E = qΔV
ΔK.E = (1.6 × 10-19)×(1)
ΔK.E = 1.6 × 10-19 J
Hence,

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 5

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J

17. Convert 1 joule into electron volt.

Ans: As we know,
1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J
1
1J =
1.6 × 10-19
1J = 6.25 × 1018 eV

18. Make a comparison between Electric and Gravitational forces?

Ans: Dissimilarities: -
Electric Force Gravitational Force
According to Coulomb’s Law, According to Newton’s Law of Gravitation,
q1q 2 m1 m 2
F=k F=G
r2 r2
The value of Coulomb’s constant is much larger The value of gravitational constant is much smaller.
(k = 9×199 Nm2C-2) (G = 6.673×10-11 Nm2kg-2)
It is much stronger force. It is much weaker force.
It may be attractive or repulsive force. It is only attractive force.
It is medium dependent force. It is independent of medium.
It is short range force. It is long range force.
It is charge dependent force. It is mass dependent force.
It can be shielded. It cannot be shielded.
Similarities: -
• Both of them are conservative forces.
 1
• Both obey inverse square law. i.e.,  F ∝ 
 r2 
• Both obey superposition principle.

19. Define Capacitor, Capacitance of capacitor and Farad.

Ans: Capacitor: -
“The device that is used to store charges is called capacitor”
Q ∝ V
Q = CV
Its unit is Farad.
Capacitance: -
“The ability of a capacitor to store charges is called capacitance.”
Q
C=
V
Farad: -
“If a charge of one coulomb stores on the plates of capacitor that produces a potential difference of one volt
between them, then the capacitance of the capacitor is one farad”
1C
1F =
1V

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 6

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
20. Why does capacitance of a capacitor increase when a dielectric material is inserted between its plates?
Ans: If we place dielectric material between the plates of capacitor, then capacitance increases by factor ε r called relative
permittivity.
Aε o ε r
Cmed =
d
Reason: -
Consider a parallel plate capacitor when plates are connected to a voltmeter. The voltmeter measure potential
difference between the plates. When we place dielectric between the plates, voltmeter shows that the value of potential
difference decreases.
Q
C=
V
Since, Q = constant and V decreases. So, capacitance increases.

21. What will be the effect on the capacitance of capacitor if area of plates is double and distance between the plates
is half?
Ans: If we double the area of plates and half distance between the plates then, capacitance increases four times.
Reason: -
As we know,
Aε o
C vac =
d
( 2A ) ε o
C`vac =
d
 
2
 Aε 
C`vac = 4  o 
 d 
C`vac = 4C vac

22. Define electric polarization of dielectrics and dipole.

Ans: Electric Polarization: -
“When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field, the negative and positive charges of atoms or molecules
of dielectric are slightly displaced, this phenomenon is called electric polarization.”
Dipole: -
“Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance form a dipole.”

23. Define time constant.

Ans: Time Constant: -
“The time during which the capacitor charges to 63 % of its maximum value is called time constant.”
t = RC

24. The time constant of a series RC circuit is t = RC. Verify that ohm times farad is equivalent to second.
Ans: t = RC
Proof: -
As we know,
V = IR

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 7

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
q  q
R V=  I= 
t  t
Vt
=R ------ (i)
q
As we know,
q = CV
q
C= ----- (ii)
V
Multiplying eq. (i) and (ii)
Vt q
RC = ×
q V
RC = t
Hence, proved.

25. A particle carrying a charge of 2e falls through a potential difference of 3.0V. Calculate the energy acquired by
it.
Ans: Charge = q = 2e
Potential difference = ΔV = 3V
Energy acquired = Δ(K.E) = ?
As we know,
Δ(K.E) = qΔV
Δ(K.E) = 2e × 3
Δ(K.E) = 6e
Δ(K.E) = 6 × (1.6 × 10-19)
Δ(K.E) = 9.6 × 10-19 J

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 8

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. The Potential is constant through a given region of space. Is it electrical field zero or non-zero in this region?
Explain.
Ans: The electric field will be Zero in this region.
Reason: -
The electrical field is defined as “The negative of the potential gradient”. i.e.
∆V
E=-
∆r
If electrical potential is constant throughout the given region of space,
V = Constant
Then ∆V = 0
0
E=- =0
∆r
So, Electric field must be zero in the region.

2. Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive charge. Do electric field and potential increases or
decreases?
Ans: For Electric Field: -
The electric field due to a point charge is given by
1 q
E=
4πε 0 r 2
1
E∝
r2
If we are following an electric field line. Our distance “r” from the positive charge is increasing. So, electric field will
decrease.
For Electric Potential: -
The electric potential due to a point charge is given by
1 q
V=
4πε 0 r
1
V∝
r
If we are following an electric field line. Our distance “r” from the positive charge is increasing. So, electric potential will
decrease.

3. How can you identify which plate of capacitor is positively charged?

Ans: Gold Leaf Electroscope: -
Gold leaf electroscope is used for testing the sign of charge on the body. Bring the disc
of positively charged electroscope close to the plate of a capacitor. If the divergence of
the gold leaf increases, then the plate is positively charged. If the divergence of the
gold leaf decreases, then the plate is negatively charged.

Test Charge: -
Another method for testing the positive plate of capacitor, if the positive test charge is
placed between the plates of the capacitor, the plate from which the charge moving
away is positively charged plate.

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
4. Describe the Force or the forces on positive point charge when placed between parallel plates
(a) With similar and equal charges.
(b) With opposite and equal charges.
Ans: (a) Net force acting on the positive charge will be Zero.
Reason: -
When a positive point charge is placed between parallel plates having similar and equal
charges the net force on the charge would be equal to the zero. Because both the repulsive
plates cancel out each other.
 
F′=-F
  
Fnet =F′+F
   
Fnet =-F+F=0
(b) Net force acting on the positive charge will be Maximum.
Reason: -
When a positive point charge is placed between parallel plates having opposite and equal
charges. the point charge will move- from positive plate towards the negative plate.
   
Fnet =F+F=2F

5. Electric Field lines of force never cross. Why?

Ans: - Electric field lines of force never cross each other.
Reason: -
Electric field lines of force never cross each other. Because electric field has only one direction at any given point. If lines
cross, electric filed could have more than one direction at that point which is impossible physically.

6. If a point charge “q” of mass “m” is released in a non- uniform electric field with
field lines pointing in the same direction, will it make rectilinear motion?
Ans: Yes, it will make rectilinear motion.
If a point charge of “q” of mass “m” is placed in a non-uniform electric field. It moves
along the field lines. As in the present case, the field are pointing in the same direction
(radially outward). Therefore, it makes rectilinear motion.

7. If “E” necessary zero inside a charged rubber balloon if balloon is sphere? Assume
that charge is distributed uniformly over the surface.

Ans: - Yes, the electric field lines E necessary zero inside the charged rubber balloon.
Reason: -
By applying Gauss’s law
q
Φe =
εo
As there is no charge inside the balloon.
So, q=0
0
Φe = = 0 _________ (i)
εo
Since Φ e = EA _________(ii)
By Equations (i) and (ii)
EA = 0

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 10

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
A≠0
So, E=0
Thus, Electric field inside a rubber balloon is zero.

8. Is it true that Gauss’s law states that the total number of lines of forces crossing any closed surface in the outward
direction is proportional to the net positive charge enclosed within surface?
Ans: Yes, it is true statement.
Reason: -
According to Gauss’s law
1
“The total electric flux through any closed surface is times the total charge enclosed in it.”
εo
1
φe = (Total charge enclosed by theSurface)
εo
1
φe = (Q)
εo
φe ∝ Q
Hence, it is cleared that total number of lines of forces crossing any closed surface in the outward direction is proportional
to the net positive charge enclosed within surface.

9. Do Electrons tends to go to the region of high potential or low potential?

Ans: Electrons tend to go to the high potential from low potential.
Reason: -
As we know that electrons are negatively charged particle when they enter in electric field they go from region of low
potential to the region of high potential due to the coulomb’s force of interaction.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 11

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

Chapter # 13 (Current Electricity)

IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Define electric current. Differentiate between conventional and electronic current.
Ans: Electric Current:
“The time rate of change of current through any cross sectional area of conductor is called electric current.”
Δq
I=
Δt
Unit: Its unit is ampere.

Conventional Current Electronic Current

• Current flowing from positive to negative terminal of • Current flowing from negative to positive terminal of
battery due to flow of positive charges is called battery due to flow of negative charges is called
conventional current. electronic current.
• Conventional current is due to motion of positive • Electronic current due to motion of negative charges.
charges.

2. Define drift velocity.

Ans: Drift Velocity:
“The average constant speed with which free electrons drift (flow) when current flows through the conductor is
called drift velocity.”
The drift velocity of electron is order of 1mm/sec or 10-3 ms-1.

3. Define source of current. Write some types of current sources.

Ans: Source of current:
“In order to have a constant current the potential difference should be maintained with a device known as source
of current. Source of current converts the non-electrical energy into electrical energy.”
Types of Current Sources:
There are many sources of currents.
i. Cells: It converts the chemical energy into electrical energy.
ii. Electric generators: It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
iii. Thermo-couples: It converts heat energy into electrical energy.
iv. Solar Cells: It converts sunlight into electrical energy.

4. What is heating effect of current? Discuss its applications.

Ans: Heating effects of current:
“Current flows through the conductor due to the motion of free electrons. During the motion of free electrons, they
collide with atoms of metal. So, they lose their kinetic energy and transfer it to the atoms of metal. In this way, the
vibrational K.E of the atoms is increase, which produces heat in the conductor.”
Applications:

• Electric heater
• Toaster
• Electric kettle
• Electric iron

5. What is magnetic effect of current? Discuss its application.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 12

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
Ans: Magnetic effects of current:
“When the current passes through the wire then a magnetic field is produced around it. The strength of the magnetic
field depends upon the magnitude of current and the distance from current carrying conductor.”
Applications:

• Magnetic effect of current is used in the detection and measurement of current.

• All the machines involving electric motor also use the magnetic effect of current.

6. Define Ohm’s law. Discuss it.

Ans: Ohm’s Law:
“The amount of current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied
across its ends, providing the temperature and physical state of the conductor does not change.”
I ∝V
1
I=  V
R
V = IR
Where R is the constant of proportionality and is called resistance of conductor.

7. Define resistance. On Which factors it depends?

Ans: Resistance:
“The property of a substance which offers opposition to the flow of current through it is called resistance.”

V
R=
I
Unit: Its unit is ohm (Ω).
Resistance depends upon following factors:
• Length of conductor
• Cross-sectional area of conductor
• Temperature
• Nature of conductor

8. Differentiate between ohmic and non-ohmic conductors.

Ans:
Ohmic conductors Non-ohmic conducts
• The conductors which obey ohm’s law are called • The conductors which do not obey ohm’s law are
ohmic conductors. called non-ohmic conductors.
• Their resistance remains constant over a wide • Their resistance does not remain constant over
range of voltages. wide range of voltages.
• Most metals are examples of ohmic conductors. • Tungsten filament and thermistor are the
example of non-ohmic conductors.

9. Define resistivity. Drive its formula.

Ans: Resistivity:
“The resistance of one meter cube of a substance is called specific resistance.”
Derivation:

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
R ∝ L ------ (i)
1
R ∝ ------ (ii)
A
Combining both equations,

L
R ∝
A
L
R=ρ
A
A
ρ=R
L
Unit: Its unit is ohm-meter (Ωm)
Dependence:
It depends upon:
• Nature of conductor
• Temperature
10. Define conductance and conductivity.
Ans: Conductance:
“The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.”
1
G=
R
Unit: Its unit is mho or ohm-1 or siemens.
Conductivity:
“The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity.”
1
σ =
ρ
Unit: Its unit is (ohm-m) or mho-m-1 or Ω-1m-1.
-1

11. Define temperature coefficient of resistance and resistivity.

Ans: Temperature Coefficient of Resistance:
“The fractional change in resistance of a substance per kelvin rise in its temperature is called temperature
coefficient of resistance”
Rt − Ro
α=
Ro t
Where,
R0 = Resistance at 0 oC
Rt = Resistance at t oC
t = change in temperature
Unit: Its unit is K-1.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity:
“The fractional change in resistivity of a substance per kelvin rise in its temperature is called temperature
coefficient of resistivity”
ρt − ρ o
α=
ρo t

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
Where,
ρ0 = Resistance at 0 oC
ρt = Resistance at t oC
t = change in temperature
Unit: Its unit is K-1.

12. Define rheostat. How it can be used as variable resistor?

Ans: Rheostat:
“It is a wire wounded variable resistance.”
Working:
It can be used as:
• As a variable resistor
• As a potential divider
Rheostat as a variable resistor:
If one of the fixed terminals say A and the sliding terminal C are connected in a circuit, the resistance of wire
between A and sliding terminal C is used. When the sliding contact is moved away from A, then the resistance increases
and when sliding contact is moved towards A, the resistance decreases.

13. How rheostat is used as potential divider?

Ans: Rheostat as a potential divider:
Rheostat can provide continuously varying potential. The circuit is shown in
figure. The potential difference between the points B and C is
VBC = current x resistance
VBC = I × r
V
VBC= ×r
R
r
=
VBC   × V
R
The circuit can provide at its output terminals B and C a varying potential difference
from 0 to V.
• As C is moved towards the end B the resistance of wire r decreases. Hence, VBC decreases.
• If C is moved towards the end A the resistance of wire r increases. Hence VBC increases.

14. Define thermistor. Write down its uses.

Ans: Thermistor:
“It is a resistor whose resistance changes with temperature of its surrounding”
Uses:
• High negative temperature coefficient thermistors are used to measure very low temperature near 10 K accurately.
• They are used to measure and control the temperature in oven.
• They are used to cancel the effect of temperature rise in other electronic devices.
• They are used as heat sensor in fire alarm.

15. Define electric power. Drive its formula.

Ans: Electric Power:
“The rate at which work is done to maintain the steady current in a circuit is called electric
power”

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

2 V2
P = VI = I R =
R

16. Define electromotive force (emf), Internal resistance, and Terminal potential difference.
Ans: Electromotive Force:
“The energy supplied to the unit positive charge by the source is called electromotive force.”
ΔW
E=
Δq
Its unit is volt.
Internal Resistance:
“The resistance offered by electrolyte present between two electrodes of a cell to the flow of ions
is called internal resistance of cell.”
Terminal Potential Difference:
“The potential difference across the terminals of cell when current is being drawn from it is called
terminal potential difference”
E = Vt + Ir

E2
17. Prove that Pmax = .
4r
Ans: As we know power delivered to R is
P = VI
P = ( IR ) I
P = I2 R
2
 E 
=P   R
R+r
E2 R
P=
(R + r)
2

E2 R
P=
R 2 + r 2 + 2rR
E2 R
P=
R 2 + r 2 - 2rR + 2rR + 2rR
E2 R
P=
(R - r)
2
+ 4rR
When R = r, then power is delivered to load is maximum.
E2 r
( Po )max =
( r - r ) + 4rr
2

E2 r
( Po )max =
4r 2
E2
( Po )max =
4r

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 16

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

18. Differentiate between simple circuit and complex circuit.

Ans:
Simple Circuit Complex Circuit
• The circuit that may consists more than one • The circuit that consists number of resistors
resistors but a single voltage source is called simple and number of voltage sources is called simple
circuit. circuit.
• It can be solved by using ohm’s law, series • It can be solved by using Kirchhoff’s rule.
and parallel combination of resistors.

