Forces:

Scalars are physical quantities which only have a magnitude (e.g. speed, distance, mass,
temperature). Vectors have both a magnitude & direction (e.g. velocity, displacement, acceleration,
force, momentum). To represent vectors, arrows used with length = magnitude & way its pointing
= direction. Can have negative vectors.

A force is a push or pull, that acts on an object due to its interaction with another object, measured
in N. Forces have both a magnitude & direction (vector quantities). All forces are contact (friction,
air resistance, tension) or non-contact forces (gravitational, magnetic, electrostatic) which have
“fields of influences” around an object. An important contact force is the “Normal Contact Force”
(sometimes known as reaction force). If rock exerts a force on table (weight), to stop collapsing the
table exerts an equal & opposite force onto the rock.

To find magnitude & direction for a scale diagram draw the vectors tip to tail, can do Pythagoras.

Springs: When applying force to an object it can compress, stretch or bend. When an object

acted on by force. Opposite true for inelastic deformation. F ∝ e (Hooke’s law) but how much it
changes shape it is deformed. Elastic deformation is when object returns to original shape after

extends if based off of spring constant “k”. F=ke. Higher k = stiffer. After limit of proportionality,
Hooke’s law does not apply, & inelastic deformation takes place. Also, Ee=1/2ke2.

MOMENTS – A moment is the rotational (turning) effect of a force, measured in Nm. E.g. spanner
turning around a moment. Moment = Force x Perpendicular distance between pivot & place
where force is applied. So, a big moment = a big force, far away from the pivot. Can have more
than one moment acting on an object at once (e.g. seesaw). Moments are either clockwise or anti-
clockwise.

Gears & leavers transmit turning effects. A gear system involves gear A & B. A is connected to the
engine which provides it with a turning force, so it rotates, whilst B is connected to the wheels so if
it rotates, so does the wheels. The gears turn in OPPOSITE directions & are different sizes so B
turning effect is greater than A. Work done remains the same as A would have to turn (Scalar
between circumferences) times as often as B.

With pressure (Pa), only perpendicular forces are measured in equation P =F/A. Pressure in a liquid is due
to the surrounding molecules that collide with the object, a small component is due to all the weight of
the liquid above the object. As object moves deeper, amount of pressure due to weight will increase. The
denser the liquid, the higher the pressure as it means a larger mass per unit volume, so the larger its
weight would be. A greater gravitational field strength would also mean a larger weight. So P= hpg.
Objects submerged in water will have force acting on it in all directions, as
the bottom of the object is deeper the object will experience a larger
upwards force on the bottom than it would a downwards force on the top,
so the resultant force is upwards which is referred to as upthrust. However,
object’s weight means that not all objects are buoyant. Instead of calculating object the density of the
object & liquid can be calculated. If object is denser it will sink.

The density of gas particles is highest near the Earth’s surface.

Terminal velocity is where an objects velocity remains constant, there is no acceleration or

deceleration. When somebody jumps out of an aeroplane gravity will pull them downwards as they
have mass, which is a force called weight. The magnitude of their mass will be the same. Initially,
weight will be the only force acting on them so resultant force will be downwards, causing person
to accelerate downward. However, when they start falling air resistance acts in opposition to
weight. The effect of air resistance depends on the surface area of a person (as larger area for air
particles to collide) & their velocity (faster movement=more collisions). Velocity is initially quite
low, so force of air resistance is also relatively low. As person accelerates downwards, velocity &
force from air resistance increases & as weight is constant the resultant force would decrease by
amount of the air resistance has increased, the rate of acceleration would fall. When velocity is so
high, the air resistance will have increased to same size as the weight so both forces balance out (0
resultant force) so acceleration ceases, & velocity no longer changes – terminal velocity. If
parachute opened SA increases, so air resistance increases so resultant force is upwards, so person
accelerates upwards, so slows down. More they slow down; less air resistance so resultant force
upwards will get smaller until a new terminal velocity is reached which will be lower than the last
one.

Newton’s first law – A resultant force is required to change the motion of an object (applies for
stationary & moving objects). Inertia is the tendency for the motion of an object to remain
unchanged (‘Law of Inertia’)

Newton’s second law – If a non-zero resultant force acts on an object, then it will cause the object
to accelerate. Stationary  Move Moving  Speed up Moving in opposite direction  Slow down
Moving in opposite direction slowly  Stop moving or CHANGE IN DIRECTION without any change
in speed as a= Δv / t . Due to v having speed & direction, any change in the direction of the object
changes the v so considered to be a. Can be seen in elliptical orbit of the moon.
Also the size of the resultant force is directly proportional to the acceleration it causes. F=ma

Newton’s third law – When two object interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal &
opposite.