19. Define Kirchoff’s 1st and 2nd rule.

Ans: Kirchhoff’s 1st Rule:
“The sum of all the currents meeting at a point is equal to zero”
ΣI = 0
The sum of all the currents moving towards a point is equal to sum of all the currents flowing away
from the point.
I1+ I2 = I3 + I4
Kirchhoff’s 2nd Rule:
“The algebraic sum of all potential changes along a closed loop is equal to zero.”
E1 - IR 1 - E 2 - IR 2 = 0

20. Describe the procedure for solution of circuit problems.

Ans: Procedure for solution of circuit problems:
The following steps are:
• Draw the circuit diagram.
• Choose the loop in such a way that each loop includes at least one resistance.
• Assume the current in each loop, currents in all loops should be in same direction.
• Write the loops equation for each loop.
• Solve these equations for unknown quantities.

21. Write down uses of potentiometer.

Ans: Uses of Potentiometer:
• It is used to measure emf of cell.
• It is used to compare emf of two cells.
• It is used as continuously potential divider.
• It is used to measure internal resistance of the cell.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 17

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect on the drift velocity of free
electrons by.
(i) Increasing the potential difference
(ii) Decreasing the length and temperature of the wire
Ans: (i) The drift velocity of free electrons increases by increasing the potential difference.
Reason:
The drift velocity of free electrons in conductor of length and area of cross section is given by
I
vd =
neA
V  V
vd = I = 
neAR  R
This equation shows that by increasing potential difference, I increase, and hance vd increases.
(ii) The drift velocity of electrons increases by decreasing the length and temperature.
Reason:
The drift velocity of free electrons in conductor of length and area of cross section is given by
I
vd =
neA
V  V
vd = I = 
neAR  R
As R ∝ l, R ∝ T
 V
When length and temperature decreases, the resistance of conductor decreases, So,  I =  hence, vd increases.
 R
2. Do bend in wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.
Ans: No, bend in wire affect its electrical resistance.
Reason: -
The resistance of wire is given by
L
R= ρ
A
Electric resistance of wire depends upon its length, area of cross section and nature of material. Any bends in wire do not
have any effect on length, area or nature of wire. So, the resistance will not be affected and vice versa.

3. What are the resistance of the resistors given in the figures A and B? What are the tolerance of each? Explain
what is meant by tolerance?

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 18

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

1st band = Brown = 1 1st band = Yellow = 4

2nd band = Green = 5 2nd band = White = 9
3 band = Red = 00
rd
3rd band = Orange = 000
4th band = Gold = 5% 4th band = Silver = 10%
So, R =1500 Ω ± 5% So, R = 49000 Ω ± 10%
R = 1500 Ω ± 75Ω R = 49000 Ω ± 4900Ω
R = (1425 to 1575) Ω R = (44100 to 53900) Ω
Tolerance: -
“The possible variation in resistance of a carbon resistor from the marked value is called tolerance.”
For Silver = 10 %
For Gold =5%
For no 4th band = 20 %

4. Why does resistance of conductor rise with the temperature?

Ans: The resistance of the conductor increases with the temperature.
Reason: -
The resistance offered by conductor during flow of electric current is due to collision of free electrons with the atoms.
According to the relation
Rt = R0 (1 + α ΔT)
As the temperature of conductor raises the amplitude of vibration of atoms increases and the chances
of collision with free electrons also increases. In this way resistance of conductor increases.

5. What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of light bulb obeys Ohm’s law?
Ans: Ohm law holds good for conductor as long as physical states and temperature of
the conductor Remains constant. But the temperature of filament bulb does not remain
constant, it increases.
This increase is due to according to Ohm’s law
V
I=
R
The current will decrease and the graph between V and I is not straight line. That is why
filament of bulb does not obey ohm’s law.

6. Is the filament resistance lower or higher in 500W, 220V light bulb than in 100W, 220V light bulb?
Ans: For 1st bulb For 2nd bulb
P1 = 500 W P2 = 100 W
V1 = 220 V V2 = 220 V
R1 = ? R2 = ?
V12 V2 2
P1 = P2 =
R1 R2
V12 V2 2
R1 = R2 =
P1 P2

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 19

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
(220) 2 (220) 2
R1 = R1 =
500 100
R1 = 96.8 Ω R2 = 484 Ω
It means that the filament resistance of 100W, 220V light bulb higher than that of 500W,220V bulb.
7. Describe a circuit which will give continuously varying potential.
Ans: Potential divider can provide continuously varying potential. The
circuit is shown in figure. The potential difference between the points B and
C is
VBC = current x resistance
VBC = I × r
V
VBC = ×r
R
r 
VBC =   ×V
R
The circuit can provide at its output terminals B and C a varying potential difference from 0 to V.
• As C is moved towards the end B the resistance of wire r decreases. Hence, VBC decreases.
• If C is moved towards the end A the resistance of wire r increases. Hence VBC increases.
8. Explain why the terminal potential difference of the battery decreases when the current drawn from it is
increased?
Ans: Terminal potential difference of battery V is related to its emf is given by
Vt = E – Ir
When the current increases the potential difference across the internal resistance of battery (Ir) increases.
As emf is constant, so terminal potential difference V of the battery decrease.

9. What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to determine the unknown resistance?
Ans: Definition: -
“It is an electronic circuit which is used to measure the value of unknown resistance accurately.”
Determination of unknown resistance:
Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4. When the bridge is electrically balanced
the current flows through the galvanometer. It means the potential difference at points B and D is same. In
this situation
R1 R
= 3
R2 R4
If one of the resistances R4 = X is unknown resistance and the other three
resistances R1, R2 and R3 are
R1 R
known, then = 3
R2 X
R3
X= × R2
R1
So, unknown resistance X can be found.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 20

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

Chapter # 14 (Electromagnetism)
IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. On Which factors force acting on a current carrying coil placed in magnetic field depends?
Ans: Factors affecting force:
• Force is directly proportional to the current flowing through conductor
F ∝I ----------- (i)
• Force is directly proportional to the length of conductor
F ∝ L ----------- (ii)
• Force is directly proportional to the strength of magnetic field
F ∝ B ----------- (iii)
• Force is directly proportional to the sinα
F ∝ sinα ----------- (iv)
By combining all equations.
F ∝ ILBsinα
F = kILBSinα
Here, k = 1
F = ILBSinα
2. Define magnetic induction and Tesla.
Ans: Magnetic induction: -
“The magnetic force on one meter of conductor, carrying one ampere placed at right angle to the magnetic field is
called magnetic induction”
As we know, F = ILBSinα
L = 1m, I = 1A and α = 900
Then, F = (1)(1)(B) Sin90
F=B
Tesla: -
“The magnetic induction is said to be one tesla if it exerts one newton force on a conductor of length one meter,
carrying one ampere current, placed at right angle to the field.”
1N
1T =
1A × 1m
1 T = 1 Nm -1 A -1

3. Differentiate between magnetic flux and magnetic flux density.

Ans:
Magnetic Flux Magnetic Flux density
• “The number of magnetic field lines passing • “The magnetic flux per unit area of a surface
through a certain area is called magnetic flux.” perpendicular to the magnetic field is called
 
φ = B.A magnetic flux density.”
B
φB
φB = BACosθ B=
A
• Its unit is Weber or NmA-1.
• Its unit is Wbm-2 or Nm-1A-1 or Tesla.
4. Define Ampere’s Law. Write its mathematical form.
Ans: Ampere’s Law:

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 21

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
“The sum of quantities B.ΔL for all path elements into which a completer loop has divided is equal to μo times the
total current enclosed by the loop.”
N  
∑ ( B.ΔL )
r=1
r
= μo I

5. What is Lorentz Force?

Ans: Lorentz Force: -
“When the charge particle q is moving with velocity v in a region where there is an electric and magnetic field,
then the total force F is the vector sum of electric force and magnetic force.”
  
F =Fe + FB
   
(
F = qE + q v × B )
6. What is CRO?
Ans: Cathode ray of Oscilloscope: -
It is a very versatile device that is a high speed graph plotting device. It displays the shape and size of an electrical
signal on the screen. It also provides accurate time and amplitude measurement of voltage signals over wide range of
frequencies.
7. Write components of CRO.
Ans: Components of CRO: -
Main components of CRO are:
i. Electron gun
• Filament
• Cathode
• Grid
• Anode
ii. Deflecting system
• Horizontal deflecting plates
• Vertical deflecting plates
iii. Displaying system
8. What is the function of grid?
Ans: Function of grid: -
It is at negative potential relative to cathode. It controls the number of electrons reaching the screen and thus
control the brightness of spot on the screen.
• If the negative potential of grid is decreased, it will allow more electrons to reach screen and bright will be
increased.
• If the negative potential of grid is increased, it will repel electrons and restrict them to reach screen and bright
will be decreased.

9. What is time base generator in CRO?

Ans: Time base generator: -
The voltage that is applied across the x-plates is usually provided by a circuit that is built in CRO known as time
base generator. Its output wave form is saw-tooth. The voltage across linearly with time for period T and then drop to zero.
As this voltage is applied across x-plates, the spot moves along x-axis for time T. As after time T, the saw-tooth voltage
becomes zero, so the spit rapidly reaches to its initial position at the end of each period T.

10. Write down uses of CRO.

Ans: Uses of CRO: -
CRO is used to
• Display the waveform of given voltage.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 22

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
• Measure the voltage, frequency and phase of input signal.
• Measure the instantaneous value, peak value.
• Measure the time period of AC signals.
• Measure the phase difference between two voltages.
11. Define current sensitivity of galvanometer. How it can be increased?
Ans: Current sensitivity of galvanometer: -
“The current n microamperes, required to produce one millimeter deflection on a scale placed one meter away
from the mirror of the galvanometer is called current sensitivity of the galvanometer”
θ BAN
Sensitivity = =
I C
How to make galvanometer more sensitive: -
• By increasing the number of turns of coil N, but if its is increased beyond a certain limit then, coil becomes heavy.
• By increasing magnetic flux density B.
• By increasing the area, A but it can make coil bulky.
• By decreasing C, a suspension wire should have large length and small radius.

12. Define deadbeat or stable galvanometer.

Ans: Deadbeat (Stable) galvanometer: -
“A galvanometer, in which the coil comes to rest quickly after the passage of current through it is called deadbeat
galvanometer.”
How to make a galvanometer Deadbeat?
When current passes through the coil it starts rotating about central axis. The flux through coil changes which
produces an induced emf and an eddy current which opposes the motion of coil. In this way oscillation of coil is damped.

13. Define ammeter. How galvanometer is converted into ammeter?

Ans: Ammeter: -
“The device that is used to measure the current in a circuit is called ammeter”
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter:
A galvanometer is converted into ammeter by connecting shunt
resistance (very small resistance) in parallel with galvanometer.

Derivation: -
Vg = Ig R g ----------- (i)
Vs = Is R s
Vs = ( I - I g ) R s ----------- (ii)
In parallel, potential difference will be same. So,
Vs = Vg
( I - Is ) R s = I g R g
Ig Rg
Rs =
( I - Is )
14. Define voltmeter. How galvanometer is converted into voltmeter?
Ans: Voltmeter: -
“The device that is used to measure the potential difference between two points in a circuit is called voltmeter”

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 23

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter:
A galvanometer is converted into voltmeter by connecting high resistance in series with galvanometer.
Derivation: -
V = Ig ( R g + R h )
V = Ig R g + Ig R h
Ig R h = V - Ig R g
V - Ig R g
Rh =
Ig
V
Rh = - Rh
Ig
15. Define ohmmeter. How galvanometer is converted into ohmmeter?
Ans: Ohmmeter: -
“The device that is used to measure the unknown resistance is called ohmmeter”
Conversion of galvanometer into ohmmeter:
A galvanometer is converted into ohmmeter by connecting an adjustable resistance r and a cell in series with
galvanometer.

16. Define AVO meter. For what purposes it can be used?

Ans: AVO meter: -
“AVO meter is an electrical instrument which can measure current in amperes, potential difference in volts and
resistance in ohms.”
AVO meter can be used as:
(i) multirange ammeter by connecting a current measuring circuit with it.
(ii) multirange voltmeter by connecting a voltage measuring circuit with it.
(iii) multirange ohmmeter by connecting a resistance measuring circuit with it.

17. Define digital multimeter (DMM). Write down its uses.

Ans: It is an electronic device which is used to measure current, resistance and voltage in a circuit.
Uses of DMM: -
DMM is used to
• It is a digital version of AVO meter.
• It is very accurate device.
• It is very easy to operate.
• It is much easier to read.
• It removes the reading error.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 24

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along x-axis. For what orientation
of the loop is the flux maximum? For what orientation is flux minimum?
Ans: Maximum flux: -
When surface area is held perpendicular to the magnetic field, then electric
flux will be maximum. In this case angle between B and A is zero. (θ = 00)
φB = B. A
φB = BA Cosθ
φB = BA cos 00
φB = BA
The magnetic flux will be maximum.
Minimum flux: -
When surface area is held parallel to the electric field, then electric flux will
be maximum. In this case angle between B and A is zero. (θ = 900)
φB = B. A
φB = BA cosθ
φB = BA cos 900 = 0
The magnetic flux will be minimum.

2. A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, which can be calculated using Ampere’s law. Since current
is defined as the rate of flow of charge, what can you conclude about magnetic field due to stationary charges? What
about moving charges?
Ans: (a) Magnetic field due to stationary charges is zero.
Reason:
As magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor is,
μo I
B=
2πr
B=0 [I = 0]
(b) Moving charges produce magnetic field.
Reason:
This is because moving charges produce current and magnetic field is produced.
B ≠ 0 [I ≠ 0]

3. Describe the change in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current I, if
(a) the length is doubled but number of turns remains same and
(b) the number of turns is doubled, but the length remains the same.
Ans: The magnetic field inside a current carrying solenoid is given by
B = µ0nI
N L
Or B = μo I (n = )
l l
(a) If length of solenoid is doubled and number of turns remains the same
N
B′ = μ o I
2l

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 25

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
1 N 
B′ =  I
2 l 
1
B′ = B
2
Thus, on doubling the length of solenoid the magnetic field is halved.
(b) If the number of turns is doubled keeping the length same, then
2N
B′ = μ o I
l
N
B′ = 2   I
 l 
B′ = 2 B
Thus, on doubling the numbers of turns of solenoid the magnetic field is doubled.

4. At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x direction in a region where there
is magnetic field in the negative z-direction. What is the direction of the magnetic field
force? Will the proton continue to move in the positive x-direction? Explain.
Ans: No, magnetic force acts in the positive x direction
According to the formula,
F = q (v × B)
F = q (v × B) sin 90
F = q (v × B) (1)
Hence it will move along a curved path in the xy plane.

5. Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field perpendicular to their velocities.
If the charges are deflected in the opposite direction, what can you say about them?
Ans: we know that magnetic force on two oppositely charged particles are opposite in direction according to the formula,
F = q (v × B)
So, we conclude that charges are opposite in sign.

6. Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity “v”. why there is no work done due
to magnetic force that acts on the charge q?
Ans: the magnetic force on the charge particle is given by
F = q (v × B)
Due to magnetic force, the charge particle will move in a circular path. In the circular path,
the magnetic force “F “is perpendicular to velocity v.
As the displacement “d” is parallel to velocity “v”. So, the angle between the magnetic force
“F” and displacement “d” is 900.
W= F. d
W= F d cosθ
W= F d cos90
W= F d (0)
W= 0
So, there is no work done by the magnetic force. This means that magnetic force is only a deflecting force.

7. If a charge particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you say that the magnetic field in
a region is zero?
Ans: Case Ι: -

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 26

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
If a charge particle moves straight in the region of space, then it is possible that magnetic field does not exist there (B = 0).
So
F = qvBsinθ
F = qv (0) sinθ = 0

Case ΙΙ: -
If a charge particle moves parallel or anti parallel to the magnetic field
F = qvB sin00 = 0
F= qv (0) sin1800 = 0
So, the charge will move in a straight line through this region of space because magnetic force is zero on the charge.

8. Why does the picture on a T.V screen become distorted when a magnet is brought near the screen?
Ans: Picture on the T.V screen is formed due to collision of electron beam with the screen. When a magnet is brought near
the screen the electron beam is deflected due to magnetic field and hence the target on the screen is disturbed which cause
the picture to be distorted.

9. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that loop will not tend to rotate? Explain.
Ans: The torque on a current carrying coil is given by
τ = NIBA cosα
For a loop, N=1
So,
τ = IBA cosα
Where “α” is angle between magnetic field and the plane of loop.
When the plane of loop is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field then
α = 900
τ = IBA cos90
τ = IBA (0)
τ=0

10. How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of magnetic field in a region of space?
Ans: If a current carrying loop experiences a torque in a region of space, then it experiences a torque due to the presence
of magnetic field.
τ = NIBA cosα

11. How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical elements?
Ans: The radius of circular path of charged particle in magnetic field depends on its mass.
mv
r= ,r ∝ m
qB
from the above relation, it is clear that different particles of different mass i.e. isotopes will move in orbits of different radii
and hence these can be separated.

12. What can be the orientation of current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that torque acting upon the coil is (a)
maximum (b) minimum?
Ans: The torque on current carrying coil is given by

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 27

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
τ = NIBA cosα
Where “α” is angle between magnetic field and the plane of loop.
(a) Maximum Torque:
When the plane of coil is parallel to the magnetic field then the angle between
the plane of coil and magnetic field is “α = 00”
τ = NIBA cos0
τ = NIBA (1)
τ = NIBA
So, torque will be maximum.
(b) Minimum Torque:
When the plane of coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field then the angle between
the plane of coil and magnetic field is “α = 900”
τ = NIBA cos90
τ = NIBA (0)
τ=0
So, torque will be minimum.

13. A loop of the wire is suspended between poles of magnet with its plane parallel to the pole faces. What happens
if a direct current is put through the coil? What happens if an alternating current is used instead?
Ans: When the plane of loop is parallel to the magnetic field then the angle between the plane of loop and magnetic field
is “α = 900”
τ = NIBA cos90
τ = NIBA (0)
τ=0
So, no torque is produced in the loop whether we pass direct current or alternating current through the loop.

14. Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?

Ans:
An ammeter is always connected in series in a circuit whose current is to be measured.
If the resistance of ammeter is large, it will increase the resistance of the circuit, hence
current is decreased. A good ammeter should not change the circuit current, so it must have
very small resistance of current itself.

15. Why the resistance of a voltmeter should be very high?

Ans:
A voltmeter is always connected in parallel in a circuit whose potential difference is to be measured. Its resistance
should be very high so that it does not draw any current from the circuit. So, in this
case current and hence potential difference remains unchanged.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 28

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

Chapter # 15 (Electromagnetic Induction)

IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Define electromagnetic induction. Give its applications.
Ans: Electromagnetic Induction
If the magnetic field through a circuit changes, an emf and a current are induced in the circuit. This phenomenon
is called electromagnetic induction.
Applications:
This phenomenon is used in:
• Power generating system
• Transformer
• Credit/ATM cards
• Any appliances like refrigerator, computer etc.

2. Define induced emf and induced current. On which factors it depends?

Ans: Induced emf and induced current:
• If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, then due to change in magnetic flux, an emf is induced is called
induced emf.
• If the circuit is closed, it will cause an electric current called induced current.
ε
I=
R
Dependence of induced current:
Induced current depends upon the resistance of circuit. If resistance of circuit is increased, induced current will
decrease and vice versa.
Dependence of induced emf:
Induced emf depends upon:
• Speed of conductor (v)
• Number of turns of the coil (N)
• Strength of the magnetic field (B)

3. Define motional emf. Write its formula.

Ans: Motional emf:
The emf induced by the motion of a conductor across the magnetic field is called motional emf.
ε = - vBLsinθ
-ve sign shows that the direction of induced emf is opposes the change that produced it.

4. What is Faraday’s law and Lenz’s Law?

Ans: Faraday’s Law:
The average emf induced in a conducting coil of N loops is equal to the negative of time rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the coil.
Δφ
ε=-N
Δt
Lenz’s Law:
The direction of induced current is always such as to oppose the change which causes the current

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 29

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
5. Differentiate between mutual induction and self-induction.
Ans:
Mutual Induction Self-Induction
• The phenomenon in which changing of current in • The phenomenon in which a changing current in a
one coil induces an emf in another coil is called coil induces an emf in itself is called self-
mutual induction. induction.
ΔI p ΔI
ε s = −M ε L = -L
Δt Δt

6. Differentiate between mutual induction and self-inductance.

Ans:
Mutual Inductance Self-Inductance
• The ratio of average induced emf in secondary coil • The ratio of average induced emf in a coil to the
to the rate of change of current in the primary coil rate of change of current in the same coil is called
is called mutual inductance. self-inductance.
εs ε
M= L=
ΔI p /Δt ΔI/Δt

7. On which factors mutual inductance depends?

Ans: Factors affecting mutual inductance:
Mutual inductance depends upon:
• No. of turns of the coils
• Cross-section of cells
• Closeness of coils
• Nature of core material
• Orientation of the coils

8. Define Henry.
Ans: Henry:
If rate of change of current of one ampere per second (1As-1) in the primary coil produces the emf of one volt in
the secondary, then mutual inductance will be one henry.
1V
1H =
1As -1
9. What is difference between capacitor and inductor?
Ans:
Capacitor Inductor
• The device that stores electric charges is called • A wire of coil consisting of many loops is called an
capacitor. inductor.
• Energy stored in a capacitor. • Energy stored in an inductor.
1 1 2
Energy = CV 2 Energy = LI
2 2
• It stores energy in the form of electric field. • It stores energy in the form of magnetic field.
1 1  B2 
Energy = ε oε r E2 ( Ad ) U m =   ( AL )
2 2  μo 

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10. What is the difference between motor and generator?
Ans:
Motor Generator
• The device that converts electrical energy into • The device that converts mechanical energy into
mechanical energy is called motor. electrical energy is called generator.
• Split ring commutator is used in D.C motor. • Slip rings are used in AC generator.

11. What is working principle of AC generator?

Ans: Working principle of AC generator:
The Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is the basic working principle of an AC generator. When a coil
is rotated in a magnetic field by some mechanical source, magnetic flux through the coil changes due to which emf is
induced in the coil.

12. What is the function of commutator?

Ans: Function of commutator:
When the current in the coil is zero and it is just to change the direction, the split rings also change the contacts
with the carbon brushes B and B`. So, the output from BB`. So, the output from BB` remains in the same direction.

13. What do you know about back emf?

Ans: Back emf:
When the coil of the motor rotates across the magnetic field by the applied potential difference, an emf is induced
in it. The induced emf is in such a direction to oppose the applied emf. This is the reason that induced emf is called back
emf.
14. What is difference between AC generator and transformer?
Ans:
AC generator Transformer
• The device that converts mechanical energy into • The device that is used to increase or decrease the
alternating current signals is called AC generator. AC voltage is called transformer.
• Its working principle is Faraday’s law. • Its working principle is mutual induction.

15. What is difference between step-up and step-down transformer?

Ans:
Step-up transformer Step-down transformer
• The transformer that is used to increase the AC • The transformer that is used to decrease the AC
voltage is called step-up transformer. voltage is called step-down transformer.
• Number of turns of primary is less than number of • Number of turns of primary is greater than number
turns of primary coil. of turns of primary coil.
Np < Ns Np > Ns
• Primary voltage is less than secondary voltage • Primary voltage is greater than secondary voltage
Vp < Vs Vp > Vs

16. What are the power losses in a transformer?

Ans: The power losses in transformer are:
(i) Eddy Current
The induced currents are setup due to change in magnetic flux in the closed conducting loops. The induced currents are
setup in direction perpendicular to the flux so as to oppose the cause that produces them are known as eddy currents.

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Reduction in loss due to eddy currents
Such a loss can be reduced by using laminated core with insulation between the layers of lamination sheets, which
stops the flow of eddy currents.
(ii) Hysteresis Loss
This loss is due to repeated magnetization and demagnetization of core due to flow of alternating current.
Reduction of loss due to hysteresis
This can be reduced by use of soft iron core.

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. Does the induced emf in a circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does the induced current
depend on the resistance of the circuit?
Ans: (a) No, it does not depend upon the resistance of circuit.
Reason: -
According to Faraday’s law.
Δε
ε=-N
Δt
Δε
ε ∝
Δt
This shows that induced emf depends upon the rate of change of flux through a coil.
(b) Yes, induced current depends upon the resistance of the circuit.
Reason: -
As induced current is given by
ε
I=
R
1
I ∝
R
This shows that induced current varies inversely with resistance of the coil.

2. A square loop of wire is moving through a uniform magnetic field. The normal
to the loop is oriented parallel to the magnetic field. Is emf induced in the loop?
Give a reason for your answer.
Ans: No, emf is not induced in the square loop.
Reason: -
In this case, the magnetic flux through the loop is constant.
i.e. φ = constant ⇒ ∆φ = 0
Hence, by Faraday’s law,
Δφ
ε=-N ⇒ ε =0
Δt

3. A light metallic ring is released from above into a vertical bar magnet. Viewed from above, does
current flow clockwise or anticlockwise in the ring?

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Ans: The induced current flows clockwise in the ring. (as viewed from above)
Reason: -
When the metallic ring is released, the magnetic flux passing through ring changes
and an emf is induced in the ring.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced emf is such that is opposes the
downward motion of ring. It is possible only when the face of ring towards magnet
act as north pole. Thus, according to right hand rule, the induced current must be
clockwise as seen from above.

4. What is the direction of the current through resistor R is Fig, 15.4?

When Switch S is (a) Closed (b) Open
Ans: (a) The direction of current through resistor R is from left to right.
Reason: -
When switch is closed, the current in the primary coil increases from
zero to maximum steady value, which produces an induced emf in the
secondary coil.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of current in primary coil is
clockwise, therefore the direction of current in secondary coil will be anti-
clockwise. i.e. from left to right through R.
(b) In this case, the direction of current through R from right to left.
Reason: -
When switch is opened again the current in primary coil decreases from
maximum value to zero, the flux through the direction of induced current
is such that is acts to increase the magnetic flux. Hence the direction of
induced current is reversed. i.e. flow from right to left in clockwise
direction.

5. Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?
Ans: No, it always opposes the change in magnetic flux through a circuit.
Explanation: -
According to Lenz’s law, the induced emf always opposes to cause that produces it.
• If magnetic flux is decreasing through the circuit induced emf acts to increase the flux through the circuit.
• If magnetic flux is increasing through the circuit induced emf acts to decrease the flux through the circuit.

6. When the switch in the circuit is closed a current is established in the coil and the metal ring jumps
upward. Why?
Describe, what would happen to the ring if the battery polarity were reversed.
Ans: (a) Reason: -
When the switch is closed, the current through coil increases from zero to a
maximum steady current value. So, the magnetic flux through ring is increased which
produces an emf in the ring according to Faraday’s law.
This induced emf acts to decrease the magnetic flux through ring according to Lenz’s
law. That’s why ring jumps upward.

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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7. The shows a coil of wire in the xy plane with a magnetic field directed along the y-axis around which
the three-co-ordinate axis should the coil be rotated in order to generate an emf and current in the coil?
Ans: If the coil is rotated about x-axis an emf and current is generated in the coil.
Reason: -
The magnetic flux through the coil changes only when we rotate it about x-axis.
So, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf and current is
induced in the coil.
Δφ
ε=-N
Δt
There is no change of magnetic flux when we rotate it about y-axis or z-axis and so no emf
is induced.

8. How would you position a flat loop of wire in a magnetic field so that there is no emf induced in the
loop?
Ans: If the flat loop of wire is placed parallel to the changing magnetic field. There will be no emf induced in
the loop.
Reason: -
In the case, no magnetic flux changes through loop. ( ∆φ = 0 )
Δφ
ε=-N ⇒ ε =0
Δt
9. In the certain region the earth’s magnetic field points vertically down. When
a plane flies due to north, which wingtip is positively charged?
Ans: West, wing tip is positively charged.
Reason: -
We know that magnetic force on a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field is
  
F = q(v × B)
According to right hand rule this force is directed towards west on the positive
charged particles. Hence west wing is positively charged.

Δφ
10. Show that ε and have the same units.
Δt
Ans: Unit of ε = Volt = JC-1 ––––––––––––– (i)
Δφ wb
Now, unit of =
Δt sec
Δφ NmA -1
=
Δt sec
Δφ Nm
= (Nm = J and As = C)
Δt A sec
Δφ
= JC-1
Δt

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
11. When electric motor, such as an electric drill, is being used, does it also act as a generator? If so, what
is the consequence of this?
Ans: Yes, it acts like a generator.
Reason: -
When the coil of the motor rotates in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux through the coil changes. So, emf is
induced in it which opposes the applied emf. Due to this reason the induced emf is called back emf of the motor.
The magnitude of back emf increases with speed of motor.
Consequence: -
V-ε
It limits the current flowing through coil of motor. i.e. I =
R

12. Can a D.C motor be turned into a D.C generator? What changes are required to be done?
Ans: Yes, a D.C motor can be changed into a D.C generator.
Reason: -
Because the construction of D.C motor is similar to that of D.C generator.
How D.C motor changes to D.C generator
For this purpose, the following changes are to be done.
(i) Electromagnet is replaced by permanent magnet.
(ii) Battery /D.C supply is replaced by load.
(iii) Split ring is replaced by slip ring.
(iv) Rotate the armature mechanically.