Stopping distance is the minimum distance required to stop a vehicle in an emergency. It equals
Thinking distance + Braking distance. Thinking time is the time between seeing the hazard &
applying the brakes, effected by speed of vehicle & reaction time. Breaking distance is the distance
taken to stop under the breaking force which is affected by speed & mass of the vehicle as it

condition of tyres. Thinking distance increases ∝ with speed, whereas the braking distance
determines KE of the vehicle. Also impacted by condition of breaks, traction between car & road or

increases with speed squared.

Momentum = mass x velocity (p=mv). It is a vector quantity. Momentum is conserved in a closed

system. Example  When a gun is fired it as 0 momentum but when fired the bullet would have
momentum so to compensate for this the gun recoils backwards. Gun’s momentum + bullet’s
momentum = 0. Say bullet = 0.005kg & speed is 120m/s, p = 0.6kg m/s & as 0.6 + gun’s
momentum = 0. Gun’s momentum = -0.6. If gun’s mass =2kg , velocity would be -0.3 as 2V = -0.6
If a force is applied in the same direction an object is travelling, it would accelerate, increasing
velocity & thus increasing momentum. To work out how much force is required for change in
momentum F= Δp/t. Δp = mΔv If someone travelling in a car collides with a brick wall, their
momentum will instantly decrease to 0. This massive Δp means that any people inside the car
would experience a huge force. To reduce this, the Δp must be spread over a longer period of time.
So, cars have crumple zones, air bags & seat belt (stop flying out + stretchy).

Waves:

Waves transfer energy from one place to another, not matter. The distance of a wave is how far it
has travelled from its starting point, the displacement is how far from the equilibrium point the
wave has oscillated. Frequency is the number of oscillations per second. V=f λ

 Displacement, distance graph

Transverse waves’ oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer,
includes (EM waves, ripples in water). Longitudinal waves’ oscillations are parallel to  Displacement, time
the direction of energy transfer (sound waves, P waves), have compressions & graph
rarefactions
Time period is how
When a wave meets a long it takes for 1
boundary, it can be absorbed, complete oscillation
transmitted (passes out other
side) or reflected. Which one f=1/T
of these occurs depends on

the λ & the properties of the two materials. The

Angle of Incidence = The Angle of Reflection. Ray Diagram can be seen below. Some materials (like
mirrors) are smooth, so the boundaries are completely flat so the normal are in the same direction
so all of the incoming light rays are reflected in the same direction, specular reflection. Opposite is
true for a bumpy surface, diffuse reflection.

Waves travel at different speeds in different mediums due to different mediums having different
densities. For EM waves, the higher the density of a material, the slower the wave will travel
through it. So going from air to glass (less dense  more) it will slow down. If waves travel
perpendicular to boundary, then it continues straight. If hits at angle, then it will be refracted
meaning that its angle will change. If passing into denser, will bend towards normal. As “V” is
changing, wavelength changes but the frequency remains the SAME. In water waves, the shallower
the water, the slower the wave speed.

EM Spectrum (Longest Shortest λ): Radio, Microwaves, IR, VL, UV, X, γ. ALL TRANSVERSE. When
in a vacuum all travel 3x10^8 m/s. Shorter λ =
Higher f. UV, X & γ are ionising. EM waves can
be emitted from radioactive decay, electrons
dropping down energy levels or when bonds
holding molecules together vibrate.

Can be generated with electricity in form of A.C.

as consists of oscillating charges. For radio
waves: a transmitter is used which is connected
to an oscilloscope which shows the frequency of the A.C. which is the same as the frequency of the
wave. Can be detected by a receiver which absorbs energy from the transmitter & generates A.C.
which is displayed on another oscilloscope. Main use of radio waves is in communication; there’s
long waves (huge distances, refract around Earth’s surface), short wave (Long distance, reflected
from ionosphere, can also be used for Bluetooth), very short waves (directly from
transmitterreceiver, TV & Radio)

Microwaves can be split into ones that aren’t absorbed by water molecules & those that are. Those
that aren’t are used for communication with satellites, satellites transmit wave to satellite dish.
Those that are, are used in microwave ovens to heat up food (water molecules absorb energy,
transferring via conduction & convection). IR radiation emitted form all objects that have thermal
energy (hotter object= more IR). Used in IR cameras, in ovens & grills ( don’t penetrate surface) &
electric heaters.