13. Is possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field passing through the loop and still
not have an induced emf in the loop?
Ans: yes, it is possible.
Explanation: -
Magnetic flux through an area is,
 
φB = B. A
 
So, if we change both B and A of loop in such a way that product of two remains constant, then
φB = Constant
∆φB = 0
According to Lenz’s law.
Δφ
ε=-N ⇒ ε =0
Δt

14. Can an electric motor be used to derive an electric generator with the output from the generator being
used to operate the motor?
Ans: No, it is not possible.
Reason: -
Because, it will become a self-perpetual system which needs no energy from an external source (expect the
initial push to start the motor) and this is against the law of conservation of energy.

15. A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in a horizontal plane. The oscillating is strongly damped when
a metal plate is placed under the magnet. Explain why this occurs?

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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Ans: Reason: -
When a metal plate is placed under the magnet, a changing magnetic flux passes through the plate which
opposes an emf in it according to Faraday’s law.
According to Lenz’s law, this eddy current (induced current) opposes the free oscillations of magnet which
produces it. Hence the oscillations of magnet are damped strongly.
16. Four unmarked wires from a transformer. What steps would you take to determine the turns ratio?
Ans: Steps to determine the turns ratio are following: -
• Coils are separated as primary and secondary by using ohm-meter.
• An A.C voltage VP is supplied to primary coil and the magnitude of induced emf (secondary
voltage VS is measured)
• The turns ratio of the coils is determined by the following relation.
NS V
= S
NP VP
17. (a) Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?
(b) In transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary. How is then power
is transferred?
Ans: (a) No, it cannot increase power level.
Reason: -
In ideal transformer, power output is equal to power input. Therefore, a step-up transformer cannot increase
power level, it may increase voltage level.
(b) There is no electrical connection between the coils but they are magnetically linked. Because they are both
wound on soft iron core. So, power is transferred magnetically.
18. When the primary of transformer is connected to A.C mains the current in it.
(a) is very small if the secondary circuit is open, but
(b) increase when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these facts.
Ans: (a) Reason: -
In a transformer,
Power input = Power output
VP I P = VS IS
If secondary circuit is open, then IS = 0.
VP I P ≈ 0
Since, VP ≠ 0, therefore, IP ≈ 0
(b) Reason: -
When the secondary circuit is closed, the output power is increased. Since, in transformer output power is nearly
equal to output power. Therefore, input power is also increased.
Now, Power input = VPIP
Since, VP = constant, So, to increase the input power, IP should be increased.

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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Chapter # 16 (Alternating Current)

IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Define alternating current.
Ans: Alternating Current:
The current which changes its magnitude continuously and direction periodically is called alternating
current.
I = IoSinθ

2. Define instantaneous, peak value and peak to peak value.

Ans: Instantaneous Value:
The value of voltage or current that exits in a circuit at any instant of time t measured from some reference
point is called instantaneous value.
V = Vo Sin θ
Peak Value:
The highest value reached by the voltage or current in one cycle is called peak value.
It is denoted by “Vo”
Peak to Peak Value:
The sum of positive and negative peak values usually known as peak to peak value.
The p-p value of voltage waveform is 2Vo

3. What is rms value?

Ans: Root means square value:
The effective value of voltage or current over a cycle is called root mean square value.
• The root mean square value is the average value of square of variable voltage or current.
Vo 2
Vrms =
2
V
Vrms =o
2
Vrms =0.707Vo
Similarly,
Io 2
I rms =
2
Io
I rms =
2
I rms =0.707 Io

4. What do you mean by phase of A.C?

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Ans: Phase of A.C
The instantaneous value of voltage can be expressed as:
V = Vo Sin θ
The angle θ describes the instantaneous value of A.C voltage or current is known as phase.
When θ = 0o then V = Vo Sin 0o = 0
When θ = 90o then V = Vo Sin 90o = Vo
o
When θ = 180 then V = Vo Sin 180o = 0
When θ = 270o then V = Vo Sin 270o = - Vo
When θ = 360o then V = Vo Sin 360o = 0

5. What is difference between A.C circuit and D.C circuit?

Ans:
A.C Circuit D.C Circuit
• The circuit in which three elements • The circuit in which only resistor controls
(resistor, capacitor and inductor) control the the voltage and current is called D.C circuit.
voltage and current is called A.C circuit. • In this circuit the current is supplied by
• In this circuit the current is supplied by A.C battery.
source.

6. What is meant by capacitive and inductive reactance?

Ans: Capacitive Reactance:
The opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of A.C called capacitive reactance.
1
XC =
2πfC
It depends upon frequency of the A.C and capacitance.
Inductive Reactance:
The opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of A.C called inductive reactance.
XL = 2πfL
It depends upon frequency of the A.C and inductance.

7. Define impedance. Write its formula and unit.

Ans: Impedance:
The combined opposing effect of resistance and reactance’s (inductive and capacitive) in the A.C circuit
is called impedance.
It is denoted by “Z”.
V
Z = rms
I rms
Its unit is ohm (Ω).

8. Define power factor. How power is calculated in A.C circuit? Write its formula.
Ans: Power factor:
The ratio of the power consumed in an A.C to the power applied to the circuit is called power factor.

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Relation of power factor:
In A.C circuit the phase difference between applied component of voltage along current Irms is Vrms Cosθ.
Actually, it is the component of voltage vector which is in phase with current. SO, the power dissipation in A.C
circuit
P = Vrms × Irms Cosθ
The factor cosθ is known as power factor.

9. Why is the power dissipation zero in pure inductive and pure capacitive circuits?
Ans: The power dissipation in a pure capacitive or in a pure inductive circuit is zero.
Reason:
In these case current lags or leads the voltage by 900 and component of applied voltage vector along the
current vector is zero.
P = Vrms × Irms Cosθ
P = Vrms × Irms Cos 90
P=0

10. Write properties of series resonance circuit.

Ans: Properties of RLC series circuit:
1
• When XC = XL, resonance frequency is fr =
2π LC
• The impedance of the circuit at resonance is minimum and it is equal to R.
• The power factor at resonance frequency is 1.
• The current and voltage are in phase at resonance frequency.
• At resonance, VL, the voltage drops across inductance and VC, the voltage drop across capacitance
may be larger than the source voltage.

11. Write properties of parallel resonance circuit.

Ans: Properties of RLC series circuit:
1
• Resonance frequency is fr =
2π LC
• The impedance of the circuit at resonance is maximum and it is equal to R.
• The power factor at resonance frequency is 1.
• The current and voltage are in phase at resonance frequency.
• At resonance, the branch currents IL, IC may each larger than the source current I.

1
12. Prove that fr =
2π LC
Ans: At resonance condition, inductive reactance XL is equal to the capacitive reactance XL
XL = XC
1
ωr L =
ωr C

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1
ωr 2 =
LC
1
ωr 2 =
LC
1
ωr =
LC
1
2πf r =
LC
1
fr =
2π LC

13. Write main advantages of three phase supply.

Ans: Advantages of three phase supply:
• Three phase supply can bear large load since it generates voltage of 400 V. Due to this fact, the
total load of a house or factory can be divided into three parts.
• As it can bear large load, so it can be used to operate some special appliances needing 400 V for
their working.

14. What is Choke?

Ans: Choke:
Choke is a coil which consists of thick copper wire wound closely in a large number of turns over a soft
iron laminated core. This makes the inductance L of the coil quite large whereas its resistance R is very small.
Thus, it consumes very small power. It is used in A.C circuits to limit the current with very small wastage of
energy as compared to a resistance or a rheostat.

15. A 100 µF capacitor is connected to an alternating voltage of 24 V and frequency 50 Hz. Calculate the
current in the circuit.
Ans:
Given Data:
C = 100 µF
V = 24 V
f =50Hz
To find:
XC =?
Calculation:
1
XC =
2πfC
1
XC =
2 × 3.14 × 50 × 100 × 10-6
XC = 3.18 Ω

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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16. At what frequency will an inductor of inductance 1.0 Hz. Have a reactance of 500 Ω.
Ans:
Given Data:
L=1H
XL = 500 Ω
To find:
f=?
Calculation:
XL = 2πfL
XL
f=
2πL
500
f=
2 × 3.14 × 1
f = 79.6
f = 80Hz

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. A sinusoidal current has rms value of 10A. What is the maximum or peak value?
Ans:
I rms = 10A , Io = ?
Io
I rms =
2
Io = 2 ×I rms
Io = 2 × 10
Io = 14.14A

2. Name the device that will

(a) Permit flow of direct current but opposes the flow of alternating current.
(b) Permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.
Ans: (a) The device that permits flow of direct current but opposes the flow of alternating current is Inductor.
X L = 2πfL

For D.C f = 0 so XL = 0 hence I is maximum.

(b) The device that permits flow of alternating current but opposes the flow of direct current is Capacitor.
1
XC =
2πfC
For D.C f = 0 so XC becomes infinity and hence I is minimum.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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3. How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when connected to a
50Hz source?
Ans: It reaches maximum brilliance 100 times per second.
Reason: -
The lamp shows maximum brilliance when A.C reaches its peak value. As, A.C reaches its maximum
brilliance (+ ve and – ve) twice a cycle.
Therefore, A.C reaches its peak value in one second = 2 × 50 = 100 times per second.
Hence lamp reaches maximum brilliance 100 times per sec.

4. A circuit contain an iron – cored inductor, a switch and a D.C. source arranged in series. The switch is
closed and after an interval reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the switch contacts?
Ans: When switch is reopened, the current in the circuit decreases from its maximum value to zero, this changing
current produces an emf across the inductor which produces spark (heat and light) across the switch contacts.

5. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of

(a) an inductor (b) a capacitor
Ans: (a) The reactance of inductor will become Double.
Reason:
As reactance of an inductor, X L = 2πfL
If
f ′ = 2f
X′L = 2π(2f)L
X′L = 2(2πfL)
X′L = 2X L
(b) The reactance of capacitor will become Half.
Reason:
1
As reactance of a capacitor is, X C =
2πfC
If
f ′ = 2f
1
X′C =
2π(2f)C
1 1 
X′C =  
2  2πfC 
1
X′C = X C
2

6. In R – L circuit, will the current lag or lead the voltage? Illustrate your answer by a vector diagram.
Ans: In RL- circuit the current lags the voltage by 900.
Explanation:
Consider the vector diagram by θ which is given as:

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V 
θ = tan -1  L 
 VR 
I X 
θ = tan -1  rms L 
 I rms R 
X 
θ = tan -1  L 
 R 

7. A choke coil is placed in series with an electric lamp in an A.C. circuit causes the lamp to become dim.
Why is it so? A variable capacitor added in series in this circuit may be adjusted until the lamp glows with
normal brilliance. Explain, how this is possible?
Ans: (a) Why lamp become dim: -
When the choke coil is connected in series with an electric lamp in LC-
circuit, the impedance Z of the circuit is increased.
Z= X 2L + R 2
V
So, I =
Z
Therefore, the current is reduced. Hence the lamp becomes dim.
How glows with normal brilliance?
As reactance of Capacitor ( X C ) and inductor ( X L ) opposes each other.
thus, the variable capacitor is connected in series with inductor and adjusted
until X L = X C . Under this condition, they cancel each other's effect. So,
impedance becomes minimum and current becomes maximum. Thus, lamp
glows with normal brilliance.
So, at the resonance
Z = (X L -X C ) 2 + R 2 = R
V
And I=
R

8. Explain the conditions under which electromagnetic waves are produced from a source?
Ans: Electromagnetic waves are generated, when electric or magnetic flux is
changing through a certain region of space. This is possible only when electric
charge is accelerated by A.C source.
Examples:
When electrons in the radio transmitting antenna vibrate, it produces a
changing magnetic flux. This changing magnetic flux sets up
electromagnetic waves propagate in space away from antenna.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 43

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
9. How the reception of a particular radio station is selected on your radio set?
Ans: Reception of a radio station: -
A particular radio station is selected on our radio set by adjusting the natural
frequency of LC-circuit in our radio set equal to the frequency of particular
transmitting station. This is done by adjusting the value of capacitance or
inductance which is give as
1
` fr =
2π LC
Under this condition resonance is produced. The impedance of circuit is
minimum and current is maximum. Hence a particular station is picked up.

10. What is meant by A.M. and F.M.?

Ans: Ans: Amplitude Modulation: -
“The types of motion in which the amplitude of carrier wave is increased
or decreased as the amplitude of superposing modulating signal increases or
decreases is called Amplitude modulation.”

• The A.M transmission frequencies range from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz.

Advantage: They are better to transmit the signal for large ranges.
Disadvantage: AM radio waves have low quality transmission of sound.

Frequency Modulation: -
“The types of motion in which the frequency of carrier wave is increased
or decreased as the amplitude of superposing modulating signal increases or
decreases is called frequency modulation.”

The F.M transmission frequencies range from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.

Advantages: They are affected less by electrical interference than AM

waves. They provide quality transmission of sound.
Disadvantage: They are less able to travel around obstacles such as are high
building.

Engr. Rana Zeeshan Maqsood 44

HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

Chapter # 17 (Physics of Solids)

IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Define physics of solid, crystal lattice and unit cell.

Ans: Physics of solids:

The branch of physics concerned with the study of structure and properties (mechanical, electrical and
magnetic) of solids is known as physics of solids.
Crystal Lattice:
A crystalline solid consists of three-dimensional pattern that repeat itself over and over again.
Unit Cell:
The smallest three-dimensional basic structures is called unit cell.

2. Define proportional limit, Hook’s law.

Ans: Proportional limit:
The greatest stress that a material can endure without losing straight line proportionality between stress
and strain is called proportional limit.
Hook’s Law:
According to Hook’s law, stress is directly proportional to strain within proportional limit.

3. Define elasticity and plasticity.

Ans: Elasticity:
The ability of a body to return to its original shape when the stress is removed is called elasticity.
Plasticity:
If the stress is increased beyond yield stress or elastic limit of material, the specimen becomes
permanently changed and does not reach original shape after the stress is removed, this kind of behaviour is
called plasticity.

4. What is difference between ductile substances and brittle substances?

Ans:
Ductile Substances Brittle Substances
• The substances which undergo plastic • The substances which break just after the elastic
deformation until they break are called ductile limit is reached, are called brittle substances.
substances. • For example, high carbon steel etc.
• For example, lead, copper etc.

5. What is doping?
Ans: Doping:
The process of adding the small impurity atom in a pure semiconductor by a controlled way is called
doping and the impurity material itself is called dopant.
The impurity atoms are added in a semiconductor in the ratio of 1 to 106.

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6. Define magnetic dipole and domain.
Ans: Magnetic dipole:
An atom in which, there is a resultant magnetic field behaves like a tiny magnet is called magnetic dipole.
Domain:
The small magnetized regions in a ferromagnetic substance are called domains.
They are microscopic size of order of millimeter or less but large enough to contain 1012 to 1016 atoms in each
domain.

7. Define critical temperature and curie temperature.

Ans: Critical Temperature:
The temperature below which materials show zero resistivity is called critical temperature.
• Critical temperature of Aluminium is 1.18K
Curie Temperature:
The temperature above which a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic is called curie
temperature.
• Curie temperature of iron is 750 oC

8. Define hysteresis loop.

Ans: Hysteresis Loop:
The graph between flux density or magnetization of the specimen for the various values of magnetizing
current is in the form of a loop. This is called hysteresis loop.

9. Define saturation, remanence (retentivity) and coercivity.

Ans: Saturation:
The magnetic flux density increases from zero and reaches a maximum value. At this stage the material
is said to be magnetically saturated.
Remanence (retentivity):
When the current is reduced to zero, the material still remains strongly magnetized represented by point
R on the curve. It is due to tendency of domains to stay partly in line, once they have been aligned.
Coercivity:
The reverse magnetizing field is required to demagnetize the material completely. The value of
magnetizing current which makes magnetization zero is called coercivity. It is represented by C.

10. What is difference between soft magnetic materials and hard magnetic materials?
Ans:
Soft Magnetic Materials Hard Magnetic Materials
• The materials which are easily magnetized and • The materials which are not easily magnetized
demagnetized are called soft magnetic and demagnetized are called hard magnetic
materials. materials.
• For example, soft iron etc • For example, high carbon steel etc.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids.
Ans:
Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids Polymeric Solids
• There are regular • There are no longer • Polymers have structure that is
arrangements of molecules. arrangements of molecules. intermediate between order and
• There is an ordered structure. • There is no ordered structure. disorder.
• The average atomic positions • The average atomic positions • They have low specific gravity.
are perfectly ordered over are not ordered over large • They exhibit good strength to
large distances. distances. weight ratio.
• The transition from solid to • The transition from solid to
liquid is abrupt. liquid is gradual.
• Melting point is definite. • They have not definite melting
point.

2. Define stress and strain. What is their S.I units? Differentiate between tensile, compressive and shear
modes of stress and strain.
Ans: Stress: -
The deforming force applied on unit area to produce any change in length, volume or shape of a
body is called stress.
Force
Stress =
Area
F
σ=
A
Its SI unit is (Pa = Nm ) and its dimension is [ML-1T-2].
-2

Types of Stress
1) Tensile Stress:
The force applied on unit area to produce any change in length of body called tensile stress.
2) Volumetric Stress:
The force applied on unit area to produce any change in volume of a body is called stress.
3) Shear Stress:
The force applied on unit area to produce any change in shape of a body is called stress.
Strain: -
When stress is applied on material the measure of deformation of a solid material is called Strain.
It has no unit. Because it is the ratio between similar quantities.
Types of Strain
1) Tensile Strain:
The fractional change in length of the body is called tensile strain.
∆l
ε=
l
2) Volumetric Strain:
The fractional change in volume of the body is called tensile strain.

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ΔV
ε=
V
3) Shear Strain:
It is the angle by a line perpendicular to fixed face.
∆a
γ = tan θ =
a
Where θ is ion radian. For smaller angle of θ (Radian).
Tan θ = θ
γ =θ

3. Define modulus of elasticity. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and stress are the same. Also
discuss its three kinds.
Ans: Modulus of elasticity: -
The ratio between stress and strain is called modulus of elasticity.
Stress
Modulus of elasticity =
Strain
The unit of stress is (Pa = Nm-2). As the strain has no unit. So, the unit of modulus of elasticity is that of stress
(Pa = Nm-2)
It has three types: -
1. Young’s Modulus
2. Bulk Modulus.
3. Shear Modulus.
1) Young’s Modulus:
The ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain is called young’s modulus.
Tensile Stress
Young's Modulus =
Tensile Strain
F/A FL
Y= =
/L A

2) Bulk Modulus:
The ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain is called Bulk modulus.
Volumetric Stress
Bulk Modulus =
Volumetric Strain
F/A FV
K= =
ΔV/V ΔVA
3) Shear Modulus:
The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called shear modulus.
Shear Stress
Shear Modulus =
Shear Strain
F/A FV
G= =
tanθ ΔVA
It is also called modulus of rigidity.

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4. Draw a stress - strain energy curve for a ductile material, and then define the terms: Elastic limit,
Yield point and Ultimate tensile stress.
Ans: Elastic limit:
“The limit within which if we remove the stress from the body then, it
is returned to its initial conditions is called elastic limit. It is represented
by a line from O to B on the curve.”
Yield Point:
“The point on the curve beyond which permanent deformation occurs in
the material by increasing the stress is called yield point. The point B on
the curve is called yield point.”

Ultimate tensile stress (UTS – σm):

“The maximum stress that a material can withdraw and can be regarded
as the nominal strength of the material is called ultimate tensile stress. It
is represented by the point C on the curve.”

5. What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from the force – extension graph?
Ans: Strain energy: -
“The work done in deforming the material is called strain energy.”
OR
“The potential energy of the molecules due to their displacement from their mean position is called strain
energy.”
Explanation:
It can be calculated by area under the force extension graph. A graph can
be drawn between force F and extension l, if the elastic limit is not
exceeded the extension is directly proportional to force. As force F
stretches the wire, it does amount of work which is equal to the product of
force F and extension.
From graph, work done from O to B is calculated as:
1
W = F1 × l1
2
1
P.E = F1l1
2
6. Describe the formation of energy bands in solids. Explain the difference
amongst electrical behaviour of conductors, insulators and semi – conductors in
terms of energy band theory.
Ans: Formation of bands: -
Electrons of an isolated atom are bound to the nucleus and can have
definite energy levels. But when two atoms are brought near to each other then, each
level is split up into two sublevels called states due to action of forces exerted by
atoms in the solids. These permissible energy states are discrete and closely spaced
and they appear to form a continuous energy band.
Valance band:
The band occupied by the valance electrons is called valance band.
Conduction band: (a) Insulators
The band above the valance band is called conduction band. It occupies free electrons.

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Filled band:
The band below valance band is called filled band. It plays no part in
conduction.
Insulators: -
Insulators are those in which the valance electrons are bound very tightly to
their atoms. They have:
• An empty conduction band.
• A filled valance band.
• A large energy gap of several eV. (b) Conductors
Conductors: -
Conductors are those materials in which we have large number of free
electrons. They have:
• A partially filled conduction band.
• A partially filled conduction band.
• No energy gap.
Semiconductors: -
Semiconductors are those materials which have electrical properties lies
between those of insulators and conductors. They have (at room temperature):
• A partially filled valance band.
• A partially filled conduction band.
• A narrow energy gap (1eV). (c) Semiconductors

7. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi – conductors. How would you obtain n – type and p
– type material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schematic diagrams.
Ans: Intrinsic semi-conductors: -
A semiconductor in its pure form is called intrinsic
semiconductors.
• Pure Ge and Si are intrinsic semiconductors.
• Their electrical behaviour extremely depends upon its
purity.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: -
An impure form of semiconductors material is called extrinsic
semiconductors.
It has two types: -
1. N – type semiconductors
2. P – type semiconductors
1) N – type semiconductors: -
The semiconductors which is formed by adding pentavalent
impurity (Sb, P, Ar etc) to a pure semiconductor is called N – types
semiconductor.
It donates a free electron that’s why it is also called donor impurity.
2) P – type semiconductors: -
The semiconductors which is formed by adding trivalent
impurity (Al, B, Ga etc) to a pure semiconductor is called P – types
semiconductor.
It accepts a free electron that’s why it is also called accepter impurity.

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8. Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure semi – conductor
element.
Ans: Mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons: -
• In pure semiconductors, there are two kinds of charges,
a free electron (e-) and a hole (e+). Electrons and hole
are equal in semiconductors and they are moving
randomly.
• When a certain amount of voltage is applied to the
semiconductors, an electric field produce inside it. And
it exerts a electric force on electrons and holes due to
this a directed flow of electrons and holes take place.
• The electrons and holes move in opposite direction.
Therefore, total current flowing through the
semiconductors is equal to the sum of current due to
motion of free electrons and due to motion of holes.

9. Write a note on superconductors.

Ans: Super Conductors: -
The materials whose resistivity approaches to zero at a certain temperature are called super
conductors. These materials have zero resistivity below a certain temperature called critical temperature.
It has two types: -
• Low temperature super conductors Al (Tc = 1.18K) Sn (Tc = 3.72K)
• High temperature super conductor Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7)
(Tc = 163K or 110oC)
Applications: -
The superconductors are used in:
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Magnetic Levitation trains
• Powerful and small motors
• Fast Computer chips

10. What is meant by para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for each.
Ans: Paramagnetic Substances: -
The substances in which the magnetic fields produced by orbital and spin like a tiny magnet are
called paramagnetic substances.
Examples: Platinum, Sodium, Oxygen gas, Aluminium, and Uranium etc.
Diamagnetic Substances: -
The substances in which the magnetic fields produced by orbital and spin motions of electrons
cancel each other’s effect and the resultant magnetic field zero are called diamagnetic substances.
Examples: Water, copper, bismuth, antimony, silver, lead and diamond etc.
Ferromagnetic Substances: -
The substances in which the magnetic field produced by the orbital and spin motions of electrons
of an atom support each other in such a way that the atoms show a strong magnetic effect are called
ferromagnetic substances.
Examples: Iron, Nickle, Cobalt, Chromium oxide.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
11. What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a transformer?
Ans: Hysteresis Loss: -
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in an alternating current solenoid, the energy is needed to
magnetize and demagnetized the material during each cycle of magnetizing current. This energy is needed to
do against internal friction domains. This work is lost as heat. It is called hysteresis loss.
Construction of core of transformer: -
Iron frame is used as the core of transformer because it has small hysteresis area which represents that
small energy is lost during its magnetization and demagnetization. In this way, hysteresis loss useful to decide
either the material is suitable for construction of transformer or not.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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Chapter # 18 (Electronics)
IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
3. Define PN-junction, Depletion region and potential barrier.
Ans: PN-Junction:
If the crystal of germanium or silicon is grown in such a way that it’s one half is doped with trivalent
impurity and the other half is doped with pentavalent impurity, PN-Junction is formed.
Depletion Region:
The electrons diffuse in p-type material just after the formation of PN-junction. So, a charge-less region is
formed around the junction, which contains no charge carriers. This region is called depletion region.
Potential Barrier:
Due to charge on the ions a potential difference develops across the depletion region, which stops further
diffusion of electrons and holes. This potential difference is called potential barrier.

4. What are forward biased and reverse biased pn-junction?

Ans: Forward Biased:
When an external potential is applied across the PN-junction in such a way that positive terminal of the
battery is connected with p-type and its negative terminal to the n-type, then PN-junction is said to be forward
biased.
• It has very small resistance.
• A large current will flow.
Reverse Biased:
When an external potential is applied across the PN-junction in such a way that positive terminal of the
battery is connected with n-type and its negative terminal to the p-type, then PN-junction is said to be forward
biased.
• It has very high resistance.
• A very small current will flow.
3. Define rectification. What are half wave and full wave rectification?
Ans: Rectification:
The conversion of alternating current into direct current is called rectification. The circuit used for this
purpose is called rectifier.
Half Wave Rectification:
The process which converts half of the alternating current cycle into direct current is called as half wave
rectification.
Full Wave Rectification:
The process which is used for obtaining the DC signal from both of half cycles of input AC signal is called
full wave rectification.

4. Define LED. Write its uses.

Ans: Light Emitted Diode (LED):
It is a forward biased PN-junction which emits (visible) light when energized. LED emits no light when
reversed biased.
Uses:
• These diodes are used as small light sources. e.g, indicators.

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• LED are used in calculators and digital watches.
• LED are used in burglar alarm system.

5. Define photo diode. Write its uses.

Ans: Photo Diode:
The diode which converts light energy into electrical energy is called photo diode. It operates at reverse
biased PN junction.
Uses:
• Detection for both visible and invisible.
• Automatic switching.
• Logic circuits.
• Security systems.
• T.V remote.

6. Define transistor and its types.

Ans: Transistor:
It is simply a sandwich of one type of semi-conductor material between two layers of the other type.
(i) P-N-P Transistor:
When n-type substance (Si or Ge) is sandwiched between two p-type substances then device formed is called
p-n-p transistor.
(ii) N-P-N Transistor:
When p-type substance (Si or Ge) is sandwiched between two n-type substances then device formed is
called n-p-n transistor.

7. Explain parts of transistor.

Ans: The main parts of transistor are:
(i) Emitter (ii) Base (iii) Collector
(i) Emitter
• The emitter has greater concentration of impurity atoms as compared to collector.
• The arrow on emitter shows the direction of conventional current.
• The width of the emitter is smaller than collector.
(ii) Base
• The central region is known as base. The base is very thin of the order of 10-6 m.
• It has least concentration of impurity as compared to emitter and collector.
• It controls the flow of electron from emitter to collector.
(iii) Collector:
• The collector has less concentration of impurity atoms as compared to emitter.
• The width of the collector is greater than emitter.
• Its function to collect majority charge carriers through base.

8. Define current gain.

Ans: Current Gain:
The ratio of collector current IC to the base current IB is called current gain.
I
β= C
IB

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Its value ranges from 30 to 500.

9. What is the difference between inverting and non-inverting input.

Ans: Inverting Input (-):
A signal applied at inverting input appears after the amplification at output terminal with the phase of
difference of 180o.
Non-Inverting Input (+):
A signal applied at non-inverting input appears after amplification at output without any phase change.

10. Write down characteristics of Op-Amp.

Ans: (i) High input resistance:
It is the resistance between (+) and (-) inputs of amplifier whose value is of order of several mega ohms.
So, due to large value of Rin practically no current flows between the two input terminals.
(ii) Low output resistance:
It is the resistance between output terminal and the ground. It value is only a few ohms. It is low about 100
ohms.
(iii) Open loop gain:
The ratio of output voltage Vo to voltage difference between inverting and non-inverting inputs is called open
loop gain.
Vo V
A OL = = o
V+ - V- Vi
11. What is Boolean algebra?
Ans: Boolean Algebra:
George Boole invented a special algebra called Boolean algebra also called algebra of logics.
It is a branch of mathematics which deals with the relationship of logic variables instead of variable that
represent numerical quantities as in conventional algebra.