Visible light has different colours depending on the λ (LongestShortest λ): ROYGBIV. Can be used
for communication with optical fibres which are thin glass or plastic in which light is reflected it off
of the surface to travel long distances (transmits data quickly). Must use materials which totally
reflect & result in specular. The alternative is to use copper wires & electricity, but optical fibres
can transmit more info & less likely to be distorted. UV is emitted from the sun & artificially from
sun beds. When UV is absorbed & re-emitted as VL, it is called fluorescent. Used in fluorescent
paint & lights (which generate UV, absorbed by a layer of phosphorus which remits the energy as
VL, energy efficient). Can be used in security  “invisible” ink with security pens & passports &
banknotes. Can also be used to sterilise water .

X rays used to view internal structure of objects as x rays absorbed by dense materials like bones
but pass through parts which are mostly air (lungs, intestines), pass partially through fleshy things
(heart). Only go black in scans if detector plate receives radiation. Quick + Cheap but danger is
higher for operators. γ rays can be used in medical imaging & radiotherapy. γ rays also used in
sterilisation by killing microorganisms without causing any other damage, boiling water can’t use
all the time as plastic gets damaged. Used to sterilise food.

Lenses:

Lenses can be used both ways. Principal focus always lies on the axis &
the distance between the PF & the centre of the lens is called the
“focal length”. The shorter the focal length, the more powerful the lens
will be. To make a lens more powerful it must be more curved or a
different material must be used.

Images are formed at points where all of the light rays appear to come
together. Real images – Light rays actually do come together & can be
captured on a screen. Virtual images – Light rays don’t actually come
together (traced back towards focal point), Mirror.

Visible light (see more info

above) is ROYGBIV. White is a
combination of all the
wavelengths, black is the
absence of light. The
wavelengths of light & the
properties of an object
determines which light rays
are absorbed, reflected or
transmitted, so determines
how it appears. Opaque
objects don’t transmit light, so all λs are absorbed or reflected – determines colour. An object may
reflect a range of wavelengths. Transparent objects transmit nearly all light. Transparent object
transmits some light (e.g. green bottle transmits green). Colour filters mean only certain
wavelengths of light are transmitted & the rest are absorbed. Primary colours = Red, Green, Blue.
Non – primary colour filters transmit more than one wavelength.

All objects are constantly absorbing & re-emitting

radiation. For a cup of tea more radiation emitted, than
absorbed, opposite true for ice cube. If object absorbs &
emits same energy, stays constant. Intensity is the
power of radiation per unit area. As temperature
increases, the intensity of every emitted wavelength
increases & the intensity of the shorter wavelengths
increase more.

The balance between absorbing + emitting radiation can

be applied to the Earth  During the day more energy is absorbed by the Earth & atmosphere,
increasing local temperature, opposite true for night. Temp stays constant as some part of Earth
will always be in the sun. A “black body” is an object that absorbs all of the radiation that it comes
into contact with (theoretical), no transmission or reflection of radiation.

Sound Waves are vibrations that pass through the molecules of a medium. As it is longitudinal it
travels as a series of compressions & rarefactions. Sound waves cause solid objects’ particles to
vibrate, which collide with neighbours. The more densely packed an object, the faster the sound
wave (fastest solids, slowest gases) Can’t travel through a vacuum as no particles but in air travels
at 330 m/s. As waves pass through different mediums, frequency doesn’t change (like other waves)
so wavelengths get longer as sound speeds up (solids), shorter when slows down (gasses). Sound
 can therefore be refracted like light, also absorbed & reflected with hard, flat surfaces reflecting
most  echoes. How hearing works: Sound waves travel along Ear Canal & hit Ear Drum which
vibrate, & these vibrations transmitted along ossicles, through Semi-Circular Canals & into Cochlea
which converts vibrations into electrical signals which are sent to Auditory Nerve & then to brain.
Higher frequency = higher pitch, more intense signals = louder. Humans can hear frequencies
ranging from 20Hz to 20kHz

Ultrasound is above 20kHz. Bats produce US for communication & echolocation. When US hits a boundary
some of the waves are reflected & some are transmitted through where they’ll be refracted (“partial
reflection”). So if we know the speed of the wave & time it takes to be reflected, we can calculate how far
away the boundary is which tells us about its internal structure. Used in foetal scanning, industry & sonar.

Seismic Waves: P waves are longitudinal, can travel through solids & liquids & faster than S
waves. S waves are transverse & can only travel through solids. By using these waves, can identify
Earth’s internal structure. Seismologists detect waves via seismometers & by comparing results
with other seismologists, can calculate how long earthquake took to travel from site to other areas,
gives clues about earth’s structure.