12. What is AND gate?

Ans: AND gate:
The circuit that implements AND operation is called AND gate.
Symbol:

Equation: X = A.B
Truth Table:
A B X = A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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13. What is OR gate?

Ans: OR gate:
The circuit that implements OR operation is called OR gate.
Symbol:

Equation:
X = A+B
Truth Table:
A B X = A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

14. What is NOT gate?

Ans: NOT gate:
The circuit that implements NOT operation is called NOT gate.
Symbol:

Equation:
X=A
Truth Table:
A X=A
0 1
1 0

15. What is invertor?

Ans: Invertor:
NOT gate is called invertor because it inverts the input. The circuit that implements NOT operation is
called NOT gate.
Symbol: A X=A
Equation: 0 1
X=A 1 0

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16. What is NAND gate?
Ans: NAND gate:
The combination of AND gate and NOT gate is called NAND gate.
Symbol:

Equation:
X = A.B
Truth Table:
A B X = A.B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

17. What is NOR gate?

Ans: NOR gate:
The combination of OR gate and NOT gate is called NOR gate.
Symbol:

Equation:
X = A+B
Truth Table:
A B X = A+B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

18. What is Exclusive OR gate (XOR gate)?

Ans: XOR gate:
It has an output of 1 when its inputs are different.
Symbol:

Equation:
X = AB + AB

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Truth Table:
A B X = AB + AB
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

19. What is Exclusive NOR gate (XNOR gate)?

Ans: NOR gate:
It has an output of 1 when both of its inputs are identical.
Symbol:

Equation:
X = AB + AB
Truth Table:
A B X = AB + AB
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

20. What are the uses of logic gates?

Ans: Uses of logic gates:
• Logic gates are used in electronic circuits to do useful tasks.
• Logic gates use light dependent resistors (LDR) to keep inputs low.
• NOT gate is used in fire alarms.
• NAND gate is used in burglar alarm

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EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1- How does the motion of an electron in n – types substance differ from the motion of holes in a p – type
substance?
Ans:
• When a battery is connected to n-type, electrons (majority carriers) drift towards the positive end while
in p-type material holes drift towards the negative ends of battery.
• Mobility of electron (in N-type) is greater than the mobility of the holes in P-type.

2- What is the net charge on a n – type or a p – types substance?

Ans: The net charge on n-type or p-type substance is zero.
Reason:
N-type substance is formed when a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor.
Similarly, p-type substance is formed when a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to pure
semiconductors. Since all the atoms in an n-type or p-type substance are electrically neutral. So, the proportion
of negative and positive charges does not change hence the net charge on n-type or p-type is zero.

3- The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward biased?
Ans: Yes, it is forward biased.
Reason:
We know that when the anode (P-side) is positive with respect to its cathode (N-side). It is said to be forward
biased. In case of Si, VB = 0.7 V and for Ge, VB = 0.3V
So, diode will not conduct in case of Ge or Si.
4- Why charge carriers are not present in the depletion region?
Ans: This is due to the fact that when (just after the formation of PN-junction) an electron from N-region diffuses
into P-type, it leaves behind a positive ion. When this electron recombines with hole in P-region, a negative ion
is formed. So, no charge carriers are available in this region, though it contains immobile positive and negative
ions.

6- Why ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light?

Ans: Reason:
• It is opaque to light.
• In ordinary silicon diodes, when electrons from n-side cross the junction and re-combine with the
holes on P-side, greater percentage of energy is released in the form of heat. That is why they do not
emit light.
7- Why a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?
Ans: Reason:
Basically, photo diode is used for the detection of light. In reverse biased condition, photo diode has a very
small amount reverse current. This current is due to the minority carriers. The number of these minority carriers
depends upon intensity of light incident on junction. So, when the junction is exposed to light (visible/invisible)
reverse current increases and can easily be detected.

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8- Why is the base current in a transistor very small?

Ans: The base current in a transistor is very small due to following reasons:
• Base is very thin (10-6 m) as compared to either emitter or collector.
• Base is very lightly doped.
• Biasing voltage between base-collector junction (VCC) is larger than the voltage base-emitter
junction (VBE).
9- What is the biasing requirement of the junctions of a transistor for its normal operation? Explain how
these requirements are met in a common emitter amplifier?
Ans: Biasing Requirement:
For the normal operation of a transistor,
• Emitter base junction should be forward biased
• Collector base junction should be reverse biased.
• Biasing voltage between base-collector junction (VCC) is larger than the voltage base-emitter
junction (VBE).
For CE-Amplifier
• In CE-Amplifier, input signal is applied between base and emitter and the output signal is taken
across collector and emitter.
• Similarly, EB-junction is forward biased and CB-junction reverse biased.
• Biasing voltage between base-collector junction (VCC) is larger than the voltage base-emitter
junction (VBE).

10- What is the principle of virtual ground? Apply it to find the gain of an inverting amplifier.
Ans: Virtual Ground:
When an op-amp is used as an inverting amplifier, input voltage is applied at inverting terminal while non-
inverting terminal is grounded. AS open loop gain of op-amp is very high of the order of 105. So, the input
voltage (Vi) is reduced to such a small value that it may be assumed to be at ground. This is called virtual ground.
V - V- V -0 V
Current through R1 = I1 = i = i = i
R1 R1 R1
V - Vo 0 - Vo V
Current through R2 = I2 = - = =- o
R2 R2 R2
I1 = I2
Vi V
=- o
R1 R2
Vo R
=- 2
Vi R1
R2
G=-
R1
The negative sign indicated that output signal is 180o out of phases with respect to input signal.

11. The inputs of a gate are 1 and 0. Identify the gate if its output is (a) 0, (b) 1
Ans: (a) The gate may be AND, NOR and XNOR.
If A = 1 and B = 0, then

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For AND gate X = A.B = 1.0 = 0
For NOR gate X= A+B =1+0 =1=0
For XNOR gate X = A.B + A.B = 1.0 + 1.0 = 1.1 + 0.0 = 1 = 0
(b) The gate may be OR, NAND and XOR.
If A = 1 and B = 0, then
For OR gate X=A+B=1+0=1
For OR gate X= A.B =1.0 = 0 =1
For XOR gate X = A.B + A.B = 1.0 + 1.0 = 1.1 + 0.0 = 1 + 0 = 1

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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Chapter # 19 (Dawn of Modern Physics)

IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Define relative motion. Give examples.
Ans: The continuous change of position of a body with respect to some reference point is called relative motion.
Example:
• When a ball is thrown up, the up direction is only for particular place. It will be down position for
person the on the diametrically opposite side of the globe. The concept of direction is purely relative.
• Let the cars A and B are moving in any direction with constant velocities. If a person in car B and Car
A is in rest relative to each other. A ball thrown vertically upward has same result for both observers.

2. Define frame of reference. Also Differentiate between inertial and non-inertial frame of reference.
Ans: Frame of reference:
A frame of reference is any coordinate system relative to which measurements are taken.
Example:
• The position of table in a room can be located relative to the walls of the room. The room is then frame
of reference.
• For measurements taken in the college laboratory, the laboratory is the reference frame.

3. Differentiate between inertial and non-inertial frame of reference.

Ans:
Inertial Frame of reference Non-inertial frame of reference
• The frame which is at rest or moving with • An accelerated frame of reference is called
uniform velocity (a = 0) is called inertial non-inertial frame of reference.
frame of reference. • It is also called accelerated frame of reference.
• It is also called non-accelerated frame of • For Example, when a car is moving and
reference. suddenly the brakes are applied. The car is
• For Example, Earth may be considered as an moving with variable velocity. That’s why
inertial frame of reference. accelerated car is a non-inertial frame of
reference.

4. Give postulates of special theory of relativity.

Ans: Postulates of special theory of relativity:
(i) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frame of reference.
(ii) The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of references in all
direction.

5. What is Wien’s Displacement Law?

Ans: Wien’s Displacement Law:
At a given temperature T, the emitted energy has maximum value for a certain wavelength λ max and
product λ max × T remains constant.
λ max × T = Constant

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This is called Wien’s displacement law. The value of this constant is 2.9 × 10-3mK.

6. What is Stephan-Boltzmann Law?

Ans: Stephan-Boltzmann Law:
“The total energy “E” radiated per second per unit area is directly proportional to fourth power of
absolute temperature.”
E ∝ T4
E = σT 4
Where σ is called Stephan’s Boltzmann constant. Its value is 5.67 × 10-8 Wm-2K-4.

7. Define photoelectric effect, stopping potential and threshold frequency.

Ans: Photoelectric effect:
“The emission of electrons from a metal surface when a light of suitable frequency is incident on it is
called photoelectric effect”
Stopping Potential:
“The negative potential of anode at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called the stopping
potential”
Threshold frequency:
“The minimum value of frequency of incident light, at which electrons are emitted from a metal surface
is called threshold frequency”

8. What is work function?

Ans: Work Function:
“The minimum energy required to escape the electrons from metal surface is called work function”
Energy of incident photon = Work function + Max. K.E of electrons
hf = φ + K.E max
1
hf = φ + mv 2 max
2
1
hf - φ = mv 2 max
2
9. Define photocell. Write down its four uses or applications.
Ans: Photocell:
“It is a device whose electrical properties are affected by light”
Principle:
The working of photocell is based upon the photoelectric effect.
Uses:
• Automatic door system
• Counting system
• Security system
• Sound track for movies
• Automatic street lighting

10. Define Compton’s effect. Write the formula of Compton shift for scattering angle θ.
Ans: Compton’s effect:

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“The phenomenon of change in the wavelength of an x-ray after the collision with electrons is called
Compton effect”
Compton Shift:
h
Δλ = (1 - Cosθ )
moc
Δλ = Compton shift
h = Plank’s constant
mo = Rest mass of electron
c = Speed of light
θ = Scattering angle

11. Define Pair production. What is condition for pair production?

Ans: Pair Production:
“When a high energy photon is stopped by a heavy nucleus, it converts into an electron-positron pair
such a phenomenon is called pair production”
It is also called materialization of energy. It follows the law of conservation of charge and momentum.
Condition for pair production:
The rest mass energy of electron = moc2 = 0.51 MeV
The rest mass energy of positron = moc2 = 0.51 MeV
Total energy = 2moc2
Total energy = 2 × 9.1 × 10-31 × (3 × 108)2 J
2 × 9.1 × 10-31 × ( 3 × 108 )
2

Total energy = eV
1.6 × 10-19
Total energy = 2 × 0.511 × 106 Ev
Total energy = 1.02 MeV
Thus, the pair production take place, if the maximum energy of photon ≥ 2moc2
Energy of photon = Energy required for pair production + K.E of electron + K.E of positron
hf = 2moc2 + K.E(e-) + K.E(e+)

12. What do you know about annihilation of matter?

Ans: Annihilation of Matter:
“When an electron and positron come close to each other then they annihilate each other and converted
it into two photons in the range of gamma rays. This process is called annihilation of matter”
This is the reverse process of pair production.
e+ + e− → γ + γ
It follows the law of conservation of energy, charge and momentum.

13. What is wave nature duality? Give its one practical example.
Ans: Wave nature duality:
“Matter and radiations have a dual wave-particle nature and this new concept is called wave particle
duality”
Example:
Electrons undergo diffraction and can interfere with each other as waves, but they act as point like
masses and electric charges.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
14. State uncertainty principle. Give its two statement and mathematical form.
Ans: Uncertainty Principle:
“Position and momentum of a particle cannot both be measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy”
(i) Position-Momentum Uncertainty
“It is impossible to measure the position and momentum of a particle at same instant with unlimited
precision”
( Δx ) . ( Δp ) = h
(ii) Energy-Time Uncertainty
“The product of the uncertainty in a measured amount of energy ( ΔE ) and the interval of time ( Δt )
during which it is measured is approximately equal to Plank’s Constant (h)”
( ΔE ) . ( Δt ) =h

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. What are the measurements on which two observers’ relative motion will always agree upon?
Ans: The measurements on which two observers in relative motion will always agree upon are:
(i) Speed of light in free space
(ii) Force acting on moving object

2. Does the dilation mean that times really passes more slowly in moving system or that it only seems to
pass more slowly?
Ans: According to special theory of relativity, time is not an absolute quantity. It depends upon the motion of
frame of reference.
As knowledge of science is based upon observation and measurements only. So, we can say that time is measured
to dilate. In other words, it passes more slowly.

3. If you are moving in a spaceship at a very high-speed relative to the earth, would you notice a difference
(a) in your pulse rate (b) in the pulse rate of people on Earth?
Ans: (a) If we are moving in a spaceship at very high speed, we will feel no change in the pulse rate as there is
no relative motion.
(b) As the ship us moving very high speed with respect to the Earth. So, the pulse rate of the people on earth will
be slower as measured by the people in the spaceship.

4. If the speed of light were infinite, what would the equations of special theory of relativity reduce to?
v2
Ans: If c → ∞, then 2 =0
c
So, the equations of special theory of relativity reduces to:
to
(i) t= ⇒ t = t o (There will be no time dilation)
2
v
1- 2
c
v2
(ii)  = o 1 − ⇒  =  o (There will be no length contraction)
c2

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mo
(iii) m= ⇒ m = m o (There will be no increase in mass)
v2
1- 2
c
(iv) ∆E = ∆mc 2 ⇒ ∆E = 0 (There will be no change in energy)

5. Since mass is a form of energy, can we conclude that a compressed spring has more mass than same
spring when it is not compressed?
Ans: Yes, the compressed spring will have more mass than uncompressed spring
Reason: -
The work done in compressing the spring converted into energy.
According to Einstein mass energy relation.
ΔE = Δmc 2
This increase in energy increases the mass as
ΔE
Δm = 2
c
As Δm is very small, therefore Δm is too small to be measured.

6. A s a solid heated and begins to glow, why does it first appear red?
Ans: The nature of radiation emitted by a hot body depends upon its temperature. So, at low temperature, the
body emits radiation of longer wavelength. As the longest wavelength in visible region is of red, hence it first
appears red.

7. What happens to total radiation from a black body if its absolute temperature is doubled?
Ans: The total energy radiated per second is increased to 16 times.
Reason:
According to Stefan Boltzmann law,
E = σT 4
If T′=2T ,
E′ = σ ( 2T )
4

E′ = 16σT 4
E′ = 16E

8. A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which beam contains the
greater number of photons?
Ans: Beam of red light contains greater number of photons
Reason:
As energy of photon is
hc
E = hf =
λ
So, energy of a photon is

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hc
En = n
λ
En λ
n=
hc
As En , h and c are same
So, n∝λ
λ red > λ blue , so red beam will have greater number of photons.

9. Which photon, red, green, or blue carriers the most (a) energy and (b) momentum?
Ans: Blue light has most energy and momentum
Reason:
As energy and momentum of a photon are given by
hc h
E= , p=
λ λ
Energy and momentum are inversely proportional to wavelength. Since blue photon has shortest wavelength so,
it carries most energy and momentum.

10. Which has the lower energy quanta? Radio waves or X – rays?
Ans: Radio waves have lower energy quanta.
Reason:
As energy of a quanta is given by
hc
E=
λ
Since wavelength of radio waves is longer than that of x-rays. So according to the above equation it has lower
energy quanta.
11. Does the brightness of a beam of light primarily depends on the frequency of photons or on the number
of photons?
Ans: It depends upon number of photons.
Reason:
As brightness (intensity) mean the energy delivered per unit time per unit area. So, the brightness of beam
depends upon the number of photons of light. It is the energy of light beam which depends upon frequency of
photons.
12. When ultraviolet falls on certain dyes, visible light is emitted. Why does this not happen infrared light
falls on these dyes?
Ans: When ultraviolet light falls on the dyes, the atoms of dyes are excited to higher energy states, on de-
excitation electrons return to lower energy level in steps (instead of direct jump). So, they emit visible light.
In case of infrared light, the photons emitted by atoms of dyes have frequency less than the least frequency of
visible light.
13. Will bright light eject more electrons from a metal surface than dimmer light of the same colour?
Ans: Yes, bright light will eject more electrons from a metal surface.
Reason:
We know that number of electrons emitted from a metal surface depends upon the intensity (brightness) of
light. Therefore, greater the intensity of light, greater will be the number of electrons emitted and vice versa.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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14. Will higher frequency light eject greater number of electrons that low frequency light?
Ans: Both higher and lower frequency light will eject same number of electrons.
Reason:
Number of electrons emitted from a metal surface depends upon the intensity of light of certain frequency.
However, higher frequency light ejects electrons whose K.E will be greater than those electrons emitted by low
frequency light.

15. When light shines on a surface, is momentum transferred to the metal surface?
Ans: Yes, the momentum is transferred to the metal surface.
Reason:
According to Einstein, light photon behaves like particle. So, when it is incident on metal surface, it transfers
both its momentum and energy.
For Example,
We have observed in photoelectric effect that when a metal surface is exposed to a light of suitable frequency,
electrons are emitted out of surface. It is possible only when photons of light transfer their energy and momentum
to surface electrons.

16. Why can red light be used in photographic dark room when developing films, but a blue or white light
cannot?
Ans: Reason:
The energy of a photon of light is given by:
hc
E = hf =
λ
As the red light has largest wavelength in visible spectrum, therefore it has least energy. So, it cannot affect the
photographic film. That is why red light can be used but blue or white light cannot be used.

17. Photon A has twice the energy of the photon B. What is the ratio of the momentum of to that of B?
Ans: Let,
Energy of photon A = EA
Energy of photon B = EB
As EA = 2EB
P
Ratio of momentum of photon A to that of B = A = ?
PB
E
Since, P =
c
E 2E B
So, Momentum of photon A = PA = A = − − − − − − (ii)
c c
E
Momentum of photon B = PB = B − − − − − − (i)
c
Dividing eq. (i) by (ii)

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2E B
PA
= c
PB E B
c
PA 2
=
PB 1
So, momentum of photon A is also twice the momentum of photon B.

18. Why don’t we observe Compton effect with visible light?

Ans: We do not observe a Compton effect with visible light because the visible light photon is very low energy
photon, it could be absorbed by a single electron of an atom, so no scattering occurs.

19. Can pain production take place in vacuum? Explain.

Ans: No, it cannot take place in vacuum.
Reason:
If pair production takes place in vacuum, it will be the violation of law of conservation of momentum. So, to
conserve momentum, a heavy nucleus is needed.

20. Is it possible to create a single electron from energy? Explain.

Ans: No, it is not possible to create a single electron from energy.
Reason:
If it is possible then it will be the violation of law of conservation of charge and momentum. So, to
conserve charge and momentum, energy (photon) is changes into electron-positron pair which then move in
opposite direction.

21. If electrons behaved only likes particles, what pattern would you expect on the screen after the
electrons pass through the double slit?
Ans: Explanation: -
If electrons behaved like particles, then on screen no interference pattern is observed. As the electrons pass
straight through the double slits, only the slit images are seen on the screen.

22. If an electron and a proton have the same de Broglie wavelength, which particle has greater speed?
Ans: Electron will have the greater speed.
Reason:
According to de-Broglie’s hypothesis
h
λ=
mv
h
v=
mv
As λ is same for both electron and proton.
1
v∝
m
As mass of proton is greater than that of electron, therefore the electron will have greater speed.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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23. We do not notice the de Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket ball. Explain why?
Ans: According to de-Broglie hypothesis,
h
λ=
mv
As cricket ball has large mass, therefore the wave associated with it is so small that it is not detectable.

24. If the following particles have the same energy, which has the shortest wavelength? Electron, alpha
particle, neutron and proton.
Ans: α - particle will have the shortest wavelength associated with it.
Reason:
As we know,
h
λ=
mv
1
K.E = mv 2
2
2K.E = mv 2
2mK.E = m 2 v 2
mv = 2mK.E
h
So, λ=
2mK.E
As all the given particles have same speed
1
λ ∝
m
As α - particle has greatest mass therefore it will have the shortest wavelength.

25. When does light behave as a wave? When does it behave as a particle?
Ans: Light behave as particle when it interacts with matter and behave as a wave in travelling from source to
the place where it is detected.
Light as wave
When the energy of photons of light is only about 10-10 eV it cannot be detected as quanta. So, it behaves
like waves.
For example, interference, diffraction, polarization etc.
Light as particle
When the energy of photons of light is about 1 MeV, it is easily detected as quanta so it behaves like particles.
For example, Photoelectric effect, Compton’s effect Pair production etc.

26. What advantages an electron microscope has over an optical microscope?

Ans:
• Resolving power of electron microscope is 1000 times higher than that of optical microscope.
• Magnification of electron microscope is about 1000 times greater than that of microscope.
• With electron microscope minor details can be seen which is not visible by optical microscope.
• A 3-D image of remarkable quality can be obtained by it.

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27. If measurements show a precise position for an electron, can those measurements show precise
momentum also? Explain.
Ans: No, those measurements cannot show precise measurements.
Reason:
According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, position and momentum of a particle cannot be measured
simultaneously with perfect accuracy.
Mathematically,
( ∆x )( ∆p ) ≈ h
h
∆p ≈
∆x
So, if Δx is very small, then Δp will be large.

Chapter # 20 (Atomic Spectra)

IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. What are types of spectra?
Ans: There are three types of spectra: -
(i) Continuous Spectrum
(ii) Brand Spectrum
(iii) Line or discrete Spectrum
(i) Continuous Spectrum:
A radiation spectrum in which the frequencies of the radiations emitted by the atoms of a substance are
so close to each other that they give continuous row of overlapping images is called continuous spectrum.
Example: Black body radiation is the example of continuous spectrum.
(ii) Band Spectrum:
A spectrum that appears as a number of bands of emitted or absorption radiations is called band
spectrum.
Example: Molecular spectrum is the example of band spectrum.
(iii) Line or discrete spectrum:
A spectrum consisting of discrete lines corresponding to single wavelengths of emitted radiation is called
line spectrum.
Example: Atomic spectra are examples of discrete or line spectrum.

2. Define spectral series. Discuss its types.

Ans: Spectral Series:
The spectrum of an element contains certain wavelengths that show definite regularities are classified
into certain spectra series.
(i) Balmer Series:
In 1885, the first spectral series for hydrogen was identified by J.J Balmer. It is for visible region.
1  1 1 
= RH  2 − 2  Where n = 3,4,5,............
λ 2 n 
RH is the Rydberg’s constant and its value is 1.0974×107 m-1.

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(ii) Lyman Series:
Lyman series lie in ultraviolet region and its wavelength is:
1 1 1 
= RH  2 − 2  Where n = 2,3,4,............
λ 1 n 
(iii) Paschen Series:
Paschen series lie in infrared region and its wavelength is:
1 1 1 
= RH  2 − 2  Where n = 4,5,6, ............
λ 3 n 
(iv) Bracket Series:
Bracket series lie in infrared region and its wavelength is:
1  1 1 
= RH  2 − 2  Where n = 5,6,7, ............
λ 4 n 
3. Give postulates of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom.
Ans: Postulate I:
An electron, bound to the nucleus in a n atom can move around the nucleus in certain circular orbits without
radiating.
Postulate II:
Only these stationary orbits are allowed for which the orbital angular momentum is equal to an integral
h
multiple of
2π
nh
mvr = Where n = 1,2,3, .......
2π
n is called principle quantum number, m and v are the mass and velocity of orbiting electron respectively and h
is the Plank’s constant.
Postulate III:
Whenever an electron makes a transition that is, jumps from higher energy state En to a lower energy state
Ep, a photon of energy hf is emitted so that
hf = En – Ep
4, Define ground state, excited state and excitation potential.
Ans: Ground State:
When the electron is in its lowest energy state (n=1), it is said to be in its ground state.
Excited State:
When the electron is in the higher orbits it is said to be in excited state.
Excitation Potential:
The atom may be excited by collision with some externally accelerated electrons. The potential through
which an electron should be accelerated is called excitation potential.

5. Define characteristics x-rays and continuous x-rays.

Ans: Characteristic X-rays:
In heavy atoms, the inner shell the electrons are tightly bound and a large amount of energy is required to
excite them. After excitation, when an electron returns to its normal state. The photons of large energy are emitted
known as x-rays. These x-rays consist of series of specific wavelengths or frequencies called characteristics x-
rays.
Continuous X-rays:
X-rays emitted in all directions with a continuous range of frequencies are called continuous x-rays.

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6. What is meant by CAT-Scanner?
Ans: CAT-Scanner:
It is basically, consists of X-rays source with several hundred oppositely adjusted detectors. Each detector
measures absorption of X-rays along a thin line through the subject. The entire system is linked through a
computer that is why it is named as computerized axial tomography (CAT) and is widely used as a source of
medical diagnostic.

7. What are biological effects of x-rays?

Ans: Biological X-rays:
X-rays are ionizing radiations. They may cause damage to live tissue. As X-rays photons are absorbed in
tissues, they break molecular bonds and create highly reactive free radicals (such as H and OH) which in turn
can disturb the molecular structure of proteins and especially the genetic material. Young and rapidly growing
cells are sensitive; hence X-rays are useful for selective destruction of cancer cells. The X-ray can cause cancer
by excessive use.

8. What is meant by population inversion and meta stable state?

Ans: Population Inversion:
It is the state of an atom, when there are a greater number of excited electrons in the higher energy state than
the lower energy state.
Metastable State:
A metastable state is an excited state in which as excited electron is usually more stable and from which the
electrons come to lower state after relatively longer time.

9. What is the difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission.

Ans: Spontaneous Emission:
As excited is highly unstable state with life time of 10-8 sec, so the electron will de excite itself with emission
of photon in any arbitrary direction is called spontaneous emission.
Stimulated Emission:
If atom sat in excited (metastable) for a longer life time of about 10-3 sec then an incident photon of enter
equal to energy to difference of two energy levels, induces the atom to decay by emitting a photon that travel in
the direction of incident photon. This process is called stimulated or induced emission.

10. Give any two uses of laser in medicine.

Ans:
(i) To diagnose Diseases:
The helium-neon beam is used to diagnose the disease of eye.
(ii) Cancer Cure:
Fine focused beam has been used to destroy cancerous and pre-cancerous cell.

11. Give any two uses of laser in industry.

Ans:
(i) Welding and Drilling:
The intense heat produced in small area by laser may use for welding and drilling the tiny holes in hard
materials.
(ii) Lining up the Equipment:
The precise straightness of laser beam is also useful to surveyor for lining up equipment.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom is based upon several assumptions. Do any of these assumptions
contradict classical physics?
Ans: Yes, the first postulate of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom contradicts classical physics.
Explanation:
According to classical physics, accelerating charge (either oscillating or revolving) radiates
electromagnetic waves. So, energy of orbiting electron decreases continuously, its orbit become smaller and
smaller and it should fall into the nucleus but according to Bohr’s theory, an electron can move around the
nucleus in certain circular without radiating.

2. What is meant by a line spectrum? Explain, how lines spectrum can be used for the identification of
elements?
Ans: Line Spectrum:
When a gas much low pressure is excited by passing an electric current (discharge) through it, the spectrum
of emitted radiation is in the form of discrete sharp lines. This type of spectrum is called line spectrum.
Identification of elements:
In the spectrum, each line corresponds to a definite wavelength and frequency. Each element has its own set
of wavelengths in the line spectrum, because electrons of atom in different elements have different energy in
their orbits.

3. Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy 13.6eV and greater than
13.6eV?
Ans: Yes, an electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom can absorb a photon of energy 13.6 eV and greater
than 13.6 eV.
Reason:
Ionization energy of hydrogen atom in ground state is 13.6 eV. So, if hydrogen absorbs a photon of energy
greater 13.6 eV. So, if hydrogen absorbs a photon of energy greater than 13.6 eV then the surplus energy of
photon appears as kinetic energy of electron.

4. How can the spectrum of hydrogen contain so many lines when hydrogen contains one electron?
Ans: When hydrogen atom is excited, its electron in ground state jumps up to some higher energy state. Now,
when it de-excites, electron does not come to the ground state directly but jumps to lower energy in multiple
steps and every jump corresponds is a certain wavelength.

5. Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light?

Ans: Yes, energy is conserved when an atom emits a photon of light.
Reason:
When an electron jumps from lower energy state to a higher energy state it absorbs a photon of energy and
when it de-excites, it emits a photon of same energy, so energy is conserved.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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6. Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths of light and why that gas is capable of
absorbing the same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to others wavelengths?
Ans: Reason for emitting certain wavelengths:
When an electron jumps from higher energy state to lower energy state, it emits a photon whose energy is
equal to difference of energies of two levels. As energy level are discrete so only certain wavelengths are emitted.
Reason for absorbing the same wavelength:
When an electron jumps from lower energy state to higher energy state, it absorbs a photon whose energy is
equal to energy difference between two levels.
Why it is transparent to others wavelengths:
An atom absorbs only those photons whose energy is equal to energy difference between any two levels.
Therefore, it is transparent to other photons (wavelength).

7. What do we mean when we say that the atom is excited?

Ans: Excited atom:
When an electron jumps from lower energy level to a high energy level by absorbing a photon whose energy
is equal to energy difference between the two states, the atom is said to be in excited state.

8. Can X – rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized just like any other waves? Explain.
Ans: Yes, x-rays can be reflected, diffracted and polarised.
Explanation:
This is because that x-rays are electromagnetic waves. As the wavelength of x-rays is much shorter than
that of ordinary light waves. SO, the circumstances for these phenomena may be different. For example, x-rays
can be diffracted by crystals only.