P Waves ↓ S Waves ↓

Magnetism & Electromagnetism:

A magnet is any material or object that produces a magnetic field ( horseshoe magnet, Earth),
have 2 poles Northa & South. Field lines NorthSouth. Denser field lines = stronger magnetic field
 An actual magnet is any object that produces a magnetic field whereas a magnetic material is
influenced by magnetic fields & has the potential to become a magnet. For Nickel, Cobalt, Iron,
Steel (NCIS) only some pieces will be magnets. A common bar magnet is a permanent magnet
which produces their own magnetic field all the time. Induced magnets only temporarily have a
magnetic field when interacting with another magnetic field, allows for another magnetic field.
Force between a permanent & induced magnet is always attractive. Magnetically soft materials
(e.g. Nicke & iron loose magnetism quickly). Hard materials = opposite (steel).

Electromagnetism is when electric current produces own magnetic fields. Use right hand rule for
wires (direction of current). With a circular coil, magnetic fields of two sides of coil interact,
magnetic fields go from concentric circles  ellipses & as magnetic fields combine, single magnetic
field runs straight through centre. If lots of turns added to coil in 1 piece of wire, solenoid is formed
magnetic field is strong & uniform. The direction of magnetism can be flipped via changing
direction of current. 4 ways to increase strength of EM : increase current, increase number of coils
(keeping length same), decrease length, add soft iron core (induced magnet)

Motor effect  A current carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field

will experience a force. If wire placed between north & south poles of
magnet, 2 field will interact & result in force on wire, pushing out of field. To
experience full force, wire must be perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Flemming’s Left Hand Rule. F=BIL

The electric motor works via the motor effect. Need to have direction of current
changed every half turn so coil doesn’t keep flipping back & forth as force swap,
wouldn’t turn 360 °. To achieve this a split-ring commutator is used which swaps
positive & negative connections every half turn, so direction of current swaps &
forces act in same direction. IDEA = spinning motion created via electricity. Can
increase speed of rotations via increasing current, adding turns to coil, increasing
“B” by using more powerful magnets.
Generator effect  2 magnets with magnetic field between them, take piece of wire & move between magnetic fields & a P.D be
induced in the wire. When movement ceases, no P.D induced as it is the change in the magnetic field that the wire experiences, that
creates the P.D. Direction of P.D. swaps each time direction of movement changes. Current only produced if there is a complete circuit.
Same thing occurs if wire is kept still, & magnets moved instead. Needs to cut field lines. To increase P.D (& I): use stronger magnets,
move wire quicker, shape wire into a coil.
Generator effect used in generators which create electricity through rotational motion  can be “Alternators” or “Dynamos”.
Dynamos have split ring commutator & produced D.C, whereas alternators have slip rings & brushes & produce A.C. How alternators
work: 1. The coil of wire rotates relative to the magnets, inducing a magnetic field in the coil, induces a P.D & I in the coil 2.The slip
rings & brushes mean the contacts don’t swap every half turn. 3.Means they produce A.C. (Graph of I / T with it going all way down (-)
& all way up (+) 4. As coil rotates faster, the peaks of the oscillations get larger, & more frequent. How dynamos work: 1. . The coil of
wire rotates relative to the magnets, inducing a magnetic field in the coil, induces a P.D & I in the coil 2. Split ring Commutator means
contacts swap every half turn 3.Produces direct P.D. & hence a D.C, current always flows in the same direction so never enters (-)
section of graph. 4. As coil rotates faster, peaks of the oscillations get larger & more frequent.

Loudspeakers & Microphones: For both, the electrical signals are A.C. A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire wrapped around 1 pole of
a permanent magnet connected to a cone. How loudspeakers work: An A.C. current flows through the wire & creates a magnetic field
in the coil. 2. The magnetic field of the coil interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet 3. The interacting magnetic field
will exert a force on the coil (motor effect), causing it to move back or forth along the permanent magnet 4. Causes cone to change
shape 5. As I is alternating, magnetic field & force it experience s will also alternate. Means the coil of wire & cone rapidly move back &
forth (vibrate) 6. These vibrations are so fast that the cone vibration causes pressure variations in the air – sound waves. How
microphones work: 1. Sound waves hit the diaphragm 2. Diaphragm & coil of wire move 3. Wire moves in magnetic field of permanent
magnet, so generates a current (gen effect) 4. The frequency & amplitude of the sound waves determine how much diagraph vibrates,
therefore determining the frequency & amplitude of I.
Step up transformers increase P.D, lowering I. Step down do opposite. How
they work: 1. An alternating P.D is applied across a primary coil, 2.causing an
A.C to flow 3.Generates an alternating magnetic field around the coil 4.
Induces an alternating magnetic field in the iron core 5. Induces a P.D in the
secondary coil & as part of a complete circuit, causes current to flow.
Electricity can’t conduct straight across is due to wires being insulated in
plastic. The P.D produced is dependant on the number of turns in the primary
coil & secondary coil. If double turns in secondary coil, then double P.D of
primary coil.
Space Physics:

Astronomy:

M,V,E,M,J,S,U,N orbit sun in elliptical orbits. Asteroids found in asteroid belt between Mars & Jupiter.
Asteroids are mostly made of rock & metal, comets are mostly made of ice & dust. Galaxies are
massive collections of billions of stars, most of which have their own star systems (ours is “solar
system”). Universe = mostly empty space. Satellites are anything that orbits the Earth, can be
artificial (ISS) or natural (moon).

Life cycle of stars:

A big cloud of dust & gas called a nebula is pulled together by gravity to form a protostar. As more
particles collide & join it gets bigger & its force of gravity increases proportionally, attracting more
dust & gas. Gravity squeezes protostar making it denser, particles inside collide more often, raising
the temperature & pressure & this gets to the point where hydrogen nuclei undergo fusion to
produce helium nuclei. Huge amounts of energy produced which means the core of the star is hot
& it is at this point it is labelled a “Main Sequence Star”. The outward pressure caused by nuclear
fusion is balanced by the inward pressure caused by gravity, allowing for a long stable period that
can last for billions of years. At point star runs out of hydrogen, inward pressure of gravity takes
over to point where star is in a small ball. It becomes so hot & dense, helium nuclei undergo fusion
causing star to rapidly expand as it forms heavier elements up to iron. The degree of the expansion
depends on the initial size of the star, if small to medium star (like sun) a “red giant” is formed, if
bigger a “red super giant” formed.

Red giant lifecycle  It becomes unstable & expels outer layers of dust & gas, leaving behind hot,
dense solid core which doesn’t do nuclear fusion, “white dwarf”. Over time white dwarf becomes
cooler & darker as it emits all of its energy until it transitions into a “black dwarf”, no longer has
energy to emit light.

Red super giant lifecycle  Begin to shine brightly again as undergo even more nuclear fusion,
after several cycles of expansion & contraction they explode in a “supernova” which forms
elements heavier than iron which are ejected across the universe. If only very big then it would
condense into a very dense core called a “neutron star” but if massive it would collapse in on itself,
“black hole”.

Orbits:

Orbits are the curved path of one celestial object or spacecraft around another celestial object.
From N’s 1st law: An object travelling at a certain velocity will continue to travel at that velocity,
unless acted upon by a resultant force. However, as Earth is massive & close to the moon it exerts
a strong gravitational pull. The moon has a lot of momentum as it is relatively big & is travelling at
high speeds, so the gravitational pull is not great enough to pull it towards the Earth; can only
change direction slightly. The moon’s direction is therefore always changing & therefore its velocity
is constantly changing as velocity includes speed & direction. Acceleration = ΔV/t, so the moon is
also accelerating each time it changes direction (which is always). If moon was closer to Earth, size
of the gravitational force acting upon it would be greater, so the moon would be pulled in towards
the Earth but to minimise this the moon would travel much further so that its instantaneous
velocity would increase, allowing it to maintain a stable orbit. Smaller orbit = faster object.

Red Shift:

The universe is expanding which is evident due to Red Shift. Absorption Spectra- On left there are
longer, red wavelengths of light on right there are shorter, purple wavelengths. All of the
wavelengths are emitted from the sun towards Earth, but the sun’s atmosphere contains lots of
different chemicals which can absorb different wavelengths of lights. Means that when light
reaches Earth certain wavelengths are missing & absorption spectra ends up with pattern of dark
lines. The light from distant galaxies has a spectra with black lines in the same pattern but all
shifted towards the red side, happens as light waves are stretched as they make way towards
Earth. Galaxies moving away from us due to expansion of space. Can be modelled with a ballon
which has markers with balloon = universe & markers = galaxies, as blown-up galaxies get further
apart but happens due to space between them getting stretched. Limitations: Ballons burst +
galaxies only on surface.
If universe is expanding, in past universe must have been smaller  Must have been tiny initially.
Big Bang Theory: All of matter in universe occupied tiny space, infinitely dense & hot which
exploded & space itself began to expand which is still continuing till this day.