9. What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?

Ans: Advantages of LASER over ordinary light:
• It is intense beam of light.
• It is mono chromatic.
• It is unidirectional.
• It is coherent.
• It can be sharply focused to a very fine spot.

10. Explain why laser action could not occur without population inversion between atomic levels?
Ans: If number of atoms in metastable state is not greater than those in ground state, the incident photons will
be absorbed by atoms in the ground state, these atoms are excited in metastable state.
In this case, LASER amplification could not occur. Hence, the rate of induced absorption will be greater than
the rate of stimulated emission.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)

Chapter # 21 (Nuclear Physics)

IMPORTANT SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. Define mass defect and binding energy

Ans: Mass Defect:
The mass of a nucleus is always less than the total mass of its proton and neutrons. This difference in mass
is mass defect.
Δm = Zm p + ( A - Z ) m n - m nucleus
Binding Energy:
The energy required to break the nucleus into nucleons (neutrons and proton) is called binding energy.
According to mass-energy equation.
E = mc 2
B.E = Δmc 2
B.E =  Zm p + ( A - Z ) m n - m nucleus  ×c 2
B.E = Zm p c 2 + ( A - Z ) m n c 2 - m nucleus × c 2

2. Prove that 1 amu (1.66 × 10-27 kg) = 931 MeV Or

How much energy in released when 1 amu is converted into energy?
Ans:
m = 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-27 kg
E = mc2
E = (1.66 × 10-27 kg) (3 × 108)2
E = 1.494 × 10-10 J
1.494×10-10
E= eV
1.6×10-19
E = 9.315×108 eV
E = 931.5×106 eV
E = 931MeV
1 amu = 931 MeV

3. What is radioactivity?
Ans: Radioactivity:
The spontaneous emission of radiations from unstable atom (atomic number greater than 82) is called
radioactivity. And the atom is called radioactive element.

4. Define half-life of a radioactive element. Write its formula.

Ans: Half Life:
The time during which half of radioactive element decay is called half-life.
0.693
T1/ 2 =
λ

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2
1
T1/ 2 = N o ×  
2
The half-life of C-14 is 5730 years.
5. Define decay constant. Write its formula and unit.
Ans: Decay Constant:
The ratio of fraction of decaying atoms per unit times is called decay constant.
ΔN / N
λ =-
Δt
Unit of decay constant is s-1.
6. Define Fluorescence. Name two fluorescence substances.
Ans: Fluorescence:
Fluorescence is the property of absorbing radiant energy of high frequency and re-emitting energy of low
frequency in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum.
Fluorescence Substances:
• Zinc Sulphide
• Sodium Iodide
7. Define fission and fusion reaction.
Ans: Nuclear Fission:
Such a reaction in which heavy nucleus 235 92 U is broken into two nuclei of nearly equal size along with the

emission of energy is called nuclear fission reaction.

235 1 141 92 1
92 U + 0 n → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + Energy

Nuclear Fusion:
Such a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei merge to form a heavy nucleus is called nuclear fusion
reaction.
2 3 4 1
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 0 n + Energy

8. Differentiate between controlled and uncontrolled chain reaction.

Ans:
Controlled Chain Reaction Uncontrolled Chain Reaction
• The reaction in which only one neutron out • The reaction in which all three neutrons
of three becomes the cause of further become, the cause of further fission
fission reaction is called controlled chain reaction is called uncontrolled chain
reaction. reaction.
• The other neutrons either escape out or are • As a result of uncontrolled fission chain
absorbed in any other medium expect reaction in an atom bomb an atomic
uranium. explosion takes place and a huge amount
of energy is released.

9. What are the uses of nuclear reactor?

Ans: The uses of nuclear reactor are following:
• It is used for the production of atomic energy for industrial and peaceful purposes.
• For obtaining useful energy for producing electrical and mechanical energy.
• Production of plutonium which is used in atomic bombs as a fuel.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
10. What is radioactive tracer? Describe one application in medicine.
Ans: Radioactive Tracers:
Radioactive isotopes behave in organism just the same way as the normal isotopes inside a living organism
but location and concentration of radioactive isotopes can be determined by measuring radiation it emits. Thus,
radioactive isotopes act as an indicator or tracer.
Application in medicine:
The tracers are used in medicine to detect the malignant tumours.

11. What are basic forces of nature.

Ans: The basic nature of forces is:
1. Gravitational force
2. Magnetic force
3. Electric force
4. Weak nuclear force
5. Strong nuclear force

12. What are the subatomic particles?

Ans: Subatomic particle is divided into following three groups:
(i) Photons (ii) Leptons (iii) Hadrons

13. What are quarks? Write down different names of quarks?

Ans: Quark:
Quark are the elementary particles and the basic building block of matter.
Quark theory:
According to quark theory initiated by M.Gell-Mann and G-Zweig, the basic building block of mesons and
baryons.
Name Symbol Charge
2
Up u + e
3
1
Down d - e
3
1
Strange s - e
3
2
Charm c + e
3
2
Top t + e
3
1
Bottom b - e
2

14- What are hadrons and leptons?

Ans: Hadrons:
Hadrons are particles that experience the strong nuclear force.
Example:

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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Protons, neutrons and mesons are the examples of hadrons.
Leptons:
Leptons are the particle that do not experience strong nuclear force.
Example:
Electron, muons and neutrinos are the example of leptons.

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

1. What are the isotopes? What do they have in common and what are their differences?
Ans: Isotopes:
The atoms of an element which have the same atomic number (Z) but different atomic mass (A) are
called isotopes.
Common Things and differences:
• They have same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
• They have same chemical properties but different physical properties.

2. Why are heavy nuclei unstable?

Ans: A nucleus which has atomic number greater than 82 are called unstable nucleus. And heavy nucleus is
always unstable.
Reason:
In the heavy nuclei which have too many neutrons relative to protons, (N>Z), the strong nuclear force
between two nuclei falls off rapidly. Hence, electrostatic repulsive force overcomes the strong nuclear force.

3. If a nucleus has a half-life of 1 year, does this mean that it will be completely decayed after 2 years?
Explain.
Ans: No, it will not completely decay after 2 years.
Reason:
According to radiative law,
N = N oe-λt
Where N = Number of un-decayed atoms at time t
No = Original number of atoms
λ = decay constant
This equation shows that N = 0 if t → ∞
So, an infinite time is required for an element to decay completely.

4. What fraction of a radioactive sample decays after two half-lives elapsed?

Ans: 3/4 of radiative sample decays after 2 half-lives.
Explanation:
If No = original number of atoms
N = number of un-decayed atom
n = no. of half lives
n
1
N = No  
2
n=2

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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2
1 1 N
N = No   = No   = o
2 4 4
N 4N o - N o 3N o 3
Number of decayed atoms = N o - o = = = No
4 4 4 4
3
So, the fraction of decayed nuclei =
4

5. The radioactive element 226 88 Ra has a half-life of 1.6 × 10 years. Since the Earth is about 5 billion years
3

old, how can you explain why we still can find this element in nature?
Ans: Reason:
According to radiative law,
N = N oe-λt
Where N = Number of un-decayed atoms at time t
No = Original number of atoms
λ = decay constant
This equation shows that N = 0 if t → ∞
So, an infinite time is required for an element to decay completely. This is why we still find 226
88 Ra in nature.

6. Describe a brief account of interaction of various types of radiations with matter.

Ans: Interaction of α – particles with matter:
(i) An α-particle travels a well-defined distance in a medium before coming to rest, which is called range
of α-particle.
(ii) As the α-particle passes through a solid, liquid or gas it loses its energy due to excitation and
ionization of atoms and molecules in the matter.
(iii) α-particle ionizes by direct elastic collision with electron.
(iv) The α-particle continues to ionize atoms of matter along their path straight path till they come to rest
losing their energies.
(v) Ionization of α-particles is the main interaction with matter, which helps to detect the particle and
measure its energy.
Interaction of β – particle with matter:
(i) The range of β-particle depends upon the density of matter.
(ii) Path of β-particle while passing through matter is not straight.
(iii) The range of β-particle is 100 times more than that of α-particle.
(iv) Β-particles when slowed down by electric field, particles radiate energy as X-ray photons.
(v) The range of β-particles is measured by the effective depth of penetration into matter.
Interaction of γ-rays with matter:
(i) γ-rays are uncharged, having zero rest mass so they cannot be easily stopped.
(ii) γ-rays are electromagnetic eaves having short wavelength and high frequency than that of X-rays.
(iii) Their ionizing power is very small but penetrating power is very high.
(iv) γ-rays interact with matter in three different ways depending upon on their energy.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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7. Explain how α and β – particle may ionize an atom without directly hitting the electrons? What is the
difference in the action of two particles for producing ionization?
Ans: Ionization of α and β – particle:
• An α-particle ay ionize an atom through electrostatic attraction.
• β-particle may ionize the atom through electrostatic repulsion.
Difference in action:
α-particle attracts the electron while the β-particle repels the electron of an atom.

8. A particle which produces more ionizing is less penetrating. Why?

Ans: A particle which produces more ionizing is less penetrating.
Reason:
It is because it losses most of its energy in ionizing the atom. So, it travels a very small distance in the
medium before coming to rest.

9. What information is revealed by the length and shape of the tracks of an incident particle in Wilson
cloud chamber?
Ans: Information revealed by the length and shape of tracks:
• The thick, straight and continuous track show that the incident particle is massive and is more
ionizing (small length).
• The thin, and discontinuous track in erratic manner show that incident particle has smaller mass
and less ionizing power and greater penetrating power.
• If the track has no definite shape and has greater length, it shows that incident particle has very small
ionizing power and much greater penetrating power.

10. Why must a Geiger Muller tube for detecting α – particle have a very thin end window? Why does a
Geiger Muller tube for detecting γ – rays not need a window at all?
Ans: α-particle:
As the penetrating power of α-particles, due to its greater mass is very small so a very thin window is kept
in GM-tube so that α-particle can penetrate into the tube.
γ –rays:
Since, the penetrating power of γ-particle is much greater. So, there is no need to keep window in the tube.

11. Describe the principle of operation of a solid-state detector of ionizing radiation in terms of generation
and detection of charge carriers?
Ans: Solid state detector:
If a semi-conductor like PN – junction diode is used for the detection of radiations (α,β,γ). It is called solid
state detector.
Principle:
Its working principle is based upon the reverse biased PN-junction. The applied reverse-bias enlarges the
charge free-region in PN-junction. In other words, when radiation is allowed to enter the depletion region,
electron-hole pairs are produced by the incident radiation. Due to these charge carriers a potential drop produces
across the junction. The gives rise to a current pulse through the external circuit.

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Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
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12. What do we mean by the term critical mass?
Ans: Critical Mass:
The mass of uranium in which one neutron of all the neutrons produced in a fission reaction, produces further
fission is called critical mass. The volume of this mass of uranium is called critical volume.

13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power compared to the use of the fossil fuel
generated power.
Ans: Advantages:
• Much more energy is produced (1 kg of uranium = 2 × 107 kWh)
• No environmental pollution.
• Electricity produced by this way is cheaper.
• Nuclear waste can be re-used.
Disadvantages:
• Uranium mining is more dangerous than coal mining.
• Nuclear waste cannot be transported through areas of population.
• Nuclear waste is very injurious and harmful to living things.
14. What factors make a fusion reaction difficult to achieve?
Ans: Explanation:
For the fusion of two light nuclei work has to be done against the repulsive force between them.
For this purpose, the nuclei are moved towards each other with very high velocity. This can be done by increasing
their temperature up to 10 million degrees Celsius. At this temperature the nuclei get sufficient thermal K.E to
overcome electrostatic repulsion. But such a high temperature is difficult to achieve.
15. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fission power from the point of safety, pollution and
resources.
Ans:
1. Safety:
• The problem of storing radioactive wastes.
• Low-level release of radioactive materials into air and groundwater.
• The risk of an accidental release of large amount of radioactivity.
• During fission reaction large amount of energy is release. But in case of uncontrolled chain reaction
a serious problem with respect to control and safety of reactors.
2. Environmental Pollution:
• Fission power produces no environmental pollution while burning of coal, oil and natural gas
produces sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and other poisons that pollute.
3. Resources:
• Fissionable material is not easily available. Natural Uranium contains only 0.7% U-235 which is
fissionable and 99.3% is U-238 which is not fissionable.

16. What do you understand by “background radiation”? State two sources of this radiation.
Ans: Background radiations:
When a Geiger tube is used in any experiment, it recoils radiation even when a radioactive source is nowhere
near it. This is due to radiation called back ground radiation.
Sources:
• Cosmic rays which come to us from outer space.

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• Radioactive substances present in the Earth’s crust.
• Radioactive potassium and carbon in the body.

17. If someone accidently swallows an α – source and a β – source which would be the more dangerous to
him? Explain Why?
Ans: α – source will be more dangerous than β-source
Reason:
It is because that ionizing power of α-particle is greater than β-particle. So, α-particle can cause more
damage to our body.

18. Which radiation dose would deposit more energy to your body (a) 10 mGy to your hand, or (b) 1 mGy
dose to your entire body?
Ans: 1 mGy does deposits more energy to our body.
Reason:
As we know,
Energy absorbed
Dose =
mass
E
D=
m
Where m is mass of absorbing body.
E=m×D
As mass of whole body is much greater than that of hand. Therefore, according to above equation 1 mGy dose
deposits more energy.

19. What is a radioactive tracer? Describe one application each in medicines, agriculture and industry?
Ans: Radioactive Tracer:
A radioactive isotope behaves in the same way as the normal isotope inside a living organism. Its location
and concentration can be found easily by measuring the radiation it emits. Thus, a radioactive isotope can be
used as tracer to find what happens in a chemical/biological process.
Uses of radioactive tracer in medicine:
• Iodine-131 readily accumulates in thyroid gland and can be used for the monitoring of thyroid
functioning.
• Phosphorous-32 is used for brain tumor.
• Cobalt-60 is used for curing cancerous tumors and cells.
Uses of radioactive tracer in medicine:
• In industry tracers can be used to locate the wear and tear of the moving parts of the machinery.
• They can be used for the location of leaks in underground pipes. By introducing a suitable
radioactive tracer into pipe, the leak can be conveniently traced from higher activity in the region
of crack in the pipe.

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308
 Punjab Group of Colleges (Manawan Campus)
Uses of radioactive tracer in agriculture:
• In agriculture, radio phosphorus-32 is used as a tracer to find out how well the plants are absorbing
the phosphate fertilizer which are crucial to their growth.

20. How can radioactivity help in the treatment of cancer?

Ans: Treatment of cancer by Radioactivity:
Radiotherapy with γ-rays from cobalt 60 is often used in the treatment of cancer. The γ – rays are carefully
focused on the malignant tissues. The cancerous cells that multiply rapidly absorb more radiations and are more
easily destroyed than normal cells.

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HOD Physics; Punjab Group of Colleges Manawan Campus
Email: [email protected] Phone: 03034151308